Earthquake:-

Earthquakes are the sudden shaking and vibrating of the Earth’s crust as a result
of a rapid release of energy when rocks break and move along faults.

Earthquakes can also be caused by the movement of magma inside a volcano,

volcanic eruption, mining activities, explosions made by humans, major
landslides, or by the impact of a meteorite. All these processes release the energy
and results the earthquake.

Little was understood about earthquakes until the emergence of seismology at

the beginning of the 20th century. Seismology, which involves the scientific study
of all aspects of earthquakes, has yielded answers to such long-standing questions
as why and how earthquakes occur.

Earthquake Belts of the World

a) Circum- Pacific Belt
b) Alpide Belt

 The most important earthquake belt is the Circum-Pacific Belt, which

affects many populated coastal regions around the Pacific Ocean—for
example, those of New Zealand, New Guinea, Japan, the Aleutian
Islands, Alaska. It is estimated that 80 percent of the energy presently
released in earthquakes comes from those whose epicenters are in this
belt. at many places the Circum-Pacific Belt is associated with volcanic
activity, it has been popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring of Fire.”

 A second belt, known as the Alpide Belt, passes through the

Mediterranean region eastward through Asia and joins the Circum-
Pacific Belt in the East Indies. The energy released in earthquakes from
this belt is about 15 percent of the world total.
Types of Earth Quakes
Shallow focus: Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 10 km are
classified as 'shallow-focus' earthquakes. Most parts of the world experience at
least occasional shallow earthquakes—those that originate within 60 km (40
miles) of the Earth’s outer surface. In fact, the great majority of earthquake foci
are shallow.

Intermediate Focus: Those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km are

commonly termed 'mid-focus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. Of the total
energy released in earthquakes, 12 percent comes from intermediate
earthquakes

Deep Focus : In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust
descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus earthquakes may occur at
much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometers).These seismically
active areas of subduction are known as Wadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus
earthquakes occur at a depth where the subducted lithosphere should no longer
be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for
the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing
a phase transition into a spinel structure. About 3 percent of total energy comes
from deeper earthquakes

Causes of Earth Quake

Elastic Rebound Theory: Tectonic earthquakes are explained by the
elastic rebound theory, formulated by the American geologist Harry Fielding
Reid after the San Andreas Fault ruptured in 1906, generating the great San
Francisco earthquake. According to the theory, a tectonic earthquake occurs
when strains in rock masses have reached to a point where the resulting stresses
exceed the strength of the rocks, when the strength of the rock is exceeded; it
suddenly breaks, causing the vibrations of an earth quake. Rupture occurs and the
rocks quickly rebound to an un deformed shape. Energy is released in waves that
radiate outward from the fault.

 Fault and Fractures: The tectonic forces which are present within the Earth act
upon the rocks and they become strained and deformed. This tremendous
strain can build up for decades or even centuries, but eventually, the strain
becomes too great and overcomes the friction. The rocks then move suddenly
and ‘snap’ along the fault into a new position, producing vibrations which
travel through the Earth and which may be felt at the surface as an
earthquake.
 Plate Margins: There are seven large plates and numerous smaller plates
around the world. Each of these plates is moving, but not all at the same speed
or in the same direction. For example, the plate containing Australia and India
is moving northwards at a rate of seven centimeters a year, while the Pacific
Plate is moving west at nearly nine centimeters a year. The movement at the
plate boundaries is not usually smooth and gradual, but occurs in a series of
jerks because of the friction between the plates. When the stress caused by
the moving plates gets too large, the rocks break and slip past each other
releasing energy into the crust in the form of vibrations which we feel as
earthquakes.
1. Interplate earthquakes: The earthquakes which occur along tectonic
plate boundaries are called interplate earthquakes. There are three
main types of boundaries between tectonic plates, depending on the
relative movement of adjacent plates. However, in some areas the
boundary may occur over a wide zone and is not well defined. There are
also three types of faults, classified by the direction of movement of the
rocks on either side of the fault plane (i.e. the surface along which the
slip occurs during an earthquake).
 Volcanic activity: Molten rock, called magma, is accumulates under volcanoes
and exerts pressure on the surrounding rocks. As this magma moves upwards,
it can fracture the rock through which it squeezes, causing moderate sized
earthquakes. Sometimes the magma collects in a high level reservoir prior to a
volcanic eruption and as it moves around it causes bursts of continuous
vibration, called volcanic tremors (Figure 6). This type of activity can be used
to predict an impending eruption.
 Intraplate earthquakes occur in the interior of plates, away from the plate
margins. Intraplate earthquakes are not as common as those on plate edges
(i.e. interplate earthquakes) and are usually not as large.

 Human-induced earthquakes and other seismic events

a) The explosions uses in tunneling, excavation in open-pit mines and break up
ore cause seismic waves. Removing material during some mining processes
leaves voids spaces, which may unbalance existing stress in the surrounding
rocks, causing small local earthquakes as the rocks settle into a new
equilibrium. The magnitudes of these blasts and induced earthquakes are
usually small.
b) Reservoir-related earthquakes can occur when a new dam is filled after
construction, or when there is a major change in water level. The added
weight of the water on the underlying and surrounding rocks alters the
pressure in the rock, causing them to break. Also, water percolates deep into
the ground, finding its way into old faults. If these are put in a stressed state
they may move due to the lubricating effect of the water, leading to
earthquakes.
c) Nuclear explosions, like mining explosions, generate seismic waves. They can
be distinguished from natural earthquakes by the shape of the waves. They
have been recorded with magnitudes up to 6.9.
d) Landslides and slow mass movement of large volumes of soil and rock may be
large enough to be felt as earthquakes or as a prolonged disturbance of the
ground.
e) Meteorites cause seismic waves to radiate from the point of impact on the
Earth’s surface which may be recorded or felt at a distance like a small
earthquake. Meteors which explode high in the earth’s atmosphere may
produce large sound waves. These can shake the ground and appear similar to
small earthquakes.
What Controls the Level of Shaking?

Magnitude is a measurement of the energy produced by an earthquake and is not

a measure of the shaking you feel. What you feel is very complex - hard or gentle,
long or short, jerky or rolling - and is not describable with one number. What you
feel in an earthquake is controlled by three main factors: magnitude, distance,
and local soil conditions.

Magnitude

Typically, you will feel more intense shaking from a big earthquake than from a
small one. Bigger earthquakes also release their energy over a larger area and for
a longer period of time.

Distance

Earthquake waves diminish in intensity as they travel through the ground, so

earthquake shaking is less intense farther from the fault. Low-frequency waves
diminish less rapidly with distance than do high-frequency waves.

Time

Time of shaking is directly proportional to the length of Fault. Longer faults

produce bigger Earthquakes and bigger earthquakes lasts for longer. longer faults
produce bigger earthquakes that have longer durations.

Local soil conditions

Soils can greatly amplify the shaking in an earthquake. Passing from rock to soil,
seismic waves slow down but get bigger. Hence a soft, loose soil may shake more
intensely than hard rock at the same distance from the same earthquake. An
extreme example for this type of amplification was in the Marina district of San
Francisco during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.

Foreshocks and aftershocks

Foreshocks are smaller earthquakes that may occur before a large earthquake.
They are caused by fracturing of the rocks under stress. The main break along the
fault causes the larger earthquake, also known as the main shock. Foreshocks can
start up to a year before the main shock.
Not all earthquakes have foreshocks, and sometimes a series of
similarly sized earthquakes, called an earthquake swarm, happens over months
without being followed by a larger main shock. These two phenomena limit the
usefulness of foreshocks for earthquake prediction.

Aftershocks are smaller earthquakes that may occur after the main shock. They
are caused by the rocks in the area readjusting to the fault movement, and some
may be the result of continuing movement along the same fault. The largest
aftershocks are usually at least half a magnitude unit smaller than the main shock
and the aftershock sequence may continue for months or even years after the
main shock. Not all earthquakes have aftershocks.

Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are
a result of earthquakes. Seismic waves generated by an earthquake source are
commonly classified into three main types. The first two, the P (or primary)
and S (or secondary) waves, propagate within the body of the Earth, while the
third, consisting of Love and Rayleigh waves, propagates along its surface.

Body Waves

 P-waves (or Primary)

 S-waves (or secondary)

Surface Waves

 Love Waves
 Rayleigh Waves
 Stoneley Waves
Body Waves: Body waves are generated due release of energy at the focus and
moving all direction travelling through the body of the earth. These Waves moves
the body of the earth that why known as the Body Waves.
Velocity of seismic waves changes as
these moves through different Materials with different densities. The denser the
material the greater will be the velocity and we know that density of earth
decreases as we move moves upward, so , the seismic waves slow down when
they reaches to the ground. Direction of the waves also changes when they reflect
or refract through different materials.

P-waves: The P seismic waves travel as elastic motions at the highest speeds.
These are the fastest waves that travels through solids, liquids, or gases. In these
waves material movement is in the same direction as wave movement. They
are longitudinal waves. With P waves, the particles of the medium vibrate in a
manner similar to sound waves—the transmitting media is alternately
compressed and expanded.

S-Waves: The slower type of body wave, the S wave, travels only through solid
material. With S waves, the particle motion is transverse to the direction of travel
and involves a shearing of the transmitting rock.
Why do S-waves not travel through liquid?
Simply put, fluids don’t support shear stresses which are required for S, or transverse, waves.

Surface Waves: Surface waves are typically generated when the source of the
earthquake is close to the Earth’s surface. When Body waves reaches the surface
and moves through the rocks these waves generates new set of waves know as
Surface Waves. Surface waves are last to report on seismograph. These waves are
more distracting and more damaging to civil structures. Always slower than body
waves and shows rolling and side-to-side Waving movement

Rayleigh waves:
Rayleigh waves, also known as ground roll, spread through the ground as ripples,
similar to rolling waves on the ocean. These are usually the result of P-Waves
when reach the surface and act as a source of Rayleigh waves.
Love Waves:
Love waves have the same motion as S-waves but without the vertical
displacement. They move the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at
right angles to the direction of propagation. Love waves are particularly damaging
to the foundations of structures because of the horizontal ground motion they
generate.

Finding the epicenter

The location of an earthquake’s origin under the surface is known as the focus.
The earthquake’s epicenter is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the
focus.
Of all the seismic waves, P waves travel fastest and arrive at a seismometer first,
hence the name ‘primary’. S waves arrive next, followed by surface waves. A
typical seismogram of an earthquake shows these arrivals (or phases) recorded in
the following order.
The P waves arrive before the S waves and the time difference between the two
waves gives an indication of how far the seismometer is from the epicenter.
However, a seismogram from a single seismic recording station is insufficient to
calculate the location of an earthquake. Data from at least three stations is
necessary.

The basic process required in the calculation of the location of an earthquake

epicenter involves three main steps.
1. Calculate the time interval (in seconds) between P and S waves using data from
at least three different seismograms.

2. Convert the time difference into a distance between the recording station and
the epicenter (in kilometers). One technique is to multiply this number by 8.4.
Alternatively, read off a time-distance graph. Do this for each of the three
seismograms.

3. On a map, draw circles of radius ‘d’ from each of the seismic stations. The spot
where the three circles intersect (cross-over) is the epicenter of the earthquake
Measuring Earthquakes

Earthquakes are detected by scientific instruments called seismometers. .

Seismometers are sensors that detect and convert any small movement in the
earth into an electrical signal. These movements may be caused by seismic waves
from natural events such as earthquakes, as well as man-made disturbances such
as traffic noise and mining activity. The resultant data, when graphed, is called a
seismogram (Figure 7). The whole system used to record earthquakes is called a
seismograph. Seismometers are usually placed on solid bedrock, preferably far
from urban areas, mining, and other installations (e.g. railway lines) that may
cause vibrations in the Earth which could mask the shaking due to small
earthquakes.

Types of seismographs

Analogue seismographs: Older, analogue systems consisted of a seismometer

(i.e. sensor) connected to a recording unit, which was usually a drum and stylus
(shown in Figure). When the Earth shakes, the weight tends to remain stationary
du inertia while the rest of the seismometer moves in response to the shaking.
The relative movement between the Earth and the stationary weight is recorded
by a pen which draws a trace on paper mounted on a rotating drum.

Digital seismographs: Modern seismographs convert the electrical signals from

the seismometer (i.e. a sensor) into digital signals which can be fed straight into a
computer and recorded without any need for a paper drum and stylus. Many
seismometers now detect earthquakes through an electronic feedback circuit.
Seismotectotics: Seismotectonics is the study of the relationship between
the earthquakes, active tectonics and individual faults of a region. It seeks to
understand which faults are responsible for seismic activity in an area by
analyzing a combination of regional tectonics, recent instrumentally recorded
events, accounts of historical earthquakes and geomorphological evidence. This
information can then be used to quantify the seismic hazard of an area.

A seismotectonic analysis of an area often involves the integration of following

data sets.

Regional Tectonics: In order to understand the seismic hazard of an area it is

necessary not only to know where potentially active faults are, but also the
orientation of the stress field. This is normally derived from a combination of
earthquake data, borehole breakout analysis, direct stress measurement and the
analysis of geologically young fault networks. The World Stress Map Project
provides a useful online compilation of such data.

Instrumentally recorded events and historical records: In order to

understand the seismicity of an area we must have an idea of recent and older
(before seismometers) Earthquake history of that region.
Paleoseismicity: refers to earthquakes recorded geologically, most of them
unknown from human descriptions or seismograms. Geologic records of past
earthquakes can include faulted layers of sediment and rock, injections of
liquefied sand, landslides, abruptly raised or lowered shorelines, and tsunami
deposits.

Geomorphology: is the scientific study of the origin and evolution

of topographic features created by physical, chemical or biological processes
operating at or near the Earth's surface. Seismically active faults have a direct
effect on the geomorphology of a region. This may allow the direct identification
of active structures not previously known.
Seismic hazard maps: seismic hazard map shows the relative hazards in
different areas. The maps are made by considering what we currently know
about:

1. Past faults and earthquakes

2. The behavior of seismic waves as they travel through different parts of the
crust
3. The near-surface site conditions at specific locations of interest

Hazard maps can be used for land-use planning, mitigation, and emergency
response. USGS provides a useful online compilation of such data.

Seismic map of Pakistan

According to the World Health

Organization (WHO; 2013), almost
20% of the population of Pakistan
is exposed to high or very high
intensity in the case of seismic
hazard.

The seismic zoning map of Pakistan

proposed by the Building Code of
Pakistan (BCP; 2007) is shown in
Figure. According to it, Pakistan is
divided into five seismic zones
(Zones 1, 2A, 2B, 3, and 4)
considering the severity of seismic
hazard; zone 1 is the lowest, and
zone 4 is the highest seismic zone.
It is evident from the seismic
zoning map that the northern parts
of Pakistan, as well as the north
western parts of Balochistan, are
situated in high seismic zones,
whereas most of Punjab and Sindh
provinces are situated in low.
seismic zones.
 Size and Strength of an Earthquake Measured:
◆ Historically, scientists have used two different types of measurements
⮚ intensity
⮚ magnitude
Intensity:
The violence of seismic shaking varies considerably over a single affected area.
Because the entire range of observed effects is not capable of simple quantitative
definition, the strength of the shaking is commonly estimated by reference to
intensity scales that describe the effects in qualitative terms.
Intensity depends, however, in a complicated way not only on ground
accelerations but also on the periods and other features of seismic waves, the
distance of the measuring point from the source, and the local geologic structure.
Furthermore, earthquake intensity, or strength, is distinct from earthquake
magnitude, which is a measure of the amplitude, or size, of seismic waves as
specified by a seismograph reading.
A number of different intensity scales have been set up during the past
century and applied to both current and ancient destructive earthquakes. The
scale now generally employed is the Mercalli scale, as modified by Harry O. Wood
and Frank Neumann in 1931, in which intensity is considered to be more suitably
graded. A 12-point abridged form of the modified Mercalli scale is shown below.
With the use of an intensity scale, it is possible
to summarize such data for an earthquake by
constructing isoseismal lines. An isoseismal
(line) are curves or lines on a map bounding or
connecting points of equal intensity for a
particular earthquake. If there were complete
symmetry about the vertical through the
earthquake’s focus, isoseismals would be
circles with the epicenter as the center. The
most probable position of the epicentre is
often assumed to be at a point inside the
area of highest intensity. Instrumental data
verify this calculation, but in some cases,
the true epicenter lies outside the area of
greatest intensity.

Magnitude: Earthquake magnitude is a measure of the “size,” or amplitude, of

the seismic waves generated by an earthquake source and recorded by
seismographs.
Richter scale:
The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter to
compare the size of earthquakes. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined
from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs that is
corrected for distance and assigned a value. On the Richter scale, magnitude is
expressed in whole numbers and decimal fractions. For example, a magnitude 5.3
might be computed for a moderate earthquake, and a strong earthquake might
be rated as magnitude 6.3. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each
whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured
amplitude and each whole number step in the magnitude scale corresponds to
the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount associated with the
preceding whole number value. Richter scale does not estimate adequately the
size of very large earthquakes.
Earthquake size, as measured by the Richter scale is a well-known, but not well
understood concept. The method developed by Richter was strictly valid only for
certain frequency and distance ranges. New magnitude scales that are an
extension of Richter's original idea were developed. These include body wave
magnitude (Mb) and surface wave magnitude (Ms). All these were also valid for a
particular frequency range and type of seismic signal. In its range of validity, each
is equivalent to the Richter magnitude.

Moment Magnitude Scale:

Because of the limitations of all three magnitude scales (ML, Mb, and Ms), a new,
more uniformly applicable extension of the magnitude scale, known as moment
magnitude, or Mw, was developed. In particular, for very large earthquakes,
moment magnitude gives the most reliable estimate of earthquake size.
Moment is a physical quantity
proportional to the slip on the fault multiplied by the area of the fault surface that
slips; it is related to the total energy released in the earthquake. The moment can
be estimated from seismograms (and also from geodetic measurements). The
moment is then converted into a number similar to other earthquake magnitudes
by a standard formula. The result is called the moment magnitude. The moment
magnitude provides an estimate of earthquake size that is valid over the complete
range of magnitudes, a characteristic that was lacking in other magnitude scales.

(Surface area of fault) x (avg. displacement along fault) x (rigidity of rock)

 Tsunami:
A tsunami is a very long-wavelength wave of water that is generated by sudden
displacement of the seafloor or disruption of any body of standing water.
Tsunamis are sometimes called "seismic sea waves", although they can be
generated by mechanisms other than earthquakes. Usually occurs in an ocean,
though it can occur in large lakes. Tsunami is characterized as shallow-water
waves. A tsunami can have a period in the range of ten minutes to two hours and
wavelengths greater than 500 km.
The rate at which a wave loses its energy is inversely
related to its wavelength. Since a tsunami has a very large wavelength, it will lose
little energy as it propagates. Thus, in very deep water, a tsunami will travel at
high speeds with little loss of energy.

As a tsunami leaves the deep water of the open sea and arrives at the shallow
waters near the coast, it undergoes a transformation. That why, waves that are
over 10 m high on the shore can often be only 0.5 m high out at sea. This makes
predicting incoming tsunamis a lot more difficult.

If the trough of the tsunami wave reaches the coast first,

this causes a phenomenon called drawdown, where it
appears that sea level has dropped considerably. Drawdown
is followed immediately by the crest of the wave which can
catch people observing the drawdown off guard. When the
crest of the wave hits, sea level rises (called run-up).
Drawback begins before the wave arrives at an interval
equal to half of the wave's period.

Drawback can exceed hundreds of metres, and people

unaware of the danger sometimes remain near the shore to
satisfy their curiosity or to collect fish from the exposed
seabed.
Causes:
Earthquake: Earthquakes cause tsunami by causing a disturbance of the
seafloor. The size of the tsunami usually depends upon size of earthquake. But
the dimension of displacement is also important. Tsunami is generally only
formed when an earthquake causes vertical displacement of the seafloor. There
will be no Tsunami in result of strike-dip fault. Thus, tsunami only occurs if the
fault generating the earthquake has normal or reverse displacement. Because of
this, most tsunami are generated by earthquakes that occur along the subduction
boundaries of plates, along the oceanic trenches.

Volcanic Eruptions: Volcanoes that occur along coastal zones, like in Japan and
island arcs throughout the world, can cause several effects that might generate a
tsunami. Explosive eruptions can rapidly emplace pyroclastic flows into the water,
landslides and debris avalanches produced by eruptions can rapidly move into
water, and collapse of volcanoes to form calderas can suddenly displace the
water.

Landslides: Landslides moving into oceans, bays, or lakes can also generate
tsunami. Most such landslides are generated by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions.

Underwater Explosions: Nuclear testing by the United States in the Marshall

Islands in the 1940s and 1950s generated tsunami.

Meteorite Impacts: Some meteorological conditions, such as deep depressions

that cause tropical cyclones, can generate a storm surge, called a meteo-tsunami,
which can raise tides several meters above normal levels. The displacement
comes from low atmospheric pressure within the center of the depression. As
these storm surges reach shore, they may resemble (though are not) tsunamis,
inundating vast areas of land.
Liquefaction: Liquefaction occurs when vibrations or water pressure within a
mass of soil cause the soil particles to lose contact with one another. As a result,
the soil behaves like a liquid, has an inability to support weight and can flow down
very gentle slopes. This condition is usually temporary and is most often caused
by an earthquake vibrating water-saturated fill or unconsolidated soil. Or
(Liquefaction is a phenomenon where saturated sand and silt take on the characteristics
of a liquid during the intense shaking of an earthquake.)

Conditions that Cause Liquefaction

Liquefaction most often occurs when three conditions are met:

1. loose, granular sediment or fill

2. saturation by groundwater
3. strong shaking

Liquefaction Susceptibility Mapping

An understanding of the conditions that cause liquefaction enables geologists to
produce maps of liquefaction susceptibility. This has been done for the San
Francisco Bay area, Dubai, Middle East and other locations where earthquakes
might trigger liquefaction. USGS provides the online source of Liquefaction
Susceptibility Maps.
Earthquake Prediction: It is not possible to predict the earthquake exactly
in term of time, location and duration but one can estimate the earthquake for
longer period ( in years). Small scale earthquakes occur regularly on daily bases
but prediction of major earthquakes is of great importance.
Short term prediction (not possible) Short-term predication involves monitoring
of processes that occur in the vicinity of earthquake prone faults for activity that
signify a coming earthquake. Anomalous events or processes that may precede an
earthquake are called precursor events and might signal a coming earthquake.
Among the precursor events that may be important are the following:

 Ground Uplift and Tilting

 Foreshocks
 Water Level in Wells
 Emission of Radon Gas
 Changes in the Electrical Resistivity of Rocks
 Unusual Radio Waves

P-wave Warning Systems: Because P-waves are generally less destructive than S-
waves and Surface waves, and because P-waves always travel faster than S and
Surface waves, recent efforts are being used to exploit these factors to develop a
P-wave warning system.

Long-term forecasting is based mainly on the knowledge of when and where

earthquakes have occurred in the past. Thus, knowledge of present tectonic
setting, historical records, and geological records are studied to determine
locations and recurrence intervals of earthquakes.

Two methods of earthquake forecasting are being employed.

 Paleo seismology
 Seismic gaps.

Seismic gaps: A seismic gap is a zone along a tectonically active area where no
earthquakes have occurred recently, but it is known that elastic strain is building
in the rocks. If a seismic gap can be identified, then it might be an area expected
to have a large earthquake in the near future

Paleo seismology: The study of prehistoric earthquakes. Through study of the

offsets in sedimentary layers near fault zones, it is often possible to determine
recurrence intervals of major earthquakes prior to historical records. If it is
determined that earthquakes have recurrence intervals of say 1 every 100 years,
and there are no records of earthquakes in the last 100 years, then a long-term
forecast can be made and efforts can be undertaken to reduce seismic risk.