Void Nucleation Effects in Biaxially

C.C. Chu
Stretched Sheets
Graduate Research Assistant. The effects of void nucleation occurring during the deformation history on forming
limit curves are considered for both in-plane and punch stretching employing a
constitutive model of a porous plastic solid. Both plastic strain controlled and stress
A. Needleman controlled nucleation processes are simulated by a two parameter void nucleation
Associate Professor of Engineering. criterion. For in-plane stretching, plastic strain controlled nucleation can have, in
certain circumstances, a significantly destabilizing effect on the forming limit curve.
Division of Engineering, However, within the framework of plane stress theory which neglects the enhance-
Brown University, ment of the hydrostatic stress due to necking, a stress controlled nucleation process
Providence, R. I. 02912 is not found to be significantly destabilizing. In punch stretching a ductile rupture
criterion, which limits the maximum volume fraction of voids, as well as the ap-
pearance of a well defined thickness trough, is adopted as a localized necking
criterion. Only plastic strain controlled void nucleation is considered here in out-of-
plane stretching. The resulting forming limit curves have the same shape as those
obtained previously with void nucleation neglected.

1 Introduction
Conventional sheet materials generally contain second
phase particles, introduced either as a byproduct of the
thermo-mechanical processing of the sheet, or intentionally in
order to control microstructural features. During defor-
mation these second phase particles may debond from the
surrounding matrix and/or crack, thereby nucleating voids
which subsequently grow by plastic deformation. The im-
portant role played by this process of void nucleation and
growth in ductile rupture has been recognized for quite some
time (see e.g. [1]). More recently, analytical [2] and ex-
perimental [3-5] studies have indicated that, at least for
certain sheet materials, the weakening induced by this ductile
rupture process operating on the microscale may play a
significant role in triggering localized necking in biaxially
stretched sheets.
Here, we carry out analyses of both in-plane sheet stretch-
ing and punch stretching, employing the constitutive model of
a progressively cavitating ductile solid introduced by Gurson
[6, 7]. Our work parallels and extends that of Needleman and
Triantafyllidis [2], who analyzed localized necking in in-plane
sheet stretching within the framework of the Marciniak and
Kuczynski [8] approach, and that of Chu [9], who employed a
finite element method to study localized necking in punch
stretching. In [2] and [9], as here, Gurson's constitutive model
of a porous plastic solid was employed to characterize the
sheet material. However, in [2] and [9] all voids were assumed
present from the outset. In this paper, we explicitly account
for the fact that voids can progressively nucleate throughout
the deformation history.
The appropriate void nucleation criterion to incorporate
within a continuum mechanical framework is, at present,
Contributed by the Materials Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY. Manuscript received by
Materials Division, October 9, 1979.
unsettled. Gurson's [6, 7] analysis of data obtained by
Gurland [10] on a spheroidized carbon steel led to the con-
clusion that the nucleation of cavities could be correlated
exclusively in terms of equivalent plastic strain. Also, Goods
and Brown [11] in their review of the micromechanics of void
nucleation endorse the concept of a critical nucleation strain.
On the other hand, the studies of Argon, et al. [12-24] suggest
a stress criterion for nucleation.
In this study, we employ the idealized two parameter void
nucleation criterion suggested in [6, 7] which, at least ap-
proximately, permits both equivalent plastic strain controlled
nucleation and stress controlled nucleation to be modelled.
Particular emphasis is given to the range of plastic strain (or
stress) over which void nucleation takes place. The motivation
for this focus stems from an analysis of plane strain shear
band localization [15], employing Gurson's [6, 7] constitutive
model, which exhibited a significant destabilizing influence of
void nucleation taking place over a narrow range of stress.
2 Analysis of Localized Necking in In-Plane Stret-
ching
The analysis of localized necking in in-plane stretching is
carried out within the framework originated by Marciniak
and Kuczynski [8]. The development given here follows that
in [2], which differs from the original formulation of [8], in
being appropriate for elastic-plastic dilational solids.
We consider an inhomogeneous band in an otherwise
homogeneous sheet, outside the band homogeneous and
proportional straining is maintained. Plane stress conditions
are assumed to prevail both inside and outside the band.
Compatibility and equilibrium across the band require,
(1)
the
aftB = a^tA (2)

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 Here, e2 is the logarithmic strain parallel to the band, cr, is
the true stress normal to the band, t denotes the current
thickness and the superscripts ( )A and ( )B refer to quantities
defined outside and inside the band, respectively.
The sheet material is characterized by an elastic-plastic
constitutive law relating principal value of increments of true
stress and logarithmic strain by,
in=L. •nt& (3)
where La& are the plane stress moduli. Here, and sub-
sequently, the summation convention is employed with Greek
indices ranging from 1 to 2 and Latin indices from 1 to 3, with
the 1-direction normal to the band, the 2-direction parallel to Here, u and w are the horizontal and vertical components,
the band and the 3-direction normal to the plane of the sheet.
The through-the-thickness strain increment, e3, can be sheet.
related to the in-plane strain increments in the form,
ii=i/t = yja (4) circumferential directions, respectively, and remain fixed
Writing (2) in incremental form and employing (3) and (4) The displacement increment in the direction currently
yields,
(L?1+.f7f)-^=(-^)(Z,f1+otV)
where p, the imposed strain ratio is given by
e
2 The constitutive equation relating the Kirchhoff stress rate
~def
The onset of localized necking occurs when,
def
def
so that, from (5), local necking takes place when the condition
Lf,+of7f=0
is met.
3 Analysis of Localized Necking in Punch Stretching
As in [9] the punch stretching problem considered is that of
an initially flat circular thin sheet of radius R, clamped along
its periphery and stretched over a rigid hemispherical punch
of radius A. The assumptions made in formulating the
problem include: (i) The sheet thickness is much smaller than
the punch radius and the sheet radius, so that plane stress
conditions prevail, (ii) The problem is axisymmetric so that no
field quantities depend on the circumferential coordinate, and
the displacement in the circumferential direction vanishes, (iii)
When the sheet is in contact with the punch, the interfacial
force obeys Coulomb's law. Accordingly, if the interfacial
pressure between the punch and the sheet is p, the friction
force is of magnitude (txp), where fj. is the coefficient of
friction.
A material point is identified by its initial distance, r, from
the axis of symmetry. Within the framework of membrane
theory, with the undeformed configuration as reference, the
principle of virtual work takes the form [9]
with the logarithmic strain increments given by
du \ du dw dw
[(••£) dr dr dr ] (9)
[('•£)'•(£)']
r+u
respectively, of the displacement of a material point in the
Subscripts 1 and 2 in (8) denote the first and second
principal directions, which, here, coincide with the radial and
relative to the material throughout the deformation process.
tangential to the sheet surface, u,, is introduced to simplify
the expression for the external virtual work and is given by
ii, = u • t (10)
where t is the tangent vector to the sheet in the current con-
(5) figuration.
The principal Kirchhoff stresses ra, in (8), are related to the
corresponding principal Cauchy stresses aa by
ra=Joa (11)
where J is the ratio of a volume element in the deformed
configuration to that in the undeformed configuration.
(6)
to the Lagrangian strain rate is written as
Ta=Lai}£0 (12)
The form of the instantaneous elastic-plastic moduli LH/9
arising from Gurson's constitutive model [6, 7] of a porous
plastic solid will be discussed in the next section.
The interfacial pressure p between the punch and the sheet
is given by membrane theory as
(7) P=^(.Tl+T2) (13)
If the sheet thickness is initially uniform, as assumed here,
substituting (13) into (8) permits /„ to be cancelled on both
sides of the equation. Thus, the absolute sheet thickness does
not enter into the calculation.
Further details of the formulation employed here are given
in [9]. As noted there, the present formulation is consistent
with that of Budiansky and Wang [16], when the latter is
specialized to the axisymmetric case.
4 Constitutive Relation for Porous Elastic-Plastic
Solids
The constitutive relation employed in this study is one
proposed by Gurson for void-containing materials [6]. In the
problem investigated here, principal axes remain fixed relative
to the material so that a simplified formulation appropriate
for this situation will be presented. For notational con-
venience, we introduce a vector U defined as
t/, = l / = 1,2 and 3
so that (XjUj) gives the sum of the components of a vector x,

du dSti dw ddw it 6ii

+ T, t0r dr = {-jxp+—ut\bu,r dr (8)
Jo I / ' 6 6 ' +
^z 6 ^ +r
' V dr dr + dr dr )

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 and (cUj) represents a vector with all its components being
equal to c.
Based on an analysis of a single spherical void in a spherical
shell, including several simplifying approximations, for
example, the change of void shape is neglected so that the
yield function remains effectively isotropic, Gurson [6]
proposed the following approximate form for the yield
surface of a randomly voided solid containing a volume
fraction,/, of voids.
+ 2 / cosh
(t) -l-/2=0 (14)
with the equivalent stress ae for plane stress problems,
defined as
<r/ = o / - o"iff2+ a{
Here, a, are the macroscopic stresses acting on the voided
material, and a is the tensile flow strength of the matrix
material. This yield condition resembles the von Mises yield
condition, but whenever there is a non-vanishing void volume
fraction, / , there is an effect of the mean normal stress
1/3(07 £ / , ) o n plastic flow.
The equivalent plastic tensile strain of the matrix, £p, is
taken to be given by the equivalent plastic work expression [6]
p sV27T
{\-f)di = 0iif (15)
where (1 - / ) is the volume fraction of the matrix. The matrix
material is assumed to undergo isotropic hardening so that
-(r-r) (16)
where the matrix tangent modulus, E,, is the slope of the
uniaxial true stress-natural strain curve which is taken to be of
the form
(17)
m \ o\, / m J
and e = CT/E for a < ay. Here, ay is the matrix yield strength,
E is Young's modulus and m is the strain hardening exponent.
The change in void volume fraction during an increment of
deformation contains two parts; one due to the growth of
existing voids, and the other due to the nucleation of new
voids.
/ = ( / ) g r o w , h + ( / ) nucleation (18)
where
(/)grow«h=(l-/)(ef^) (19)
and
</)„ --M,o + M- (20)
(T*'U')
Here, the parameters Mx and M2 represent the dependence of
the nucleation rate on the increment of the flow stress of the
matrix and on the increment of hydrostatic stress, respec-
tively.
The second phase particles present in conventional metals
and alloys are the primary source of internal cavitation, at
least at temperatures near room temperature, although other
void nucleating sites may contribute in certain circumstances
[11]. Voids initiate either by cracking of the particles or by
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decohesion of the particle matrix interface. In (19), the voids
are assumed to grow as spherical cavities once they nucleate.
This is a more appropriate idealization in the circumstance in
which void nucleation takes place by particle debonding
rather than particle cracking.
Assuming plastic strain controlled void nucleation, as
suggested by Gurson's [6, 7] analysis of the data on a
spheroidized carbon steel obtained by Gurland [10] and, by
Goods and Brown [11] in their review of the micromechanics
of void nucleation, then (19) reduces to
/m , = M , f f : •-Fep
where F, introduced in [15], is Mj • h and is interpreted as
(21)
the volume fraction of particles converted to voids per unit
plastic strain. In general F can depend on the history of the
plastic strain and, also, on the history of the hydrostatic
stress. Undoubtedly, F depends in some complicated fashion
on the statistics of the particle spacing. Considerations of the
statistics of particle spacing have been discussed by Argon, et
al. [14] and Gurson [6, 7]. Here, we adopt the simple
idealization that there is a mean equivalent plastic strain for
nucleation, £N, and that the nucleation strain is distributed in
a normal fashion about that mean. Thus,
F= ,(L^y (22)
where s is the standard deviation of the distribution and \p is
determined so that the total void volume nucleated is con-
sistent with the volume fraction of particles. By varying the
standard deviation, s, a varying range of strain over which
most of the voids nucleate can be modelled. As noted
previously, an analysis of plane strain shear band localization
[15], suggests that void nucleation taking place over a narrow
range may have a significantly destabilizing effect. A narrow
range of nucleation strains would be anticipated for
homogeneously distributed uniform particles, so that a given
macroscopic stress and deformation state would give rise to
very similar conditions at the particle-matrix interfaces. In
fact, some recent studies, in simple tension, of a spheroidized
low carbon steel [5] and an Al-Mn alloy [17] have found
certain small particles that do tend to nucleate within a very
narrow range of strain.
In the studies by Argon, et al. [12-14], it was suggested that
the nucleated criterion depends only on the maximum stress
transmitted across the particle-matrix interface. As in [15], we
will employ a + akk/i as an approximate measure of this
maximum stress. Thus, for this maximum normal stress
criterion, (20) becomes
Jm ,=K(a+akkn) (23)
Although like F, K could in general depend on the defor-
mation and hydrostatic stress history, here it will be assumed
to follow a normal distribution about some mean value, oN so
that
1
/6+ — aiUi-aN \ 2
(24)
K=
S0y^/2ir
The consistency condition, which holds during the plastic
loading process, requires
dd> d<b d<t> •
</,= — ! - j + - I - 0-+ - ^ / = 0 (25)
6V, OCT Of
By substituting (14)-(20) into (25), the plastic strain in-
crement for loading is then obtained as
July 1980, Vol. 102/251
 5 Numerical Results for In-Plane Sheet Stretching
*-5(T7+-"')(7|+'K'')« <26)
A numerical solution to (5) was obtained by the incremental
procedure described in [2]. To start a computation, the intitial
where conditions inside and outside the neck are specified. Here, the

M,
H-- (^)*-d(coshE-/) 04 + 3(l-./)a (27)
1 1-/ 1-/
E, E, E
and
initial thickness ratio (tA/tB)a is taken to be unity and the
matrix strain hardening exponent, m, and the matrix yield
1 a,U,
** = - •+2aE strain, ty, are taken to be uniform throughout the sheet.
Figure 1 illustrates the effect of varying the range of strain
(28) over which voids nucleate on forming limit curves, that is
curves of the dependence of the limit strains on the imposed
a=—/sinhE 0= a+-~(coshL-f)d strain ratio, p, defined by (6).
The circumstances modelled in Fig. 1 correspond to a
material containing two species of void nucleating particles.
The loading condition is One species debonds and, therefore, nucleates voids,
essentially at the beginning of the deformation history, while
the other species has a mean nucleation strain, eN, of 0.5. The
1 ns,
1(^)4 >. matrix strain hardening exponent, m, is taken to be 5 and the
matrix yield strain, ey, is 0.001.
A difference in initial void concentration, A/ 0 , where
In equation (26) the vector form in the first parenthesis
Afo=foB-f$ (33)
gives the direction of the plastic flow, and the vector in the
second parenthesis points in a direction normal to the yield acts as the initial inhomogeneity.
surface in stress space. For comparison purposes, the dashed curve in Fig. 1
Therefore, the plastic strain increment is normal to the yield displays the forming limit curve for an initial inhomogeneity,
surface in stress space only when a = @, or from (28), when A/ 0 , of 0.01, with no subsequent void nucleation. Although
M2 = 0 . the computations in Fig. 1 were carried out with/g zero, the
The elastic strain increment is given by forming limit curve depends primarily on A/0 and not
significantly on the separate values of/o and/g 9 (at least for
1 fft and/ 0 B small), as noted in [2].
— « 1 + I 0 5 „ - , £ / , £ / , } a, (29) For each of the other two curves displayed in Fig. 1, the
amplitude, \p, of the Gaussian (22), which gives the total
where v is Poisson's ratio. Writing the total strain increment volume fraction of voids nucleated by debonding of the
as the sum of the elastic and plastic strain increments, and second species of particles discussed above is 0.04. These
inverting the sum of (26) and (29), we obtain particles are assumed to be uniformly dispersed so that the
value of \j/ is the same inside and outside the neck.
°i = Cuij
When the voids nucleate over a rather broad range of
with strain, 5 = 0.1, the shape of the forming limit curve is not

3 Si l+v \/3S, l+v \~)

C ,J, = — f5l7v -I- —^— Ui JU:-\h(
(30a)
1 + 1/t 1-2J» ' \ 2 a 1-2

Here, X is zero for unloading, unity for loading and
By considering the relation between the Kirchhoff stress
rate and the Cauchy stress rate, as in [9],
;,=C, y e,
with
Cjj = J Cjj - 28u T, 4- T, Uj (no summation)
Employing the plane stress condition, b3 = i3 = 0, in (30a)
and (306), gives the plane stress moduli as
Lap = Cap — C a 3 C3(3 / C33
^•a/3 =
^ a / 3 — C<*3 C 3/ 3 / C 3 3
Also, from this same condition, ye in (4) are
7/3= -C3p/Ci3
significantly altered. The maximum effect on the limit strain
is at equal biaxial tension, where the limit strain is lowered by
0.02. However, when nucleation occurs over a very narrow
range of strain, s = 0.01, the forming limit curve changes
shape, taking on the peaked shape depicted in Fig. 1.
As can be seen in Fig. 1, for strain states near plane strain (p
= 0), the three curves coincide. In this regime the onset of
localized necking is due to the initial inhomogeneity, A/ 0 , and
void nucleation plays essentially no role.
(30ft)
For larger values of the strain ratio, p, the material inside
the neck reaches the nucleation strain, tN, at an earlier stage
than the material outside. When nucleation occurs over a
narrow range of strain, so that voids are being nucleated
inside the neck but not outside, the material inside the neck is
severely weakened relative to the material outside. This
difference in stiffness between the material inside the band
(31) and that outside promotes early localized necking. When the
range of strain over which nucleation occurs is broadened,
nucleation occurs outside the band as well as inside the band
so that, although the material inside the neck is substantially
(32) weakened, the difference in stiffness between the material

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 Fig. 1 Forming limit curves for a sheet with an initial inhomogeneity
Af0 = 0.01, strain hardening exponent m = 5 and a plastic strain
controlled nucleation process with nucleation strain iN = 0.5, the
amplitude of the nucleation function \fr = 0.04 and various standard
deviations, s. The dashed curve is for the case with nucleation
neglected.
Fig. 3 Forming limit curves for a sheet with an initial inhomogeneity
AfQ =0.01, a plastic strain controlled nucleation process with
nucleation strain tN = 0.5, the standard deviation s = 0.01 and the
amplitude of the nucleation function 4, = 0.04, and various strain
hardening exponents, m. The dashed curves are for cases with
nucleation neglected.

Fig. 2 Forming limit curves for a sheet with an initial inhomogeneity
Af0 = 0.01, strain hardening exponent m = 5 and a plastic strain
controlled nucleation process with standard deviation s = 0.01, the
amplitude of the nucleation function ^ = 0.04 and various nucleation
strains, tN. The dashed curve is for the case with nucleation neglected.
Fig. 4 Forming limit curves for a sheet with an initial inhomogeneity
A/Q = 0.01, strain hardening exponent m = 5 and a particle/matrix
normal interfacial stress controlled void nucleation process with the
nucleation normal stress a N /(T y =6.4, the amplitude of the nucleation
function K = 0.04 and various standard deviations, s. The dashed curve
is for the case with nucleation neglected.

inside the neck and outside the neck is less than when from a homogeneous one. Hence, in this regime, although the
nucleation occurs over a narrow range of strain. This general magnitudes of fA and fB increase abruptly when the
weakening slightly depresses the forming limit curve. nucleation strain is reached, A/is not significantly altered and
However, for states near equal biaxial tension (p = 1), the this portion of forming limit curve differs little from the one
sudden weakening induced by a narrow range of nucleation obtained with nucleation neglected. For intermediate values
strain results in localized necking being virtually coincident of the strain ratio, p, nucleation occurs at a stage of the
with nucleation. deformation history where significant inhomogeneity has
Figure 2 displays the effect of the magnitude of the developed, resulting in a preferential weakening of the neck.
nucleation strain on the forming limit curve. As in Fig. 1, m For strain states near plane strain (p = 0), localized necking,
= 5, ey = 0.001 andA/0 = 0.01. The values of the amplitude, promoted by the initial inhomogeneity, occurs prior to
\p, and standard deviation, s, of the Gaussian (22) are fixed at significant nucleation.
\f/ = 0.04 and * = 0.01, corresponding to a narrow -ange of The effect of the strain hardening exponent, m, on the
nucleation strain. forming limit curve with the parameters characterizing the
The dashed curve, corresponding to no void nucleation and initial void distribution and void nucleation fixed at A/0 =
the curve with eN = 0.5 are reproduced from Fig. 1. When the 0.01, eN = 0.5, V- = 0.04 and s = 0.01 is illustrated in Fig. 3.
nucleation strain, e^, is increased from eN =0.5 to eN = 0.7, For a lightly hardening material, m = 12, localized necking
the levelling off of the forming limit curve is delayed. takes place prior to nucleation. For a high hardening material,
Decreasing the nucleation strain from eN = 0.5 to eN = 0.3, nucleation is destabilizing for states near plane strain (p = 0),
markedly delays the onset of necking for strain states near but has a stabilizing effect for states near equal biaxial tension
equal biaxial tension (p = 1). This stabilizing effect arises (p = 1). In this latter regime, all voids have been nucleated
from the fact that nearly all nucleation takes place early in the well before localized necking, which results in a greater
deformation history while the strain state differs only slightly relative loss of stiffness outside the neck than inside the neck.

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 0.15 r
0.18

/^Y»-"h/A=0.84
IT ^ ^ - h / A = 0.828 ^ «0.1
M=0.75 ,_ 0.1 5
h/A=o 781
Z
O
//\3^" '
h-
/ O ^ \ V - h / A = 0.687
h/A = 0 . 6 3 7 o
< 0.1 2 /\\r- h
^A =0.829
h/A= 0 . 6 0 7 or ~S/
h/A = 0656
h/A = 0 . 6 0 6 Ul
/ X~~^\ 3n
3
_l
O
0.09 - \ Is"'' V\V^Jir- h / A = 0 - 6 1 1
> V^\\U~h/A = 0.439
Q
O
-n)
> 0.06 €^-—
£

0.03 i i i —Ss^
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
r/R
Fig. 5(b)

Fig. 5 Void volume fraction distributions at various stages of the

deformation history for m = 5, 1Q = 0.03 and (a) n = 0.10, (b) *i = 0.75.
Void nucleation is plastic strain controlled, with tn = 0.5, s = 0.01 and
4- = 0.04. The dashed curves are taken from [9] with nucleation
neglected.

The curves with m = 5, are reproduced from Fig. 1. Similar
peaked forming limit curves (not shown here) were obtained
with m = 2 for eN = 0.7 and with m = 12 for eN = 0.3.
As illustrated by these results, the shape of the forming
limit curve, when nucleation is strain controlled, is sensitive to
the stage of the deformation history at which nucleation takes
place.
Some results of calculations carried out employing the
stress controlled nucleation model (24) are shown in Fig. 4.
The critical value of the approximate measure of the particle-
matrix interfacial strength, aN, is chosen as the value of (a +
1/3 a, (J,) in uniaxial tension corresponding to the value eN =
0.5, which gives aN/ay = 6.4 for m = 5. Two values of the
standard deviation, s = 0.02 and s = 0.2, are considered,
which roughly give the same breadth of the distribution (in
strain) as obtained with s = 0.01 and s = 0.1 for the strain
controlled nucleation model. As depicted in Fig. 4, the stress
controlled nucleation model tends to delay the onset of
localized necking. This, arises because, although the matrix
equivalent flow strength, <r, is higher in the neck than outside,
the mean normal stress, 1/3 0-,-t/,-, is sufficiently lower in the
neck to result in the sum (<r + 1/3 a,C/,) being smaller in the
neck than outside the neck. Hence, nucleation occurs earlier
in the deformation history outside the neck. It is important to
note in this regard that, in the present plane stress framework,
the enhancement of the hydrostatic stress due to necking, as
discussed in [18,19], is neglected.
6 Numerical Results for Punch Stretching
A finite element method, described in [9], which accounts
for the moving boundary conditions and the frictional force
in the contact region was employed to obtain a solution to the
axisymmetric punch stretching problem described in Section
3. Attention here is focussed on the out-of-plane forming
limit diagrams obtained employing the model of a material
containing two types of void nucleating particles, with plastic
strain controlled nucleation. As in the previous section, it is
assumed that one type of particle nucleates voids essentially at
the beginning of the deformation history, giving rise to an
intitial void volume fraction f0, here taken a s / 0 = 0.01 or
0.03. The other type of particle has a distribution of
nucleation strains obeying (22) with mean nucleation strain e^
= 0.5, standard deviation s = 0.01, corresponding to
nucleation taking place over a narrow range of strain, and
amplitude \p = 0.04.
In contrast to the in-plane sheet stretching case, the initial
void volume fraction in the case of punch stretching is taken
to be uniform throughout the sheet. The strain gradients that
arise from the onset of deformation lead to the spatially
nonuniform growth (and nucleation) of voids in punch
stretching.
Shown in Fig. 5 are void volume fraction distributions at
various stages of the deformation history for m = 5, / 0 =
0.03 and for two values of n. For a high value of the frictional
coefficient, fi = 0.75, the nucleation strain is reached after a
distinct peak strain has been developed. The weakening due to
the newly nucleated voids thus cause an immediate formation
of a local neck, which is earlier, although by only less than
one percent of strain, than that for the case without
nucleation considered in [9]. For a low value of the coefficient
of friction, n = 0.1, the more uniform strain state near the
pole results in the weakening effect of the newly nucleated
voids being operative over the central sheet area, as illustrated
in Fig. 5(b). In this case, since nucleation weakens a rather
broad area, it tends to reduce stiffness gradients and, thus,
does not accelerate the formation of a local neck. The dashed
curves in Fig. 5 are taken from [9] where void nucleation was
not included in the analysis and are included for comparison
purposes.
The numerical results also show that void nucleation shifts
the peak strain position somewhat toward the pole for low
frictional coefficients. If unloading, which marks the stage at
which a noticeable thickness trough starts to form, as
demonstrated in [9], is chosen as the limit state, the forming
limit curve obtained here then coincides with the classical flow
theory prediction. However, the limit strain state
corresponding to a fixed small value of the frictional coef-
ficient is slightly closer to the equal biaxial tension state. As
will be noted subsequently, due to the relatively large volume
fraction of voids, ductile rupture may precede the occurrence
of this limit state.
A typical void volume fraction history, at a fixed material

254/Vol. 102, July 1980 Transactions of the ASME

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 -
m = 5
f„=0.03

_ 0.15 fL = 0.75
/ / 1 /
WITH NUCLEATION '
, \ ' / ''
NO N U C L E A T I O N / \ 1

/ / ''

— /[ /
\ i
i
J / \ i

- 6
J/
U h / A / ^J fo = O.OI

^ _ 4- " l i i i
0.2 0.6 0.8

Fig. 6 The void volume fraction history as a function of the punch

depth, h/A, and the major strain, t,, form = 5, f0 = 0.03 and p = 0.75.
Void nucleation is plastic strain controlled, with e N =0.5, s = 0.01 and
ii = 0.04. The dashed curves are for the case with nucleation neglected.

Fig. 8 Forming limit curves and fracture strain curves corresponding

to two assumed values of the void volume fraction at coalescence,
'max = ° - 1 1 a n d ° - 1 2 ' a n d m = 5> 'o = °- 0 3 - T h e dashed curve is an
experimentally measured fracture strain curve from [21].

a somewhat lowered maximum load, although the onset of

Fig. 7 Normalized punch load versus punch depth for m = 5, f0 =
0.03 and two values of the coefficient of friction, JI = 0.1 and 0.75. Void
nucleation is plastic strain controlled, with tN = 0.5, s = 0.01 and \p =
0.04.
point, as a function of the punch depth, h/A, and the major
strain, e,, is plotted in Fig. 6 for the case with m = 5, /„ =
0.03 and /* = 0.75. The dashed curves in the figure are taken
from [9] for comparison purposes. The arrows indicate the
onset of unloading. It is seen that approximately the same
trend for the rate of void growth is followed after the new
voids have been nucleated as for the case without nucleation.
Displayed in Fig. 7 are the punch load-punch depth curves
for two values of (x, that is, /x = 0.1 and 0.75, and m = 5,/ 0
= 0.03. The dashed curve again is taken from [9] to compare
with the present results. The cases with void nucleation exhibit
unloading (marked by an arrow) occurs at virtually the same
value of punch depth with and without nucleation.
Shown in Fig. 8 is the forming limit curve (solid line) that
results from identifying the onset of localized necking with the
occurrence of unloading at some point in the sheet. As
discussed in [9], this coincides with the formation of a marked
thickness trough. As also found in [9], this curve is essentially
independent of the initial void volume fraction. Furthermore,
as exhibited in Fig. 8, the occurrence of void nucleation does
not noticeably alter this curve.
However, as illustrated in Fig. 5 rather large void volume
fraction can be achieved, even prior to the onset of unloading
(Fig. 5(b)). A number of approximate models for void
coalescence (see e.g. Brown and Embury [20]), although
differing in detail, essentially require the development of a
slip plane between voids and lead to a critical void spacing at
coalescence equal to a constant of order unity times the void
radius. Translating a critical void spacing into a critical
volume fraction of voids requires a knowledge of the spatial
distribution of voids. An arbitrary, but representative range
of the maximum void volume fraction at coalescence / max
suggested by this approach lies between 0.10 and 0.16.
Fracture strain curves obtained by adopting several values of
/ max within this range are displayed in Fig. 8. Also shown in
this figure is the experimental fracture strain curve obtained
by Ghosh [21]. Although, the level of the fracture strain curve
(for an adopted value of / max ) depends significantly on the
initial value of f0, the slope of the curve does not. Fur-
thermore, calculations carried out employing a value of the
strain hardening exponent, m = 8, gave virtually the same

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 slope of the fracture strain curve. The slope of the curves comments and mention that we appreciate their careful
obtained from the numerical calculations carried out here reviews of our manuscript.
agrees with those in [9], where nucleation was neglected, and
is in reasonable agreement with the slope of Ghosh's [21]
experimental curve. References
Forming limit curves, corresponding to various values of 1 Puttick, K. E., "Ductile Fracture in Metals," Philosophical Magazine,
the maximum void volume fraction at coalescence, / m a x , are. Vol.4, 1959, p. 964.
displayed in Fig. 8. These curves exhibit a peak limit strain at 2 Needleman, A., and Triantafyllidis, N., "Void Growth and Local
some strain state between plane strain and equal biaxial Necking in Biaxially Stretched Sheets," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING
tension, with the formation of a thickness trough preceding MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 100, 1978, p. 164.
3 Jalinier, J. L., Salsmann, J. L., and Baudelet, B., "Strain Hardening and
ductile rupture on the ascending branch of the curve and with Damage," Mechanical Behavior of Materials, University of Cambridge,
ductile rupture preceding any significant thickness trough on England, 1979.
the descending branch. 4 Jalinier, J. M., and Baudelet, B., "Theoretical Analysis of the Influence
of Damage on the Shape and Position of the Forming Limit Diagram and on
the Strain-Path and Thickness Effects," Proceedings of the IDDRG, Warwick,
England, 1978.
7 Concluding Remarks 5 LeRoy, G. H., "Large Scale Plastic Deformation and Fracture for
Multiaxial Stress States," Ph.D. thesis, McMaster Univ., 1978.
The results of the present analysis indicate that the effect of 6 Gurson, A. L., "Plastic Flow and Fracture Behavior of Ductile Materials
void nucleation on the shape of in-plane forming limit curves Incorporating Void Nucleation, Growth and Interaction," Ph.D. thesis, Brown
is sensitive, within the adopted framework, to the parameters Univ., 1975.
characterizing the void nucleation process. In certain cir- 7 Gurson, A. L., "Continuum Theory of Ductile Rupture by Void
Nucleation and Growth: Part 1 - Yield Criteria and Flow Rules for Porous
cumstances, when nucleation has an effective greater Ductile Materials," ASME JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND
weakening effect outside the incipient neck than inside, void TECHNOLOGY, Vol. 99, 1977, p. 2.
nucleation can delay the onset of localized necking beyond 8 Marciniak, A., and Kuczynski, K., "Limit Strains in the Process of
when it would take place in the absence of void nucleation. In Stretch Forming Sheet Metal," International Journal of the Mechanical
other circumstances, void nucleation can have a marked Sciences, Vol. 9, 1967, p. 609.
9 Chu, C. C , "An Analysis of Localized Necking in Punch Stretching,"
destabilizing effect. Int. J. Solids. Struct., in press.
Only one set of parameters characterizing the void 10 Gurland, J., "Observations on the Fracture of Cementite Particles in a
nucleation process was studied in punch stretching, which Spheroidized 1.05%C Steel Deformed at Room Temperature," Acta
Metallurgica, Vol. 20, 1972, p. 735.
corresponds to plastic strain controlled nucleation occurring 11 Goods, S. H., and Brown, L. M., "The Nucleation of Cavities by Plastic
over a narrow range of strain. The shape of the out-of-plane Deformation," Acta Metallurgica, Vol. 27, 1979, p. 1.
forming limit diagrams obtained employing a maximum void 12 Argon, A. S., lm, J., and Needleman, A., "Distribution of Plastic Strain
volume fraction criterion for coalescence do not differ and Negative Pressure in Necked Steel and Copper Bars," Metallurgical
Transactions, Vol. 6A, 1975, p. 815.
significantly in shape from those obtained in [9] where void 13 Argon, A. S., Im, J., and Safoglu, R., "Cavity Formation from In-
nucleation was neglected. For this set of void nucleation clusions in Ductile Fracture," Metallurgical Transactions, Vol. 6A, 1975, p.
parameters, the shape of the in-plane forming limit curve is 825.
significantly altered compared with the corresponding case 14 Argon, A. S., and Im., J., "Separation of Inclusions in Spheroidized
with nucleation neglected. This suggests that the shape of out- 1045 Steel, Cu-0.6% Cr Alloy, and Maraging Steel in Plastic Straining,"
Metallurgical Transactions, Vol. 6A, 1975, p. 839.
of-plane forming limit curves is not as sensitive to the void 15 Needleman, A., and Rice, J. R., "Limits to Ductility Set by Plastic Flow
nucleation criterion as is the shape of in-plane forming limit Localization," Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming, Plenum Press, New York,
curves. 1978, p. 237.
16 Wang, N. M., and Budiansky, B., "Analysis of Sheet Metal Stamping by
We find that in punch stretching, for strain states near a Finite Element Method," ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 45,
plane strain, high values of the void fraction tend to be 1978, p. 73.
confined to the thickness trough, whereas for strain states 17 Melander, A., "Ductile Fracture in an Al-Mn Alloy," Scandinavian
near equal biaxial tension (at least for the particular Journal of Metallurgy, due to appear in 1979.
nucleation criterion employed here), the region significantly 18 Needleman, A., "Three Dimensional Considerations in Localized
Necking of Biaxially Stretched Sheets," in Formability: Analysis, Modeling
weakened by voids is a substantial fraction of the sheet area. and Experimentation, edited by Hecker, S. S., Ghosh, A. K., and Gegel, H. L.,
1978, p. 54.
19 Hutchinson, J. W., Neale, K. W., and Needleman, A., "Sheet Necking-I.
Validity of Plane Stress Assumptions of the Long-Wavelength Ap-
Acknowledgment proximation," Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming, Plenum Press, New York,
1978,p. 111.
The support of this work by the Materials Research 20 Brown, L. M., and Embury, J. D., "The Initiation and Growth of Voids
Laboratory at Brown University, funded by the National at Second Phase Particles," Abstracts, Third International Conference on
Strength of Metals and Alloys, Institute of Metals, London, 1973.
Science Foundation under Grant No. DMR76-80560, is
21 Ghosh, A. K., "Plastic Flow Properties in Relation to Localized Necking
gratefully acknowledged. in Sheets," Mechanics of Sheet Metal Forming, Plenum Press, New York,
We would like to thank the reviewers for their helpful 1978, p. 268.

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