Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation

Journal homepages: www.e-jotr.com & www.ejotr.org

History of Orthopaedics

Hippocratic Medicine in China: Comparison with a 9th Century

Chinese Manual on Bone Setting
希波克拉醫學與中國 - 第九世紀的中國跌打手冊與希波克拉醫學文獻庫之
比較
Louis Fu
Department of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Chinese history annals recorded cultural interchange between China and the Roman Empire during the
Received 7 February 2014 Han dynasty. The first medical missionaries were Nestorian Christians from the Middle East who arrived
Accepted 8 February 2014 in China in AD 635. They introduced Western medical practice into China. This paper compares the first
comprehensive Chinese treatise on bone and joint injuries by a hermit monk named Lin and the Hip-
Keywords: pocratic Corpus. Based on external knowledge from the author's background as well as textural com-
bone setting parison the text of Hippocrates, a remarkable similarity is noted. Although these similarities could have
Chinese medicine
arisen by chance, it is reasonable to hypothesize that traditional bone setting in China originated from
Hippocratic Corpus
history of medicine
the Hippocratic tradition and was later integrated with indigenous herbal medicine.

中 文 摘 要

中國歷史史冊有證據顯示中國和羅馬帝國之間的文化交流在漢代已經出現。第一羣醫療傳教士來到中國始於
公元635年，他們是來自中東的景教基督徒，把西方的醫術引進中國。於是就有了第一個對中西醫學經典的
全面性比較之研究，它以一個自稱藺道人之隱士所著作的【中國骨傷手册】和西方的希波克拉底醫學文獻庫
作對比，在作者的背景和希氏的文獻內容分析，有着明顯的相似性。雖然可能是偶然發生的，然而照合理的
推論使然，中國的固有跌打術可能源於希氏的醫學傳統，後與土產草藥醫療融合起來。
註: 中國的首本骨科著作I仙授理傷續斷秘方J————自漢代末，古羅馬帝國巳與中國交往。西方醫學源自
希臘醫學之父希波克拉底；當中不少學說亦隨啇人傳教士東來，最早到者乃基督教之景教派。唐朝會昌年間
有一自稱藺道人之隱士著有【骨傷手册】，流傳至今，其中不乏與西方希氏之治療方法有異曲同工之處。更
有學者推斷藺氏乃西方東來之景教徒，因受迫害而隱居山中。然而中西方之骨關節創傷學也可以是各自發展
形成，相同之虎亦可能純屬巧合而矣！

Introduction: Eastewest cultural interchanges “[In AD 667] an envoy from Fu-lin [Syrian province of the Roman
Empire] offered ti-ya-cha [theriac, antidote against all poisons]”
Since the days of the Roman Empire, there has been commu-
nication between China and the West through the silk route, as
And in the New History of the T0ang Dynasty2,4:
documented in the standard histories of China, such as the History
of the Later Han Dynasty1,2: “There are clever physicians in Ta-ch’in who open the brain to
extract worms and cure blindness.”
“The nation of Ta-ch’in [Eastern part of Roman Empire] is to the
west of the great sea. [In AD 166] an envoy from King An-tun
[Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, AD 121e180] came to
China, bearing gifts of ivory, rhinoceros horns, and tortoise shells.” Entry of Western medicine into China

Later, in the Old History of the T’ang Dynasty2,3: After the banishment of the Patriarch of Constantinople Nes-
torius in AD 431, his teachings spread throughout the Eastern
E-mail: louisfu@kinetics.hk. churches.5 There was a strong missionary spirit among them during

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jotr.2014.09.001
2210-4917/Copyright © 2014, The Hong Kong Orthopaedic Association and Hong Kong College of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Published by Elsevier (Singapore) Pte Ltd. All rights reserved.
 L. Fu / Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135
the 7th and 8th centuries.6e8 Nestorian Christians were famous in
western Asia for their medical skills.9 They translated many Greek
medical works into Arabic.2 It is reasonable to conclude that they
also introduced Western medical practices into China.10,11
Alternating between periods of xenophobia and receptiveness
in Chinese history, the T0ang dynasty (AD 618e906) opened its doors
to foreigners of every order. Missionaries were welcomed, bringing
fresh streams of foreign thoughts. Interaction with India, central
Asia, and the Near East was carried out via trade routes.6 Chris-
tianity following trade routes had been strongest in commercial
centres. The capital Hsi-an-fu (modern Hsi-an in Shen-shi Province
in northwestern China) was a cosmopolitan meeting place where
Arabs, Persians, and Syrians met with Koreans, Japanese, and Ti-
betans to discuss literature and religion with Chinese scholars.12 A
monument erected in 781 commemorating the “diffusion of the
brilliant doctrine of Ta-ch’in through the Middle Kingdom” was
unearthed in 1625 at Hsi-an-fu.6,7 It documented the arrival of a
missionary A-lo-pen (Olupun, or Ruben, an apostle) from the em-
pire of Ta-ch’in in AD 635. On the monument is the following
inscription indicative of the medical mission of this religious sect:
“The hungry came and were fed, the naked came and were
clothed, the sick were attended to and restored, the dead were
buried in repose.”13,14
The first Chinese treatise on bone and joint injuries
A manual dedicated to bone and joint injuries surfaced around
AD 846, attributed to a hermit named Lin Tao-jen (literally Lin, a man
of the Way, c. AD 790e850): the Secret prescriptions from immortals
for the treatment of injuries and bone setting.15 It commences with
practical instructions on management of fractures and dislocations,
followed by formularies of 44 decoctions and drugs for external and
internal applications.
An anonymous author writes in the preface:
“This work is by a hermit-monk during the T0ang dynasty [Em-
peror Wei Chang's reign AD 841e846] … He supported himself by
cultivating maize. A villager named Pang visited him often and
helped in farming. One day Pang's son fell to the ground from a
tree while logging and broke his neck. He was in great pain, Pang
consulted the hermit, who examined the young man, prepared
medicine and administered them personally. Pain was immediate
relieved, after a few days he recovered. Since then many people
came from far and near to seek treatment … He said that he was
Lin Tao-jen from the capital … He drank wine and frequently got
drunk, sang incomprehensible songs … Later the circuit officers of
the province arrived and when they visited the hermit, he was
gone, leaving behind his manual on treating injuries.”15
Lin recommended short splints for limb fractures that leave the
adjacent joints free to move. For compound fractures, he suggested
the following 14 steps in fracture treatment: (1) washing with
boiled water; (2) assessment of injured part; (3) traction; (4)
manipulation; (5) reduction; (6) application of hei-lung-san (liter-
ally black dragon powder, containing raw ginger and onion juice, for
pain relief and reduction of swelling) to the injured site; (7)
application of feng-liu-san [literally wind-flow powder, containing
armadillo flesh, cinnamon, and tang-kuei (Angelica dahurica) for
antisepsis] to any wounds; (8) bandaging and splinting; (9) oral
medication; (10) repeat Step 1; (11) repeat Step 6; (12) repeat Step
7; (13) repeat Step 8; (14) repeat Step 9. Oral herbal medication
administered to improvement circulation and healing, active and
passive movements of the injured limb were encouraged.15
129
The Hippocratic Corpus
“Theory is the flower, not the root of experience”
Hippocrates of Cos
Orthopaedics in the West began in Greece as a branch of surgery
that concerned itself with correction or realigning body deformities
subsequent to injuries. It was closely associated with the tech-
niques of treating athletics injuries in the gymnasium.16 Its foun-
dation is the Hippocratic Corpus. This collection in its extant form
contains 60 or so treatises from 460 BC to 350 BC, corresponding to
the active lifetime of Hippocrates (the Second or the Great) of Cos
(from about 460 BC to 375 BC).17 It is believed that Hippocrates wrote
at least part of the collection to preserve the oral tradition of his
family of Asclepiads. The two treatises e On Fractures and On Joints
e written by the same author, are remarkable for the competence
of the technical analysis and the quality of writing.18 Exuding the
strong personality of the author throughout, these are worthy of
admiration among the surgical writings of the Hippocratic school.19
Rational and accurate, they reflect a profound practical knowledge
and wide experience in the management of these conditions, the
results of a long and profound experience. Traditionally attributed
to the school of Cos, many believe that these were indeed written
by Hippocrates himself.20,21
After the disintegration of the Roman Empire, knowledge of
Hippocratic works continued down to the 7th century in the Middle
East. From the 8th century on, preservation and inquiry depended
on the Arabic translation of Hippocrates. It was through Latin
translations of Arabic authors and then of the Greek works that
Greek medicine was revived in the West.22 These were transmitted
to the Western world via Greek manuscripts compiled by Appol-
lonius of Kitium between 85 BC and AD 51, and by Soranus of Ephesus
in the 2nd century AD.23 They represented the genuine Hippocratic
tradition as transmitted through Greek channels to Byzantium. A
10th century Greek manuscript of the surgical treatises, made by a
Byzantine physician was brought from the East and came into the
possession of the bibliophile Cardinal Ridolfi.24 After the fall of
Constantinople the transcripts fell into Turkish hands, brought to
Crete in 1495 and eventually ended in Florence. At the suggestion of
Ridolfi, Guido Guidi (aka Vidus Vidius, 1508e1569) undertook the
translation.23 The illustrations of the book are copies or in-
terpretations of the original Greek drawings.24 The book, published
in Latin, is entitled Surgery translated into Latin from the Greek by
Vidus Vidius of Florence together with some commentaries by the
same Vidius, Paris 1544.23,25
On fractures
In reducing fractures or dislocations, Hippocrates recommends
one should set it in a straight line, for this is its most natural to do.26
The following are comparable excerpts from the Hippocratic Corpus
and Lin's Secret prescriptions from immortals for the treatment of
injuries and bone setting:
Hippocrates on reduction:
“Make extension in as straight a line as possible, for this is most
conformable with nature … Then apply bandage.”27
Lin on reduction:
“Traction should be applied as near to the fracture as possible,
not beyond the adjacent joint. One, two, or three men should be
employed depending on the situation.”15
130 L. Fu / Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135
Hippocrates on bandaging and splinting:
“The bandage should be clean, light, soft, and thin … The form of
bandage should be suitable to the form and affection of the part
to which it is applied … At the end of the day the pressure
should seem less, and on the third day you should find the
bandages loose … bandage again with a little more pressure …
tighten up the splints, especially at the fracture, and the rest in
proportion. Tighten the splints every third day very slightly ….
When removing the dressing, douche with warm water and
replace it, using a little less pressure and fewer bandages. Apply
loose as possible consistently with firmness”.27
Lin on bandaging:
“Splints and bandages should be changed in two or three days in
summer; three to five days in winter will suffice. Wash the part
with warm decoction, and apply black dragon powder. For wrist,
foot, or finger cover with medicated bandage, mobilize
frequently. Bath swollen part with warm water apply black
dragon powder. Fill in the hollow parts with soft silk cloth. For
splints, use strips of bark tied tightly on three sides of the limb,
leaving spaces in between.”15
For fractures of the distal radius, according to Hippocrates:
“Dislocation can occur volar, dorsal, radial, or ulnar, the com-
monest being volar dislocation with fracture of the distal radial
epiphysis and displacement of the ulna. In these cases the as-
sistants require strong extension. At the same time, the pro-
jecting bone is pressed downward on the table and ulnarly using
the heel or the palm, while the counter-extension is applied to
the depressed part.”27
Lin:
“In protrusion of the hand, if displaced to the right, pull towards
the left; if displaced to the left, pull towards the right. In
applying traction assess the direction of the force, either straight
or oblique.”15
The role of dietetics
Dietetics in Greek medicine is central to all therapeutics. Di-
etetics, built as it was on natural philosophy, was the speculative
core of Hippocratic medicine.28 Rational Hippocratic therapy con-
sists in correcting by diet and drugs, any imbalance of the four
humours (blood, warm and moist; phlegm, cold and moist; black
bile, cold and dry; and yellow bile, warm and dry). This was ach-
ieved by opposing any deviation in one direction by its opposite. To
a minor degree, dietetics also applied to surgery.29 In acute affec-
tions partial withholding of food was held to be indicated; in fevers
and cases of wounding, fluid nourishment.30
To the Chinese, diet plays vital roles in maintaining health and
preventing illnesses. In its earliest from dietetics was concerned
with preparation and administration of foodstuffs in liquids, gruels,
and solids to match the severity of the illness.17 Food is the source of
energy, bodily activities, and foundation of life. Proper food intake is
based on a well-balanced daily diet, avoiding the over- or under-
consumption of a particular flavour.31 Because foodstuffs are usually
free of side effects, dietetics could be advantageously combined with
herbal drug treatment.32 For these two civilizations, to term a sub-
stance a food or a drug is sometimes entirely subjective.
Hippocrates on the role of diet:
“Light diet for cases where there is no open wound, it should be
restricted for the first ten days, seeing that the patients are
resting; and soft foods should be taken … Avoid wine and meat,
afterwards gradually feed him up.”27
Lin's advice on diet:
“Avoid cold dishes, fish, and beef when taking medicine. Med-
icines should be taken warm to promote blood flow and
healing.”
On dislocations
Of all that has been written on orthopaedics, the following
classic description account on shoulder dislocation is probably the
best known and the least altered33:
The classic Hippocratic method:
“The patient must lie on the ground … Then the operator, seizing
with his hand the affected arm to pull it, while with his heel in the
armpit he pushes in the contrary direction … A round ball of
suitable size must be placed in the hollow of the armpit … Another
person must be seated on the other side of the patient to hold the
sound shoulder; a supple piece of thong sufficiently broad is
placed around it, and some person taking hold of its two ends is to
seat himself above the patient's head to make counter-extension,
while at the same time he pushes with his foot against the bone at
the top of the shoulder. Or, place the patient on your shoulder, with
the shoulder in his armpit. Or with the heel, something being
introduced to fill up the hollow of the armpit, using the right foot
to the right shoulder. Or, by rotation made with a piece of wood
stretched below the arm. Or with the step of a ladder.”34
The techniques are illustrated in Figure 1.
Lin on shoulder dislocation:
“In protrusion of the shoulder, support the armpit with a chair
bench covered with cloth, steady the shoulder by one man while
two men pull down the wrist followed by rotation; immobilize
with bandage.”15
The techniques are illustrated in Figure 2.
For hip dislocations, Hippocrates recommends the suspension
(“succussion”) method:
“The patient is to be suspended by the feet from a cross-beam …
When the patient is suspended, a person properly instructed
and not weak, having introduced his arm between his thighs,
place his forearm between the perineum and the dislocated
head of the os femoris; then, having joined the other hand to the
one thus passed through the thighs, he is to stand by the side of
the suspended patient, and suddenly suspend and swing him-
self in the air as perpendicularly as possible. In some, the thigh is
reduced without any apparatus by the aid of slight extension,
such as can be managed with the hands and a little jerking;
while in many flexion of the leg at the joint and making a cir-
cumduction is found to reduce it.”34
The technique is illustrated in Figure 3.
Lin's method for hip dislocations:
“For hip protrusion above the buttock, two or three men pull on
the thigh, reduce with the foot.”15
The technique is illustrated in Figure 4.
 L. Fu / Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135 131

Figure 1. Hippocratic methods for reduction of shoulder dislocation, employing suspension from ladder and cross beam, in addition to manual technique. From a facsimile print of
Guidi's Chirurgia of 1544 in the author's collection.
Note. This illustration is a reproduction of original works published prior to 1923 that are in the public domain in the United States of America, and some other countries. No entity
(individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.

The authorship of the Chinese manual activities inevitably lingered despite their subsequent banish-
ment. From the description of Lin in the preface to his manual, his
After the introduction of GrecoeRomaneArabic medicine into name, appearance, his diet of maize, his wine consumption, and
China by Nestorian missionaries, remnants of their medical his incomprehensible songs all suggest that he could be of foreign
132 L. Fu / Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135

Figure 2. Chinese methods for reduction of shoulder dislocation. Note the resemblance of the suspension technique over the shoulder, and pushing with the foot, to those in
Figure 1. From a facsimile print of a Chinese manual of 1817 in the author's collection.
Note. This illustration is a reproduction of original works published prior to 1923 that are in the public domain in the United States of America, and some other countries. No entity
(individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.

origin. His hermitic existence and his abhorrence of authority Christian in hiding after banishment of that sect by imperial
indicate that he could be a refugee consequent to religious decree.35
persecution by the State. From the above evidence, it has been Such assertions and conclusion on the identity of Lin are caused
hypothesized that Lin was a foreigner, possibly a Nestorian by misinterpretation of the descriptions of him. The title of Tao-jen
 L. Fu / Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135 133

Figure 3. Hippocratic “succussion” for hip and spine injuries. From a facsimile print of Guidi's Chirurgia of 1544 in the author's collection.
Note. This illustration is a reproduction of original works published prior to 1923 that are in the public domain in the United States of America, and some other countries. No entity
(individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.

could be equally applied to Taoist disciples and Buddhist monks.
During the T0ang dynasty, due to influx of foreigners, coconut
container and wine drinking were not unusual even among strict
indigenous religious persons. It was more likely that Lin was a
Chinese Taoist priest. Taoism (signifying a “way of life”), the
indigenous religion of China, had for its purpose the drawing away
of worldly cares to Nature worship. It taught religious, alchemical,
and health methods to attain longevity. It flourished during this
period and had many followers among the literary and elite. It has
been closely associated with traditional medical practice.36 Lin's
134 L. Fu / Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135
Figure 4. Chinese methods for reduction of hip dislocation. Note the resemblance of the suspension method to that of Hippocratic succussion in Figure 3. From a facsimile print of a
Chinese manual of 1817 in the author's collection.
Note. This illustration is a reproduction of original works published prior to 1923 that are in the public domain in the United States of America, and some other countries. No entity
(individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work.
manual is included in an encyclopaedic collection of Taoist works e
the Tao Chuan.37
Discussion
Notwithstanding the uncertainties surrounding Lin, his manual
is the earliest known Chinese treatise entirely on bone and joint
injuries. It represents a continuation and development of ortho-
paedics in China. From the above comparisons with the Hippocratic
Corpus made in this paper there is internal evidence from the
language and treatment techniques that Lin's manual might have
incorporated Hippocratic principles. That such medical interchange
is not impossible is evident in the flourishing trade communica-
tions between China and the West at that time.
Alternatively, it is possible that such similarities in the principles
and techniques of treatment could arise spontaneously and
simultaneously in two widely separated but well-developed civi-
lizations. Such similarities may be coincidental, arising by way of
chance. Four general similarities stand out. Firstly, Greece and
China evolved comparably elaborate cultures with concepts and
languages that could be used to explore every aspect of individual
and collective experience. Secondly, people of both societies saw
the need for such enquiries. Thirdly, specialist groups in both so-
cieties led in many branches of studies, acquiring new knowledge
and understanding. Fourthly, both societies were convinced that
what they learned was necessary to understand the place of human
in the universal scheme of matter, and that this understanding
would be of help in human affairs. In both societies, such in-
vestigations would be of intense value.38 Both China and Greece
had passed through analogous transitions and have left comparable
records from 400 BC to AD 200.
Conclusion
From the comparative analysis in this article, it can reasonably
be concluded that traditional Chinese bone setting contains ideas
analogous to and may be inspired by the Hippocratic Corpus and
later integrated with indigenous herbal medicine.
Conflicts of interest
The author declares that he has no financial or non-financial
conflicts of interest related to the subject matter or materials dis-
cussed in the manuscript.
References
1. Fan Y. History of the Later Han Dynasty: roll 118 account of western territories.
Taipei: Hsin-wen-feng Publishers; 1975. p. 1259e60 [In Chinese].
2. Hirth F. China and the Roman orient: researches into their ancient and mediaeval re-
lations as represented in old Chinese records. Leipzig: Georg Hirth; 1885. p. 40, 55, 59.
3. Liu S. Old history of the T’ang Dynasty: roll 198 account of Fu-lin. Taipei: Hsin-
wen-feng Publishers; 1975. p. 2658e9 [In Chinese].
4. Ouyang S, Sung C. New history of the T’ang Dynasty: roll 221 account of Fu-lin.
Taipei: Hsin-wen-feng Publishers; 1956. p. 2257 [In Chinese].
5. Neill S. The Pelican history of the church vol. 6: a history of church missions. 2nd
edition. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books; 1986. p. 81e4.
6. Latourette KS. A history of Christian missions in China. London: Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge; 1929. p. 46e60.
7. Huc A. Christianity in China, Tartary, and Thibet, vol. 1. London: Longman,
Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts; 1857. p. 1e83.
8. Couling S. The Encyclopaedia Sinica: Nestorian Christians. Hong Kong: Kelly and
Walsh; 1917. p. 394e6.
9. Wong KC, Wu LT. History of Chinese medicine being a chronicle of medical hap-
penings in china from ancient times to the present period. Tientsin: The Tientsin
Press; 1932. p. 259e61.
10. Fang H. History of the communication between China and the West, vo1. 1. Taipei:
China Cultural Publisher; 1953. p. 90e112 [In Chinese].
 L. Fu / Journal of Orthopaedics, Trauma and Rehabilitation 18 (2014) 128e135
11. Chen Y. History of the Introduction of Christianity into China. In: Chan Y, editor.
Collected Essays of Chen Yuan. Shanghai: People’s Publishers; 1981. p. 185e92
[In Chinese].
12. Needham J. Science and civilisation in China, Vol. 1: introductory orientations.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1956. p. 191e206.
13. Bridgman EC. A tablet commemorating the diffusion of the illustrious religion of
Ta-tsin in China. Chinese Repository Vol. XIV. 1845. p. 202e29.
14. Williams SW. The Middle Kingdom, a Survey of the geography, government,
literature, social, life, arts, and history of the Chinese Empire and its inhabitants.
revised edition with illustrations and a new map of the empire, vol. 2. New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons; 1895. p. 275e86.
15. Lin DJ. Secret Prescriptions for Treatment of Injuries and Bone Setting. Beijing:
People’s Health Publishers; 2006. p. 17e30 [In Chinese].
16. Sigerist HE. Ancient medicine Vol. II: Hindu, early Greek and Persian medicine.
New York: Oxford University Press; 1961. p. 260e91.
17. Nutton V. Ancient medicine: Hippocrates, and Hippocratic Corpus and the defi-
nition of medicine; Hippocratic theories; Hippocratic practices. London: Rout-
ledge; 2004. p. 53e102.
18. Jouanna J, DeBevoise MB (translator). Hippocrates: writings in search of an
author; the Treatises of the hippocratic collection. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
University Press; 1999. p. 56e71. 73e416.
19. Castiglioni A, Krumbhaar EB (translator). A history of medicine. New York:
Alfred A Knopf; 1941. p. 148e78.
20. Garrison FH. An introduction to the history of medicine with medical chronology,
suggestions for study and bibliographic data, 4th edition. Philadelphia: W.B.
Saunders; 1929. p. 92e105.
21. Major R. A history of medicine, vol. 1. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas;
1954p.115e38.
22. Lloyd GER. Penguin classics: hippocratic writings: introduction. Harmondsworth:
Penguin Books; 1978. p. 9e60.
23. Brockbank W. The man who was Vidius, being the Thomas Vicary Lecture
delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons of England on 25th October 1956.
Ann Roy Coll Surg Engl 1956;19:269e95.
24. Guidi G (Vidius). Chiruria e Greco in Latinum Conversa, Vido Vidio Interprete,
Lucretiae Parisirum. Petrus Gatterius. 1544. Hippocrates: de Fractures, de
Articulis. In: Osler W, Francis WW, Hill RH, Malloch A, editors. Bibliotheca
Osleriana: a catalogue of books illustrating the history of medicine and science
135
collected, arranged, and annotated by Sir William Osler, Bt. and bequeathed to
McGill University Item no. 155. Oxford: The Clarendon Press; 1929. p. 13.
25. Guidi G (Vidius). Chirurgia e Graeco in latinum Conversa. Paris: Petrus Galterius;
1544.
26. Hippocrates (attributed), Withington ET (translator). Fractures. In: Lloyd GER,
editor. Penguin Classics: Hippocratic writings. Harmondsworth, England: Pen-
guin Books; 1978. p. 279e314.
27. Hippocrates (attributed), Littre MPE (translator). Oevres Completes d’Hippocrate
Tome Troisieme: des Fractures. Paris: JB Bailliere; 1841. p. 422e563 [In French],
http://www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed.
28. Hippocrates (attributed), Withington ET, (translator). On fractures, on joints.
In: Warmington EH, editor. Loeb Classical Library: Hippocratesvol. III. Cam-
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1928. p. 95e397.
29. Temkin O. Hippocrates in a world of Pagans and Christians. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press; 1991. p. 12e3.
30. Neuburger M, Playfair E, translator. History of medicine, vol. 1: Hippocratic
medicine in general. London: Hodder & Stoughton; 1901. p. 128e49.
31. Kendall DE. Dao of Chinese medicine: need for medicine. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press; 2002. p. 73e88.
32. Sun SM. A thousand golden prescriptions rolls 79e80. In: Li YM, editor.
Collection of Taoist works vol. 26. Shanghai: Antiquarian Books Publishers; 1996.
p. 516e29 [in Chinese].
33. Rang M. Anthology of Orthopaedics. Edinburgh: E & S Livingstone; 1966. p. 225.
34. Hippocrates (attributed), Littre MPE (translator). Oevres Completes d’Hippocrate
Tome Quatrieme: des Articulations. Paris: JB Bailliere; 1844. p. 78e327. http://
www.bium.univ-paris5.fr/histmed [In French].
35. Ma BY, Gao X, Hong ZL. The history of intercultural medical communications
between China and foreign countries. Shanghai: Wen-hui Publishers; 1993.
p. 240e66 [In Chinese].
36. Gordon BE. Medicine throughout antiquity: medical concepts in China. Philadel-
phia: F.A. Davis; 1949. p. 355e70.
37. Lin DJ. Secret prescriptions for treatment of injuries and bone setting. In: Li YM,
editor. Collection of Taoist works, vol. 26. Shanghai: Antiquarian Books Pub-
lishers; 1996. p. 627e34 [In Chinese].
38. Lloyd GER, Sivin N. The way and the word: science and medicine in early China
and Greece. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 2002. p. 239e51.