DE CASTRO, GHISLANE 11- HUMSS 1

Robert Boyle (25 January 1627 – 31 December 1691) was an Anglo-

Irish[7] natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Boyle is
largely regarded today as the first modern chemist (a title some give
to 8th century Islamic scholar Jabir ibn Hayyan), and therefore one of
the founders of modern chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern
experimental scientific method. He is best known for Boyle's law, which
describes the inversely proportional relationship between the
absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept
constant within a closed system. Among his works, The Sceptical
Chymist is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. He
was a devout and pious Anglican and is noted for his writings in
theology.

Corpuscularianism is a physical theory that supposes all matter to be composed of minute particles.
The theory became important in the seventeenth century;
amongst the leading corpuscularians were Thomas
Hobbes, René Descartes, Pierre Gassendi, Robert
Boyle,[3] Isaac Newton, and John Locke.

Corpuscularianism is similar to the theory of atomism, except

that where atoms were supposed to be indivisible, corpuscles
could in principle be divided. In this manner, for example, it
was theorized that mercury could penetrate into metals and
modify their inner structure, a step on the way towards the
production of gold by transmutation. Corpuscularianism was
associated by its leading proponents with the idea that some of
the properties that objects appear to have are artifacts of the
perceiving mind: "secondary" qualities as distinguished from
"primary" qualities.

Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier also Antoine Lavoisier after

the French Revolution, was a French nobleman and chemist who
was central to the 18th-century chemical revolution and who had
a large influence on both the history of chemistry and
the history of biology. He is widely considered in popular literature as the "father of modern
chemistry".

It is generally accepted that Lavoisier's great accomplishments in chemistry stem largely from his
changing the science from a qualitative to a quantitative one. Lavoisier is most noted for his
discovery of the role oxygen plays in combustion. He recognized and named oxygen (1778)
and hydrogen (1783), and opposed the phlogiston theory. Lavoisier helped construct the metric
system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He
predicted the existence of silicon (1787) and was also the first to establish that sulfur was
an element (1777) rather than a compound. He discovered that, although matter may change its
form or shape, its mass always remains the same.

chemical element is a species of atom having the same

number of protons in their atomic nuclei (that is, the
same atomic number, or Z). For example, the atomic
number of oxygen is 8, so the element oxygen consists of
all atoms which have 8 protons.

One hundred eighteen elements have been identified: the

first 94 occur naturally on Earth, and the remaining 24
are synthetic elements. There are 80 elements that have
at least one stable isotope and 38 that have
exclusively radionuclides, which decay over time into other elements. Iron is the most abundant
element (by mass) making up Earth, while oxygen is the most common element in the Earth's crust.

Chemical elements constitute all of the ordinary matter of the universe. However astronomical
observations suggest that ordinary observable matter makes up only about 15% of the matter in the
universe. The remainder is dark matter; the composition of this is unknown, but it is not composed
of chemical elements. The two lightest elements, hydrogen and helium, were mostly formed in the Big
Bang and are the most common elements in the universe. The next three elements
(lithium, beryllium and boron) were formed mostly by cosmic ray spallation, and are thus rarer than
heavier elements. Formation of elements with from 6 to 26 protons occurs in main sequence stars
via stellar nucleosynthesis. The high abundance of oxygen, silicon, and iron on Earth reflects their
common production in such stars. Elements with greater than 26 protons are formed by supernova
nucleosynthesis in supernovae, which, when they explode, blast these elements as supernova
remnants far into space, where they may become incorporated into planets when they are formed.
The term "element" is used for atoms with a given number of protons (regardless of whether or not
they are ionized or chemically bonded, e.g. hydrogen in water) as well as for a pure chemical
substance consisting of a single element (e.g. hydrogen gas).[1] For the second meaning, the terms
"elementary substance" and "simple substance" have been suggested, but they have not gained much
acceptance in English chemical literature, whereas in some other languages their equivalent is widely
used. A single element can form multiple substances differing in their structure; they are
called allotropes of the element.
John Dalton (/ˈdɔːltən/; 6 September 1766 – 27 July 1844)
was an English chemist, physicist, and meteorologist. He is best
known for introducing the atomic theory into chemistry, and for
his research into colour blindness, sometimes referred to as
Daltonism in his honour. Dalton's early life was influenced by a
prominent Eaglesfield Quaker, Elihu Robinson, a
competent meteorologist and instrument maker, who interested
him in problems of mathematics and meteorology. During his
years in Kendal, Dalton contributed solutions to problems and
answered questions on various subjects in The Ladies' Diary and
the Gentleman's Diary. In 1787 at age 21 he began his
meteorological diary in which, during the succeeding 57 years, he
entered more than 200,000 observations.[5] He
rediscovered George Hadley's theory of atmospheric circulation (now known as the Hadley cell) around
this time.[6] In 1793 Dalton's first publication, Meteorological Observations and Essays, contained the
seeds of several of his later discoveries but despite the originality of his treatment, little attention
was paid to them by other scholars. A second work by Dalton, Elements of English Grammar, was
published in 1801.

Chemical Atomic Theory In chemistry and physics, atomic

theory is a scientific theory of the nature of matter, which
states that matter is composed of discrete units called atoms. It
began as a philosophical concept in ancient Greece and entered
the scientific mainstream in the early 19th century when
discoveries in the field of chemistry showed that matter did
indeed behave as if it were made up of atoms.

The word atom comes from the Ancient Greek adjective atomos,
meaning "indivisible".[1] 19th century chemists began using the
term in connection with the growing number of irreducible
chemical elements. Around the turn of the 20th century,
through various experiments with electromagnetism and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the
so-called "uncuttable atom" was actually a conglomerate of various subatomic
particles (chiefly, electrons, protons and neutrons) which can exist separately from each other. In
fact, in certain extreme environments, such as neutron stars, extreme temperature and pressure
prevents atoms from existing at all.

Since atoms were found to be divisible, physicists later invented the term "elementary particles" to
describe the "uncuttable", though not indestructible, parts of an atom. The field of science which
studies subatomic particles is particle physics, and it is in this field that physicists hope to discover
the true fundamental nature of matter.
3 fundamental Laws of Chemistry

When people are learning to drive, they have to learn the rules of the road such who goes first at a
four way stop intersection and how to change lanes properly. When learning chemistry, you have to
understand four overarching laws that govern how atoms combine:

1. The law of the conservation of mass

2. The law of constant proportions
3. The law of multiple proportions
4. The law of reciprocal proportions

Law of the Conservation of Mass

In chemical reactions, pure elements or combinations of elements called compounds get rearranged. In
nuclear reactions, the nucleus of atoms change. In both cases, mass is conserved even though new
substances are created. Imagine an empty room with one door and five people walk into the room.
Eventually five people have to leave the room. What goes in has to come out. The law of the
conservation of mass states that mass before reaction has to equal mass after reaction. So, let's go
through a chemical and nuclear reaction to show how mass before a reaction equals mass after a
reaction.

Chemical Reaction

Let's take a quick look at how solid calcium reacts with hydrobromic acid:

Ca + HBr → CaBr2 + H2

Notice there is only one bromine and hydrogen on the left side of the reaction while there are two
atoms of each on the products side of the reaction. This is an impossibility because one atom of
hydrogen and bromine can't be generated out of nowhere. To show what really happens we have to
balance the equation with coefficients, which are numbers in front of the compounds or elements in
the reaction. Let's balance this equation:

Ca + 2HBr → CaBr2 + H2

The coefficient in front of HBr makes the equation balanced for mass. Now let's look at a nuclear
reaction.

Nuclear Reaction

In a nuclear reaction, the nucleus of the atom changes in some fashion. A proton can turn into a
neutron or vice versa. The nucleus can also lose four units of mass and two units of charge through
the expulsion of an alpha particle. Let's look at how polonium-214 turns into lead-210. This diagram
shows this transmutation:
The values on top are the mass values and the values on the bottom are is the electrical charge.
Notice neither mass nor charge are conserved, which is another impossibility. To show what actually
occurs, we have to add an alpha particle, which is a helium nucleus, to the products side. This next
diagram shows the complete nuclear reaction:By adding the masses on the products side of the
equation, we get 214, which equals the mass on the reactants side of the equation. The charges on
either side of the yields sign are equal. Now, we move on to the law of constant proportions.

Law of Constant Proportions

The law of constant proportions states that the ratio of mass for the same compound is constant.
In other words, it tells us that compounds of the same type always have the same ratio of
elements. For example, carbon dioxide always has the ratio of ONE Carbon atom to two oxygen
atoms resulting in the formula CO2. The ratio of mass is also constant: 12 g of carbon to 32 g of
oxygen, which are rounded numbers off the periodic table. The law of multiple proportions is next.

Law of Multiple Proportions

The law of multiple proportions explains how multiple elements can combine with each other in
multiple ratios. Think of the ratio of males to females in your family. Some families have one
mother, one father, and one daughter, giving the ratio of females to males as 2:1. The family next
door might have one mother, one father, and two sons, giving the ratio of females to males as 1:3.
The same idea applies with elements and compounds. For example, hydrogen and oxygen combine
multiple ways to form multiple compounds.

Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac 6 December 1778 – 9 May 1850) was

a French chemist and physicist. He is known mostly for his discovery
that water is made of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen
(with Alexander von Humboldt), for two laws related to gases, and
for his work on alcohol-water mixtures, which led to the degrees
Gay-Lussac used to measure alcoholic beverages in many countries.

 1802 – Gay-Lussac first formulated the law, Gay-Lussac's Law,

stating that if the mass and volume of a gas are held constant
then gas pressure increases linearly as the temperature rises. His work was preceded by that
of Guillaume Amontons, who established the rough relation without the use of
accurate thermometers. The law is sometimes written as p = k T, where k is a constant
dependent on the mass and volume of the gas and T is temperature on an absolute scale (in
terms of the ideal gas law, k = n·R/V).[10]
 1804 – He and Jean-Baptiste Biot made a hot-air balloon ascent to a height of 7,016 metres
(23,018 ft) in an early investigation of the Earth's atmosphere. He wanted to collect samples of
the air at different heights to record differences in temperature and moisture.
Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro di Quaregna e di Carreto (9
August 1776 – 9 July 1856), Count of Quaregna and Cerreto, was
an Italian scientist, most noted for his contribution to molecular
theory now known as Avogadro's law, which states that equal
volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure will contain equal numbers of molecules. In tribute to him,
the number of elementary entities (atoms, molecules, ions or other
particles) in 1 mole of a substance, 6.02214076×1023, is known as
the Avogadro constant, one of the seven SI base units and
represented by NA.In honor of Avogadro's contributions to molecular theory, the number of molecules
per mole of substance is named the "Avogadro constant", NA. It is
exactly 6.02214076×1023 mol−1.[7] The Avogadro constant is used to compute the results of chemical
reactions. It allows chemists to determine the amounts of substances produced in a given reaction to
a great degree of accuracy.Johann Josef Loschmidt first calculated the value of the Avogadro
constant, the number of particles in one mole, sometimes referred to as the Loschmidt number in
German-speaking countries (Loschmidt constant now has another meaning).

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (often romanized as Mendeleyev or Mendeleef)

(8 February 1834 – 2 February 1907 [OS 27 January 1834 – 20 January
1907]) was a Russian chemist and inventor. He is best remembered for
formulating the Periodic Law and creating a farsighted version of
the periodic table of elements. He used the Periodic Law not only to
correct the hypothesized properties[of some of the already discovered
elements but also to predict the properties of eight elements that were
yet to be discovered. In 1863, there were 56 known elements with a new
element being discovered at a rate of approximately one per year. Other
scientists had previously identified periodicity of elements. John Newlands described a Law of Octaves,
noting their periodicity according to relative atomic weight in 1864, publishing it in 1865. His
proposal identified the potential for new elements such as germanium. The concept was criticized and
his innovation was not recognized by the Society of Chemists until 1887. Another person to propose
a periodic table was Lothar Meyer, who published a paper in 1864 describing 28 elements classified by
their valence, but with no predictions of new elements.