CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653

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CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology

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Cutting edge geometries

B. Denkena (1)a,*, D. Biermann (2)b
a
Institute of Production Engineering and Machine Tools (IFW), Leibniz Universität Hannover, An der Universität 2, 30823 Garbsen, Germany
b
Institute of Machining Technology (ISF), Technische Universität Dortmund, Baroper Straße 303, 44227 Dortmund, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Tool life and performance are decisively determined by cutting edge geometry. An appropriate shape of
Machining
the cutting edge improves wear resistance, tool life and process reliability. This paper reviews major
Cutting edge
developments in cutting edge preparation technologies and methods of cutting edge characterization.
Tool geometry
Moreover, the influences of cutting edge geometry on chip formation, material flow, as well as mechanical
and thermal loads on the tool are discussed. The essential modeling and simulation approaches are
presented. Effects on surface integrity are described. Finally, an overview of important perceptions for
prospective research and development in this field is provided.
ß 2014 CIRP.

1. Introduction

1.1. Motivation

The cutting edge shape and the cutting edge condition are of
crucial importance for machining operations. During the cutting
process the impact of high thermal and mechanical loads on the
cutting edge result in wear. Moreover, the quality of the machined
surface is affected by the cutting edge shape. The demands of
modern production are high productivity and high process
reliability. One place these demands can be met is in cutting edge
preparation [134].
In Fig. 1 the main effects of a cutting edge preparation are
summarized. In addition to the reduction of the chipping after
grinding and burrs after sintering the preparation can be used as a
post-coating treatment. Before the coating process, cutting edge
preparation influences the surface topography and the residual
stresses in the substrate. Regardless of the cutting procedure, the
advantages of cutting edge preparation are scientifically proven
by many investigations [18,41,134]. This research shows that the
cutting edge preparation leads to an improved cutting perfor-
mance due to an enhanced cutting edge stability. In general, pre-
treatment causes a better wear resistance of the tool by reducing
chipping and initial crack formation along the edge as well as
increasing its mechanical strength. Furthermore, adhesion
strength is influenced by cutting edge preparation, thus the
application of the coating can be facilitated by a smoothed Fig. 1. Main effects of the cutting edge preparation [8].
surface of the cutting edge. The optimal cutting edge form
regarding the machining process is related to the machining 1.2. Historical developments
conditions and the specifications of tool and workpiece material
[8,22,47,49,157]. The first mention of rounded cutting edges can be found in [60].
Fischer mentioned in 1897 that cutting edges are not to be
regarded as entirely sharp. The first international mention of
rounded cutting edges can be found in Chien [34], Albrecht [1] and
Masuko [95]. The authors described independently the influence of
* Corresponding author. rounded cutting edges on process forces.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cirp.2014.05.009
0007-8506/ß 2014 CIRP.
632 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
In orthogonal turning operations, Chien investigated the
influence of the tool tip on process forces, material deformation
and finished surface. Chien determined that the magnitude and
direction of the force depend on the tool tip, on the workpiece
material and tool tip size. Chien also introduced an extra force
component due to the cutting edge rounding. Albrecht studied the
influence of rounded cutting edges and introduced the mechanism
of ploughing into the metal cutting theory, whereas Masuoko
described the effect on process forces as indentation force. Major
early results on the influence of round cutting edges in machining
are documented [10,84,132]. In 1966 Nakayama et al. [99], traced
the increasing specific energy for chip formation while reducing
the chip thickness back to the cutting edge rounding. The evolution
of publications on this topics over time shows rapidly increasing
interest in this research topic.
As displayed in Fig. 2, the trend of a defined rounded cutting
edge geometry is reasonably new compared to the history of
cutting tools in general. A major reason seems to be the early lack
of accurate and reproducible production processes. The prepara-
tion of cutting edge radii was mainly done by manual processes at
that time. The development of new more accurate measurement
has led to an increase in the application of prepared cutting edges.
Current developments strive to a specific design of the cutting
edges for different machining operations. From a current
perspective of tool performance, the future cutting edge geome-
tries may be adjusted to the cutting and workpiece material,
machining process, and even on machining conditions [8,155]. An
important current question is the commercial feasibility of such
application tailored cutting edges for tool producers.
Fig. 2. Publications related to rounded cutting edge geometries.
1.3. Cutting edge definitions
The cutting tool geometry and parameters describing the
macroscopic and microscopic tool shape are depicted in Fig. 3. The
spatial dimension of a cutting tool is termed as its macrogeometry.
In contrast, the microgeometry describes geometrical details of the
active part of the cutting tool underneath the macrogeometric
defining quantities. Accordingly, microgeometry defines the shape
of the cutting edge, which is the transition between the rake face
Fig. 3. Transition from macroscopic to microscopic tool shape with regard to cutting
conditions.
and the flank face of a cutting wedge. The characterization of the
cutting edge shape (microgeometry) is feasible by means of profile
sections of the wedge. Hence, an appropriate differentiation
between microgeometry and macrogeometry is required. This is
demonstrated in Fig. 3 with regard to contact conditions in the chip
formation zone. The rake angle is predetermined by the
macroscopic tool form. It can either be related to the superordinate
form of the wedge or to the orientation of a chamfer. The latter is
the case if the chamfer is more strongly describing the machining
situation in comparison to the superordinate form of the wedge.
The effective rake angle is specified by the actual existing rake
angle of the cutting tool at a certain contact point of workpiece and
cutting tool during cutting process. The section of the cutting tool
where the effective rake angle begins to differ from the (nominal)
rake angle defines the transition between tool macro- and
microgeometry.
For the intersection of rake and flank face, three fundamental
cutting edge shapes are currently defined. These shapes are sharp,
rounded and chamfered. A combination of different chamfered and
rounded shapes is also possible [37,65,146,161]. A sharp cutting
edge implies that the transition between the rake and the flank face
is neither rounded nor chamfered. In practice, it is not possible to
produce an ideal sharp cutting edge shape [8,115].
Due to the fact that ‘‘sharp’’ cutting edges are not indefinitely
sharp and rather have an irregular and chipped profile, there is no
specific parameter for their description [40,115]. Furthermore,
sharp cutting edge shapes, that means cutting edges without a
measureable size of cutting edge rounding and/or chamfer, are not
suitable for many machining tasks because of their lower stability
against mechanical loads in comparison to a rounded or chamfered
shape [21,37,62,116]. As already stated, cutting edge preparation is
used with sharp tools to create a more appropriate cutting edge
shape. Particularly, cutting edge designs that are tailored to
specific machining tasks show a high potential to improve tool
performance. To generate these specific designs accurately, a
detailed characterization of the shape of transition between rake
and flank face is essential [8,129,155]. For this purpose, different
characterization and measurement methods are available.
2. Characterization and measurement
Once cutting edge geometry is defined, its influence on the
cutting process can be determined. For rounded cutting edges the
radius is still a frequently used parameter for characterizing the
cutting edge microgeometry. Generally, this shape is not circular
and so this is an oversimplification. As a consequence, different
methods for characterization have been investigated. Tactile or
optical measurement devices have been investigated with variable
numerical results [8,131,155]. A standardized procedure, however,
does not exist yet. In the following, different methods of cutting
edge characterization and measurement are introduced with their
specific advantages and disadvantages. This section is based on the
work of CIRPs Collaborative Working Group ‘‘Cutting Edge
Geometry’’ installed between 2005 and 2008.
2.1. Methods for characterization
Cutting edge geometry is characterized by microgeometry and
edge topography. The edge topography describes the surface
structure of the cutting edge. It is highly impacted by microscopic
damage like burrs or chipping [37,89,153]. Measurements of
surface roughness are commonly used to describe the chipping
along the cutting edge. The measurement is carried out parallel to
the cutting edge [62,63,89,129]. A schematic illustration of a
chipped cutting edge topography after a grinding process is
depicted in Fig. 4. In the following, methods for characterization of
chamfered and rounded cutting edge shapes are introduced: a
cutting edge chamfer is a straight intersection of rake and flank
face with sharp transitions but this transition is not infinitely
sharp. Chamfered cutting tools exist with different chamfer
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
Fig. 4. Cutting edge chipping after grinding (acc. to [89]).
designs. In addition to the common single chamfer, there are also
cutting edge forms with two or more chamfers.
As shown in Fig. 5, characterization is achieved by chamfer
length lb and chamfer angle gb for each chamfered segment
[37,62,155]. Furthermore, chamfers can be categorized into
symmetrically or asymmetrically designed preparations. Today,
chamfers are typically applied with boron nitride and ceramic tools
for heavy duty cutting and interrupted cuts [37,57,116].
Fig. 5. Parameters for cutting edge chamfer characterization (acc. to [37,62,161]).
The shape of a rounded edge is more complex and requires
more parameters to characterize. As previously stated, the cutting
edge radius rb is still frequently used for edge specification,
although it is an oversimplification since actual cutting edge
shapes are not circular. The cutting edge radius rb is determined by
a constant circle that is fitted into the intersection of flank face and
rake face. For this purpose, several points are defined on the
intersection by means of a measurement system. At least three of
these measured points are required to fit a circle with the radius rb.
However a unique characterization of different cutting edge shapes
is not possible by one parameter (rb). As can be seen in Fig. 6, the
accuracy of this method is very sensitive to the positions of the
selected measuring points [155].
Fig. 6. Inaccuracy when describing cutting edge geometry with one single radius
[155].
The accuracy of cutting edge depiction with a constant circle can
be increased by using a higher number of measured points. Further,
the accuracy is affected by the fitting algorithm [8,67,155]. And if the
cutting edge is not symmetrical, it is impossible to align the cutting
edge profile with the fitted circle. This results in characterization
ambiguity [155]. Thus, this method is not appropriate for a detailed
and accurate cutting edge characterization. Due to these disadvan-
tages, Denkena et al. [50] established the form-factor method (also
referred to as K-factor method) that contains additional parameters
for a more precise cutting edge description (Fig. 7).
633
Fig. 7. Form-factor method for cutting edge characterization [50].
In this method, parameters for the cutting edge segments Sa
and Sg are introduced to measure the distance between the
separation point of the cutting edge rounding and the tool tip of an
ideal sharp cutting edge at flank face and rake face, respectively.
Based on these values, the average cutting edge rounding S̄
specifies the dimension and the form-factor K (Kappa) specifies the
orientation of the rounding at the cutting edge. In addition, profile
flattening Dr and apex angle w are used to characterize the tools’
bluntness by measuring the shortest distance and the shift
between ideal sharp tool tip and actual shape of rounding [50].
By means of this method, a detailed cutting edge characterization
is feasible. In particular, the consideration of asymmetric edge
shapes is a major advantage due to its high effect on the process
behavior of cutting tools [50,89,129]. However, there are also
drawbacks. Position and direction of tangents used to measure Sa
and Sg determine the reliability of this method. These tangents are
calculated as partial regression lines of straight parts of flank face
and rake face, respectively. Accuracy depends on the amount and
location of points on rake and flank face used for the calculation of
tangents. Approximate detection of the separation point location is
a probable reason for inaccuracy which should be considered while
measuring. In addition, the ability to characterize the profile of a
curved flank or rake face is limited. The location of separation of Sa
and Sg tangents strongly depends on the fitting area of a particular
face which is used to calculate the tangent. Currently, there is no
standard, and the measurement result is based upon operator’s
decision regarding fitting area for the tangents.
According to the mentioned challenges of the above discussed
characterization methods, further approaches have been devel-
oped.
Dependency on operator is a dominant factor in characteriza-
tion uncertainty. To solve the problem, an iterative algorithm was
developed by Wyen [155] that determines the separation point of
cutting edge microgeometry from cutting tool macrogeometry
more precisely. The cutting edge shape is characterized by a single
radius rb that uses all measured points between the separation
points of rake and flank face for fitting. Due to a more precisely
determined circle fitting area, this method provides values of
cutting edge radius rb that more accurately describe actual cutting
edge shape. In order to consider asymmetric shapes, the factor Swy
is introduced. This factor describes the shift of the center of the
fitted circle to the bisector of the wedge angle [156]. Even though
this method offers an appropriate detection for separation of rake
face, flank face and cutting edge, a characterization of the cutting
edge shape by a single radius is still a simplification.
The investigation of Cortes depicts the shape of cutting edge
mathematically. For this purpose the cutting edge is approximated
by a polynomial of sixth degree using all measured points. Based
on this, an extensive set of functions and parameters is analyzed to
characterize the cutting edge shape [37]. Thus, a detailed
description of transition between rake and flank face seems
possible but the complexity limits practical use. Furthermore, the
approximation by a polynomial of sixth degree may cause
significant deviations in comparison to the actual cutting edge
shape [155].
Uhlmann proposed a method for describing cutting edge
geometry description with a characteristic curve of the actual
rake and clearance angles as a function of cutting edge location. It is
634 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
assumed that the apex of the cutting edge profile is the changeover
of rake face to flank face. The apex is plotted as the centerpoint of
the characteristic curve. At this point, the actual clearance and the
rake angle are presumed as a = 0 and g = 908 to ensure a
continuous curve progression. Proceeding from this point in both
directions, the actual clearance and rake angles are plotted as a
function of distance along the cutting edge until the values of rake
and clearance angle for tool macrogeometry are reached [141].
This method allows a unique representation of the cutting edge
profile. However, a suitable comparison of different cutting edge
shapes is only possible by comparing plotted characteristic curves.
Not only the consideration of edge geometry but also the
relation of edge geometry to uncut chip thickness is important in
order to understand the tool behavior during the cutting process.
Consequently, the impact of the ratio l = rb/h on the cutting
performance is investigated by several research groups
[37,40,105,160]. However, as this ratio depends on the cutting
edge radius determination, a reliable statement on the impact is
limited. Due to the described difficulties in defining rb, the
engagement conditions of the cutting edge during the cutting
process are insufficiently determined. Hence, a more detailed
characterization based on the method proposed by Denkena et al.
[47] considering the cutting process is developed in the same
laboratory (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Process related cutting edge characterization [47].
Hereby, the comparability of tool wear using different cutting
tool geometries with cutting edge rounding is increased. The
method is based on the position of characteristic uncut chip
thickness hmin and htr. The determination of the incremental
tangential and normal forces along the cutting edge rounding is
based on the idea of Storch and Zawada-Tomkiewicz [127]. The
cutting edge microgeometry as well as the process parameters have
been varied systematically to analyze the position of minimum
uncut chip thickness hmin and the uncut chip thicknes of chip form
transition htr. Using the location of these chip thickness parameters,
the cutting edge profile can be separated into three sections: first is
the contact length on flank face La, which is separated into the
primary contact length La,1 from the contact point P0 to the value
minimum chip thickness hmin and the secondary contact length on
flank face La,2, which considers the springback of the generated
surface. The material above the minimum chip thickness is either
going into the chip or ploughing into the workpiece. This area of
unsteady chip formation is characterized by the contact length Ltr.
The third section is the connection between the value of htr and the
break-off point on rake face Pg where the nominal rake angle of the
cutting tool occurs. The ploughing area Aa can be used for describing
the impact of the cutting edge rounding on workpiece properties like
burr formation and residual stresses as reported in [47]. The stated
approach offers an appropriate method to characterize and design
the cutting edge related to cutting processes. Starting from the
contact point P0, the cutting edge profile can be designed using the
process related parameters. These are defined by the contact length
values Li and its effective rake angles geff,i. Finally, the cutting edge
profile is created by fitting a curve through the interpolation
points Pi.
No standardized methods that define the cutting edge geometry
independent of the engagement conditions during cutting exist.
Consequently, a reliable comparison between cutting edge
geometries based on different characterization methods is not
possible. Indeed, due to its relative simplicity, many investigations
still use the cutting edge radius rb. As discussed, this method does
not adequately or even correctly characterize cutting edge profiles.
Altogether, the presented form-factor method appears to be an
appropriate alternative to cover most requirements regarding
characterization of different cutting edge profiles. It provides
unambiguous information about the cutting edge shape with only
three main parameters. The form-factor method is recommended
for characterizing cutting edge profiles depicting uniform geome-
tries without an excessive curved flank or rake face. Therefore, it
will be used in the remainder of this paper.
2.2. Methods for measuring cutting edges
In this section the application of the characterization methods
to data sets generated by different measurement devices is
discussed. The analysis of parameters used for characterization of
the shape is carried out by profiles measured orthogonal to the
cutting edge direction. As stated before, the cutting edge
topography is analyzed by profiles detected parallel to the cutting
edge. Commonly, tactile and optical measurement methods are
applied [89,129].
Tactile working devices are usually based on surface and
coordinate measuring machines with a stylus as tactile probe
[89,130,160]. Tactile methods are restricted to measure a smaller
section of the tool profile compared to optical approaches: they are
limited by higher measurement time and ability and sequential
determination of 2D profiles. However, the repeatability of tactile
methods is better than optical methods. In contrast, optical
methods are faster [8] to measure cutting edge shape and
topography in one measurement, by generating a 3D-model of
the cutting edge [65,129]. Digital micro-fringe projection has
proven to be better than other optical methods by many
investigations [8,14,29,61,65,129]. However, other optical meth-
ods are applied for cutting edge measurement: chromatic confocal
scanning, laser scanning focus detection methods and interferom-
etry [8,37,151,152,155].
Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is also used
for more precise measurements [4,20,33,52,58].
Since there is yet no standard for cutting edge measurement,
accuracy strongly depends on the operator as well as on the
measuring system and the chosen characterization method and
algorithm [8,155]. A comparison of different measuring systems,
methods and operators in Section 2.3 illustrates this problem.
2.3. Measurement results from CWG cutting edge geometry
Within the CIRP Collaborative Working Group ‘‘Cutting Edge
Geometry’’ a round robin comparison of different measurements
has been made. The aim of the investigation was to compare
various measurement systems for rounded cutting edges.
To examine the accuracy and other affecting factors on the
measurement of cutting edges, uncoated cemented carbide inserts
were prepared by means of abrasive brushing and then measured
via contact stylus method. Afterwards the prepared inserts were
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
sent to five other research partners to measure the rounded cutting
edges once more. The measurement takes place at the same
position on the cutting edges using a contact stylus as well as three
optical measurement devices. The evaluation was realized by using
an arbitrary algorithm. The results are summarized in Fig. 9. A
comparison of the cutting edge measurements among different
institutes shows significant discrepancies in the obtained values.
The evaluation of the measured cutting edges exhibit significant
deviations (up to 48%). The algorithm used for the calculation of
the geometrical parameters of the cutting edge has been identified
as an important source of error. Hence, it is necessary to develop
one automatic evaluation algorithm for multiple measurements in
order to have a consistent characterization of the cutting edge
geometry. The lower part of Fig. 9 shows the results of the
evaluation performed by DetermineK, an external algorithm,
which has been developed at the Institute of Production
Engineering and Machine Tools (IFW). By means of a consistent
algorithm, the discrepancies shown by the measurements could be
reduced by about 30%. With the algorithm it is possible to use
different data from tactile, optical and SEM measurement systems.
Fig. 9. Round robin investigations of cutting edge measurement with the CIRP CWG
‘‘Cutting Edge Geometry’’ [38].
The findings of this investigation show that the measured
geometry of the cutting edge is strongly influenced by measurement
method, equipment and user. Further the choice of measurement
type and the characterization method may significantly restrict the
accuracy of any comparison of actual cutting edge geometries,
especially with respect to parameter rb. Consequently standardized
635
measurement values have to be selected, recommending the form-
factor method. As stated above supplementary suitable algorithms
can be used to achieve consistent results independent of the user.
3. Preparation technologies
The reproducible production of tailored cutting edge geome-
tries is necessary to ensure their economic advantages. The current
state of the art consists of parallel process technologies to prepare
edge profiles, all more or less suited to reach the geometric
requirements. Common preparation methods are dry and wet
abrasive jet machining [37,89,119,129,155], brushing [8,43,44],
and drag finishing [117]. Further, methods investigated are brush-
polishing [37], magneto abrasive machining [29,33,45,82], abra-
sive flow machining [114,143,144], laser machining
[5,25,26,39,42,140,144], electrical discharge machining [68,162]
and grinding approaches [13,147]. The above methods are
schematically shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10. Schematic overview of cutting edge preparation technologies.
With respect to performance, as well as accuracy of the applied
preparation process, every method has its scope of application
particularly regarding the target microgeometry of the cutting
edge [44]. In the following, cutting edge preparation methods used
in science and industry are introduced including their generally
acknowledged process fundamentals.
3.1. Reproducible preparation of cutting edges
Before applying fine preparation techniques, tool surfaces are
first ground. Due to the high plastic deformations occurring during
the grinding process, the surface is characterized by grinding
marks [137,138]. Further, significant microdamage may be
introduced along the edge [63,89,136]. Several investigations
cover the subsurface stresses in relation to mechanical and thermal
effects of grinding [63,135–137]. Further scientific studies in this
field focus the influential parameters on thermal and/or mechani-
cal loads besides their impact on the resulting integrity of tool
materials [51,62,66,78,89,153].
For many years the grinding process has been applied to
produce single or double cutting edge chamfers, usually for carbide
or ceramic cutting tools. The purpose of these chamfers has been to
reduce the chipping induced by tool grinding and to enhance edge
stability of the tools [62,88]. The decisive advantage of grinding the
edge microgeometry lies in the ability to produce the complete tool
geometry in one single clamping. In a novel preparation approach
636 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
cutting edge microgeometries have been produced by grinding
multiple chamfers to also approximate rounded edge geometries.
This process strategy produces a wide variety of symmetric and
asymmetric edge geometries by using an overlap of multiple
chamfers with adapted chamfer widths and angles. Furthermore,
this strategy allows a decrease in edge chipping as grinding is a
path controlled and not a force controlled process. Another
advantage lies in a decrease of total processing time per tool as only
one workpiece clamping is necessary [48,147]. However, to date
the application is limited to tools with less complex cutting edge
geometries.
The wet and dry abrasive jet machining is a further inexpensive
process for cutting edge preparation [113,114]. The positive effects
of this process, such as improving toughness and reliability of the
cutting edge, have been proven [70,83,89,129]. The material
removal along the cutting edge is conducted by accelerating an
abrasive medium mixed in a carrier medium through a jet nozzle
on the workpiece surface [89,155]. The hitting of the mixture onto
a localized tool area leads to chip formation and/or local
deformation resulting in a dimple microstructure in that surface
region [14,129]. Thus, high roughness peaks of the surface are
removed [20]. Furthermore, the process causes the removal of the
binding material cobalt of the ground WC carbides [18,20,138]. The
impact of the blasted abrasive medium induces compressive
stresses into the tool subsurface [18,20,83,97,129,138]. However,
as numerous investigations prove, the specific impact of the
abrasive jet machining process onto the cutting edge integrity
depends on various influencing parameters forming a complex
process system [37,70,89,129,155]. These include the abrasive
material, grain form and size, jet nozzle geometry, traverse speed
of the nozzle regarding the cutting length tool area, jet pressure,
nozzle stand-off distance, angle of contingence, and others with
respect to the specific conducted abrasive jet machining method
[13,14,37,65,83,89,97,119,129,138,155].
Basically, two different methods of abrasive jet machining are
distinguished by the type of carrier medium used in the process:
pressurized air serves as carrier medium in dry abrasive jet
blasting whereas in wet abrasive jet blasting the abrasive medium
is mixed with water. A further distinctive feature is related to the
method for accelerating the abrasive medium. The transport of the
medium is either based on compression or on suction. As a
standardized abrasive medium aluminum oxide is mostly used
[65,89,155].
In Fig. 11 an overview of the important process parameters in
abrasive jet machining is given. Underlying experimental studies
due to wet abrasive jet machining based on the suction principle
provide the basis for identifying the impact of these parameters on
Fig. 11. Schematic overview of influential process parameters and their impact on
cutting edge material removal by wet abrasive jet machining regarding [89,129].
material removal along the cutting edge. Depending on the design
of the process the guidance of the workpiece or jet nozzle can be
arranged flexible in movement. In this way further influencing
parameters such as jet distance, jet angle and jet inclination angle
determine process results, too. The influence of the jet feed speed
vf,st is essential as the jet nozzle is proceeding along the cutting
edge. Increasing speed leads to less impact time and subsequently
to fewer material removal. The jet pressure pst also has a decisive
impact on the removal of material. Due to higher pressurized
abrasive medium the speed of the grains increase and its kinematic
energy rises. As a consequence, an increased jet pressure results in
enlarged cutting edge roundings. The setting of jet angle ast
primarily affects the stock of material removal along the cutting
edge in a preferred direction to the flank or the rake face of the tool.
Thus, just the influence of jet angle on cutting edge segment Sa is
stated. By altering the jet angle the striking direction of the
abrasive medium changes and a higher load either tends in a
direction to the flank face or the rake face side of the cutting edge.
The approximately same load on both sides is achieved if the grain
material is hitting equiangular on the edge. In this context, the
shown maximum of material removal can be explained by an
overlapping of removal mechanism on the flank face and the rake
face side. The grain size is inherently connected with its kinetic
energy. Due to smaller particle sizes the kinetic energy and, with it,
material removal is reduced [89].
Depending on the execution and the method of abrasive jet
machining the preparation results may differ. For example,
difficulties might occur due to an irregular flow of the abrasive
mixture [155]. In summary, abrasive jet machining is exceptionally
complex to implement due to the numerous influencing param-
eters. Specific process know-how is necessary for achieving desired
cutting edge results. Bouzakis found out that micro-blasting might
cause local carbide removal in focused cutting edge areas, leading
to a destabilization through early fractures of coatings compared to
cutting inserts with rounded cutting edges [19,20].
On the other hand, abrasive jet machining has a wide range of
benefits, in particular the removal of the binder material and the
reduced roughness along the cutting edge leads to improved film
adhesion [17,139]. Based on wet abrasive jet machining, the
cushioning and damping effect of the carrier medium water causes
improved surface roughness in comparison to dry abrasive jet
machining [129,155]. Furthermore, the water suppresses dust
formation on machined surfaces [155]. As one of the most distinct
advantages, Saunders states that no thermally induced distortions
are generated on the machined surface applying abrasive wet jet
machining [119]. Due to the implementation of adapted jet
strategies, a variation of cutting edge geometries is feasible by
using jet abrasive preparation [113,129,155]. Furthermore,
Holzschuh internationally patented the application of the jet
treatment process to change tensile residual stress in the coating of
CVD or PVD-coated cutting inserts into compressive residual stress
[69].
The large number of influencing parameters, as well as the wide
range of benefits and handicaps, show that the controllability of
abrasive jet machining has to be improved. In many cases it seems,
that with a higher flexibility of the process, due to the degrees of
freedom in workpiece and jet nozzle movement, the process is
adaptable to machining requirements but still proves challenging
with respect to complexibility. Consequently, an appropriate
simplification must be achieved to improve productivity, reliabili-
ty and understanding of the jet abrasive machining process.
Brushing and brush-polishing are machining processes with
geometrically undefined cutting edges that are widely applied in
surface treatments, deburring processes and removal of material
for setting different cutting edge rounding sizes [8,29]. For the
defined edge rounding by means of brushing, usually rotating
periphery tools in the form of wheels or disk brushes are used [44].
Brush form are cup brushes and wire end brushes [62]. The
abrasive brush is mounted with bristles or filaments of extruded
polymer fibers as nylon or with wire, containing an abrasive
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
material e.g. silicon carbide (SiC), aluminum oxide (Al2O3), cubic
boron nitride (CBN) or polycrystalline diamond (PCD)
[37,44,89,126]. The bristle lengths and diameters, as well as
bristle arrangements and densities, can vary [155]. Modern 5-axis
machining allows the handling of adapted geometries of the
cutting edge rounding on various cutting tools [44]. Otherwise, a
preparation of complex tool geometries is only conditionally
possible. The inclination of the cutting edge can be influenced by
the brushing direction. Brushing from rake to flank face or from
flank to rake face is possible, which is usually used for producing
small and asymmetrically rounded cutting edges. Furthermore, a
combination of both is feasible [8,43]. Hence, a wide spectrum of
shapes and sizes can be produced by brushing treatment [8]. The
size of the rounding of cutting edges can be affected by the grain
size, cutting speed vc, infeed az and total brushing time t, which
depends on the feed velocity vf along the cutting edge and the
number of repetitions [8,43,44,62]. The main factors influencing
cutting edge radius are the infeed az and the cutting speed vc, as
presented in Fig. 12. Due to an increase of these influential
parameters, the material removal along the cutting edge rises.
Increasing infeed results in higher profile flattening, whereas too
small values of az do not remove enough material, due to the slight
removal rate. Raising the cutting speed the kinetic energy rises and
therefore the material removal increases [44].
Fig. 12. Kinematics of brushing and influence of infeed az and cutting speed vc on the
flattening of the rounded cutting edge [44].
In addition, critical variables are set by the specification of the
applied tool like brush design and material [62]. Due to a higher
density of filaments of a SiC#500 brush chipping along the cutting
edge can be reduced and the compressive stress level rises up to
15% with respect to prepared specimens using a SiC#240 brush
[43]. The increase in compressive stress is evaluated by Denkena et
al. comparing the residual stress status before and after brushing
treatment [43]. The induced internal compressive stress is
generated by the hitting of the bristles on the surface [109].
Moreover, the bristles condition has an influence on the brushing
result. The wear of filaments, which is primarily influenced by
cutting speed, leads to a decrease of the removal rate [44]. The
countermeasure is to increase brushing time but this leads to the
disadvantage of higher process temperature and resulting filament
damage [8,43]. Insufficient wear detection during brushing and
polluted edges for prepared tools are considered as further
disadvantages [62,140]. Hence, to prepare a rounded cutting edge
with a specific dimension is still an iterative process [8]. However,
the proper setting of the influential and critical tool parameters
enables an even cutting edge preparation at high precision and
process reliability [8,44]. A modification of brushing is brush-
polishing. Applying solely non-abrasive bristles, the removal is
realized by an abrasive paste. The soft brush with filaments made
637
of natural or polymeric material serves as polishing pad for the
added paste which is usually containing micro-diamond particles
[37,155]. With respect to the brushing preparation the brush-
polishing results also vary with brushing speed, penetration depth
and machining time [37].
In summary, brushing provides a highly effective method for
producing a rounded cutting edge in short time, has high removal
rates for a wide range of workpiece materials. In addition, the
process is relatively simple. Nevertheless, the fundamental process
understanding of interactions with the substrate and wear
properties of the filaments is limited since process loads determine
the preparation cycle. Not to finally forget that an improvement in
finer limitation of local intervention area during brushing would be
expedient for adjusting cutting edge roundings at complex tool
geometries.
Drag finishing is a machining processes with a geometrically
undefined cutting edge [29,155]. The workpiece is plunged into a
container holding free abrasive grains. The abrasive medium
usually consists of ceramic, plastic bonded abrasive particles,
silicon carbide, corundum, quartz or walnut shells [155]. By
rotating the main arm and the satellite carriers, moving the
workpiece inside the revolving barrel, the abrasive medium
particles bounce and drag along the tool surface which leads to
material removal [29,89,117]. In Fig. 13 an schematic overview of
process kinematics for drag finishing is stated. The rate of material
removal can be influenced depending on the abrasive medium
specifications, the workpiece specifications, the immersion depth,
the rotational speed and direction of the main arm, and the satellite
carriers as well as the machining time [111,117,155].
Fig. 13. Schematic overview of process kinematics and influential process
parameters for drag finishing.
With respect to the cutting edge preparation, drag finishing is
suitable for generating a homogeneous cutting edge rounding. Due
to small sized abrasive grains, particularly for tools with complex
edge profiles, as twist drills or milling heads, a uniform rounding is
achievable [65]. Sometimes, however, longer process times are
necessary to realize rounding sizes or surface qualities. Risse has
proven that by drag finishing drills, the cutting edge radii from
4 mm to 40 mm can be reproducibly generated [117]. However,
applying the drag finish process, preparing of single cutting edge or
surface areas is difficult to realize because the immersed part of the
workpiece being completely enclosed by the abrasive medium
[65]. Thus, the entire surface of immersed cutting parts is treated
and no targeted preparation of specific cutting part sections is
possible. Also a variation of cutting edge geometry with respect to
asymmetrical roundings is only possible to a very limited extent.
Consequently, the inexpensive drag finishing method with its
simple process kinematic needs further development in order to
achieve a desired local material removal.
Magneto abrasive machining is a finishing process based on free
abrasive and ferromagnetic grains. The workpiece is immersed into
the grain powder which gets dispersed in constant motion within a
magnetic field. For treating cylindrical tools usually systems with
two rotating discs are used. The discs facing each other function as
magnetic field generators. Hitting the rotating cutting tool, the
activated grains lead to material removal on the tool’s surface and
along its cutting edges [45,77,85,155]. The rate of material removal
638 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
and the resultant surface quality is determined by a various
number of influencing parameters, such as the specifications of
abrasive and ferromagnetic media, workpiece specifications,
strength and pattern of the magnetic field, relative positions plus
movements of the devices, and others [29,33,45,82,85]. The
interaction of influence parameters result in a high complexity of
the process. Consequently, appropriate operating of magneto
abrasive machining is still challenging and process knowledge
has to be expanded. With respect to magneto abrasive machining
of cemented carbide milling tools Denkena et al. found out that
the material removal rate mainly trends with the working
distance of the magnetic field generators and the machining time
[45]. Since the tool is immersed and rotated in a flexibly
conforming cloud of abrasive powder, magneto abrasive ma-
chining is suitable for surface finishing of tools with complex
geometries [33,85]. Depending on the applied abrasive powder
specifications Karpuschewski generated average cutting edge
radius values in the range of 12–18 mm at high speed steel twist
drills. Their forms are described as straight without burrs [82].
Generally magneto abrasive machining is a more expensive than
drag finishing due to purchase of equipment and abrasive
medium. Indeed it is suitable for cutting edge preparation but it
is more strictly applied for surface finishing of cutting parts.
While a variation of cutting edge rounding size is possible to
realize, the kinematic of the method does hardly enable to
produce asymmetrical material removals.
In abrasive flow machining the tool to be prepared is enclosed in
a pressurized stream of abrasive fluid generating the material
removal. The highly viscous fluid contains abrasive grains made of
aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, boron carbide or diamond
[143,155]. The cutting edge geometry strongly differs with the
abrasive fluid specification [155]. Hence, preparing PM-HSS
milling inserts with an abrasive paste containing silicon carbide
grains, Rech pointed out that a wide range of radii for the cutting
edges is producible [114]. Uhlmann states further advantages such
as the reproducibility of preparation results for brittle and ductile
material [143] as well as the capability of versatile application with
respect to manufacturing of complex-shaped geometries and
setting up high surface qualities for cemented carbide tools [144].
Still, regarding the capability of abrasive flow machining in cutting
edge preparation the method shares some disadvantages and
benefits with the drag finishing process. For example, setting
asymmetric cutting edge roundings is only conditionally possible.
Further, the complete enclosed cutting part is treated during
processing. On the other hand the process is cost-effective and easy
to operate.
Toenshoff et al. evaluated laser machining as a useful improve-
ment in cutting edge preparation compared to other applied
methods like brushing or abrasive jet machining [140]. Within that
scope of application Denkena et al. carried out research in the
combined development of laser machining hard metals and of
system engineering comprising measurement technology [39].
Breidenstein et al. investigated laser machining as an alternative
method for producing cutting edge microgeometries focusing on
surface integrity and residual stress development of PVD-coated
carbide cutting tools. As the driving force the implemented local
heat during laser treatment is leading to an alteration of subsurface
and surface in prepared tool areas [25,26]. Denkena et al. identified
the tensile residual stress caused by thermal load during laser
machining as a risk with respect to later tool life. Nevertheless laser
machining offers great potential in setting cutting edge geometries
without causing any damages at the edge or in the tool surface [42].
Further investigations focus the capability of preparing cutting
edges at uncoated indexable inserts with a low-cost diode-pumped
solid state laser. Applying short laser pulses, the surface area hit is
first molten by heating and further evaporated. A critical laser
beam intensity has to be reached in order to avoid chipping due to
molten material. Other process parameters are the pulse overlap
factor, the scan overlap factor, and the pulse frequency. It is
reported that generating cutting edge radii in the range of 9–47 mm
with an accuracy of 1.5 mm by an individual machining time of
10 s is achieved [5]. The capability for precise cutting edge
preparation by applying laser machining is also analyzed in
[39,140,142]. Comparing the capability of abrasive flow machin-
ing and laser machining regarding cutting edge preparation
Uhlmann prefers the laser conducted process due to the generated
surface qualities and therefore the stronger improvement of
coating adhesion [144].
Research indicates that laser machining has high potential in
creating cutting edge microgeometries. In particular, the capability
of preparing super hard cutting tools emphazises the laser
machining in comparison to other stated technologies. However,
laser machining is yet not sufficiently manageable and interaction
of process parameters have to be investigated. Especially,
modification of subsurface and stress condition has to be
controlled. Further, the method requires relatively high invest-
ment costs and process control is still complex. As a consequence,
the benefits of laser machining have to be advanced through an
improved practicability of the process.
In electrical discharge machining (EDM), the workpiece and
the electrode are immersed in a dielectric fluid. Discrete spark
discharges between the cathode and the anode lead to material
removal by melting, due to high thermal energy impact.
Between the impulses the thermal energy based plasma channel
breaks down so that the dielectric fluid can flush the severed
material from the working area [68]. EDM generally causes
tensile residual stress in the treated workpiece area [78].
Yussefian et al. investigated sink electrical discharge machining
as an optional method for controlled preparing of cutting edges
by sinking the cutting edge into a counterface. Although the
manufactured rounding variability is stated as minimal, the
capability to prepare straight cutting edges is not limited by the
tools’ material hardness [162]. Furthermore electrical discharge
machining offers the potential to create asymmetric cutting
edge geometries. Nevertheless, preparation of nonconducting
material is excluded. Improvements are especially needed in
technical controllability and in increasing productivity of the
method.
3.2. Summary of preparation methods
As shown, different technologies have specific features impor-
tant to tool preparation. In order to provide an overview the most
distinctive characteristics of the presented cutting edge prepara-
tion methods are concluded in Table 1. Since grinding is a path
controlled method it offers the decisive advantage of high accuracy
and repeatability in cutting edge preparation. Due to the process
management and in contrast to the other stated preparation
methods chipping is not only smoothened but removed. Further
integration of grinding as a preparation method for cutting edges
into the process chain of tool production is relatively the easiest.
The braking point of this method lies in the possible range of
producible rounding sizes and the limited ability of preparing
complex edge geometries. By brushing wide ranges of cutting edge
roundings are feasible. Improvement is needed in handling the
wear of the filaments and in creating asymmetric rounded edge
geometries. Wet abrasive jet machining is distinguished by causing
no thermally induced distortions and inducing compressive stress
in the subsurface. However, complexity of the method has to be
reduced. While magneto abrasive machining, drag finishing and
abrasive flow machining create appropriate surface qualities, they
are also characterized by their producible range of rounding sizes.
Nevertheless conducting these methods, applied preparation is not
limited to a local area of the cutting part. Laser machining and
electrical discharge machining offer high potential in preparation
of super hard cutting material. Furthermore, laser machining
allows the preparation of specific areas of cutting edge with high
accuracy. But due to the controllability with regard to the process
understanding there is still a great need of research for both
methods.
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653 639

Table 1
Relative comparison of cutting edge preparation methods due to their characteristic
features.

Grinding

Abrasive jet machining

Brushing

Drag finishing

Magneto abrasive machining

Abrasive flow machining

Laser machining

Electrical discharge machining

Investment costs + * * * * *  
Productivity + + + +  *  
Process chain ++ + + + * +  
integration
Producible range * + + + + + * *
Fig. 14. Influence of cutting edge radius rb and feed f on cutting forces Fc and feed
of rounding size
forces Ff for turning TiAl6V4, standardized to a cutting width of b = 1 mm, vc = 70 m/min
Accuracy and ++ + * +  + + 
repeatability [157].
Producibility of + + *   * * 
asymmetic
geometries
Preparation of * * * * * * ++ +
super hard
cutting materials
Preparation of + + *    + *
locally restricted
cutting part areas
Preparation of  + * + + + + +
complex cutting
edge geometries

4. Chip formation and forces

The preparation of the cutting edge has a significant impact on

the force components and material flow in front of the cutting
edge. Depending on the size and shape of cutting edge preparation
the process forces increase with an increase of the cutting edge
rounding. This effect is closely related to chip formation
mechanisms and the material flow around the cutting edge.
Especially, the dead metal zone in front of rounded or chamfered
cutting edges influences the process forces and the wear behavior
of the cutting tool. An overview about the research on the
mechanics of cutting, using various methods such as experimental,
analytical and numerical, is given in this section.

4.1. Influence of edge preparation on forces and chip formation

Based on experimental results, it can be generally said that the

cutting force as well as the feed force rise with increasing edge
radius and chamfer angle [96,157]. The relation between forces
and cutting edge radius can be approximated linearly for larger
uncut chip thicknesses, which is shown in Fig. 14 for cutting of
TiAl6V4 [157]. It can also be noted that the feed force is more
affected than the cutting force [8,71,81].
Similar results were obtained by Denkena et al. while cutting
AISI1045 [49]. Furthermore, they show that the process forces are
mostly affected by modifications of Sa, edge segment on the flank
face, whereas the impact of Sg, the corresponding segment on the Fig. 15. Influence of cutting edge microgeometry on process forces [8].
rake, is negligible. A detailed analyzes of this effect has been
presented by Bassett et al. [8]. Fig. 15 displays the cutting und
thrust force over the uncut chip thickness. In the upper part of the [57] in machining aluminum alloys with chamfered and symmet-
figure the cutting edge rounding was varied symmetrically with rical rounded cutting tools.
Sa = Sg = 12 mm and 100 mm. According to the results, the thrust The process forces are closely related to chip formation
force will be larger than the cutting force (below the intersection mechanisms and the material flow around the cutting edge. Shaw
point F 0f =F 0c ¼ 1), if the uncut chip thickness is below a critical value [125] stated that the use of a rounded tip leads to a more extensive
which is determined by cutting speed and tool geometry. As shown shear zone with subsurface plastic flow. The material ahead of the
in the lower part of the figure, the same results were found using rounded cutting edge will be ploughed, severely deformed and
asymmetric roundings with a variation of Sa and constant pressed into the newly generated chip surface. Additionally, a
Sg = 50 mm. Comparable effects were observed by Fang and Wu small amount of the material will be pressed into the machined
640 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
surface. The material pressed into the chip will cause it to bend [1].
High-magnification studies in orthogonal turning by [92] and
quick-stop experiments revealed that the material flow in front of
the cutting edge is affected by the design of the edge (Figs. 16 and
17) [9]. For rounded cutting edges with K > 1 (Sg larger Sa),
extensive workpiece material deformation occurs. This effect
decreases by shifting the formfactor to K < 1. Based on simulation
results, the point of material separation appears at a negative
effective rake angle of geff = 46  28. Therefore the maximum of
minimum uncut chip thickness results for a symmetric rounding
with Sa = Sg = 100 mm with hmin = 25–32 mm. By using tools with
chamfered instead of rounded cutting edges the secondary shear
zone shows a stronger deformation than for rounded tools. This leads
to an expanded stagnation zone, where the flow direction is
changing.
Fig. 16. Influence of rounded cutting edges on the material flow in the separation
zone [9].
Fig. 17. Influence of chamfered cutting edges on the material flow in the separation
zone [9].
Especially, asymmetrically designed chamfers result in severe
material deformation in the separation zone (see Fig. 17) [9,80].
The effect of material deformation could also be found in high
performance drilling operations [87]. However, a systematical
effect from the cutting edge geometry on the chip formation
mechanism could not be observed.
According to Kountanya et al., an increase of the cutting edge
radius leads to higher thrust forces, but has no effect on the chip
morphology [91]. This has been shown in experimental and
numerical results in hard turning under variation of the tool edge
geometry and the cutting conditions. The results indicate that
surface shear-cracking is the predominating chip formation
mechanism for most cutting conditions. These findings are
supported by Wallen, who pointed out that the microgeometry
of the tool does not change the chip formation process significantly
while cutting with large cutting depth [149].
It can be concluded, that the major parameter on process forces
is the cutting edge segment Sa. Increases in the Ff in particular are
correlated with an increase of the symmetric cutting edge
rounding S̄ as well as for K < 1 as shown in Fig. 18. Likewise,
the minimum uncut chip thickness hmin increases. The maximum
value occurs for symmetric cutting edges roundings.
Fig. 18. Schematical influence of cutting edge parameters Sa, Sg and S̄ on process
forces and material flow.
4.2. Model approaches for description of chip formation and forces
Model approaches can be divided into analytical, empirical and
numerical methods. Early analytical considerations about chip
formation were made by Piispanen and by Ernst and Merchant
[54,110]. According to these models, chip formation is due to shearing
of the work material ahead of the cutting edge. In the approach of
Ernst and Merchant, the resultant force can be divided into force
components perpendicular to each other. The derived force diagram
is used to determine the coefficient of friction on the tool face or the
shear angle relationship. Later, Lee and Shaffer [93] postulated a slip-
line field model assuming an ideal plastic work material. The effect of
shear-strain is considered in slip-line field solutions by Oxley [108].
However, it is important to note that these approaches assume a
perfectly sharp cutting edge. Thus, these theories are not applicable
for machining with rounded or chamfered cutting edges. A first
attempt to overcome the simplification of an infinite sharp cutting
edge was made by Chien [34] and later by Albrecht [1]. Besides the
shearing process a second mechanism, namely the ploughing
process, plays an important role in chip formation. As a consequence,
the process force can be divided into a resultant force Q and a
ploughing force P (see Fig. 19). Using these findings Albrecht
established a more detailed force diagram enabling a better
understanding of the cutting process for cutting with rounded tools.
Fig. 19. Force vectors in front of the rounded cutting edge.
More recently, slip-line models have been used to represent the
effects of cutting edge preparations on material flow and process
forces [2,55,159]. In order to explain the material separation
mechanisms in front of the cutting edge two major analytical
approaches have been proposed, which will be discussed in the
following.
The first approach (left in Fig. 20) is based on the idea that the
material flow is diverted upwards and downwards at a certain
stagnation point S at the tool edge. Later the term ‘‘ploughing zone’’
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653 641

Fig. 20. Material separation in front of the cutting edge.

Aa was introduced aiming to describe the area of ploughed

material along the cutting edge profile between the stagnation Fig. 21. Measured forces in comparison with determined forces by force model for
point S and the contact point Pa. In his work explaining the size 10 different cutting edge microgeometries [8,9].
effect in machining, Childs [35] presents a stagnation point and the
influence of its position along the cutting edge regarding the different rounded cutting edges. In addition, the empirical
resulting forces. Depending on the position and the proportion force model is able to describe the characteristic force
toward the cutting surface the resulting ploughing force is the curve for different undeformed chip thickness values h
main contributor to the size effect. Another slip-line model aiming (see Fig. 22).
to predict shearing and ploughing forces using the idea of a
stagnation point was proposed by Fang [55,56]. With this model it
is possible to observe the influences of the different cutting edges
on the shear plane and other process variables [56]. Further slip-
line models were described by Manjunathaiah and Endres as well
as Jin and Altintas [79,94]. In order to predict strain, strain-rate and
temperature Ren and Altintas postulated a slip-line field model of
cutting with chamfered tools [116]. In case of the second approach
(right in Fig. 20) a stable build-up adhered to the front of the
cutting edge is assumed. The presence of such a dead metal zone is
important, since it results in a considerably larger contact area
with the workpiece. Waldorf et al. [148] compared approaches to
orthogonal cutting experiments. They could show that a model
accounting for a stable build-up was more successful in the
prediction of cutting 6061-T6 aluminum with large edge radii and
negative rake angles than a model assuming a stagnation point.
Karpat and Özel used a slip-line model considering a dead metal
Fig. 22. Validation of force model for orthogonal turning of AISI 1045 with honed
zone in order to calculate cutting and ploughing forces [81].
cutting edge [9].
Ranganath et al. proposed a mechanistic model to predict forces
using tools with rounded cutting edges [112]. Bassett et al. The process forces can also be calculated for cylindrical turning by
developed an empirical force model to calculate the process forces the basic idea of discretization the engaged cutting edge, to determine
for orthogonal turning of AISI1045 [8,9]. The model is based on the the effective width of undeformed chip as well as the corresponding
approach of Kienzle. However, Eqs. (1)–(3) are not based on a effective undeformed chip thickness. The discretization is carried out
physical definition but depends on empirically determined values:
 kc2
Fc h
F 0c ¼ ¼ kc1   kc3 (1)
b h0

 kf2
Ff h
F 0f ¼ ¼ kf1   kf3 (2)
b h0

The coefficient kc1,f1 represents the energy for shearing the

material, which is independent from the cutting edge. The model
coefficients kc2,f2 and kc3,f3 are coefficients that have been
determined as a linear function of Sa, due to the fact that the
process forces are especially affected by Sa, presented in Eq. (3).

kxx ¼ mSa þ b (3)

The degressive propagation of the process force is represented

by kc2,f2. The non-cutting force, dwell-force, is represented by kc3,f3.
Fig. 21 represents a comparsion between the measured and as
well the calculated process forces within the presented model
above for orthogonal turning of AISI 1045 steel. The cutting speeds
were varied in six steps from vc = 50 m/min up to 1000 m/min and
the feed rates in 10 steps from f = 0.01 mm up to f = 0.5 mm.
As shown in Fig. 21 cutting and feed force can be calculated
with a good accuracy for various cutting speeds, feeds and Fig. 23. Force model approach for cylindrical turning.
642 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
perpendicular to the major cutting edge respectively to the tangent of
the corner in the area of the edge radius re as shown in Fig. 23. The
length of increment b*i defines the resolution of the cutting edge
discretization as well as the increment size of the effective cross-
sectional area of undeformed chip Aeff,i = 1 . . . n. For each step of
discretization, the corresponding force increment will be calculated
using the empirical force model for orthogonal turning considering
the rounded cutting edge. Finally the process force components Fc, Ff
and Fp results from the vector sum of force increments.
For validation of the model, experimental investigation have
been conducted in cylindrical turning under variation of depth of cut
ap, feed f and cutting edge rounding which is shown in Fig. 24 for the
cutting force Fc. According to the results, the cutting force can be
calculated with a total maximum underestimation of DFc,max = 4%.
Fig. 24. Validation of force model for cylindrical turning of AISI 1045 with rounded
cutting edge [9].
4.3. Chip formation simulation
Research has proven that the cutting edge microgeometry
influences the formation of the stagnation zone, which then affects
tool life, surface roughness and dimensional accuracy of the
workpiece [99,123]. Therefore, understanding the effects of cutting
edge preparation on chip formation and their description is
important. By using state-of-the-art finite element methods and
software it is now possible to thoroughly analyze the chip
formation and the cutting physics as well as the interactions with
selected cutting edge microgeometries.
Bassett [9] and Denkena et al. [46] demonstrated experimen-
tally (refer to Figs. 16 and 17) and also via finite element
simulations (Fig. 25) that the occurrence of a stagnation point
strongly depends on the design of the cutting edge. In front of
rounded cutting edges with K > 1 a stagnation zone can be
observed, in case of cutting edges with K < 1 a stagnation zone
cannot be clearly recognized. Applying a cutting edge chamfer the
stagnated workpiece material increases. These results confirm the
previously identified effects by Chen et al. [31]. Whereas the
height of material separation point and the amount of material
flowing under the cutting edge strongly depends one the size of Sa,
because of increasing effective rake angle geff.
It can be further stated, that increased cutting edge radius leads
to a higher shaped stagnation zone. Beside the size of the cutting
edge radius the chip formation, material deformation and stress
distribution are influenced by the ratio of undeformed chip
thickness to cutting edge radius. This size effect influences the
primary shear zone, which fades when h=S̄ decreases under a
critical value. Fig. 26 displays the material flow for machining AISI
4340 for equal undeformed chip thicknesses and different cutting
edge radii. It can be seen, that the concentrated shear at the
primary deformation zone at h=r < S̄ disappears [154]. This was
Fig. 25. Stagnation zone in front of the cutting edge (vc = 300 m/min, f = 0.1 mm) [8].
Fig. 26. Chip growth for different ratios of undeformed chip thickness to cutting
edge radius [154].
also demonstrated by Jivishov [80]. In contrast to the homoge-
neous shear plane at small cutting edge radius, this changes to a
curved shear plane with regions of different strain rates at large
cutting edge radius (h=S̄ ¼ 0:08). Thus, the deformation across the
shear plane cannot be considered to be constant. Increasing
negative rake angle also reduces the shear angle. Therefore the
shear angle approaches to zero degrees, while the effective rake
angle strives toward geff = 908 [80].
Nevertheless, the critical value of h=S̄ depends on the workpiece
material properties. This change in chip formation is further
accompanied by great compressive hydrostatic stresses localized
around the deformation zone. By the ratio of h=S̄ > 1 the chip
formation tends to machining with perfectly sharp cutting edges.
As a consequence, the degree of plastic deformation in the
secondary shear zone and considerably on the machined surface
decreases [46,161].
Yen et al. [161] also observed for round cutting edge radii that
the stagnation angle u increases with increasing cutting edge radii.
The analyzed stagnation angle was in good agreement with the
results of Chen and Ni [32] under similar simulation conditions
(Table 2).
Table 2
Summary of the locations of the stagnation point and force ratio (Fc/Ft, based on
simulation data) for rounded tools [161].
Edge radius, Fc/Ft Stagnation angle, u (8) td or hC (mm)
rb (mm)
0.05 2.36 57 0.025
0.1 2.14 65 0.055
Furthermore the authors showed, similar to the investigations
of above mentioned authors, that the stagnation point td rises due
to the increasing cutting edge radius. In dependence of the cutting
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
edge radius and machining conditions the amount of material
flowing under the cutting edge can be determined by ploughing
ratio of (td/tu). The ploughing ratio correlates further with the
simulated process forces (Fc/Ft). Therefore the quotient of cutting
force and thrust force decreases with increasing ploughing ratio.
These results are in agreement with those from [81].
Altogether, the above literature review proves that the cutting
physics are heavily influenced by various cutting edge micro-
geometries. Major influences on the stagnation point and plastic
deformation in the secondary shear zone occur mainly due to Sa,
the cutting edge segment on the flank face, or, more generally, the
size of the cutting edge radius. Relating to this minor influences can
be accorded to Sg, as displayed in Fig. 25. The material stagnation,
however, is mainly determined by Sg Additionally, the ratio of
undeformed chip thickness to the cutting edge radius acts as a
scaling factor and has to be taken into consideration when
selecting a cutting edge microgeometry.
5. Wear behavior
It is widely known that tool wear behavior is influenced by tool
coatings, pre-coating preparation technologies, cutting tool
material and a tool’s macrogeometry. Research in recent years
has proven that tool life can essentially be increased by applying
cutting process specific cutting edge microgeometries. It has also
been known for many years, that the thermal–mechanical loads of
the cutting edge widely determine cutting edge wear propagation
and characteristic. It will be shown in the following that the
thermal–mechanical loads on the cutting tool heavily depend on
the cutting edge microgeometry.
5.1. Thermal–mechanical load on cutting tools
Increasing the size of cutting edge microgeometry results in
two opposing effects with respect to thermal edge loads. On the
one hand, with increasing size higher thermal loads on the wedge
result, whereas the cutting edge flank face segment Sa mainly
drives the trend toward higher temperatures. This can be
attributed to the increased friction component on the flank face
and increased plastic deformations in the secondary shear zone,
which generates more heat near the cutting edge. In contrast to Sa,
the influence of the cutting edge segment on the rake face Sg was
found to be comparatively low. The raise of the amount of shearing
due to increasing effective rake angle geff and thus reducing shear
angle only marginally influences the thermal load. On the other
hand, rounded cutting edges increase the surface area over which
the generated heat can dissipate. These two opposing effects lead
to an optimal cutting edge microgeometry with respect to the
thermal load. Therefore, the size of the cutting edge has to be
adjusted with respect to the workpiece material, tool substrate,
tool coating and machining parameters.
To finally arrive at a deep understanding of the active wear
mechanisms, a first step is to analyze the thermal loads on and in
the tool wedge in the presence of a rounded cutting edge. By using
a two-color ratio pyrometer for temperature measurement in
orthogonal turning AISI 1045 Denkena et al. [49] and Bassett [9]
could show the influence of Sa and Sg. They have applied 12
measurement points inside the tool in 3 levels under the rake face.
Discrete measurement points were transformed into a continuous
map by means of a polynomial surface fitting. By using this fitting,
the temperature was extrapolated to the flank and rake face.
Fig. 27 displays the results of the measurement and the
polynominal fitting for symmetrical and asymmetrical rounded
cutting edges. On the left bottom side of the figure the unprepared
sharp cutting edge is shown. The highest temperature occurs on
the rake face, as known from other measurements with sharp tools.
With increasing cutting edge radius from S̄ ¼ 12 mm to S̄ ¼ 30 mm,
no significant influence on the thermal load can be observed. The
figure further displays the strong influence of Sa on the tool
643
Fig. 27. Temperatures in cutting tool (vc = 300 m/min, f = 0.2 mm) [9].
temperatures. With increasing Sa the maximum temperature
shifts from the rake face to the flank face.
M’Saoubi and Chandrasekaran came to the same results for
small edge variations [98]. They showed, that increasing the
cutting edge radius from S̄ ¼ 2 mm to S̄ ¼ 25 mm leads to a
maximum temperature difference on the rake face of about 15 K.
The influence of the microgeometry was also confirmed by Outerio
et al. [106]. With increasing cutting edge radius from S̄ ¼ 44 mm to
S̄ ¼ 55 mm the conducted heat in the tool rises by 2.1%.
Al-Zkeri et al. came to similar conclusions by means of finite
element simulations [3]. They found no significant influence of the
cutting edge radius on rake face temperatures. However, their
temperatures on the flank face also increased with increasing
cutting edge radius. Yen et al. [161] found a favorable ratio of heat
generation and heat dissipation at a symmetrical cutting edge
radius with S̄ ¼ 50 mm. Similar results were obtained by Kaprat
and colleagues. They could show that the lowest temperature on
the tool tip occurs at asymmetrical cutting edge geometries due to
the larger tool tip surface area. They noticed that the favorable
cutting edge radius depends on the uncut chip thickness. With
decreasing uncut chip thicknesses the cutting edge radii shifts to
smaller dimensions [81]. By changing the ratio of undeformed chip
thickness to cutting edge radius a size effect can be observed. In the
case of decreasing ratio h=S̄ (or h/rb in case of symmetrical
microgemetries) the maximum temperature shifts along the
cutting edge in direction to the flank face. Of course, the
geometrical definition as well as cutting physics allows for a
change of this ratio either by decreasing the undeformed chip
thickness at constant cutting edge radius or increasing the cutting
edge radius at constant undeformed chip thickness [86].
The mechanical loads on the cutting edge, the three major force
components as well as the related internal mechanical stresses in
the tool are also widely determined by the edge microgeometry,
just as the thermal loads. On the other hand, increasing cutting
edge radii lead to higher cutting edge stability due to the fact that
cutting edge rounding reduces the magnitude of mechanical
stresses and stress concentrations in the tool tip. Generally, it is
known that the magnitude of stress reduction depends on tool
material, machining settings and workpiece material. Zkeri et al.
depicted tool stresses with a two-dimensional finite element
simulation. In their analyses of orthogonal turning of AISI 4142H,
they found a favorable distribution of the von Mises stresses for a
cutting edge radius with S̄ ¼ 27 mm [3]. Therefore, compared to
sharp cutting edges, the maximum stresses could only be reduced
by about 4%. In finite element simulations of milling operations
Rech et al. [114] analyzed reduced effective stresses at S̄ ¼ 14 mm
with reduced maximum stress of 17% compared to the sharp
cutting edges. Shatla et al. [124] could show a stress reduction as
high as 100% with increased cutting edge radius.
It has also been found for rounded cutting edges that stress
gradients along the edge are smoother in comparison to sharp
edges. Nevertheless, the location of the maximum stress is
influenced by the size of the rounding and the ratio of Sg and
644 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
Sa With increasing cutting edge radii the stresses on the flank face
increase due to the extended contact of the cutting edge with the
workpiece and the rising normal and friction forces [3,124]. For
asymmetrical rounded cutting edges with K > 1 the location of the
maximum stresses shift toward the tool tip [81]. Chen et al. reveal
the different resulting stresses for chamfered and rounded cutting
edges. Chamfered cutting edges reduce principal tensile stresses in
hard turning of AISI H13. Eventually, the chamfered cutting edges
exhibit decreased tensile stresses of 25%, whereby a higher tool
lifetime results [31].
It can be concluded that the thermal–mechanical load on the
cutting edge depends on the value of the cutting edge radius and
cutting edge segments Sa, Sg and S̄. Thereby the parameters for the
rounding influence different areas on the cutting tool. With Fig. 28
it can be seen, that main thermal–mechanical unloading is
attributed to the wedge. On the other hand, Sa and S̄ occur in
higher temperature and higher stresses on the flank face.
Fig. 28. Schematical influence of Sa, Sg and S̄ on the cutting tool areas.
In summary, the thermal–mechanical load shifts from the
wedge to the rake face and mainly to the flank face. Nevertheless,
the absolute values for the mechanical load are on a lower level
compared to the tools with sharp cutting edges. Also, these effects
are superimposed by the ratio of undeformed chip thickness to the
cutting edge radius, which acts as a scaling factor and has to be
taken into consideration by applying cutting edge radii. However,
further research is necessary to understand the interaction
between material properties, cutting edge microgeometry and
machine settings on thermal–mechanical load in the cutting edge.
5.2. Influence of cutting edge preparation on tool wear behavior
For industrial applications, extended knowledge about the
direct relationship between cutting edge microgeometry and tool
wear behavior is mandatory.
Casto et al. reported in 1985 that with cutting radii in the range of
S̄ ¼ 20165 mm higher process reliability was achieved in discon-
tinuous turning operations [30]. In face milling cast iron with
uncoated cemented carbides and different cutting edge radii, Aurich
et al. [5] were able to improve the tool life and machining quality due
to increased cutting edge stability. In contrast to the unprepared
cutting edge with S̄ ¼ 8 mm the prepared inserts with cutting edge
radii of S̄ ¼ 14 mm and S̄ ¼ 28 mm showed flank wear without
chipping. Biermann et al. [14] documented the dependency
between tool wear behavior and size of the cutting edge radius in
drilling AISI 4140 as shown in Fig. 29. The quantitative description of
the tool wear is given through the width of flank wear land
depending on the drilling length for single lip deep hole drilling. The
related values are averaged over fixed reference points along the
inner and outer cutting edge of the applied single lip deep hole drills.
In addition, SEM micrographs show the cutting edge corner area of
the used tools. The uncoated drills were applied at feed rates of
Fig. 29. Influence of cutting edge rounding and feed rate on tool wear Lf in deep hole
drilling of low alloyed steel [14].
f = 0.03 mm/rev and f = 0.05 mm/rev. The three prepared drills
exhibit different average cutting edge roundings of S̄ ¼ 10 mm, S̄ ¼
20 mm and S̄ ¼ 30 mm. Further, an unprepared, ground tool was
applied [14].
Drilling with a conventional feed rate of f = 0.03 mm/rev, the
tools do not show any significant difference in tool wear. Also the
SEM micrographs show a slight and uniform flank wear along the
cutting edge. In contrast, at drilling with a feed rate of f = 0.05 mm/
rev considerable differences in flank wear behavior are visible. Due
to the heavy wear, the unprepared, ground tool was not applied
anymore after a drilling length of Lf = 10,500 mm. In this field all
prepared tools show less flank wear in comparison to the ground
tool. That confirms a greater stability of the rounded cutting edges,
which leads to longer tool life. The moderately rounded tool
exhibits the lowest values for the flank wear after a drilling length
of Lf = 15,000 mm.
Again the SEM micrograph shows a uniform and slight wear
along the outer cutting edge. Only in the corner area stronger
abrasion behavior is given. This is the area where tool wear is
strongly determined. In conclusion, the resulting wear can be
influenced positively by cutting edge preparation. The wear
behavior of the tool with the moderate rounding and an applied
feed rate of f = 0.05 mm/rev is only insignificantly higher than the
wear behavior of applied tools at the conventional feed rate [14].
Chen et al. prepared drills with different cutting edge radii by
means of magnetic finishing and then tested them in drilling
plastic mold steel regarding their wear behavior. Fourteen drills
with various cutting edge radii ranging from S̄ ¼ 3 mm (unpre-
pared) to S̄ ¼ 50 mm were investigated. For a cutting edge radius
between S̄ ¼ 24 mm and S̄ ¼ 27 mm the authors found the highest
tool life performance [33].
During orthogonal turning of AISI 1045 with coated WC-Co
inserts, higher tool life was achieved due to cutting edge
preparations [8]. For a combination of prepared/unprepared and
coated/uncoated tools the results of the tool life investigations
with a variation of feed rate f (top) and cutting speed vc (bottom)
are summarized in Fig. 30.
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653 645

cutting speeds. All treatments, except laser machining, induce

compressive superficial residual stresses at the cutting tool surfaces
[23]. After the coating deposition, due to annealing mechanisms, all
substrates possess lower residual stresses compared to pre-coating
levels and herewith lose mechanical properties and film–substrate
adhesion approximately of the same level [41]. Through the
employed cutting edge treatments the initial cutting edge radius
of approximately 8 mm was increased up to approximately 20 mm,
as targeted. Thus, a reduction of the developed stresses in the cutting
edge region during the application of the inserts for machining can
be achieved [20]. This reduction is variously intensive in the
investigated workpiece cases due to different mechanical strength
and thermal material properties. The latter strongly effect the chip
formation mechanisms and the cutting edge loads. Subsequently,
the employed cutting inserts were coated with a TiAlN coating and a
thin superficial TiN layer. The coated inserts were distributed to the
partners, who carried out cutting tests in milling hardened steel AISI
4140, stainless steel AISI 304L, Inconel 718 and TiAl6V4. Since it was
not possible that all partners have the same material supplier,
reference cutting tests have been conducted. In these investigations
coated tools with untreated edges at prescribed milling conditions
were applied for determining the reference cutting performance in
each partners material case. Fig. 31 displays the cutting edge
treatment methods and an example of the attained average cutting
performance in milling TiAl6V4 by six partners using inserts with
variously treated cutting edges. In each case the determined cutting
performance was compared to the reference of each partner. It is
obvious, that significant cutting performance improvements have
been achieved, almost in all cutting edge treatment cases.

Fig. 30. Influence of coating and cutting edge preparation on tool life at orthogonal
turning of AISI 1045 steel [8].

As demonstrated by Bassett et al. in their study optimum tool life

can only be achieved for combinations of tool coating and adapted
cutting edge microgeometry. In contrast, they reached only minor
tool life enhancements for rounded and uncoated tools. Applying a
coating generally results in higher tool life for the prepared and non-
prepared tools as abrasive and adhesive wear are reduced.
Nevertheless, the coating does not enhance the process reliability
of the tools. Micro-chippings occurs preferably at sharp, unprepared
and therefore less stable cutting edges, which is displayed by the
widespread tool life values (shadowed lower areas in Fig. 30). As can
be seen in both diagrams, a remarkably higher tool life only occurs Fig. 31. Average cutting performance achieved using variously pretreated cutting
due to a combination of tailored cutting edge preparation and edges [15].
coating. The smaller shadowed, upper areas in both diagrams prove
the increased process reliability of rounded tools. In comparison to An overview regarding the efficiency of all applied cutting edge
coated tools, the prepared and coated tools skip the initial chipping preparation methods in milling various materials is shown in Table
wear stage and reach their tool life limits through flank or crater 3. The displayed results demonstrate the workpiece material effect
wear, which both depend on the selected machining parameters. on the tool performance, which clearly depends on the preparation
The efficiency of various cutting edge preparations on the wear method of the cutting edge. In milling Inconel 718 and TiAl6V4 a
behavior of coated tools in turning and milling different materials cutting performance improvement was obtained almost by all
was further investigated in the frame of two collaborative edge preparations. The attained results are explained in [15],
working groups of CIRP scientific committee ‘‘Cutting’’ [15,38]. taking into account the afore-described cutting edge treatment
Within the latest cooperative work 20 academic and industrial effects on the film adhesion and the developed cutting edge loads
partners were involved. Approximately one thousand cemented in milling various materials.
carbide inserts were provided and coated by the participating
company Seco Tools AB. Table 3
Before coating, diverse cutting edge treatment methods were Efficiency of the applied preparation methods in terms of cutting performance for
conducted by the partners. In particular, portions of these inserts different materials [15].
were treated by abrasive-blasting, -flow, -slurry or -magneto AISI 4140 AISI 304L Inconel 718 TiAl6V4
machining as well as by brushing, dragging or laser machining.
AB 93% 95% 102% 162%
For laser machining it was noted that reproducible cutting edge
AFM 89% 103% 137% 192%
microgeometry can be achieved. However, the insert surfaces may AMM 113% 95% 126% 108%
be thermally affected [5,39]. In this way, due to melting of Co-binder AS 92% 103% 132% 155%
micro-areas, WC grains can be covered by cobalt and their D 94% 108% 134% 141%
embedment decreases. Thus, film adhesion may be deteriorated B 126% 69% 130% 92%
LM 63% 65% 147% 121%
and potentially the cutting performance reduced, especially at high
646 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
The increased performance of different cutting edge radii,
manufactured by honing and micro-blasting and afterwards
coated tools was further presented in [20] and [16]. The lifetime
of the sharp cutting tools only prepared by micro-blasting prior to
coating was considerably shorter compared to the micro-blasted
once with rounded edges and coating [20]. During milling AISI
4140 with cemented carbide inserts and a PVD (Ti46Al54)N
coating higher performance with various cutting edge radii was
achieved. At a flank wear VB = 0.2 mm the insert with an effective
cutting edge radius of S̄ ¼ 35 mm enables 20  104 cuts. The
sharper insert with S̄ ¼ 8 mm reaches the same flank wear after
only 5.5  104 cuts – approximately 70% shorter tool life. The
coated insert with larger rounded cutting edge radius offers a
better cutting performance due to higher toughness against
coating fracture. Therefore, maximum stress of the 35 mm edge
radius is lower than the one of the 8 mm radius. The higher stress
additionally leads to a local overstressing in the cutting edge.
In addition to the preparation method and the size of the cutting
edge radius, the ratio of Sg and Sa, here called K, effects the
characteristic wear mechanism and wear behavior. While a simple
symmetrical rounding already allows the cutting tool to reach
significantly higher tool life than unprepared tools, the asymmet-
rical design of the cutting edge microgeometry influences the wear
behavior differently and therefore may lead to further enhance-
ments of the tool life. Asymmetrical cutting edge radii with K > 1
and K < 1 lead to modified wear mechanisms and as such to
different wear forms.
Fig. 32 displays the wear behavior for different cutting edge
geometries at the same cutting length lc in orthogonal turning of
AISI 1045. It can be seen that the initiation of crater wear is mainly
influenced by Sg whereas the flank wear depends on Sa.
The above cited results prove, that generally sharp tools may be
assumed to offer limited tool life as a consequence of overloaded
cutting edge and chipping or complete fracture. With a form-factor
of K < 1 flank wear dominates as result of the increasing friction on
the flank face due to the increased contact length la, which can be
adjusted by the flank face segment Sa. Shifting the cutting edge
radius toward the rake face the dominant wear form results in
crater wear.
Fig. 32. Dominant wear forms depending on cutting edge geometry [9].
Another possibility to enhance the performance of cutting tools
is to vary the cutting edge radius along the tool edge. Here, by a
process specific cutting edge radius the thermal–mechanical loads
and process kinematics can be taken into account. Investigating
high performance drilling processes. Biermann and Terwey [13]
used prepared cemented carbide twist drills with different average
cutting edge roundings applied before TiN coating. The purpose of
the research was to investigate high performance drilling
processes with respect to the tool wear, the borehole quality
and the mechanical loads. Using an emulsion the drilling process
was applied by a cutting speed of vc = 400 m/min and a feed speed
of f = 0.375 mm/rev for AISI 1045 steel. Fig. 33 shows the influence
of the different cutting edge designs on the tool wear [13].
Fig. 33. Influence of different cutting edge designs on flank wear [13].
The tools A to D differently combine a slight rounding with
S̄ ¼ 20 mm and a large rounding with S̄ ¼ 60 mm. While those are
variously rounded along the cutting edge, tool E is just ground
before coating. Regarding tool wear after a drilling length of
Lf = 378 mm, it is visible that cutting edge parts being rounded
clearly show less wear in the corner area than the slightly rounded
parts or the ground cutting edge. The ground tool exhibits a
distinct tool wear along the whole cutting edge. In this case, high
process forces favor plastic deformations which lead to an initial
failure of the tool. After the same drilling length the major cutting
edge of the rounded tools shows an intact coating. Based on the
given results it is obvious that preparation of the corner area of the
cutting edge is responsible for the tool wear progression and,
consequently, for the resulting borehole quality. In summarizing,
corner stability and wear resistance determine tool life. They can
be positively influenced by cutting edge preparation [13].
Through locally adapted cutting edge radii Özel et al. [101,103]
could achieve an increased performance of cutting tools. The
rounding decreases from the major cutting edge to the cutting
corner. The cutting edge radius was adapted to the undeformed chip
thickness. With increasing undeformed chip thickness and therefore
higher mechanical load, a larger cutting edge radius was applied due
to the higher stability. Through reduction of the cutting edge radius
with decreasing undeformed chip thickness the plastic deformation
in the workpiece and the thermal load on the cutting edge were
reduced. This consequently leads to an increase of tool life [101,103].
Beside of Sg and Sa, the wear behavior and cutting tool
performance are influenced by machining parameters. Thus,
reducing the feed the ratio of undeformed chip thickness and
cutting edge radius decreased. This leads to the same effects as an
increased cutting edge radius and cutting edge segment on the flank
face Sa. In orthogonal turning of AISI1045, the dominating wear form
changes with a reduction of the feed from f = 0.2 mm to f = 0.1 mm at
constant cutting speed vc = 300 m/min. The dominating wear form
tends from crater wear to flank wear due to the extended contact of
the cutting edge with the workpiece. This observation correlates
with the results of Enders and Kountanya in cylindrical turning with
different cutting edge radii [53]. Whereas increasing cutting speed
does not vary the position of the crater wear. Instead, with increasing
cutting speed the improvement of cutting edge radii is negligible.
Fig. 34 displays the tool life travel path lc over the cutting edge
rounding in orthogonal turning AISI1045. It is obvious that the
enhancement of a rounded cutting edge is negligible for increased
thermal loads (top of Fig. 34). In comparison, at moderate cutting
speed increasing feed has a minor influence on the decrease in
performance due to cutting edge preparation (bottom of Fig. 34).
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
Fig. 34. Decreasing tool life with increasing cutting speed [8].
The thermal load in the cutting tool also increases when
machining material with low thermal conductivity. This leads to
the same effect comparable with the prepared cutting at high cutting
speeds. The combination of the additional friction heat, due to the
cutting edge radius, and the thermal conductivity and therefore the
thermal load of the cutting edge leads to a minor influence of cutting
edge radii in machining TiAl6V4. Hughes could show this during
external turning TiAl6V4 with cutting edge radii in the range of
S̄ ¼ 40 mm. In comparison to unprepared cutting edges the tool life
decreases with rounded cutting edge radii [73,74]. This is further
confirmed by Denkena et al. [45]. Higher tool life time (+70%) and
better process stability was reached due to cutting edge preparation
with different cutting edge segments on the rake face Sg in slot milling
of bimodal titanium alloy TiAl6V4. In contrast to Sa the influence of Sg
on the thermal load on the flank face is comparatively low and
consequently the thermal load was only slightly influenced. Rather
increased tool life time occurs due to a higher mechanical stability.
It can be summarized, that in terms of tool life investigations in
different machining operations, an advantage with rounded
cutting edge radii could be achieved. In Fig. 35 the main effect
of cutting edge preparation is summarized. It can be seen, that the
Fig. 35. Connection between thermal–mechanical load and tool life.
647
tool life depends on the thermal–mechanical load on the cutting
edge. Compared to sharp tools the fracture at the cutting edge can
be reduced, which leads to higher process reliability. With
increasing thermal–mechanical load the tool life decreases, which
is affected by the cutting speed, thermal conductivity and
undeformed chip thicknesses under a critical value (h=S̄ < 1).
Additionally, the size of the optimal area depends on the influence
of the cutting edge radius on the required part qualities (e.g.
surface quality and residual stress).
Nevertheless, further investigations on the tool life and thermal
mechanical load on the cutting edge, as a function of the material
properties, coating, tool substrate and machining parameters, are
necessary.
5.3. Tool life map
In machining, wear development over time or tool life over
cutting speed (so-called Taylor lines) are traditionally used to plot
wear behavior of cutting tools. However, the conventional wear
illustrations cannot adequately demonstrate the complex influ-
ences of three cutting edge parameters Sa, Sg and S̄. The tool life
map is a three dimensional surface regression. An example of this
map is shown in Fig. 36. Its construction is based on at least 18 tool
life experiments with a variation of cutting edges microgeometry.
To built the regression surface of this map an algorithm, which
combines gripping and smoothing methods of two software
packages (MatlabR2009a and Surfer1v10), is used. First-degree
polynomials have been applied for the calculation of the
determined tool life values. Finally, the prediction intervals are
calculated based on the residuals which demonstrate the error of
the regression model [8]. The advantage of tool life maps is that
they are able to represent the complex relationship between the
microgeometrical parameters Sa, Sg and S̄ by taking the results of
various tool life experiments with differently rounded and also
unprepared tools into account. In the figure the colored coded area
indicates the tool life values for different microgeometries in
comparison to sharp edges. The disadvantage of the tool life map
concept is that the color coded area only represents one constant
set of machining parameters. More than one map in one diagram to
compare various cutting speeds, feed rates or depth of cut would be
difficult to read.
Fig. 36. Example tool life map [9].
Fig. 36 as example shows of the influence of Sa and Sg on tool life
in cylindrical turning AISI 1045 with interrupted cut and
vc = 300 m/min and f = 0.12 mm. S̄ is represented by the dotted
line in the diagram. As it can be seen, with an increase of the cutting
edge rounding, the tool life increases relatively to the unprepared
648 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
cutting tools. The tool life maximum is reached at Sa = 30 mm and
Sg = 60 mm. It is indicated by the blue colored area within the tool
life map. With an increase of the cutting edge segment Sa, the
tendency to flank wear increases. As a result, the tool life decreases
up to 50% with a cutting edge rounding of Sa = 60 mm and
Sg = 30 mm [9].
Fig. 37 summarizes the results of multiple turning amd milling
experiments under variation of cutting edges microgeometry and
workpiece materials. It gives a good overview of the influence of
acting thermo-mechanical loads on the cutting edge and the
tendency of tool wear regarding the edge segments Sa and Sg. The
potential regarding tool life enhancement can be shown using this
type of tool life map. In this case, the highest potential is reached
for steel and cast iron materials with Sa = Sg = 30 mm for 42CrMo4
and Sa = 30 mm and Sg = 20 mm for AISI 1045 and EN-GJS600-3 in
continuous cut without coolant. Reducing the thermal load of the
cutting tool by application of coolant, the potential of the cutting
edge is reduced and not significant. With interrupted cut, the
cutting edge rounding with the highest potential shifts to the rake
face due to a better mechanical stability of the cutting edge for
AISI1045. This effect is independent regarding the use of coolant.
Compared to the investigated steel materials the thermal
conductivity and therefore the thermal load of the cutting edge
increase in machining of TiAl6V4. As a consequence the potential of
a cutting edge rounding is not significant [9].
Fig. 37. Tailored cutting edge microgeometry for specific load profiles [9].
Comparable results for TiAl6V4 and Inconel 718 were achieved
in slot milling also presented in Fig. 37. Due to the high hardness of
Toolox44 tool steel and the high abrasivity of the aluminum cast
alloy AISi17 the potential of a cutting edge rounding is low for
these materials. For steel materials 42CrMo4-QT and AISI 1045 as
well as for cast alloy GJS600 the maximum tool life is reached with
a cutting edge rounding shifted to the flank face.
In general and as stated earlier in this paper, the tendency to
flank wear increases with an increase of the cutting edge segment
Sa, whereas crater wear increases with an increase of Sg. Also, the
mechanical stability of cutting edges increases with larger
microgeometries, and consequently the more severe a cutting
edge interruption is the larger a cutting edge microgeometry is
favorable. Additionally as the wear behavior can be adjusted by Sa
and Sg, the wear behavior has to been known before selecting a
proper cutting edge radius. This again requires knowledge about
the proper tool life maps.
6. Surface integrity
The product performance is, among other factors, determined by
the surface integrity. Therefore, understanding the effects of cutting
edge preparation on surface integrity and predicting them is
critically important. According to Field and Kahles [59], the term
surface integrity contains the surface texture and surface metallur-
gy. The surface texture is essentially described by measures of the
surface topography like roughness. The surface metallurgy is defined
by possible surface alterations due to plastic deformation, micro-
cracking, phase transformations, microhardness, effects caused by
build-up edges and residual stress distribution.
6.1. Topography
Numerous investigations show consistently that surface
roughness is mainly a function of the feed rate. However, in many
industrial processes surface roughness is usually determined by
finish machining, which is characterized by high cutting speeds
and low feed rates. Thus, the undeformed chip thickness is often of
the same magnitude as the microgeometry. This is especially the
case for hard turning and milling. Therefore, the cutting edge
geometry is of great importance in these machining processes.
Studies by Özel et al. [102], as well as Burhanuddin et al. [28],
showed that the cutting edge preparation influences significantly
surface roughness. In general, a larger cutting edge radius results in
more ploughing [130]. Thus, more material is pressed under the
tool, which leads to an increased surface roughness. Furthermore,
the surface roughness is influenced by the process stability.
Especially in micro-machining, the condition of the cutting edge
has a significant influence on surface integrity of the workpiece.
Occurring tool vibrations in micro-milling cause microstructures
with less surface quality. Regarding the small dimensions of
undeformed chip, the cutting edge has a large impact on the
regenerative effect impairing the machined surface quality.
The influence of the cutting edge on process stability and the
obtained surface topography is shown in Fig. 38. Next to the
confocal white light micrographs of generated surfaces the
corresponding tool trajectories are visible for differently applied
cutting edge types. In contrast to the tools A and B (S̄ ¼ 4:5 mm),
milling with tool C (S̄ ¼ 1 mm) results in a worse surface quality
due to chatter [12].
The influence of the cutting edge radius on process damping for
micro-milling operations could be modeled by Xiaoliang and
Altintas [158]. The results show the edge radius significantly alters
the speed zones affected by process damping.
With regard to surface integrity depending on the influence of
cutting edge preparation, Biermann et al. [14] analyzed bore hole
quality with respect to surface roughness, bore diameter, roundness
and straightness accuracy. Fig. 39 shows the surface roughness of the
bore holes influenced by cutting edge rounding and feed rate of
single lip deep hole drills. Regardless of the feed rate, the ground,
sharp tool produced the best surface quality with respect to the ten-
point heigth roughness Rz. By increasing the cutting edge rounding,
the values of the surface roughness and the spread of measured
values raised marginally. At both feed rates the highest ten-point
heigth roughness was measured by applying single lip deep hole
drills with a large cutting edge radius. In this case it can be assumed
that cutting edge preparation has a negative influence on the surface
quality due to greater deflections. Otherwise the results show that
there is only a minor difference in the values of the ten-point heigth
roughness depending on cutting edge preparation. Increasing the
feed rate leads to an increase in surface roughness as well. Here, the
difference can be explained by the geometrical conditions as well as
by the greater tool wear, which impairs surface roughness [14].
Aiming to investigate the effects of cutting edge preparation on burr
formation Denkena et al. [47] carried out milling experiments with
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
Fig. 38. Confocal white light micrographs of generated surfaces and the
corresponding tool trajectories [12].
Fig. 39. Influence of cutting edge rounding and feed rate on surface quality and chip
form [14].
different rounded edges. The authors could show that the burr width
increases with an increase of the cutting edge radius. Furthermore,
they revealed that burr formation is closely related to the position of
the stagnation point and, consequently, the size of the ploughing
area. Regarding topography, it can be concluded that the cutting
edge preparation influences the obtained surface roughness. On the
one hand, a larger cutting edge radius results in a higher surface
roughness due to ploughing effects. On the other hand, an increased
cutting edge radius increases process stability, which leads to a
higher surface quality.
649
Consequently, the cutting edge preparation has to be selected
carefully aiming to improve the surface roughness. Additionally, it
is important to keep in mind that the surface quality is closely
related to the tool wear, which in turn is influenced by the cutting
edge preparation.
6.2. Residual stress
Residual stresses play an important role in the functional
behavior of a machined part including deformation of workpieces,
chemical resistance, static and dynamic strength [24,27,76]. Thus,
it is important to understand and predict the effects of machining
operations on the state of residual stress in the surface layers.
Residual stresses are caused by a combination of mechanical
effects due to the ploughing force and thermal loads [104]. Thermal
and mechanical stresses create a superposed residual stress state.
Several studies show that the resulting compressive or tensile
stress state strongly depends on the imposed conditions
[6,90,150]. Since the cutting edge geometry has a direct effect
on the deformation zone, temperature distribution and ploughing
forces, the cutting edge preparation plays a decisive role in the
generation of residual stresses. In case of hard turning of through-
hardened AISI52100 steel with PCBN inserts, Thiele et al. [131]
could show that the tool edge geometry strongly influences the
state of residual stress in the work material. Their findings reveal
that large tool radii lead to more compressive residual stresses
than smaller radii. This can be explained due to an increasing
extent of material that is pressed into the work surface while
cutting with rounded cutting edges [1]. Since more material is
accommodated in the surface layer, compressive residual stress
will occur. Moreover, Toenshoff stated that increasing compressive
stresses can be explained due to higher degrees of plastic
deformation [133]. However, it has also been shown that friction
induced forces and thus cutting temperatures increase with tool
radius and cutting speed which are favorable to tensile residual
stresses. Outeiro et al. [107] investigated the state of residual
stresses after orthogonal turning AISI1045. Fig. 40 displays the
circumferential sII and axial s? residual stresses at the surface for
different cutting edge radii. It can be seen that tensile residual
stresses increase with an increasing cutting edge radius until rb
equals the feed f. Any further increase of rb does not affect the state
of residual stress significantly. Jivishov came to similar results in
his investigations [80].
Fig. 40. Axial and circumferential residual stress after orthogonal turning of AISI
1045 with variable cutting edge radii [107].
650 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653

As numerous studies prove, larger cutting edge radii lead to

deeper states of residual stress within the machined workpiece
material [7,107,120]. The effect can be explained by the deeper range
of plasticization and higher heat generation, caused by plastic
deformation and friction dissipation, leading to deeper ranging
temperature gradients and therefore tensile residual stresses
[7,47,72,120]. Furthermore, it is important to note that the
generation of residual stresses is closely related to the thermal
properties of the machined material. For example, Jang et al. [75]
reported that the generation of tensile residual stresses is amplified
when materials with low thermal conductivity are machined.

6.3. Material microstructure

The occurring forces and temperatures in the machining zone

which are induced by modifications of the cutting edge micro-
geometry cause alterations in the microstructure of manufactured
components [121,150]. Generally, larger cutting edge radii result
in a more severe material deformation underneath the machined
surface [80]. Severe plastic deformation and associated large shear
strains can cause the formation of ultrafine grain structures due to
a grain refinement by machining [43]. This process is accompanied
by a dynamic phase transformation, which was recently modeled
using finite element analysis [122]. Experimental studies show
that the grain refinement is directly related to the amount of
imposed strains [64,128]. Further analyses highlight the influence
of the machining process on plastic deformation, dynamic
recrystallization and material grain size [100,118,145]. In a study
carried out by Bedekar et al. [11], the effects of two different
cutting edge geometries and different cutting speeds on the
material microstructure were investigated. Using the Zener–
Hollomann parameter (Z) as an indicator for the grain size, they
could demonstrate that cutting tools with a larger cutting edge
radius lead to coarser grains. Microstructural analyses revealed
that usage of large edge hone cutting edges results in thermally
induced phase transformations for all applied cutting speeds and
feeds [131]. In contrast, phase transformations could only be
observed for small edge hone inserts when high process feeds were
used. Moreover, Thiele et al. observed the formation of white
layers while cutting with large edge radii.
Coelho et al. [36] came to somewhat different results. According
to their study, the microstructure of the work material is not affected
by cutting edge preparation. A similar observation was made by
Risse about drilling of steel with rounded cutting tools [117].
It can be summarized that the effects of the cutting tool
preparation on the microstructure are not fully understood, yet.
The preparation of cutting edge influences the obtained surface
integrity, which in turn affects the product performance. Although
no universal model describing the surface integrity of machined
components considering all possible influencing parameters and
representative characteristics exists, certain tendencies can be
established. As long as a sufficient process stability is guaranteed a
large cutting edge radius increases the obtained surface roughness.
With respect to the state of residual stress two opposing effects,
namely increasing plastic deformation and friction induced
temperatures, have to be considered. Thus, the actual state of
residual stress depends strongly on the mechanical and thermal
properties of the work material. Furthermore, the state of stress is
affected by microstructural changes like phase transformations or
grain refinement due to severe deformation by ploughing as well
as temperatures. The discussed results show that further research
is necessary in order to thoroughly understand the interaction
between work material properties, cutting edge preparation and
the obtained surface integrity.
7. Conclusion and outlook
This paper deals with the complexity of cutting edge micro-
geometry and evaluates its interactions with machining processes.
As schematically shown in Fig. 41, such processes cannot be
Fig. 41. Cross-process influence of cutting edge microgeometry on interactions of
process parameters in machining process.
considered separate from the microgeometry of the cutting edge
and vice versa. Instead, the microgeometry of cutting edges
occupies a key role in complete process understanding. Interac-
tions between tool parameters, cutting parameters and effects on
the machining procedure are all influenced and therefore
determined by the cutting edge microgeometry. CIRP scientists
have performed considerable research regarding the subject, either
alone or in two collaborative working groups after year 2005.
At the beginning of this paper, the relevant methods to produce,
measure and characterize cutting edge geometries were presented.
It became obvious, that the preparation technology contributes to
the resultant characteristics of the processed area. For instance,
the appropriate choice may depend upon the spatial dimension of
the tool and the cutting edge as well as upon the cutting material or
the target microgeometry. Further, an adequate characterization of
the cutting edge microgeometry is mandatory for assessing its
impact on machining process. To improve the comparability of the
effects in machining with rounded cutting edges an explicit
characterization is required and should be used consistently in
science and industry. In this regard the presented K-factor method
can be recommended for common cutting edge profiles.
Within machining processes, the impact of a microgeometry
along the cutting edge on a tools’ performance cannot be reduced
to a single response. Instead, the impact of a microgeomertry on
the entire machining process and the resultant process parameters
are decisive. A tools’ cutting edge microgeometry can be
considered as a cross-process magnitude of influence with respect
to the multitude of affected interactions.
Below, some main results of cutting edge preparations and the
resultant impact on machining, as discussed in this paper, will be
concluded: high performance cutting operations are main
application fields for tools with tailored cutting edge microgeo-
metries. Cost reduction through decreasing process times and
enhanced surface finishes are two of the main targets of high
performance cutting. Due to high material removal rates and the
resultant forces, high performance cutting processes require high
performance tools. In terms of tool life in most of these machining
 B. Denkena, D. Biermann / CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology 63 (2014) 631–653
operations, advantages with specifically manufactured cutting
edges can be expected. As shown earlier in this paper, tool life can
be extended in some application cases by 100% and more
compared to sharp, unprepared cutting edges. With increasing
cutting edge radius its mechanical stability increases as well.
However as the literature review proves, the increasing contact
length on the flank face results in different thermo-mechanical
loads on the edge. Due to the cutting edge segment on the flank
face Sa, temperature and process forces rise. Concerning the
process forces, Sa primarily influences the thrust force. In contrast,
an increase of Sg, the segment on the rake face, does not increase
the process forces significantly. Furthermore, several authors have
demonstrated that the minimum uncut chip thickness hmin is
mainly influenced by Sa. Also, flank wear increases due to
increased friction forces with higher values of Sa However, with
respect to thermo-mechanical tool loads and tool wear, the
interactions of prepared cutting edges in combination with a tools’
macrogeometry have not been closely examined yet.
As stated at the end of each section of this paper, questions
remain: for example, the governing mechanisms regarding the tools
surface integrity due to the preparation process and their effect on
tool wear are unknown. In terms of cutting performance, the
interaction between the cutting edge and the combination of tool
substrate and coating system have not been analyzed systematical-
ly. Also of particular importance is the interaction between macro-
and microgeometry. Here, investigations on the plasto-mechanical
separation in cutting with respect to the workpiece material require
the attention of scientists. Furthermore, a design methodology for
cutting edge microgeometries considering its main effects has to be
developed. Bassett [9] has made a first approach in this regard.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank K.-D. Bouzakis and V. Schulze for their
contributions. For their valuable comments we thank Y. Altintas,
M. Davies and B. Karpuschewski. Special thanks are dedicated to R.
Aßmuth, B. Bergmann, M.-A. Dittrich, M. Rehe and M. Wolf for the
support in the preparation of this paper. For the financial support
thanks are devoted to the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.
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