The Nature of Religion

Religion as a worldview
- Central commonality to all world religions is the belief in the SUPERNATURAL DIMENSION
- Is the most significant element of a religious worldview is this belief in a divine being or power, which is greater
than humankind and the natural world.
- It is responsible for the creation of the world, for providing a moral framework for human life and being the ultimate
destiny of a human person at the end of their moral life

Different responses to Supernatural Dimension:

- Semitic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam) – believe that there is an only single divine being or power.
Also known as MONOTHEISM
- Two eastern religions (Hinduism and Buddhism) – derive from an understanding of multiple divine beings or
powers. Also known as POLYTHEISM

© Transcendent and Immanent religious worldview

Transcendent Immanent

● The belief in a divine being or power whose existence goes beyond
human limitations and exists beyond the known universe.
● Christianity, Judaism, Islam are transcendent
● Example: Muslims believe that the will of Allah has been revealed to the
Prophet Mohammed and is contained in the writing of the Quran. This is
seen as transcendent because the divine being is separate and outside
of the human life and revealed to humankind through an intermediary.
● The belief that supernatural being dwells within human being, nature
and sacred places.
● Buddhism and Hinduism are immanent
● Example: Buddhists follow the Eightfold Path prescribed by the Buddha
in order to reach enlightenment. This is an immanent religion because
the divine power is believed to be found within the human and awaits
discovery through following the prescribed path

Characteristics of Religion
Beliefs and believers Sacred Texts and Writings Ethics Rituals and ceremonies

● Key tenants, doctrines or
values which is sustaining to
all religions.
● It underpins the religious
practice of a particular religion
for believers.
● Beliefs – Ideas accepted as
something considered as real
or true. It expresses the self-
understanding of the tradition
● Believers – Adherent to the
religion, believe and follow the
religion.
● Most important part of the
religion and hence, central to
the religion.
● Sacred Texts contain sacred
stories explain through
historical or non-historical
means, how people are
connected to this supernatural
dimension.
● Written, visual or oral texts
containing truths of a particular
religion and provides guidance.
● Sacred – in the sense of
revelation of having a direct
relationship with the
transcendent (divine power/s or
being/s beyond the human)
● Reasoning behind moral
decision making.
● Ethics and precepts (principles) ●
are laws that embody the key
doctrinal tenants allowing for the
practical application.
● Offers a system of standards,
clarifying right and wrong.
● Moral principles governing a
person or group behaviour
providing guidelines to proper
and improper behaviour.
● Practical expressions of the
aspects
Involves prescribed words and
actions along with symbols
reflecting understanding of
sacred dimension = religious
meaning.
● Overall, giving a greater
understanding of the ultimate
reality.
 Contribution of religion
Individual Society and culture

● Personal Search for Meaning: human experience is characterised
by a search for the understanding of those great questions. Those
questions include: origin, purpose and destiny
● Ethical Guidance: sought out by people for guidance in the field of
ethics, which enables individuals to act in a morally correct manner.
Concerns range from bioethics and sexual morality to issues of
social concern.
● Sense of Belonging: strongest desire that exist in human
experiences is the need to feel a sense of belonging. Religions
provide a sense of community
● Ritual Meaning: marks important stages in human experience.
Include the birth of a child, the coming of age, a graduation, etc. Such
events are often ritualised in religious traditions where ceremonies
take place to mark these important events.
● Interaction between culture and religion:close reciprocal
relationship between the areas of religion and culture. Religion is a
formative influence on culture given the dynamic every changing
nature of culture. Profoundly influenced by its cultural context as it
cannot be expressed other than through a particular cultural setting
and context.
● Religion as a conservative influence on society: Exert a
conservative influence on society in areas regarding sexual
morality and bioethics. Often seen to be quite clearly trying to
prevent society from moving away from traditional values.
● Religion as a progressive influence on society: Emphasis on
human dignity, it can be readily seen as proactive in areas e.g.
the advocacy of refugee and indigenous rights, protection of the
environment and opposition to military action. Instills a sense of
justice in prominent social debates as a way of attempting to
change community views to embrace a new approach

Australian Aboriginal Beliefs and Spiritualities - The Dreaming

Nature of the Dreaming
Origins of the Universe Sacred Sites Stories of the Dreaming Symbolism and Art

❏ The Dreaming is a term referring ❏ The Dreaming is inextricably
to the concept underpinning all
beliefs and practices in
Aboriginal communities
representing all knowledge and
understanding among Aboriginal ❏ All land is important to
societies.
❏ The Dreaming includes
explanations of the origins of the
universe. That is, how the world
came into being through the
actions of their ancestral spirit
beings, the creation of the
physical world, the animals and
plants which inhabit this world.
❏ The Dreaming is not regarded
as a myth but a metatemporal
concept incorporating the past,
present and future reality as a
complete and present reality.
❏ Stories of the Dreaming
connected to the land as the
land is the physical medium
where the Dreaming is lived
and communicated.
Aboriginals, particular sites
known as sacred sites, have a ❏ The basis of religious
special significance for
particular Aboriginal groups as
they’re connected with different
events in the Dreaming.
❏ Particular groups of Aboriginal
people have special
responsibilities to care for and
to learn from these sites. For
example, carrying out
prescribed rituals such as
balance rites.
hold truth and explain the
beginnings of the world
that are passed down to
teach law and
responsibilities to
Aboriginals.
beliefs, law, ceremonies
and all knowledge come
from their sacred stories.
❏ The telling and learning Dreaming
stories is a lifelong process revealed
through many aspects of Aboriginal
societies such as kinship, song,
dance, art, ritual and story.
❏ Some art depict secret sacred sites
available only to the selected group
allowed.
❏ Symbolism in art for e.g. explains
creation of the natural world and the
laws which stem from this. Teaches
Aboriginal children about right and
wrong behaviour in society.
❏ Symbolism in art can’t be taken as
face value for Aboriginal art - esoteric
having multiple layers of meaning.
❏ 1st layer - open and accessible to all
people
❏ 2nd layer - not so obvious and
requires experience
❏ 3rd layer - secret and sacred only
available to Aboriginal ancestors
Diversity of the Dreaming for Aboriginal peoples Importance of the Dreaming for the life
of Aboriginal people

❏ There is approx. 900 Aboriginal nations within Australia and subsequently there is an enormous ❏ The Dreaming is important
diversity in which the Dreaming is expressed. for Aboriginals as they are
❏ Each Aboriginal nation has its own dialect and every language is esoteric (intended to be understood connected to it spiritually
by a small number of people) and every nation’s understanding of Aboriginal spirituality will vary. providing knowledge on all
❏ Each Aboriginal nation has its own boundaries and subsequently different Dreaming stories aspects of Aboriginal life.
applicable to these boundaries. Groups that are geographically close will share common elements. ❏ Establishes the rules linking
❏ The belief in notion of the Dreaming is the overriding commonality binding different Aboriginal nations the relationship between
together. Aboriginal people, the land
and all things associated with
Aboriginal people.

Inextricable Connection of the Dreaming, the land and identity

(Inextricable = that which cannot be disentangled or loosed)
- The land is the core of all spirituality
- The is the ancestors and as long as the land lives, so doe the ancestors
- The is not just soil or rocks or minerals but a whole environment and is sustained by people and culture
- For the Aboriginal people, they belief in the land, gives them their identity
- The journeys of the Ancestral beings shaped the landscape and gave birth to its people – journeys that are re-
enacted in the rituals and ceremonies of the people and expressed in their art.
- The importance of this connection is between the things of creation which is expressed thought totemism
- To Aboriginal people the land is alive with power and the ancestors who live in it
- Ownership of the land is based upon the division and distribution of ritual responsibility for land, rather than upon
rights to use and occupy the land.
 Judaism
Abraham and the Covenant
© Life of Abraham
- Sacred history of Judaism begins with Abraham, the first father or ‘Patriarch’ of the Jewish people
- Responding to God’s command, Abraham left his homeland in Mesopotamia and embarked on a
journey to an unknown place, later revealed to be the land of Canaan (Genesis 12-15). Abraham’s trust
in God and his obedience to God’s command to undertake the journey and to implement the rite of
circumcision, are fundamental to Judaism.
- Essentially, Abraham’s religion was a simple one. The Abrahamic belief reflected a semi-nomadic
lifestyle and promoted a personal relationship between one man and one God. This relationship was
‘covenant’ – that is, it was based on a covenant, an agreement between the divine and the human.

© Covenant with the Patriarchs

Covenant with Abraham’s Covenant: The next Isaac’s Covenant: Jacob’s Covenant: Fidelity to the The Patriarchs:
the Patriarchs expression is in relation to Abraham and Found in Genesis Jacob is the father Covenant: The God’s promise to
Patriarch means occurs in a series of encounters with 17 has Abraham of the 12 tribes of land of Canaan is Abraham was renewed
“the forefather of God (Genesis 12-17). Begins with the being called to walk Israel - these are the land ultimately with his son Isaac and
Jews”. The call of Abraham (Genesis 12:1) he’s in the presence of the loose conquered and again with Isaac’s son
Patriarchs of called by God to leave his own territory God and be confederation, settled by Joshua Jacob. Jacob (Israel)
Judaism are and move to the land shown to him by blameless. In which are united and the tribes of lent his name to a
Abraham, his son God. The call includes - promise that he Genesis verse 9-14 under the monarchy Israel after the nation. Abraham’s
Isaac and his will become a great nation. Genesis 15 Abraham is of Saul, David and death of Moses. steadfastness to his
son, Jacob. The shows a further encounter where God commanded that he Solomon. Overtime the land God demonstrated in
covenant of the assures Abraham that his descendants and his descendants has been his willingness to
Patriarchs is an would number the stars in the sky must keep the threatened and sacrifice his son is a
act which welds (Genesis 15:5). Covenant with God captured by model for the steadfast
together God and The first element - Abraham’s throughout the ages various invading love that Jews are
the chosen descendants would be numerous and and that forces yet it has expected to hold for
people, the would lead to the formation of a great circumcision is to be remained an their God. It is from this
Hebrews. nation. The second element - sign of this important element promise made to the
possession of a promised land. This Covenant. The in the Jewish Patriarchs that a great
land is the biblical land of Canaan -> elements of the understand of the nation and one of the
modern day state of Israel and the Covenant are Covenant. world’s great religions
Palestinian territories. The Covenant is confirmed in flowed. The theme of
seen in effect -> birth of Isaac. response to the Covenant begun
Abraham’s with the Patriarchs and
obedience in continued in Jewish
relation to the history with the
sacrifice of his son furthered development
Isaac. of the covenant
through Moses.
 Moses, the Exodus and the giving of the Torah
- Begins with the Hebrews in Egypt following
the story of Joseph, having once enjoyed a
favoured status in Egypt, they have been
reduced to the situation of slaves. The
oppression of Hebrews reached a highpoint
when the Pharaoh decreed the execution of any
male child born to the Hebrews. This is the
environment where Moses was born.
- God called Moses through the burning bush for
his mission to liberate the Hebrew people from
their captivity in Egypt showing God’s lament for
the suffering of the Hebrews in Egypt and God’s
proclamation of their rescue and deliverance to
“a land flowing with milk and honey”.
- The 9 plagues occurred and the 10th plague -
death of the first born
- Hebrew were to prepare to escape in haste.
They sacrificed a lamb and daub blood on
doorposts designating it belonged to the
Hebrews so when the Angel of the Lord passed
houses that belonged to Hebrews, the first-born
would be spared.
Passover ritual –
- In Judaism “passing over” of the Hebrew
households during the death of the first born,
one of the most significant occasions in the
Jewish calendar.
- After the final plague, Pharaoh relented and
allowed the Hebrews to go free then later
changed his mind and sent his army in pursuit of
the Hebrews.
- It is a defining moment in the Jewish tradition
and foundational. In the moment of liberation,
the Hebrews experience the saving action of
God - God’s intervention in human history and
God’s concern for those who are oppressed.
- In and through the Exodus, the understanding
of God’s intervention as a saving action
overcoming oppression and leading to freedom.
It shows God’s concern for the poor and
disadvantaged.
- Exodus significantly defines the ethics of
Judaism in rejecting oppression and working
towards the liberation of all people.
- Exodus Ch19, the climatic experience of Moses’
encounter with God at Sinai begins with a
reiteration of the covenant made with Abraham.
- Great theophany where Moses encounters God
face to face on Mount Sinai where Moses
received the 10 commandments.
- These 10 commandments are the beginning -
Sinai law. This law is the Torah - the very heart of
the Jewish tradition. It spells out the expected
response of the Jews to the requirements of the
Covenant.
- Numerous laws governing all aspects of
community life follow the 10 commandments
immediately.
- The chapters of laws are the 613 mitzvot of the
Torah (including the 10 commandments). The
613 mitzvot of the Torah form the basis for the
actions of Jewish people relating every aspect of
life.

Modern Judaism
Conservative Judaism
· Began in Germany in the mid to late
19th as a rejection towards Reform
(Progressive) Judaism and its explicit and
outright rejection of halakhic practice.
· The core belief is that the ritual law
whilst binding is open to interpretation and
it is up each new generation to make the
halakhic law applicable to the age.
· Conservative Judaism believes that
the interpretation of these laws is ever
evolving and capable of being adjusted to
contemporary needs.
· The variant joined with Reform
Judaism in some of its reforms such as
ordaining women as Rabbis and cantors.
Other distinguishing features include the
fact that it holds services in the vernacular
and includes prayers in the vernacular at
other times when most of the service is in
Hebrew.
· It also emphasises the importance
of the land of Israel and the continuation
of the Jewish tradition.
Orthodox Judaism
· Orthodox Judaism is characterised by a strict
observance of the commandments as they see these
mitzvot as the direct will of God
· There are two distinct groups within Orthodox
Judaism:
§ Modern Orthodoxy is a strand of Judaism which
while maintain Orthodox requirements seeks to live
as part of the modern world
§ Ultra-Orthodox believes that the only way to
ensure the survival of the Jewish people and its
religion is to impose a strict separation of Jews from
participating with secular society. An example is the
Hasidic Jews
· Hasidic Jews are recognisable by their
distinctive dress which include long black coats,
round black hats, beards and side locks. Baal Shem
Tov founded Hasidim in the 18th century among
Jews who lived in ghettos and who were poor and
illiterate as a result of centuries of persecution.
· Modern Orthodox communities will be found
involved in a range of professions and involved in
most aspects of modern community life. They also
seek to maintain observance if the Torah through
carefully attending to the dietary, ritual and ethical
requirements of the tradition.
Progressive Judaism
· Also known as Reform Judaism, developed in
the 19th century, Germany as a result of the
experience of the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment)
· Reform Judaism is characterised by its
rejection of the concept of divine revelation as a
direct dictation of the Tenach by God.
· This is the notion that the Written Law is the
literal word of God and similarly, that the Oral Law is
an extension of this divine revelation.
· They hold the belief that the Torah was written
by divinely inspired human beings. The implication of
this core belief is that the Torah is inspirational and
instructional but not binding in a literal word of God.
· His amounted to a movement away from strict
halakhic observance - this encompassed a broad
spectrum of laws regulating dietary requirements,
sexual and familial purity. It also formalised the
existence of a priestly caste and codes of dress.
· Innovations made by Reform Judaism include
introducing religious service in the vernacular of the
community instead of Hebrew and the men and the
women sitting together during worship.
 Principal Beliefs
● Belief in a single God who is the creator and ruler of the universe
God is One God is eternal God is Omnipresent God is Omnipotent God is Pure in Spirit
- Is central to Judaism - Beliefs that God has - Establishes that God is - Teaches that he is all - God cannot be
- Has multiple nuances: always existed and always everywhere powerful and hence all described as having a face
§ Only one God will exist - Highlights that God is knowing (e.g. Jeremiah - Spirit is manifested
§ God is indivisible - God is the source of intimately concerned with 32:19) throughout the universe, thus
§ God is unique creation then God must also humankind and human - Recognised that there is human beings can not come
- Reflected in the prayer - have existed before the concerns nothing that God cannot to an understanding of the
the Shema, which may be dawn of creation - Is seen most powerfully in achieve and nothing that nature of God through direct
described as Israel’s - Belief is also a statement the account of the Exodus God cannot prevent means, that is knowing God
declaration of faith about God’s relationship with where God liberates the directly; rather, through
(Deuteronomy 6:4) creation Hebrew people from slavery indirect means or through
- Reflects upon Judaism’s in Egypt mediated knowledge
monotheistic nature, which
rejects any form of idolatry.

● Concept of moral law prescribed by God (Divinely Inspired)

❏ Jews believe that God gave the world a code of ethics which are intended to guide human kind into ethical choice
in keeping with their dignity as God’s creation.
❏ Judaism is essentially a practical religion – it is lived through observance of the law that God has revealed
❏ There is no sense of an ever-evolving code of ethics in the sense that the code will need to be expanded beyond
it original form in light of changing circumstances.
❏ Orthodox Jews believe that God has laid down a set of laws which apply to an infinite number of situations and will
continue to applicable to future generations.
❏ Us to ensure that human beings live in such a manner so as to enhance and no diminish their own God given
dignity or the dignity of another.
❏ Most basic formulation of the moral law is found in the Ten Commandments which proves for a way of relating to
one another that does not do harm to or undermine the dignity of the other
❏ Moral law does not expect Jews to live by 613 mitzvoth but some do apply to everyone
❏ The moral law revealed by God is expected to apply to all people, while some aspects are applicable to the
Covenant people of God, the Jews.
● The idea of the Covenant
❏ Importance of the Covenant cannot be overestimated because it is the living expression of the
relationship between God and the people of Israel.
❏ The expressions of the Covenant in the Tanakh essentially follow the same pattern:
★ Being by describing/recalling God’s great acts in the events of the everyday lives of the people
★ They contain commands for the people
★ Conclude with a list of blessings/curses
❏ Brings freedom to choose their own destiny under His law, in return it commands the highest standard
of social duty and personal responsibility.
❏ The maintenance of the Covenant is done by following these laws to ensure the Jewish tradition is kept
alive
❏ The establishment of the Covenant is the ultimate expression of God’s underlying love for humanity –
God always remains faithful regardless of whether the people are faithful
❏ God is always ready to embrace the people even when they turn their backs on God
 Sacred Texts and Writings
The Hebrew Bible (The
Tanakh)
- Made to clarify the
meaning of the covenantal
relationship between God and
the Jewish people
- Teach them how to life ethical
and moral lives through laws
(halakhah)
- Gives the Jewish an identity
- Comprises of 24 books and
are sectioned into 3 categories
Torah (Pentateuch) Nevi’im (Prophets) Ketubim (Writings)
- Believed that Moses received this scripture from - Includes Joshua, Judges, - Contains the
God in Hebrew over a period of 120 days and in 70 Samuel and Kings, which is made psalms of David,
languages. up of the early prophets. Others Solomon’s Proverbs,
- 613 mitzvot, 10 of which are the 10 commandments include Isaiah, Jeremiah and the Five Scrolls, the
- This is the core of Judaism and is a symbol of Ezekiel who are later prophets. books of Ezra etc.
Jewish identity. Without it there would be no Judaism. - These books are mainly prophetic - Referred to as
- 5 books -> Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and and teach morals and ethics. ‘Wisdom literature’
Deuteronomy. Contains the history from creation to - Reminds people of the blessings - Read at certain
the exile from the land of Canaan. and curses associated with the festivals and are hymns
- Partly read on Mondays and Thursdays and is fully covenant. and psalms praising
read on Saturday (shabbat) - Read every Sabbath God.
- They are dressed in beautiful armour

The Talmud The Mishnah The Gemara All scriptures made

- Collection of traditions, customs and
laws that develops and interprets the Torah
by applying it to the situations of everyday
life.
- Comes in two versions:
The Jerusalem Talmud (4th century CE)
They Babylonian Talmud (5th century CE)
- A simplified version (Shulchan Aruch) was
made for the lay people at home. The Talmud
was closed in 500CE.
- Earlier part of the Talmud meaning ‘repetition’. It - To further explain the for: Tikkun olam-
records the opinions of the Tanami (learned rabbis) conclusions of the correct repairing the world.
who interpreted the original Torah. This was law. Was made through
discussed by a further group of Rabbis called detailed discussions called
Amoraim the Gemara (complication)
- Covers subjects of seasonal festivals, the rights of and it explains what was
the poor, the laws governing marriage, divorce and believed to be the origins of
civil. halakha and Mishnah
- Expands on Torah laws and explains how to follow
them.

Core Ethical Teachings

© The commandments of the Torah
❏ The fundamental source of ethical guidance for Jews is the Torah which encompasses the Written and Oral law.
❏ Jewish ethics is derived from the covenantal relationship where they were protected and taught their
responsibilities towards God and other people.
613 mitzvot (Mitzvot - Keeping the 10 commandments (Decalogue) Oral Torah
commandments of God)

- Offers the broadest application of Jewish
ethical principles and underpin all other
elements.
- It represents the foundational tenets of
Jewish ethics.
- The 613 mitzvot consists both positive
(commands to perform an act) and
negative mitzvot (commands to refrain from
performing an act).
- Regarded as the distillation of the 613 mitzvot. - The oral torah provides
- The 10 commandments consist of the positive and negative mitzvot. guidelines for the detailed
- The first 5 commandments deal with the relationship between God application of the broad principles
and the people of Israel (Hebrews), formulated as positive and of the 613 mitzvot to the day-to-
affirmative commandments. day life of Jews.
- The next 5 commandments are concerned with the relationship - Ongoing Rabbinic discussion
between individuals and their community. These are framed in terms ensures that the core tenets of
of what one shouldn’t do - negative commandments. Jewish ethics can be prudently
applied to changing
circumstances.

© The prophetic vision - social justice and Tikkun Olam (the repair of the world)
Prophetic tradition
● A prophet was defined as one who passes God’s message on to the rest of the community.
 ● Prophets were individuals that were called by God to proclaim the message that people were straying from the path laid
down by the Torah.
● Prophets advocated a pro-active stance to reforming social structures emphasising the themes of justice, equality and
peace where they were considered as second important comparing to the observance of law and ritual.
● Prophets were concerned with bettering the plight of the poor, the needy and the oppressed challenging the authority
figures of society.

Gemilut - chasidim Tikkun Olam Tzedakah or ‘hidden charity’ Bal Tashkit, ‘do not destroy’

● Acts of loving kindness
performed for no return for
example, giving hospitality
to strangers, comforting the
mourner, visiting the sick
and assisting a poor or
orphaned bride.
● It is identified as the
characteristic that
encapsulates the Jewish
identity.
● Gemilut chasidim is
intimately tied with the
notion of leading a
righteous life and having a
good heart which are
prerequisites of being a
truly devout individual.
● Definition - Repair of the world
● It is the notion that if a person saves
another human being, it is as if the person
that person had saved the whole world.
● It is significant in that it is the overarching
principle of tikkun olam in Jewish ethics
intimately connected with the idea of social ●
justice.
● All individuals have the dual responsibility of
rectifying inequalities in society helping the ●
poor and needy acting as a steward caring
for the earth.
● The aim of ‘tukkun olam’ - achieve a
perfected world, or ‘haMascheach”
● Tikkun Olam is the underlying motivation
behind social action and volunteer projects
that work towards the repair of the world
through human action. Aiding people to
take responsibility for their world.
● Orthodox Jews believe that performing
mitzvot is a form of Tikkun Olam and will
hasten the coming of the messianic age.
● All Jews are required to ● Prohibits the unnecessary
tzedakah within where they destruction of God’s creation
are reasonable for each as another person will not be
individual as part of the able to utilise God’s gifts to
process of seeking a just the world
world. ● This notion is intimately
Tzedakah stresses the connected with modern
importance of the means by ecological concerns
which one gives charity. emphasising the importance
Those who practice of human stewardship over
Tzedakah hide their identity the earth.
so that the recipients don’t
feel ashamed when they
meet their benefactors at
social or communal
functions.

© The book of proverbs - wisdom, righteousness, purity and generosity of spirit

© The book of Proverbs is one of the most significant collections within the genre of Wisdom literature ascribed to King Solomon.
© The book of Proverbs is a collection of short, pithy statements which offer practical and simple advice on how to live a moral life
and behave prudently encouraging moral and upright behaviour. It is a collection of ethical instructions related to practical living
and everyday concerns.
© The Ketuvim section of the Tanakh is not used as a source Halacha but reflects Jewish values e.g. the Book of Proverbs.
Wisdom Righteousness Purity Generosity of spirit

● God is the source of
wisdom. Wisdom is also the
means by which a person
comes to know God.
● Wisdom is a powerful source ●
that will bring well being to
those who seek it. (Proverbs
24:5)
● A person who lives righteously and ●
with integrity will live a happy life
regardless of their situation
(Proverbs 19:1)
A person’s lack of integrity or faith ●
with ultimately lead to their ruin
(Proverbs 11:3)
● The tongue of a righteous person is
choice silver, but the heart of the
wicked is minute (Proverbs 10:20)
Purity is discussed in the Book ●
of Proverbs from the
perspective of a man speaking
to another man.
Purity which is linked to
integrity is a virtue that has true
value and hence should be
praised (Proverbs 11:4)
Generosity of spirit involves
helping society’s poor and
vulnerable (Proverbs 24:10)
● God will bless those who are
generous to the poor and
needy, while those who do not
will suffer negative
consequence as a result of
their selfishness (Proverbs
28:27)
 © Importance of ethical teachings in the life of adherents
❏ Jews are expected to place considerable emphasis on the extensive ethical teachings of the tradition in
making informed moral choices.
❏ The general ethical direction in the life of a Jewish person is determined by the 10 commandments.
❏ The general themes of righteousness, purity and justice underpin the specific halakhic laws that guide
Jewish ethical decision making.
❏ Proverbs divides its message between the good actions required of a good King and those required of a
good Jew. At times, the concepts of king and good Jew are interchangeable.
❏ Kindness and loyalty within the community are the important aspects of the ethics of Judaism, and
wisdom and right behaviour are celebrated.
❏ The goodwill towards others promoted by the ethical teachings of Judaism as contained in the Torah,
the prophetic vision, the idea of tikkun olam and the book of proverbs ensure a safe and protective
Jewish community and a place in the world where common laws and ideals encourage close bonds
between individuals.

Observance
© Shabbat
❏ The practice of shabbat comes from the Bible where God rested on the 7th day after creating the world
and Jews imitate this by resting on the seventh day.
❏ Shabbat is described in Rabbinic literature as 1 of the 3 ‘pillars of Judaism’ (the other 2 being Kashrut -
dietary laws - and laws of family relationships)
❏ Shabbat is the most significant liturgical event of the week as it reminds the Jewish people of the
greatness of God in creating the world and it also reminds the Jewish people of the Covenant between
God and the people of Israel.
❏ Shabbat starts on a Friday when it gets dark and is a day of rest where no work is allowed (except
saving a life). Muktzeh are utensils that can’t be handled on the Sabbath. Families will always eat
together on Shabbat. Sunset from Friday to sunset on Saturday.
❏ Before sunset on Friday, the house is cleaned and special food is prepared.
❏ Everyone stops their work, adults come home from work early to celebrate when the sun goes down.
❏ ‘Work’ (melachah) refers to creative tasks or exercising control over the environment. There are 39
defined categories of work that are identified.
❏ Candles are lit and wine and bread are blessed
❏ The requirements for keeping the Sabbath:
1. “Remember the Sabbath day (Exodus 20:8) - refrain from all forms of work
2. “Keep the Sabbath holy” (Deuteronomy 5:12) - reciting the Kiddush over a cup of wine
❏ Just before the Sabbath begins, the wife lights 2 candles. The 1st candle represents the injunction to
keep the Sabbath and the 2nd is to represent the commandment to remember the Sabbath. The wife
then prays for the welfare of her husband and children over the lit candles. After lighting, she waves her
hands over the candles, welcoming shabbat. She then covers her eyes to not see the candles and
recites the blessing:
Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe,
who has sanctified us with His commandments and
commanded us to light the Shabbat candles.
She then uncovers her eyes and looks at the candles, completing the mitzvah of lighting the candles.
❏ A short synagogue service is held to mark the beginning of the Sabbath.
❏ The celebration that takes place on the Friday of the Sabbath is the shabbat dinner. It takes place at
home with family and friends. The table is laid with 2 loaves “hallot”, like the candles it represents the
dual Shabbat commandments to keep and remember the Sabbath.
❏ The blessing of the wine is called “Kiddush”, they drink the “Kiddush” from a special cup which
represents the plagues and the Passover. The Father blesses the children in order of age before the
Kiddush is recited over the wine. “Gladdens the heart”.
❏ The bread (traditional braided loaves of bread) that is eaten on Shabbat is called “Challah”. They also
say prayers and blessings to their children.
❏ Men and boys wear a headscarf called a “Tallit” and they also wear a skullcap called a “Kippah”.
❏ On the following day, 2 meals are eaten, one after the morning synagogue service and the second is in
the afternoon generally with coffee and cake. Saturday morning is usually spent in Torah study at the
synagogue - reading a specified segment of the Torah.
❏ The recitation of the prayer, Havdalah (“division” or “separation”) ceremony takes place to mark the end
of the Shabbat celebration at sunset featuring the a plaited candle, wine and sweet-smelling spices so
that the pleasantness of the Shabbat ‘lingers’ in the work week. It is the recitation praising God for
creating distinctions.
❏ Shabbat is characterised by pleasurable activities such as singing, eating and time with the family.
Usually Jews attend the synagogue on the Shabbat and many study the Torah.
 Islam
Origins
Pre-Islamic Arabia as the cultural and Cultural context Historical context
historical context for the development of
Islam

- Islamic communities (umma) developed
around the 7th century, triggered by the
life of Muhammad
- Islam dates back to the creation of their
first Islamic community (umma)
- Developed on the Arabian Peninsular
(now known as Saudi Arabia)
- Most significant Islamic cities are Mecca
(Makkah) and Medina
- Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Israel, Palestine and
Saudi Arabia did not exist as political
entities during the time of Muhammad.
- Language: Hebrew and Arabic
- Islamic land is an extension of the lands
mentioned in the bible.
- Medina was an agricultural settlement
- Mecca was the centre of trade and commerce
- Consisted of tribes, some of which were nomadic
and travelled to find areas of vegetation and water
for their cattle (Bedouins)
- Tribes followed a route to follow trade. This helped
spread religious beliefs and had spread
Christianity (Orthodox, Nestorian, Monophysite)
and Judaism
- Jinn was the name given to the tribal spirituality as
each tribe had a belief system (animistic beliefs)
and worshipped deities and symbols
- Religious practises such as pilgrimages and
circumambulation were adopted by Islam
- Christian and Jewish ethics had no impact on
these tribes (the tribes were unethical)
- Muhammad’s society was known as transitional
society due to the sudden changes
- Due to tension tribes began becoming restless
with their spirituality
- Tension as they were not sent a prophet like their
God (Christian God) had sent prophets and
scriptures to other religions
- Tribes held different areas
- The lands had a long history of
warfare between Jordan, Syria, Israel
and Palestine and the Persian empire
(Iran) and Byzantine Empire (Turkey)
- Medina and Mecca became more
attractive for nomadic tribes to settle,
and other tribes who had already
settled didn’t like this.
- New wealth and commercialism
resulted in increased status’ and
classes
- Tribes stressed at their way of life and
values
- Ka’ba (cube) is Mecca’s most religious
site and was built by Abraham and his
son
- First dedicated to the one God but was
taken over by polytheists (Allah was
worshipped as the supreme god
among other gods.

The Prophet Muhammad

- Muhammad is not the founder of Islam and is only human, he had a - Hadiths are traditions that provide guidance on everyday
concern for justice at a young age. actions in oral and written form.
- He was delivered the final message from Allah (he is the last prophet) - Examples of Hadiths include:
to humankind by the angel Gabriel in a cave. > Marriage
- ‘Islam’ means surrender - ‘When a man marries, he has fulfilled half of the religion, so let
- All muslims want to surrender to the will of Allah and the Prophet him fear go regarding the remaining half.’ (Sayings of
Muhammad is this example and is a model for life for all muslims Muhammad. By Prof. Ghazi Ahmad)
- Islam ensures that Muhammad is not worshipped as they believe > Right of Wives
worship is for Allah only. - ‘When a woman observes the five time of prayers, fasts during
- There is evidence that he was a wise and capable leader in business Ramadan, preserves her chastity and obeys her husband, she
- Received a revelation from the angel Jibril (Gabriel) when he was may enter by any of the gates of paradise she wishes.’ (Sayings
living in solitude and reflection of Muhammad)
- He displayed faith, willingness and trust to Allah
- He became the leader of Medina due to his forgiveness and wisdom > Divorce
in overcoming anger. - ‘The lawful thing God hates most is divorce.’ (Sayings of
- Ensured the practise of almsgiving to the poor was performed by Muhammad)
everyone. (It was like a tax) > Clothing and Adornment
- Muhammad’s actions became a guiding source of Islamic law (sunna)
 - Sunna covers traditions (hadiths) and practices of Muhammad. - ‘Cleanse yourself, for Islam is cleanliness.’ (The Lawful and
Prohibited in Islam)

The development of Islam under the leadership of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs
- Caliph comes from the word Khalifa meaning ‘successor’ and was assumed from the successors of Muhammad
as the political and spiritual leaders of the Muslim Empire.
- Islamic armies were successful in overtaking neighboring cities under these Caliph’s which expanded the Muslim
empire
- All these Caliph’s were close to Muhammad and maintained Muslim orthodoxy after Muhammad’s death
- They are known as ‘Rashidun’ which means ‘rightly guided’ and are:
Abu Bakr ‘Umar ibn al-Khattab ‘Uthman ibn Affan Ali ibn Abi Talib

- 632-634 CE - 634-644 CE - 644-656 CE - 656-661 CE

- Father of Muhammad’s youngest
wife
- Entrusted by Muhammad to carry
out important tasks
- As a wealthy man he put personal
fortune into the service of the umma.
- Had to restore stability to the
region after the death of Muhammad
- Began a process of writing the first
written version of the Qur’an
- Father in-law to Muhammad and a
close friend
- Highly effective military leader and
political administrator who grew an
empire
- Extended the empire through
Palestine, Syria, Egypt, Iraq, Persia
to Armenia
- Established a council to choose
the next Caliph
- Son-in-law to Muhammad
- Collected material to produce the
definitive text in the dialect of Arabic
(was finalised in 650 CE)
- Favoured his tribe which resulted
in tension because of his
distribution of wealth to them, rather
than everyone.
- Cousin and son-in-law to
Muhammad
- Tensions resulted in a civil war
and political upheaval
- Hu’awiya accused Ali of
murdering ‘Uthman
- Split between Sunni and Shi’a
began

© The Sunni and Shi’a

Sunni Shi’ia

- From sunnat al Nabi meaning ‘traditionalist’ - ‘Partisians of Ali’

- Accept the authority of the caliphs - Seceded from the main body of Islam
- 85% of Muslims and is the normal pattern of Islamic belief - Reject the authority of the first three Caliphs’
- Believe Muhammad was the last prophet and the Qur’an was the final - 15% of umma
revelation of Allah. - Are controversial

Principal Beliefs
The articles of faith explained in the Aqida (creed) as:
Tawhid - Existence and unity of Allah (God)
- ‘Belief in Allah’ means a declaration and
commitment to the belief that he is One.
- The word Allah has no plural or feminine
form, so many Muslims prefer to use this
name in English since the word ‘God’ can
be used in multiple senses. Muslims Tawhid
excludes the concept of the Trinity or triune
God.
- Allah is transcendent, beholden to none and
in need of no partner or associate.
Angels and Jinn (evil)
- In Islamic thought, angels are spiritual
beings, created from light, sinless, have no
gender and don’t eat or drink. Angels are
the purest beings created by Allah and
submit to his will in everything.
- Angels are referenced in Hebrew Scripture
as messengers between humans and God.
Jinn are spirits and forces that can be
- In their myriad ranks they constantly praise
and celebrate God and bear his throne.
Books of Allah
- The books of God are the revelations that
God made to his messengers, who came
with his authority to preach his single
unchanging message: that he is One, and
that he sends messengers, each with a book
presenting knowledge of himself and the law
that he wishes individuals to live by.
- The Qur’an mentions 3 revealed books by
name: the Tawrah (Torah) given to Moses,
the Zabur (Psalms) given to David and the
Injil (Gospel) given to Jesus, son of Mary.
 - There are 99 names attributed to him in the
Qur’an: they point to an indescribable divine
being. It’s forbidden to represent Allah in a
visual or symbolic form.
- If there is only one God, then he alone is
the creator of all that exists, but was not
himself created; he is ‘The Eternal’.
- Muslims should worship Allah alone; no-one
else is worthy of worship, no other being
should be associated with Allah.
- The shahada or basic Islamic confession of
faith states, ‘There is no deity but God and
Muhammad is his prophet’.
Although invisible to human eyes, they may - The only one of these books that existed in
take on human form having diverse tasks. the form in which it was revealed and claims
- Angels accompany human beings in their universal authority is the Qur’an, the book
lives, guarding them, helping them in their given to the last of the prophets and the seal
difficulties, protecting them against the of prophecy, Muhammad.
wiles of Satan, and recording their good - The Qur’an is now the most reliable book of
and evil deeds - these angels are Allah.
acknowledged during daily salat.

Rusul (messengers) or prophets Akhira - afterlife Fate/predestination - the decree (qadar)

- Rusul are men chosen by God to take his
revelation to different peoples. There are 25
named prophets in the Qur’an many known
in the Tanakh celebrated as figures in
history.
- Allah has sent prophets to different
societies at different times. Thousands of
prophets have been sent to deliver religious
messages to humanity.
- Prophets such as Jesus or Moses are
relevant to Muslim life, as long as it is
recognised that of all of the prophets,
Muhammad holds the distinct place of being
the last, and of completing the messages
sent by God.
- The Qur’an names 25 prophets. The rusal
are prophets who have delivered holy
books. Belief in prophethood is closely
linked with belief in holy books - kutubu’llah
- The 6 most important prophets are: Adam,
Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and
Muhammad.
- Every human who has ever lived is brought
to judgement before Allah, and punished for
their sins or be rewarded for their goodness.
In this way, life is a test (Sura 67:2)
- The world exists in 3 layers:
1. Heaven/Jannah - paradise where good
people will be rewarded forever
2. Earth
3. Jahannam - Hell or hell-fire ruled over by
Iblis (Satan)
- On judgement day, everything is as God
foresaw and decreed it would be. For others,
it is whatever God decrees on that Day.
- Everything that happens on earth is believed
to be preordained by Allah’s will.
- In sha-’Allah (If God is willing) shows the
recognition of his power and acceptance of
his will for them - people cannot do anything
unless approved by God; however, they still
have a free will to choose.
- Allah knows the past and future actions of
every person, individuals have the free will to
act for good or for evil; he doesn’t force them
to do anything - they do have control over
their fate.

Sacred Texts and Writings

The Qur’an The Hadith

- The name Qur’an means ‘the recitation’ and it is the holy book of Islam and is believed to
be the literal word of Allah.
- Muslims believe the Qur’an to be sum of divine revelations received by Muhammad. These
revelations spanned over a 23 year period, from the time of Muhammad’s first encounter
with the angel, Jibril (Gabriel) outside Mecca in 610 CE until his death in Medina in 632 CE
- The Qur’an consists of 114 suras (chapters), each one divided into verses. They range in
length, date of composition and underlying messages. (not written in chronological order)
- Suras are sequenced from longest to shortest and this order is believed to be divinely
inspired.
- A hadith is a narration on the life of the Prophet,
Muhammad. This is distinguished from the sunna,
which is the details of the actual life of Muhammad.
- The Hadith is the second foundation text of Islam.
Along with the Qur’an, they are the basis of islamic
jurisprudence and show the life of the Prophet as
one worthy of being taken as a role model.
- The Qur’an has a unique status in Islamic tradition for no other revealed group which has
been preserved in such an authentic form.
- Being the words of God, it must be handled with reverence and always kept in a place of
honour.
- Muslims see the Qur’an as a miracle and the proof that Muhammad was a prophet and
should be the first and last words a Muslim believer hears. As Muslims recite out loud the
Qur’an they are to put their whole heart and feeling into it. To hear and speak the Qur’an is
to hear and speak to Allah.
- The Qur’an was one of the first books written in the classical form of Arabic and the actual
recitation is important and a holy experience. Any of translation of the Qur’an is merely a
interpretation and not the literal word of God.
- They are source for prayers, meditation and
spiritual insight, as well as an elaboration of the
ethical values taught by the Qur’an.
- It is believed that the hadith was compiled by
devoted individuals who put the words and actions
of Muhammad into writing around the early 700s
instead of allowing them to continue circulating
through oral tradition.
- There are 2 kinds of hadith:
1. Sacred hadith - words of Allah that are not part
of the Qur’an
2. Noble hadith - details of the actions and words
of the Prophet

Core Ethical Teachings

Islamic jurisprudence
- The ethical teachings of Islam reflect the beliefs and teachings of Islam.
- Islam ethics stem from one key principle: “To live wholly and fully in submission to God’s will”
- A Muslim must ‘try one’s hardest” (Jihad) to establish good.
- Islamic ethics emphasise on right action between believer and Allah = vertical dimension and between believers =
horizontal dimension.
- The worst a Muslim can do are the following:
❏ Kufr: disbelief in Allah
❏ Shirk: associating anything else with Allah such as an image
❏ Tugyan: not being able to trust Allah and acting in a contrary way to nature
- Jurisprudence: the science of the law or the science of interpretation of the law
- Sharia’a: is the code of law for the Muslim way of life that has developed form jurisprudence
❏ Shari’a regulates all aspects of life
❏ Muslims therefore do not see a distinction between the sacred and secular life
- Fiqh: legal decisions based on the process of jurisprudence
❏ Developed out of the need to make jurisprudential judgements in the face of rapidly developing situations which
went beyond what was explicitly provided in the Qur’an and tradition.
- The Sources of ethics for Muslims in order of importance are:
❏ The Qur’an: the revealed word of Allah as given to the prophet Muhammad
❏ The Sunna and Hadith - actions and words of approval of the Prophet.
❏ ijma’ – consensus view among religious leaders and Muslim scholars
❏ qiyas – comparison with teachings of the Qur’an or Hadith - analogies drawn from the Qur’an
- The interpretation of Shar’a is not uniform among Muslims:
❏ Sunni Muslims generally accept all 4 sources and consider the rulings of Ijma and Qiyas binding
❏ Shi’a Muslims have traditionally opposed Ijma and would abide by decisions of Ayatollahs who are moved by
divine wisdom to make strict rulings based on the Qur’an.
- Core features of Islamic Ethics:
❏ Arkan al-Islam: The Five Pillars of Islam
❏ Moral codes are embedded in the Five Pillars which are at the core of Muslim faith and practice:
1. Recitation of the creed of Islam
2. Prayer - requirement to pray 5 times a day
3. Fasting - obligatory during Ramadan
4. Charity - voluntary and obligatory
 5. Pilgrimage
❏ Fitra: the natural inclination inherent in every human being
★ This is a person’s basic nature
★ Ut us the basic nature to be good
★ One’s heart seeks constantly to direct a person to seek the higher power outside oneself

Expression of Faith
● The Five Pillars as the expression of the faith of Islam
Shahada Salah (Prayer) Zakah (Almsgiving) Sawm (Fasting) Hajj (pilgrimage)

❏ What is it? What is it? What is it? What is it? What is it?
- An Islamic creed - The name for the - Means purification and - Done during the month - Done to Mecca and the
declaring belief in the obligatory prayers that growth of Ramadan (ninth Ka’ba because they are
oneness of God and are performed 5 times - Minimum is annual month of Islamic holy
the acceptance of a day (dawn, midday, payment of 2.5% of calendar) - Begins on the twelfth
Muhammad as God’s late afternoon, sunset personal wealth for the - Fast from food, drink month of the Islamic
prophet. and nightfall) poor, introduced by and sexual relations year (lunar)
- States that ‘There is no - Direct link between Muhammad. from dawn until Practices and Meaning:
God but Allah; believers and Allah - Made as charity, more sundown - New beginning: Shave
Muhammad is the - Contain verses of the given during Ramadan. - Shows obedience to their heads and wear
messenger of Allah’ Qur’an and are said in - Compassion for less Allah, spiritual discipline simple clothes to
❏ Practices and Meaning: Arabic. fortunate people and in and self-control symbolise putting away
- Recitation of this is the Practices and Meaning: turn develops a sense of Practices and Meaning: riches and to
sole requirement for - ‘God is great. I testify conscience. - ‘Fasting is prescribed acknowledge the quality
Muslims wanting to join that there is none - Bridge between rich and for you as it was of humanity in the sight
the Islamic community worthy of worship poor. prescribed for those of Allah.
- Recited during a except God. I testify Practices and Meaning: before you’ - Qur’an - Stoning of the Devil:
Muslim’s call to prayer that Muhammad is the - ‘And (especially) those 2:183 Perform Ramy by
- Said when waking up in messenger of God. who establish regular - Purification of mind of throwing 7 pebbles at
the morning and when Come to prayer! Come prayer (salat) and bodily desires, the 3 columns in Mina
going to bed to success!’ - call to practise regular charity strengthening one’s will, - Tawaf: Walk around the
- Recited moments prayer (Adan) (zakat)’ - Qur’an 4:162 caring and sharing, Ka’aba 7 times in a
before a Muslim's death - There are positions - Established by forgiveness and counterclockwise
- A declaration of their used for praying on a Muhammad in the goodwill. direction
most important belief mat and are done in Hadith and Sunna - Walk 7 times around the - Sa’i: Walk 7 times
- Celebrated in the cohesion. Ka’ba and retrace steps between Safa and
Qu’ran and Hadith as of Muhammad. Marwa
one of the most - 7 times between the
wonderful expressions hills of Safa and Marwa
- It is a ritual prayer that - Stand together on the
is said everyday plains of ‘Arafat and
- First words whispered prayer for God’s
to a newborn and the forgiveness (preview of
last words heard by the Judgement day)
dying. - Appreciates the Tawhid
- Expression of faith
 Christianity
Origins
The historical and cultural context in which Christianity began Palestine and the Romans:

● Began in Palestine (Jews considered this as the promised land)
● Lack of unity due to the disagreement of the leadership of the religion caused
the oppression from Romans and Greeks.
● Jesus is Christianity’s central figure and was considered the messiah for some
Jewish people such as John the Baptist.
● Because of the desired location of Christianity, the land was fought over by
Babylon, Persia, Rome and the Greeks.
● The Jews were being persecuted by the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Greeks
and finally the Romans and therefore awaited a Messiah (as prophecies stated
they would get one e.g. Isaiah 9:6-7) to lead them out of slavery and to freedom.
● Palestine became a roman territory and was split between
Roman rulers.
● Pontius Pilate allowed the Jews to do their everyday thing.
● Priests (Sanhedrin) took over the Jewish religion and
controlled it.
● These priests had much wealth and took money from the
Jews at the temple through taxes. Etc.

© Jesus Christ - founder of Christianity

- Born in Palestine 4BCE, grew up in Nazareth (small village in Galilee) lived and died as a Jew
- Sought to renew Judaism by opposing the legalism of Judaism and returning to the covenant.
- Brief biography can be found in the Gospels
- He travelled the countryside for 3 years teaching any who would listen and healing those who believed in him.
(preaching)
- John the Baptist witnessed the holy spirit descending into him claiming him as the Messiah
- He withdrew to the desert to contemplate his responsibilities and accepting his destiny.
- Called his first disciples at the lake of Galilee with the fishermen: “Follow me and I will make you become fishers of
men” (Mark 1:16-20)
- He made parables to teach people based on the type of people he was talking to. This was to capture their
attention with something familiar through symbolic stories.
- He performed miracles such as changing water to wine (nature), raised people from the dead (healing) etc.
- Wasn’t self-serving and attention seeking, rather wanting people to follow him for faith.
- Religious and political opposition increased due to his large numbers of followers.
- Important/principal events of his life:
1. Palm Sunday
2. The last supper
3. His arrest and appearance before Pilate
4. Carrying his cross
5. Death and resurrection
6. Ascension
- He is a model for Christian life through his embodiment of the reign of God.
- Announced the reign of God as the realisation of God’s vision or dream for the world.
- Preaches of love, values, justice and peace and was very keen in the service of others.
- Had a prayerful nature and was in frequent communication with God
- The beatitudes and the commandment of love highlight attitude of service
- Strong ethics of standing up for the poor and disadvantaged
- Religious observance needed for the cause of harsh oppression
- Ever willing to forgive, shown in the forgiveness of disciples after abandoning him. Willingness to forgive seen in
the lord’s prayer.
❏ Jesus as the Messiah
- The Jews believed Jesus was the messiah who was sent to free them
- He would return the Jews to power in their homeland and rebuild their temple.
- He was the prophet, priest and king for his people.
 © The development of early Christian communities
- After the death of Jesus, his followers were lost. Until the Pentecost (Acts 2:1-13) showed them a way forwards and to
spread the good news.
- 4 major stages:
1. The announcement of Jesus’ death and resurrection to the Jews and others at Pentecost (Acts 2-4)
2. The church learning it’s first lesson: the gospel message is not tied to Jerusalem (Acts 6-9)
3. Second valuable lesson: Expansion and disagreement, you need not be a Jew to be a disciple.
4. Church expanding through Paul’s missionary journeys.
- A sect within the Jewish tradition
- Believed they were living the last days before the second coming of Christ (parousia)
- 1st 40 years: churches were scattered and had no behaviour or practice
Peter and Paul
- Palestinian Jews followed Jesus through Peter and Hellenistic Jews/gentiles followed through Paul
- Peter moved to Rome and became the first bishop of the church
- Paul was first to write teachings, assisted early communities, recognised Jesus’ actions as not only for the Jews, wrote
letters helping communities, communicated Jesus’ ideas, set the structure of Christianity
Divisions in the early church
- Contained Jewish Christians of Palestinian and Hellenistic backgrounds. Gentile christians caused disagreement
- Original Jewish nature was challenged by the conversion of the Gentiles.
- Debate of the inclusion of the Gentiles formed the Council of Jerusalem (49CE)
- Decided converted gentiles didn’t have to keep Mosaic law.
- The Early fathers (up to 325 CE) - when church leaders documented/explained Christian beliefs
- Councils of Nicaea and Ephesus clarified Jesus’ human/divineness
- Caused the great schism
Persecution
- Christians persecuted by Jews (they were a threat to their purity) because of their view of Jesus as God
(sounding polytheistic), association with the Gentiles and their refusal to support the Jews when they were trying
to overthrow the Romans
- Christians also persecuted by Romans (2nd and 3rd centuries)
- Christians worshipped with secret signs (chiro etc) and to meet in private settings
- Romans believed they were neglectful citizens as they refused to serve the judiciary
- Emperor Nero = the worst
- Emperor Constantine legalised Christianity (313 AD Edict of Milan)
Monasticism
- Middle ages
- Founded by st Francis, st Benedict and st Dominic
- During the war for the holy land between Islam called the crusades, women and men fled to the dessert for a life of solitude,
chastity and obedience.
The Renaissance
- Popes and bishops built large cathedrals off the christian’s backs (taxes and money)
- Reformation (Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli) questioned church practices such as the granting of indulgences (corruption)

Christianity: Anglicanism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Pentecostalism, Protestantism

- Mainly began due to the great schism in 1054 and was the split between the Eastern (Constantinople) and Western
churches (Roman) and the Reformation in Europe and Britain.
- Established separate Christian churches where each variant adhered to specific beliefs related to Jesus, creation,
salvation, the afterlife and the scriptures being the inspired word of God.
- The council of Trent (1545-1563) was made to call for renewal in the reformation and tried to minimize corrupt practices in
the church and made the structural hierarchy.
 - 20th century: the Roman Catholic Church entered renewal with Second Vatican Council to prepare for modern times and
address issues in the church.

Anglicanism Catholicism Orthodox Pentecostalism Protestantism

- 16th century by (head of
the Church of England)
King Henry VII
- Began because of Pope
Leo X’s refusal of Henry
VII’s wedding. So he made
his own religion and Act of
supremacy (1534) to be re-
married.
- Anglican theology includes:
1. Authority: biblical
and papal
2. Justification:
salvation through
faith/good works
3. The role of
Sacraments in
salvation
4. Priesthood: how
Eucharist is
understood
5. The power of Christ
(Holy Spirit)
- Low Anglican: stress the
Word and preach
dimensions rather than
rituals. (like Protestantism)
- High Anglican: Anglo-
Catholic stress ritual and
sacramental dimension.
(similar to Catholics)
- Priests can be married and
women have a role.
- Catholic meaning - Very similar to - Very focused on - Developed around the
universal - worldwide Catholicism and Baptism, the Holy Reformation in 16th
unity Initially Greek Spirit and Pentecost Century
- Belief and conduct from - Heart is the divine (hence the name) - Fight over had authority to
affirming: ‘one lord, one liturgy (Eucharist) - Began in the 20th lead Christianity (Pope,
faith and one baptism’ - Use images (icons) of century in USA with etc) so Martin Luther
- Founded by Jesus Christ Christ, Mary and the Holiness made his own religion
and anointed by the Holy saints movement (19th against the Christians,
spirit during Pentecost - Liturgical ceremony century) calling out their corruption.
- Important emphasis on lasts 2 hours, has lots - Baptism in the spirit = - Only have two main
pastoral care, of incense and is fully when one receives the sacraments (baptism and
communion (Eucharist), sung. gift of praying in holy communion) as they
the sacraments and - Parts of the ceremony tongues (glossolalia) focus on preaching the
Mary are hidden from the - Gifts of the Holy Spirit word of Jesus.
- Hierarchical, under view of the crowd and include speaking in - Three Main branches:
authority of the Pope in are done in a room to tongues, prophecy, - Lutheranism (Martin
Rome and has a latin make it mysterious healing and Luther)
tradition - Emphasise ecstaticness. - Calvinism (John
- See the Eucharist as monasticism, did not - Welcome those who Calvin)
- Zwinglianism
seeing Jesus in develop it repent and believe (Ulrich Zwingli)
presence and believe - Male priests only can Jesus’ forgiveness of - Chief Features:
faith and good works are get married. them through - Acceptance of the
necessary for salvation death/resurrection bible as the sole
and believe in heaven, source of revealed
purgatory and hell. truth
- Doctrine of
- Strong monasticism in
justification by faith
priesthood and convents only
(priests must be male - Universal
and unmarried) priesthood of all
believers

Principal Beliefs
The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
❏ The Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries were debates regarding the nature of Christ, in
particular, the issue of his humanity vs. his divinity.
❏ Docetism - position which undermines the integrity of the humanity of Jesus because it claims that Jesus is fully
divine but not truly human, because he is God merely adopting the appearance of being human.
❏ Arianism is the belief that Jesus is superior to the rest of creation but not equal to God. Jesus was created by God
but not eternal like God.
❏ Council of Nicaea in 325 was called to fight against Arianism. The Council developed the Nicene creed which
state that the Father and Son are of 1 essence and hence Jesus is divine. Council of Constantinople reaffirmed
this decision. Doctrine of the Holy Trinity was formulated. God is understood as one God, yet within the Godhead
there are 3 distinct persons - God the Father/Creator, God the Son/Jesus Christ and God the Holy Spirit.
❏ Nestorious (Archbishop of Constantinople) undermined the unity of Jesus claiming that Mary is the mother of
Jesus but not the divine Jesus suggesting there are 2 persons in Jesus.
❏ Council of Ephesus in 431 CE rejected this view and confirmed that there was only 1 person in Jesus and Mary
rightfully being called the Mother of God (theokotos)
● The death and resurrection of Jesus Christ
❏ The belief of Christians is that Jesus’ death was important to destroy sin and give humanity the opportunity for
eternal life (Romans 8:3-4). Christians have traditionally believed that Jesus died for our sins. Jesus’ death was
then followed by his resurrection and ascension into heaven.
❏ More adequate reflections on the death of Jesus highlight the notion that death is an integral part of the human
condition and one that is shared by Jesus.
❏ The fundamental Christian belief in the resurrection of the body, as evident in the Nicene creed based on the
resurrection of Jesus Christ.
❏ Whilst Jesus' resurrection and ascension are depicted slightly differently in the Gospels of John and Luke, both
stress the importance of the resurrection as carrying the meaning of eternal life that overcomes the limitations of
human mortality
❏ Theologians have long debated the nature of the risen Jesus. The difficulty is reconciling the physical resurrection
with the spiritual resurrection.
❏ John 11:25 tells Christians that Jesus said ‘I am the resurrection and the life. Those who believe in me, even
though they die, will live’. Christians believe that the resurrection of the body will occur for all at the Final
Judgement.
❏ Jesus’ ascension into heaven (recorded in the Gospels of Mark and Luke) marks Jesus’ transformation to sit at the
right hand of God the Father.
● The nature of God and the Trinity
❏ The doctrine of the Trinity: God is One existing as 3 persons - God the Father, Jesus the Son and the Holy Spirit
as sanctifier.
❏ The Trinitarian doctrine - 3 co-eternal, equal persons in God, which is the notion of unity within community. The
Trinitarian doctrine was further developed and defined at the council of Nicaea in 325 CE and Constantinople in
381 CE.
❏ God’s promise of salvation has been fulfilled through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus and the outpouring
of the Holy Spirit, thus God is revealed as Trinity.
❏ The role of creator (God the Father) is recognised mainly in the Old Testament (Hebrew Scriptures), in God’s
interaction with his chosen people.
❏ In the other books of the New Testament and today, the Holy Spirit is the principal means by which God interacts
with the world. God the Spirit, revealed in the Church
❏ In the Gospels, it is God the Son, Jesus Christ who is the central figure revealed in the Christian Scriptures.
❏ The difficulty is reconciling the concept of monotheism with the notion of God existing as 3 persons.
❏ The divine essence is common to all 3 but the 3 persons have attribute/properties which distinguished them e.g.
Fatherhood, sonship and sanctifying power. Once essence means that the actions (creation, redemption,
sanctification) are attributable for all.
❏ Mutual relations is the concept that the terms Father and Son are not titles but expressions of a relationship and
thus all 3 persons are co-equal
● Revelation
❏ The revelation or message of God has occurred throughout history. For Christians, it was most fully given through
the person of Jesus Christ. But God’s revelation is also evident in creation and through the person of the Holy
Spirit, interacting with the world,
❏ God is intimately involved in all aspects of human life and thus God is revealed to humankind in and through the
experiences of human history.
❏ The revelation is understood to be an ongoing process.
 ❏ Christians know that revelation involves God communicating with the world, but revelation also relies on us to
respond to it with a commitment to relationship with God. Revelation is not complete without acknowledgement of
God.
❏ Even though all Christian groups believe that the Bible is the normative text, they understand this inspiration in
different ways. In comparison with Protestant denominations, Orthodox and Catholic denominations place a
greater emphasis on the teaching authority of the Church, seen to be adjunct with the sacred scripture in
communicating the revelation.
● Salvation
❏ Salvation (from the Latin salus, meaning ‘health’) means the deliverance from sin that we can only attain through
our relationship with God.
❏ For Christians, salvation will only come to fruition in the final days of the world when they are reunited with God
and is only attainable through the grace of God.
❏ Essentially, Christians believe that salvation is a gift from God, that is offered through the death and resurrection
of Jesus. This gift only being accessed through faith in Jesus.
❏ God is the one who saves, God’s saving action (Moses and the Exodus) is liberating and has a particular concern
for those who are the most vulnerable in society. Jesus in his life and ministry embodies the saving action of God.
Christians are called to accept the gift of God’s saving action through their faith in Jesus and their own actions on
behalf of those in need.
❏ Salvation in Christianity can mean 3 things: deliverance from sin, being resurrected to an afterlife and being
healed through the power of the divine and united with God.
❏ Salvation is as much a present reality as a future deliverance.

Sacred Texts and Writings

Bible
● Is a collection of books and is referred to as the Sacred Scriptures. The Bible is considered to be the word of God
as it is inspired by God and a recorded of the key events in the story of humanity’s interaction with God.
● The Bible is made up of:
- The Hebrew Scripture:
❏ Also known as the Old Testament
❏ Recognises the Jewish heritage of Christianity with stories of creation, the Hebrew people and the
covenant people between God and his people
- The Christian Scripture
❏ Also known as the New Testament
❏ Acknowledges and recounts the life and times of Jesus
- The Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical
❏ Are additional material contained in the Old Testament
❏ Are Accepted by Catholic and Orthodox traditions as part of Church Canon
● Contents of the Bible
Old Testament New Testament

Contains 46 books, under the following groups:
- The Torah (Pentateuch): refers to the books of law. These books
include the instruction or guide for living that God passed onto his
people
- The Historical Books: records the history of the nation of Israel
from the time they reached the Promised Land until they returned
from their exile in Babylon.
- The Wisdom Books: the books of poetry and wisdom
- The Prophetic Books: contains stories about special people who
were inspired by God to speak out and deliver a special message
to the people
Contains 27 books, under the following groups:
- The Gospels: tells the story of the life, teachings, deeds, death and
resurrection of Jesus
- The Acts of the Apostles: traces the spread of the Gospel and
growth of the Church for 30 years
- The Pauline Letters and Letter: were the letters written to meet the
specific needs of the early Christian communities and to spread
the good news.
- Revelations: is the last book and if different from all the others.
Vision, images and symbols are used to convey the Lordship of
Christ and the victory of Christ establishing the Kingdom of God
 ● Importance of the Bible:
- The importance and influence of the Bible can be explained in both external and internal forms:
External Internal

● Religious groups confess that they are guided by the Bible. ● Many Christians continue to experience the power of the
The religious community in the author of Scripture; having contents of the Biblical books themselves.
developed it, cherished it, used it, and eventually canonised it. ● The biblical books are cherished and used because of what
they say and how they say it.
- The Bible is the most widely distributed books in human history
- It has been enormously influential - and not only among the religious communities that hold it sacred.
- Contains salvation history, the account of the history of creation that shows the actions of God in human history
culminating in the life and ministry of Jesus.
- The Bible - normative for Christians, highlights key beliefs and determines principal applications of legal, ethical
and ritual dimensions.
- Provides guidelines for ritual, prayer and worship and provides a model for life action
- The application or the Bible differs across the spectrum of Christian denominations:
❏ Catholic and Orthodox denominations believe that tradition illuminates the meaning of scripture
❏ Protestant denominations follow the teachings of Luther who taught that the only source Christians should
turn to for inspiration is the Bible
❏ Evangelical Protestants also believe in the ‘bible alone’

Core Ethical Teachings

- Christian ethics are based on Gospel teachings but focus on two key relationships:
❏ Right relationship with God
❏ Right relationship with humanity
- These two key relationships are guided by appropriate actions to maintain and support positive and healthy
interaction
The Ten Commandments New Testament Ethics (The Beatitudes & Jesus’ Commandment of Love)

● The Decalogue was a covenant
between God and his people.
● Given to Moses and the Israelites
when they were in the desert
searching for the Promised Land
(Exodus 20:2-14).
● The first 4 commandments describe
one’s relationship with God and the
other 6 are about maintaining good
relationships with one’s neighbours.
● Christians recognise the Ten
Commandments as] a set of principles
for ethical behaviour.
● They outline the behaviours that are
not allowed personally or not to be
tolerated in others.
● The Old Testament had many other
rules about right living for the people
of Israel. Some of these additional
- New testament ethical teachings are expressed differently from those of the Old testament.
- The language speaks of what is valued or blessed in our interaction with others.
- New testament ethical teachings are those outlined by Jesus in his ministry to the people who heard
him preach and believed in him.
● The Beatitudes:
- Were a revolutionary mind map for Jesus’ followers detailing how to live a good life.
- Remain guidelines for today’s Christians as to how they should relate to others.
- They teach that we all have responsibility to care for others in society.
- Much of the social justice agenda of Christian groups such as Anglicare and the Edmund Rice
Centre emerges from the challenge of this text.
- The Beatitudes are the eight declarations of blessedness spoken by Jesus at the beginning of the
Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:3-12), each beginning with "Blessed are..."
- Describe the ideal disciple and his rewards, both present and future.
● Jesus’ Commandment of Love
- Is a summative statement that draws together all the ethical teaching that went before.
- jesus ‘ teaching is about God’s love for human beings and their opportunity for salvation through love
of God and neighbour.
- These three central scripture passages underpin our relationships with God and with each other. A
central action that Christians have to channel their love of neighbour is through social justice
activities.
[Jesus] said to him, ‘ “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your
 laws are outlined in the Books of mind.” This is the greatest and first commandment. And a second is like it: “You shall love your neighbour as
Leviticus and Deuteronomy. yourself.” On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets.’
- (Matthew 22:37–40)

Personal Devotion
Prayer
● Christians are called to be people of prayer following the examples of Jesus as prayer was at the heart of his
ministry.
● Prayer is an awareness of God and a response to the presence of the sacred in our life. It involves listening,
responding, encountering and developing a relationship with God, which brings meaning to adherents’ lives.
● All Christians denominations have communal prayer rituals which play a significant role in their traditions. The
most important of these is the Sabbath or SUnday service which is the focal points of the life of the community.
● Personal prayer refers to a religious practice that occurs privately and is, by definition, non-liturgical - but private
prayer may also occur during public worship services. It can also involve regular activities such as attendance at
church services, or it can reflect the prayer that is conducted at home, alone.
● Forms of prayer:
Prayer of - Biblical tradition of Jesus teaching about prayer includes a strong encouragement for Christians to ask in prayer for their
Intercession & needs and the needs of other (Luke 11:10 - 13)
Petition - Some branches of Christianity (e.g. orthodox and catholic), there has been a strong belief in the communion of saints which
includes aspects where those who have passed are able to intercede through Jesus to God on behalf of the people on earth.
- The way in which God responds to prayers of petition is at the heart of the mystery of God’s involvement in human history,
some Christians believe that the degree or quality of a person’s faith has bearing on God’s response.

Prayers of - Involves finding a time and place free from distraction and centring one’s thoughts on God.
Reflection & - The main purpose of this form is to create an inner stillness which allows people to deeply contemplate the nature of God
Meditation which may involve the use of a biblical image, an aspect of creation, etc.
- Another purpose is to contemplate the meaning of events and circumstances of life. The person is able to meditate on certain
aspects of life in order to understand their meaning in the light of God’s love.

Bible Reading - The strongest traditions of bible reading are found among the Protestant churches, drawing on Martin Luther’s doctrine of
and Reflection ‘’sola scriptura’ meaning scripture alone.
- In more recent times, this tradition has influenced other Christian denominations so that bible reading and reflection is now a
widely used element of prayer
- When using the bible, Christians seek to find inspiration and guidance through the words of scripture.

Prayers of - Is one of the most widely practices and traditional forms of praise.
Praise & - In recent times, the growth in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has brought a renewed emphasis to the place of
Thanksgiving praise in Christian prayer.
- The purpose of praise is to allow the person the opportunity to acknowledge the greatness of God
● Types of prayer:
Traditional & - Various people have composed prayers which have become widely used. Many of these prayers recite or adapt biblical texts
Formal Prayer - such prayers cover a wide range of occasions and needs.
- These include:
❏ the Lord’s Prayer: Known as the Our Father. Is taken from the occasion in the gospel where disciples ask Jesus to
teach them a prayer (Luke 11:1). Is commonly concluded in liturgy as well as personal prayer
❏ The Rosary: Draws heavily on biblical texts with the Catholic community. Is organised into 5 decades each
containing 10 recitations of the Hail Mary. In the course of each decade, the person is encouraged to meditate on
one of the mysteries which are based on the events in the life of Jesus from the perspective of Mary.
❏ The Divine Office: developed in conjunction with the monastic rule of Benedict of Nursia. Is also widely used as a
personal prayer and is entirely based on scriptural texts, specifically the Psalms.

Informal and - Christians across a range of denomination use a variety of informal and spontaneous forms of prayer for different occasions
Spontaneous and times.
Prayer - These include:
❏ Morning & Evening Prayer: Christians have been traditionally taught to begin and end each day with prayer. Typically
a morning prayer is one of dedication to God and often includes petitions relating to events in the coming day.
Evening prayer is typically a prayer of thanksgiving for God’s providence during the day.
❏ Grace at meals: this prayer at meal times is known as grace and it usually takes the form of expressing gratitude to
God for the provisions of the necessities of life. It provides an opportunity to pray for a blessing on those who have
provided and prepared the food.
❏ Quiet times: Denominations urge their members to find time during the pressured of normal daily routines to spend a
period of time in prayer.
● Approaches to prayer
- Throughout Christian history, various notable individuals have developed approaches to prayer, which have been adopted by
others.
- Such approaches to prayer are referred to as schools of prayer because they represent an approach adopted by significant
members of Christian. They usually provide a more substantial approach than a simple style.
- One form of approach is the taize prayer:
❏ From the taize community in France a simple, meditative prayer from has emerged which is now known as Taize
prayer
❏ It involves a process of contemplation based on the chanting recitation of simple mantras.
❏ Taize prayers also include a strong focus on justice, peace and ecology.
Religions of Ancient Origin (Celts)
Origins of the universe
Principal beliefs
Supernatural powers and deities
Rituals
Influence in the society
Human search for meaning