Manual Del Instructor - Respuestas Del Libro

INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL t.
to accompa""y
Volumes One and Two
Fifth Edition
DAVID HALLIDAY
University of Pittsburgh
ROBERT RESNICK
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
KENNETH KRANE
Oregon State University
Prepared by
J. Richard Christman
United States Coast Guard Academy
With the assistance of

Stanley A. Williams
Iowa State University
Walter Eppenstein
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
(ii)
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PREFACE
This manual contains material we hope will be useful in the designof an introductory physics course
based on the text PHYSICS by David Hal1iday, Robert Resnick, and Kenneth Krane. It may be
used with either the extended or regular versions. We include material to help instructors choose
topics. We also provide lecture notes, outlining the important topics of each chapter, and suggest
demonstration experiments, laboratory and computer exercises,films, and video cassettes. Separate
sections contain answersto end-of-chapter multiple-choice questions, exercises,and problems.
The principal author is grateful to Stanley Williams, who co-authored an early edition of the
instructor manual for Pundamentals of Physics. Some of his material has been ret&ned in this
manual. He is also grateful to Walter Eppenstein, who helped with demonstration and laboratory
experiments. Aliza Atik and Rosa Bryant of Wiley handled the production of this manual and took
care of a myriad of details. Many thanks to them. Special thanks go to Mary Ellen Christman who
provided unfailing support and encouragementthrough many editions.
J. Richard Christman
U .S. Coast Guard Academy
New London, Connecticut 06320
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section One
General Considerations 1
Sectian Twa
Lecture N ates 10
Section Three
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions
Section Four
Answers to Exercises
Section Five
Answers to Problems
SECTION ONE
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
TOPICS
The sequenceof topics in Physícs, fifth edition, depaxts from the traditional sequencefound in
most introductory courses. The most significant differencesoccur in the mechanics section. They
axe:
Rather than devote a whole chapter to vectors, a shortened discussionof vector addition is given as
part of Chapter 2, on motion in one dimension. This allows physical quantities for one-dimensional
motion, such as velocity and acceleration, to be treated as what they are, components of vectors,
and removesthe confusion that axiseswhen a symbol, such as v or a, is used eaxly on as a component
of a vector and later as the magnitude of a vector, without explaining the switch. Vector and scalax
products are discussedwhen they axe needed, in the sections on torque and work. An appendix
gives a more complete summary of vector mathematics. If the needsof the class dictate, instructors
may include this appendix as a paxt of the course and use it much as they used Chapter 3 of the
fifth edition.
Energy topics axe covered after linear momentum and rotational motion. Thus emphasis is placed
on the role of momentum conservation in collisions and the kinetic energiesof rotation and rolling
axe included in the discussion of energy, rather than as paxt of the discussion of rotation. The
distinction between elastic and inelastic collisions is made by considering changes in individual
momenta as measured in the center-of-massframe.
The chapter on one-dimensionaldynamics immediately follows the chapter on one-dimensionalkine-
matics, then multi-dimensional kinematics and dynamics are discussedtogether. Thus Newton's
laws of motion are introduced in the context of motion along a line. fu addition, projectile and
uniform circulax motions axe coveredfrom the standpoint of the forces on the object. The emphasis
here is that the motion is directly related to the net force.
The chapter on oscillations has been moved to just before the first chapter on mechanical waves
and acts as a naturallead-in to that chapter.
The chapter on the second law of thermodynamics (Chapter 24) has been revised to make the
concept of entropy central. Entropy is defined at the outset and the law is given in terms of
entropy. Heat engines and refrigerators axe included as applications of the law but the law itself is
not formulated in terms of them.
The most significant change in the electromagnetism portion of the text is the use of the
magnetic frield of a single point chaxgeto introduce the sourcesof magnetic fields. The fields of
current distributions follow.
Most of the other changesto the electromagnetism potion are in the nature of a reorganization
of material from the previous edition. Material on conductors and insulators have been combined
into a new chapter (Chapter 29, The Electrical Properties of Materials). Discussion of magnetic
dipoles has been delayed until Chapter 35 (Magnetic Properties of Materials ) .Chapter 38 now
includes discussionsof both Maxerll's equations and their application to electromagnetic waves.
Reflection and refraction axenow coveredin Chapter 39 as paxt of the discussion of the properties
of electromagnetic waves. Image formation is in Chapter 40.
The most significant change in the modern physics section of the text is the inclusion of a
discussion of coincidence experiments that unambiguously provide evidence of photons. fu addi-
tion, the Schrodinger equation is introduced in Chapter 46 (The Nture of Matter) along with its
application to paxticles in potential wells and the electron in a hydrogen atom.
Every chapter now includes a collection of multiple-choce questions that test the students'
understanding of the important concepts of the chapter. There are also exercises,which are keyed
to sectionsof the chapter, and problems, which are somewhat more difficult than the exercisesand
require the students to combine concepts from different sections of the chapter and, on occasion,
draw on material from previous chapters.
FLEXIBILITY
The text is extremely Hexible with regard to both the range of topics and the depth of coverage.In
many instances sections that discussftmdamental principIes and give applications are followed by
other sections that go deeper into the physics. Some instructors prefer to cover fewer topics than
others but treat the topics they do cover in great depth. Others prefer to cover more topics with
less depth. Courses of both types can easily be accommodated by selecting appropriate sections
of the text. The text can be used with many of the innovative courses that are presently being
designedand taught.
By carefully choosing sections of the text to be included, your course might be a two-term,
in-depth study of the ftmdamentals of classicalmechanicsand electromagnetism. With the addition
of another term you might include more applications and the thermodynamics and optics chapters.
In a three-term course, you might also forgo thermodynamics and optics but include Chapter 20
(The Special Theory of Relativity) and some of the quantum mechanics chapters added in the
extended version.
When designing the course, some care must be taken in the selection of topics becausemany
discussionsin later chapters presume coverageof prior material. Please consult the following notes
and the Lecture Notes section of this manual.
Mechanics. The central concepts of classical mechanics are covered in Chapters 1 through 13.
Some sections that might be omitted or covered only cursorily by stating results to shorten the
courseare Sections4-4 (Drag Forces), 5-5 (Time-Dependent Forces), 5-6 (Noninertial Fl-amesand
Pseudoforces),5-7 (Limitations of Newton's Laws), 6-5 (Two-Body Collisions), 7-6 (Systems of
Variable Mass), 8-6 (Vector Relationships Between Linear and Angular Variables), 9-3 (Rota-
tional Inertia of Solid Bodies), 9-5 (Equilibrium Applications of Newton's Laws for Rotation), 9-7
(Combined Rotational and Translational Motion), 10-5 (The Spinning Top), 11-5 (Work Done by
a Variable Force: Two-dimensional Case), 12-6 (Three-Dimensional Conservative Systems), and
13-6 (Reactions and Decays).
Chapters 14 through 18 apply the fundamental principIes of the first 13 chapters to special
systemsand, in many cases,lay the groundwork for what is to come. Many coursesomit one or more
of Chapters 14 (Gravitation), 15 (Fluid Statics), 16 (Fluid Dynamics) and 19 (Sound Waves). There
is someperil in these omissions,however. Chapter 14, for example, is pedagogically important. The
central idea of the chapter is a force law and the discussionsof many of its ramifications show by
example how physics works. Since the chapter brings together many previously discussedideas it
can be used as a review. In addition, Newton's law of gravity is used later to introduce Coulomb's
law and the proof that the electrostatic force is conservative relies on the analogy. The basis of
Gauss' law is laid in Chapter 14 and inclusion of this chapter makes teaching of the law easier.
The concepts of pressure and density are explained in Chapter 15 and are used again in Chap-
ter 19 (Sound Waves) and in the thermodynamics chapters. The idea of a velocity field is first
discussedin Chapter 16 and is used to introduce electric Hux in Chapter 27 (Gauss' Law). Ifthese
chapters are omitted, you should be prepared to make up for the loss of material by presenting
definitions and discussionsof velocity field, pressure, and density when they are first used in your
course.
Chapters 17 (Oscillations) and 18 (Wave Motion) are important parts ofan introductory course
and should be covered except when time constraints are severe. Chapter 17 is required for Chap-
2 General Considerations
ter 18 and both are required for Chapter 19 (Sound Waves). Chapter 17 is also required for
Chapters 36 (Inductance) and 37 (A1ternating Current Circuits) and parts of Chapter 18 are re-
quired for Chapters 38 (Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves), 39 (Light Waves), 41
(Interference), 42 (Diffraction), 43 (Gratings and Spectra), 44 (Polarization), 45 (The Nature of
Light), and 46 (The Nature of Matter). Chapters 17 and 18 may be coveredin the mechanicspart
of the courseor may be delayed until electromagnetic waves are covered.
Sectionsof Chapters 14 through 19 that can be used to adjust the length of the courseare 14-7
(The Motions of Planets and Satellites), 14-8 (The Gravitational Field), 14-9 (Modern Develop-
ments in Gravitation), 15-5 (Measurement of Pressure), 15-6 (Surface Tension), 16-5 (Fields of
Flow), 16-6 (Viscosity, Turbulence, and Chaotic Flow), 17-5 (Applications of Simple Harmonic Mo-
tion), 17-6 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion), 17-9 (Two-Body Oscillations),
18-5 (The Wave Equation), and 19-7 (Vibrating Systems and Sourcesof Sound).
Special Relativity. Chapter 20 deals with the Special Theory of Relativity. It may be used as a
capstoneto the mechanicssection of the courseor as an introduction to the modern physics section.
There are a few problems in the electricity and magnetism section of the coursethat rely on concepts
from the relativity chapter but these may be avoided if that chapter has not yet been covered. Some
results from the chapter are important for understanding the modern physics chapters, particularly
the relationships between mass and energy and between energy and momentum. If you do not
wish to cover Chapter 20 in detail you can describe these results as they are needed. However,
it is probably more satisfying to present a more complete and logically connected descriptiop. of
relativity theory. If you plan to cover some of the modern physics chapters you should consider
including Chapter 20.
Thermodynalnics. Chapters 21 through 24 cover the ideas of thermodynamics. Most two-term
coursesand some three-term coursesomit these chapters entirely. If they are covered,they can be
placed as a unit almost anywhere after the mechanicschapters. The idea of temperature is used in
Chapter 29 (The Electrical Properties of Materials) and in some of the modern physics chapters,
as well as in the other thermodynamics chapters. If Chapter 21 is not coveredprior to Chapter 29,
you should plan to discussthe idea of temperature in connection with that chapter or else omit the
section that deals with the temperature dependenceof resistivity.
Two sections that can be omitted or shortened in coverageare 21-4 (Thermal Expansion) and
22-7 (The Intermolecular Forces).
Electromagnetism. The fundamentals of electricity and magnetism are covered in Chapters 25
through 38. Chapter 39 (Light Waves) may be considered a capstone to the electromagnetism
chapters or as an introduction to the optics chapters. Sections that might be omitted to adjust
the length of the course are 26-8 (The Nuclear Model of the Atom), 27-7 (Experimental Tests
of Gauss' Law and Coulomb's Law), 28-10 (The Electrostatic Accelerator), 29-5 (Ohm's Law: A
Microscopic View), 31-4 (Electric Fields in Circuits), 32-4 (The Hall Effect), 33-6 (Electromag-
netism and Frames of Reference), 34-5 (Generators and 1'Aotors),34-7 (Induction and Relative
Motion), 35-3 (Atomic and Nuclear Magnetism), 35-4 (Magnetization), 35-5 (Magnetic Materi-
als) , 35-6 (The Magnetism of the Planets), 36-5 (Electromagnetic Oscillations: Qualitative) , 35-6
(Electromagnetic Oscillations: Quantitative), 36-7 (Damped and Forced Oscillations), and 37-5
(The Transformer).
Sections 29-6 (An Insulator in an Electric Field) and 30-6 (Capacitor with Dielectric) should
be included in an in-depth course but may be omitted in other. courses to make room for other
topics. Similarly, coverageof Chapters 31 (DC Circuits) and 37 (Alternating Current Circuits) may
be adjusted considerably or even omitted, depending on the extent to which the courseemphasizes
practical applications. If Chapter 37 is included you should also include sections 36-5 (Electro-
magnetic Oscillations: Qualitative) and 36-6 (Electromagnetic Oscillations: Quantitative).
Section 35-7 contains a discussion of Gauss' law for magnetism, one of Maxwell's equations,
and should be included in every course. Sections35-1 through 35-6 deal with magnetic properties
of materials and some of ramifications of those properties. They are listed above as sections that
might be omitted or passed over swiftly to gain time for other sections. However, they nicely
complement the previous sections on dielectrics and they should be included if you intend to
emphasizeproperties of materials.
Optics. Chapters 39 through 44 are the optics chapters. You might wish to precede them with
Chapter 38 (Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves) or you might wish to replace Chap-
ter 38 with a short qualitative discussion. You can be somewhat selective in your coverage.of
Chapter 40 (Mirrors and Lenses). It can be as shallow or as deep as desired. Much of the material
in this chapter can be covered in laboratory exercises. Section 39-4 (Reflection and Refraction of
Light Waves) must be included in the course if Chapter 40 is covered.
Chapters 41 (Interference) and 42 (Diffraction) are important in their own right and are quite
useful for the discussion of photons and matter waves in Chapters 45 and 46. Chapter 42 cannot
be included without Chapter 41 but coverageof both chapters can be reduced somewhat to make
room for other topics. The fundamentals of interference and diffraction are contained in Sections
41-1 through 41-4 and 42-1 through 42-3. Other sections of these chapters can be included or
excluded, as desired or as neededfor subsequentmaterial.
Chapters 43 (Gratings and Spectra) and 44 (Polarization) may safely be omitted from the
course although at least the qualitative parts of Chapter 43 are valuable if the modern physics
sections on electromagnetic transitions are covered (Chapter 47). Chapters 41 and 42 form the
basis for Chapter 43 and must be coveredif Chapter 43 is included in the course. The structure of
an electromagnetic plane wave, in Chapter 38, must be covered prior to Chapter 44.
Individual sectionsof the optics chapters that might be omitted in the interest of time are 39-6
(The Doppler Effect for Light) , 40--6 ( Optical Instruments) , 41-5 Interference from Thin Films ) ,
41-6 (Michelson's Interferometer), 42-4 Diffraction at a Circular Aperture), 43-3 (Dispersion and
Resolving Power), 43-4 (X-Ray Diffraction), 43-5 (Holography), 44-4 (Double Refraction), and
44-5 (Circular Polarization). If you include Section 44-5 you should also include Section 44-4 since
it contains a discussionof quarter-wave plates.
Section 42-5 (Double-Slit Interference and Diffraction Combined) might also be abbreviated
or omitted but only if time constraints are severesince it nicely ties together Chapters 41 and 42.
Modern Physics. The fundamentals of the quantum theory are presented in Chapters 45 (The
Nature of Light) and 46 (The Nature of Matter). This material should be treated as a unit and
must follow in the order written. If you include these chapters, be sure earlier parts of the course
include discussionsof uniform circular motion, angular momentum, Coulomb's law, electrostatic
potential energy, electromagnetic waves, and diffraction. E = mc2 and E2 = (Pc)2 + (mc2)2, from
relativity theory, are used in discussionsof the Compton effect.
The introductory modern physics chapters are followed by application chapters: Chapters 47
(Electrons in Potential Wells), 48 (Atomic Structure), 49 (Conduction of Electricity in Solids), 50
(Nuclear Physics), 51 (Energy from the Nucleus), and 52 (Particle Physics and Cosmology). You
may chooseto end the course with Chapter 46 or you may chooseto include one or more of the
application chapters.
The ideas of temperature and the Kelvin scale are used in several places in the modern physics
chapters: Sections 45-2 (Thermal Radiation), 45-7 (Slowing Down Atoms by Photon Bombard-
ment) , 48-9 (Lasers and Laser Light) , 49-3 (Filling the Allowed States), 49-6 ( Conductors, fusu-
lators, and Semiconductors), 49-11 (Superconductors), 51-6 (Thermonuclear Fusion), 51-8 (Con-
trolled Thermonuclear Fusion), and 52-5 (Big Bang Cosmology). With a little supplementary
material, these sections can be coveredeven if Chapter 21 is not.
Chapter 51 (Energy from the Nucleus) requires Chapter 50 (Nuclear Physics) for background
material, but Chapter 50 need not be followed by Chapter 51. E = mc2 and E2 = (Pc)2+ (mc2)2
from relativity theory are also used. The discussionof thermonuclear fusion usessomeof the ideasof
kinetic theory, chiefly the distribution of molecular speeds.Either Chapter 22 (particularly Sections
22-4 and 22-5) should be coveredfirst or you should be prepared to supply a little supplementary
material here.
Chapter 52 includes an introduction to high energy particle physics and tells how the ideas
of physics are applied to cosmology. Both these topics fascinate many students. In addition, the
chapter provides a nice overview of physics. Someknowledge of the Pauli exclusion principle (from
Chapter 48) and spin angular momentum (from Chapter 47) is required. Knowledge of the strong
nuclear force (discussedin Chapters 50 and 51) is also required. In addition, beta decay (discussed
in Chapter 50) is used several times as an illustrative example. Nevertheless, the chapter can be
made to stand alone with the addition of only a small amount of supplementary material.
RESOURCES
Pedagogy Two excellent books that deal with teaching the introductory calculus-based course
are
Teaching Introductory Physics; Arnold B. Arons; John Wiley (1997).
Teaching Introductory Physics (A' Sourcebook); Clifford E. Swartz and Thomas Miner;
Springer-Verlag (1998).
Both of these provide well thought-out explanations of some of the concepts that perplex students
and give help with teaching those concepts. They are also excellent sourcesof demonstration and
laboratory experiments that illuminate the important ideas of the introductory physics course.
Over the past ten years or so the field of physics education research has grown tremendously.
Many researchprojects focus on the troubles students have in learning physics and analyze proposed
remedies. Lillian McDermot and Edward Redish have compiled an extensive resource letter that
lists books and journal articles in the field. It appearedin the September 1999issueof the American
Journal of Physics and is highly recommendedas a sourceof material for improvement of the course.
In addition, the journal Physics Education Research,a supplement to the American Journal of
Physics, publishes papers dealing with researchinto students' understanding of physics. Resource
Letter EPGA-l: The education of physics graduate assistants (AJP 68, 502; June, 2000) by E.
Leonard Jossem contains referencesto a host of books and articles that offer help and ideas to
physics instructors at alllevels.
The following books provide tutorials and exercises that take into account the findings of
physics education research:
Thtorials in Introductory Physics; Lillian C. McDermott and Peter S. Shaffer; Prentice
Hall, 215 pages, 1998.
Thtorials in Introductory Physics (homework volume); Lillian C. McDermott and Peter S.
Shaffer; Prentice Hall, 147 pages, 1998.
Ranking Task Exercises in Physics; Thomas L. O'Kuma, David P. Maloney, and Curtis J.
Hieggelke; Prentice Hall, 218 pages, 2000.
Video. All of the video cassette and video disk items listed in the SUGGESTIONS sections are
short, well done, and highly pertinent to the chapter. It is not possible to review all available
material and there are undoubtedly many other fine video cassettesand disks that are not listed.
Video might be incorporated into the lectures, shown during laboratory periods, or set up in a
special room for more informal viewing.
An excellent set of video cassettesand disks, THE MECHANICAL UNIVERSE, can be ob-
tained from The Annenberg CPB Collection, PO Box 2345, South Burlington, VT 05407-2345. The
set consistsof 52 half-hour segmentsdealing with nearly all the important conceptsof introductory
physics. Historical information and animated graphics are used to present the conceptsin an imag-
inative and engaging fashion. Somephysics departments run appropriate segmentsthroughout the
course in special viewing rooms. Accompanying textbooks, teacher manuals, and study guides are
also available.
Many time-tested fihns originally from Encyclopaedia Britannica, PSSC, Project Physics, and
elsewherehave been transferred to video disk by the AAPT Instructional Media Center and are
available under the title Physics: Cinema Classics from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington,
KY 40577-1768. The films cover a host of topics in mechanics, thermodynamics, electricity and
magnetism, optics, and modern physics. Other short fihns that have been transferred to video are
the AAPT Collections 1 and 2 and the Miller Collection. These and many other video tapes and
disks are referencedin the SUGGESTIONS sections of the Lecture Notes.
Computer Software. Computers have made significant contributions to the teaching of physics.
They are widely used in lectures to provide animated illustrations, with parameters under the
control of the lecturer; they also provide tutorials and drills that students can work through on
their own. Specialized programs are listed in appropriate SUGGESTION sections of the Lecture
Notes in this manual. In addition, several available software packagescover large portions of an
introductory course. Four of them are:
Core Conceptsin Physics; CD-ROM; Apple, Windows; Saunders College Publishing, The
Public Ledger Building, Suite 1250, 150 South Independence Mall West, Philadelphia,
PA 19106-3412. A great many animations and live videos, laboratory demonstrations,
and graphics. Most are interactive. Many step-by-step solutions are given to example
problems. Covers a large portion of the introductory calculus-basedcourse.
Interactive Journey Through Physics; CD-Rom; Apple, Windows; Cindy Schwartz and
Bob Beicher; Prentice-Hall, 240 Frisch Ct., Paramus, NJ 07652-5240. A large number of
animations and simulations, many with audio descriptions. Self-check quizzes are associ-
ated with the simulations. Over fifty narrated video segments. Covers most of the topics
of the introductory course.
Multimedia Enhanced Physics Instruction; CD ROMj Apple, Windows; Maha Ashour-
Abdallaj McGraw-Hill, P.O. Box 182604, Columbus, OH 43272-303143004. Extensive
illustrated concepts sections, which give the important ideas of the introductory course,
along with applications and examples, often by way of video. Numerous problems with
interactive help. Each concept module also has a self-checkquiz.
Interactive Physics; Apple, Windows; Knowledge Revolution, 15 Bush Pl., San Francisco,
CA 94103). Animations and graphs for a wide variety ofmechanical phenomena. The user
can set up "experiments" with massive objects, strings, springs, dampers, and constant
forces. Parameters can easily be changed. For Apple and Windows computers. Reviewed
in The Physics Teacher, September 1991.
You might consider setting aside a room or portion of a lab, equip it with several computers,
and make tutorial, drill, and simulation programs available to students. If you have sufficient
hardware (and software), you might base some assignmentson computer materials.
Computers and top-of-the line graphing calculators might also be used by students to perform
calculations. Properly selectedcomputer projects can add greatly to the students' understanding of
physics. Projects involving the investigation of some physical system of interest might be assigned
to individuals or might be carried out by a laboratory class. Somecomputer problems are included
at the ends of chapters of the text. A large number of suitable problems and projects can also be
found in the book Introduction to Computational Physics by Marvin L. De Jong (Addison-Wesley,
1991).
Commercial spreadsheetprograms can facilitate problem solving. PSI-Plot (Windowsj Poly
Software International, P.O. Box 1457, Sandy, UT 84091) and f(g) Scholar (Apple, Windows; Fu-
tme Graph, Inc., 75 JamesWay, Southampton, PA 18966) are high-end spreadsheetprograms that
incorporate many scienceand engineering problem-solving and graphing capabilities. Commercial
problem-solving programs such as MathCAD (Windowsj MathSoft, Inc., 101 Main Street, Cam-
bridge, MA 02142-1521), DERIVE (Windows; Soft Warehouse; 3660 Waialae Avenue, Suite 304,
Honolulu, m 96815), MAPLE (Apple, Windows; Waterloo Maple, 57 Erb Street W., Waterloo,
Ontario, Canada N2L 6C2), Pro Solve (Apple, Windows; Problem Solving Concepts, Inc., 1980E.
116th Street, Ste 220, Carmel, IN 46032), and Mathematica (Apple, Windows; Wolfram Research,
Inc., 100 Trade Center Drive, Champaign, IL 61820-7237) can easily be used by students to solve
problems and graph results. All these programs allow students to set up a problem generically,
then view solutions for various values of input parameters. For example, the range or maximum
height of a projectile can be found as a function of initial speedor firing angle, even if air resistance
is taken into account.
A number of computer programs allow you to view digitized video on a computer monitor and
mark the position of an object in eachframe. The coordinates of the object can be listed and plotted.
They can then be used to find the velocity and acceleration of the object, either within the program
itself or by exporting the data to a spreadsheet. Three of these are: Videopoint (Windows, CD-
ROM; Pasco Scientific, 10101 Foothills Blvd., Roseville, CA 95678), VideoGmph (Apple; Physics
Academic Software, Box 8202, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8202), and
World in Motion (Windows; Physics Cmriculum and Instruction, 22585Woodhill Drive, Lakeville,
MN 55044). All of these come with an assortment of video clips. Home-made videos can also be
used. The capabilities of the programs are different. Check carefully before pmchasing.
Demonstrations. Notes for most of the chapters are developed around demonstration experi-
ments. Generally speaking, these use relatively inexpensive, readily available equipment, yet clearly
demonstrate the main ideas of the chapter. The choice of demonstrations, however, is highly per-
sonal and you may wish to substitute others for those suggestedhere or you may wish to present
the same ideas using chalkboard diagrams. Several excellent books give many other examples of
demonstration experiments. The following are available from the American Association of Physics
Teachers,One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845:
A Demonstmtion Handbookfor Physics, G.D. Freier and F.J. Anderson, 320 pages (1981).
Contains over 800 demonstrations, including znany that use everyday materials and that
can be constructed with minimal expense. Line drawings are used to illustrate the demon-
strations.
String and Sticky Tape Experiments, Ronald Edge, 448 pages (1987). Contains a large
number of illuminating experiments that can be constructed from inexpensive, readily
available materials.
Apparatus for Teaching Physics, edited by Karl C. Mamola. A collection of articles from
The Physics Teacher that describe laboratory and demonstration apparatus.
How Things Work, H. Richard Crane, 114 pages, 1992. A collection of 20 articles from
The Physics Teacher.
The following is cmrently out of print but is available in many collegelibraries and physics depart-
ments:
Physics Demonstration Experiments, H.F. Meiners, ed. An excellent source of ideas, in-
formation, and construction details on a large number of experiments, with over 2000
line drawings and photographs. It also contains some excellent articles on the philosoph-
ical aspects of lecture demonstrations, the use of shadow projectors, TV, filIns, overhead
projectors, and stroboscopes.
Appropriate demonstrations describedin Freier and Anderson are listed in the SUGGESTIONS
sectionsof the notes. This book doesnot give any construction det&Is, but more information about
most demonstrations can be obtained from the book edited by Meiners.
The Physics InfoMall CD-ROM (The Learning Team, 84 Business Park Drive, Armonk, NY
10504), a searchabledatabase of over 1000 demonstrations, is another excellent source. There are
both Windows and Apple versions. The CD also contains articles and abstracts, problems with
solutions, whole reference books, and a physics calendar.The following three books, all available
from the AAPT, are also sourcesof ideas for demonstrations and examples:
Physics of sportsj edited by C. Frohlich. Contains reprints and a resource letter .
Amusement Park Physicsj edited by Carole Escobar.In workbook form. The activities
described are perhaps more appropriate for a high school class but some can be used in
collegelevellectures as examples.
Potpourri of Physics TeachingIdeasj edited by Donna Berry; reprints of articles on appa-
ratus from The Physics Teacher.
A computer can also be used for data acquisition during demonstrations. Photogate timers,
temperature probes, strain gauges,voltage probes, and other devicescan be input directly into the
computer and results can be displayed as tables or graphs. The screencan be shown to a large class
by using a large monitor, a TV projection system, or an overhead projector adapter. Inexpensive
software and hardware can be purchased from Vernier Software (8565 SW Beaverton-Hillsdale
Hwy., Portland, OR 97225-2429). PASCO Scientific (PO Box 619011, 10101 Foothills Boulevard,
Roseville, CA 95661-9011)has data acquisition hardware and an extensivevariety ofprobes for both
Apple and Windows computers. If more sophisticated software is desired, consider the commercial
packageLabview (National Instruments Corporation, 11500N. Mopac Expwy., Austin, TX 78759-
3504). The monograph Photodetectors by Jon W. McWane, J. Edward Neighbor, and Robert F.
Tinker (available from the AAPT) is a good source of technical information about photodetectors.
Laboratories. Hands-on experiencewith actual equipmentis an extremely important element of
an introductory physics course. There are many different views as to the objectives of the physics
laboratory and the final decision on the types of experiments to be used has to be made by the
individual instructor or department. This decision is usually based on financial and personnel
considerations as well as on the pedagogical objectives of the laboratory.
Existing laboratories vary widely. Some use strictly cookbook type experiments while others
allow the students to experiment freely, with practically no instructions. The equipment ranges
from very simple apparatus to rather complex and sophisticated equipment. Physical phenomena
may be observed directly or simulated on a computer. Data may be taken by the students or fed
into a computer.
The equipment described above can be used for data acquisition in a student lab. Even if data
acquisition software is not used, consider having students use computers and spreadsheetprograms
to analyze and graph data.
Many physics departments have written their own notes or laboratory manuals and relatively
few physics laboratory texts are on the market. Two such books, both available from John Wiley
& Sons,are
Laboratory Physics, second edition, H.F. Meiners, W. Eppenstein, R.A. Oliva, and T .
Shannon. (1987).
Laboratory Experiments in College Physics, seventh edition, C.H. Bernard and C.D. Epp.
(1994).
Experiments from these books are listed in the SUGGESTIONS section of the Lecture Notes.
Meiners is used to designate the Meiners, Eppenstein, Oliva, and Shannon book while Bernard is
used to designate the Bernard and Epp book. Both books contain excellent introductory sections
explaining laboratory procedures to students. Meiners also contains a large amount of material on
the use of microprocessorsin the lab.
Instructor aids. In addition to this Instructor Manual Wiley provides several other aids for
instructors:
Inst1'Uctor's Solution Manual Contains fu11yworked solutions to all the end-of-chapter
exercisesand problems.
Test Bank. Contains over 2800 multiple choice questions (with answers)for use on exams
and quizzes. Both quantitative and qualitative questions are included. In each chapter,
some of the questions are modeled after the end-of-chapter questions, as well as after the
end-of-chapter problems and exercises.
Inst1'Uctor'sResourceCD. A CD ROM for Windows and Apple. Contains the Instructor's
Solution Manual (in both La1F)Cand PDF forms), reproductions of illustrations from the
text (suitable for classroom projection and printing), and the Test Bank, with full editing
features to help you customize exams.
Physics Simulations. A CD with 50 interactive simulations covering major topics in the
course. They can be used as lecture demonstrations or as on-line student assignments.
Wiley eGrade. A powerful on-line homework management system that instructors can
use to assign and grade homework using the internet.
Student supplements. Several supplements, all available from Wiley, might be recommendedto
the students:
Study Guide. Contains an array of study aids and problem-solving help.
Student Solutions Manual. Contains fully worked solutions to about twenty-five percent
of the end-of-chapter problems and exercises.
SECTION TWO
LECTURE NOTES
Lecture notes for each chapter of the text are categorized under the headings BASIC TOPICS
and SUGGESTIONS.
BASIC TOPICS contains main points of the chapter in outline form. In addition, one or two
demonstrations are recommendedto show the main theme of the chapter. You may wish to pattern
your lectures after the notes, suitably modified, or simply use them as a check on the completeness
of your own notes.
The SUGGESTIONS sections recommend end-of-chapter questions, exercises, and problems,
fihns, film loops, video cassettes,alternate demonstrations, and other material that might be usefu1
for the course.
Chapter 1 MEASUREMENT
BASIC TOPICS
I. Base and derived units.
A. Explain that standards are associatedwith base unitsand that measillement of a physical
quantity takes place by means of comparison with a standard. Discuss qua1itatively the
SI standards for time, length, and mass. Show a 1 kg mass and a meter stick. Show the
simple well-known procedure for measuring length with a meter stick.
B. Explain that derived units are combinations of base units. Emphasize that the speed of
light is now a defined unit and the meter is a derived unit. Discuss an experiment in which
the time taken for light to travel a certain distance is measilled. Example: the reflection
of a light signal from the moon. U se a clock and a meter stick to find your walking speed
in meters per second.
C. This is a good place to review area, volume, and mass density. Use simple geometric figures
(circle, rectangle, triangle, cube, sphere, cylinder, etc.) as examples.
II. Systemsof units.
A. Explain what a system of units is. Give the 1971 SI base units (Table 1-1). Stress that
the first three (meter, second,kilogram) will be used extensively.
B. Point out the SI prefixes (Table 1-2). The important ones for this course are mega, kilo,
centi, milli, micro, nano, and pico. Stress the simplicity of the powers of ten notation.
C. Most of the students' experience is with the British system. Relate the inch to the cen-
timeter and the slug to the kilogram. Discuss unit conversion. Use speed as an example:
convert 50mi/h and 3 mi/h to kilometers per hour and to meters per second. Point out
the conversion tables in Appendix G.
m .Properties of standards.
A. Discuss the desired properties of a standard: accessibility, invariance, ease of making com-
parisons, etc.
B. Discuss secondary standards such as the meter stick used earlier.
IV .Measurements.
A. Stress the wide range of magnitudes measured. See Tables 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, and 1-6. Ex-
plain the unified atomic mass unit. One atom of 12C has a mass of exactly 12u. 1 u
is approximately 1.661 x 10-27 kg. Explain how the relationship between atomic and SI
10 Lecture notes: Chapter 1

mass standards depends on knowledge of the Avogadro constant. Give the current value
N A = 6.02214199x 1023per mole.
B. Discuss indirect measurements.
v. Skills.
A. Discuss unit arithmetic, unit conversion, powers of ten arithmetic, and significant digits.
B. Discussdimensional analysis. Take simple examplessuch as a distance that is proportional
to a velocity or an acceleration and find the dimensions of the constant of proportionality.
Stress that the dimensions of quantities on opposite sides of an equality sign must be
the same and that only quantities with the same dimensions can be added or subtracted.
Use dimensional analysis to find the dependenceof one quantity on others. Example: the
dependenceon speedand orbit radius of the centripetal acceleration of an object in uniform
circular motion.
SUGGESTIONS
1. AssigDments
a. Properties of standards and base UIÚtS:questions 2,8,20,21, and 26.
b. Length measurements: questions 17, 18, and 19.
c. Time measurements: question 10; exercises10 and 11.
d. Mass measurements: exercise24.
e. Unit conversion: exercises3, 6, 12, 13, 18, 20, and 21.
f. Significant digits: exercise30.
g. Dimensional analysis: exercises32 and 33.
h. Area, volume, and density: exercises15, 16, 17, and 26.
i. Many of the problems deal with two or more measurement concepts. To include the
relationship of arc length and angle consider problems 2 and 3. Solution of Problems 7 and
8 depend on a knowledge of geometry. Problem 9 also makes use of the concept of mass
density.
2. Demonstrations
Examples of "standards" and measuring instruments: Freier and Anderson Mal -3.
3. Books and Monographs
a. Prequencyand Time M easurements,edited by Christine Hackman and Donald B. Sullivan;
available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845.
b. SI: The International System of Units; edited by Robert A. Nelson; available from AAPT
(seeabove for address).
c. Connecting Time and Space;edited by Harry E. Bates; available from AAPT (see above
for address) .Reprints that discussmeasurementsof the speedof light and the redefinition
of the meter. Students will not be able to understand much of this material at this stage
of the course but it is neverthelessuseful for background.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Time and Place, Measuring Short Distances; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics;
video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Powers of Ten from the Films of Charles and Ray Eames; video disk; available from Ztek
Co. (see above for address).
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-1: Measurement of Length, Area, and Volume. Gives students
experienceusing the vernier caliper, micrometer, and polar planimeter. Good introduction
to the determination of error limits (random and least count) and calculation of errors in
derived quantities (volume and area).
Lecture notes: Chapter 1 11

b. Bernard Experiments 1 and 2: Determination of Length, Mass, and Density and Deter-
mination of 7r and Density by Measurements and Graphical Analysis. Roughly the same
as the Meiners experiment, but a laboratory balance is added to the group of instruments
and the polar planimeter is not included. Graphs of massversus radius and radius squared
for a collection of disks made of the same material, with the same thickness, are used to
establish the quadratic dependenceof mass on radius.
Meiners Experiment 7-3: The Simple Pendulum and Bemard Experiment 3: The Period
of a Pendulum -An Application of the Experimental Method. Students time simple
pendulums of different lengths, then use the data and graphs (including a logarithmic plot)
to determine the relationship between length and period. They calculate the acceleration
due to gravity. This is an exercisein finding functional relationships and does not require
knowledge of dynamics.
Chapter 2 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
BASIC TOPICS
I. Vectors.
A. This chapter starts with a discussion of vectors, although the full machinery of vector
addition and subtraction is not utilized until the next chapter. This presentation enables
you to discussthe ideas of displacement,velocity and acceleration as componentsof vectors.
The notation Vx and ax, for example, are used.
B. Explain that vectors have magnitude and direction, and that they obey certain rules of
addition. Compare vectors with scalars and present a list of each. Go over vector notation
and insist that students use it to identify vectors clearly. Use a position vector as an
example.
C. Demonstrate vector addition by walking along two sides of the room. Point out the two
displacementsand their sum. Note that the distance traveled is not the magnitude of the
displacement. Go back to your original position and point out that the displacement is
now zero.
D. Demonstrate vector addition by the graphical method. Draw two vectors tail to head, draw
the resultant and point out its direction. Explain how the magnitude of the resultant can
be measuredwith a ruler and the orientation can be measuredwith a protractor. Explain
how a scale is used to draw the original vectors and find the magnitude of the resultant.
Show that vector addition is both commutative and associative.
E. Define the negative of a vector and define vector subtraction as a- b = a+ ( -b). Graph-
--
ically show that if a + b = c then a = c -b.
F. Derive expressionsfor the components of a vector, given its magnitude and the angles
it makes with the coordinate axes. In preparation for the analysis of forces, find the x
component of a vector in the xy plane in terms of the angles it makes with the positive
and negative x axis and also in terms of the anglesit makes with the positive and negative
y axis. Overlays are useful to show vector components. Point out that the components
depend on the choice of coordinate system and compare the behavior of vector components
with the behavior of a scalar when the orientation of the coordinate system is changed.
Find the components of a vector using two differently oriented coordinate systems. Point
out that it is possible to orient the coordinate system so that only one component of a
given vector is not zero. Remark that a pure translation of a vector (or coordinate system)
does not changethe components.
G. Define the unit vectors along the coordinate axes. Give the form used to write a vector~

in terms of its components and the unit vectors. Explain that unit vectors are unitless so
L
they can be used to write any vector quantity.
H. Give the expressionsfor the components of the re-
sultant of two vectors in terms of the components
of the addends.
graphical Demonstrate
and analytic theofequivalence
methods of the
finding a vector y ~- c b :
sum. See the diagram to the right. Show how to -+ I

find the magnitude and angles with the coordinate a I
axes, givenone
give only the of
components. Explain
the two possible that calculators
values for the in- ~
~ ax Cx ~+"'-bx ~ ~ x
versetangent and show how to determine the correct

angle for a given situation.
I. Give examples of both positive and negative scalars multiplying a vector. Give the compo-
nents of the resulting vector as well as its magnitude and direction. Remark that division
of a vector by a scalar is equivalent to multiplication by the reciprocal of the scalar.
II. Definitions of kinematic quantities.
A. Draw a particle path in two dimensions. Show the position vector for severaltimes and the
displacementvector for severalintervals. Define displacement and averagevelocity over an
interval. Give the vector definitions and also write the components in terms of the initial
and final coordinates.
B. Define velocity as dr/dt. Writein both vector and component form. Point out that the
velocity vector is tangent to the path. Define speed of the magnitude of the velocity.
C. Define averageacceleration over an interval as the vector difference of the final and initial
velocities and write the expressionfor the componentsin terms of the velocity components.
Define acceleration as dv / dt. Write the expression in both vector and component form.
Point out that a is not zero if either the magnitude or direction of v changeswith time.
D. Point out that the acceleration is not zero if either the magnitude or direction ofthe velocity
is changing. Use centripetal acceleration as an example.
III. One-dimensional motion.
A. Specializethe component equation for displacement, velocity, and acceleration to the case
of motion along an x axis. Move a toy cart with constant velocity along a table top.
Select an origin, place a meter stick and clock on the table, and demonstrate how x(t) is
measuredin principle. Emphasize that x is always measured from the origin; it is not the
cart's displacement during any time interval. Draw a graph of x(t) and point out it is a
straight line. Show what the graph looks like if the cart is not moving. Point out that
the line has a greater slope if the cart is going faster. Move the cart so its speedincreases
with time and show what the curve x(t) looks like. Do with same for a cart that is slowing
down.
C. Some students think of a coordinate as distance. Distinguish between these concepts.
Point out that a coordinate defines a position on an axis and can be positive or negative.
Demonstrate a negative velocity, both with the cart and on a graph. As another example,
throw a ball into the air, pick a coordinate axis (positive in the upward direction, say),
and point out when the velocity is positive and when it is negative. Draw the graph of the
coordinate as a function of time.
D. Write the expression for the averagevelocity over an interval in terms of the initial and
final coordinates. Stressthe meaning of the sign. Draw a graph of x versus t for an object
that is accelerating. Pick an interval and draw the line between the end points on the
graph. Observe that the averagevelocity in the interval is the slope of the line. Show how
to calculate averagevelocity if the function x(t) is given in algebraic form.

E. Write the equation for instantaneous velocity as a derivative of the coordinate. To demon-
strate the limiting process,go over Table 2-1. Use a graph of x versus t for an accelerating
cart to demonstrate that the line used to find the averagevelocity becomestangent to the
curve in the limit as ilt vanishes. Remark that the slope of the tangent line gives the
instantaneous velocity. Show a plot of v versus t that corresponds to the x versus t graph
used previously. Show how to calculate the instantaneous velocity if the function x(t) is
given in algebraic form. Stress that a value of the instantaneous velocity is associated
with eacl1instant of time. Somestudents think of velocity as being associatedwith a time
interval rather than an instant of time. Discuss the physical meaning of the sign of the
velocity and point out regions of positive and negative velocity on a graph of x(t). Define
speed as the magnitude of the velocity.
F. Note that many calculus texts use a prime to denote a derivative. They also define the
derivative of x with respect to time using the notation [x(t + ilt) -x(t)]/ilt rather than
ilx / ilt. Mention the different notations in class so students can relate their physics and
calculus texts.
G. Write the expression for the average acceleration over an interval in terms of the initial
and final velocities and the expressionfor the instantaneous acceleration as the derivative
of the velocity. Show the previous v versus t graph and point out the line used to find
the averageacceleration in an interval and the instantaneous acceleration at a given time.
Show how to calculate the averageand instantaneous acceleration if x(t) or v(t) is given
in algebraic form.
H. Interpret the sign of the acceleration. Give examples of objects with acceleration in the
same direction as the velocity (speeding up) and in the opposite direction (slowing down).
Be sure to include both directions of velocity. Emphasize that a positive acceleration does
not necessarily mean speeding up and a negative acceleration does not necessarily imply
slowing down.
I. Use graphs of x(t) and v(t) to point out that an object may simultaneously have zero
velocity and non-zero acceleration. Explain that if the direction of motion reversesthe
object must have zero velocity at some instant.
IV Motion in one dimension with constant acceleration.
A. Derive the kinematic equations for x(t) and v(t). If students know about integration, use
methods of the integral calculus. In any event, show that v(t) is the derivative of x(t) and
that a(t) is the derivative of v(t).
B. Discusskinematic problems in terms of a set of simultaneous equations to be solved. Exam-
ples: use equations for x(t) and v(t) to algebraically eliminate the time and to algebraically
eliminate the acceleration.
C. To help students seethe influence of the initial conditions, sketcl1graphs of v(t) and x(t)
for various initial conditions but the same acceleration. Include both positive and negative
initial velocities. Draw a different set of graphs for positive and negative acceleration.
Point out where the particle has zero velocity and when it returns to its initial position.
v Free fall.
A. Give the values for 9 in SI and British units. Point out that the acceleration due to gravity
is directed toward the center of Earth but that locally Earth 's surface is essentially fiat and
the acceleration may be taken in the same direction at different nearby points. Explain
that a = +g if down is taken to be the positive direction and a = -g if up is the positive
direction. Do examples using both cl1oices.Throw a ball into the air and emphasizethat
its acceleration is 9 throughout its motion, even at the top of its trajectory.
B. Drop a small ball through two photogates, one at the top to turn on a timer and one
further down to turn it off. Repeat for various distances and plot the position of the

ball as a function of time. Explain that the curve is parabolic and indicates a constant
acceleration.
C. Explain that all objects have the same acceleration due to gravity. In reality, different
objects may have different accelerations because air infiuences their motions differently.
This can be demonstrated by placing a coin and a wad of cotton in a glass cylinder about
1 m long. Turn the cylinder over and note that the coin reaches the bottom first. Now
use a vacuum pump to partially evacuate the cylinder and repeat the experiment. Repeat
again with as much air as possible pumped out.
D. Point out that free-fall problems are special casesof constant acceleration kinematics and
the methods described earlier can be used. Work a few examples. For an object thrown
into the air calculate the time to reach the highest point, the height of the highest point,
the time to return to the initial height, and its velocity when it returns, all in terms of the
initial velocity.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Vectors: questions 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; exercises1, 3, 4, 9 and 10; problem 4.
b. Position, velocity, and acceleration in two-dimensional motion: exercises11 and 17; prob-
lems 1 and 3.
c. Velocity and acceleration in one-dimensional motion: questions 6, 7, 10, 12, 17 and 18;
exercises26 and 30; problems 5, 6, 9 and 11. Consider exercises21 and 22 for examples
that deal with different time zones.
d. Graphs for one-dimensional motion: multiple-choice question 7; exercises31, 34, 35 or 36,
and 37; problems 10 and 12.
e. Motion in one dimension with constant acceleration: multiple-choice question 8; question
19; exercises40,47,48, and 50; problems 13, 14, 16, and 17.
f. Free fall: multiple-choice questions 9, 10, and 11; exercises52, 53, and 61; problems 19,
22, and 25.
g. Fa1lingwith air resistance: questions 29 and 31.
2. Demonstrations
a. Vector addition: Freier and Anderson Mb2, 3.
b. Uniform velocity and acceleration, velocity as a limiting process: Freier and Anderson
Mb10 -13, 15, 18, 21, 22.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Vector Addition -Velocity of a Boat; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept fi1ms;
video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Vectors; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics;video disk; available from Ztek Co. (see
above for address).
c. Vector Addition; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part III; VHS video tape or video
disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN
55044.
d. Acceleration due to Gravity; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept films; video tape;
available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
e. One Dimensional Motion; Distance, Time & Speed;One Dimensional Acceleration; Con-
stant Velocity & Uniform Accelemtion; from AAPT collection 2 of single-concept fi1ms;
video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
f. Uniform Motion, Free Fall; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics;video disk; available
from Ztek Co. (see above for address).

4.
5.

only that the forces in the experiment are vectors along the strings used, with magnitudes
proportional to the weights hung on the strings. The focus is on resolving vectors into
components and finding the magnitude and direction of a vector, given its components.
b. M()tion detectors. As a student moves toward and away from a sonar-like ranging device,
his position, velocity, or acceleration is plotted on a computer monitor. A graph can be
designedby the instructor and the student can be askedto duplicate it by moving in front of
the ranger. Severalsonic rangers are reviewed in The Physics Teacher of January 1988. An
extremely popular model is available from Vernier Software, 8565 SW Beaverton-Hillsdale
Hwy., Portland, OR 97225-2429.
c. Meiners Experiment 7-5: Analysis of Rectilinear Motion. Students measure the position
as a function of time for various objects rolling down an incline, then use the data to
plot speeds and accelerations as functions of time. No knowledge of rotational motion
is required. This experiment emphasizesthe definitions of velocity and acceleration as
differencesover a time interval.
d. Meiners Experiment 8-1: Motion in One Dimension (omit the part dealing with con-
servation of energy). Essentially the same experiment except pucks sliding on a nearly
frictionless surface are used. This experiment may be done with dry ice pucks or on an air
, table or air track.
e. Bernard Experiment 7: Uniformly AccelemtedMotion. The same technique as the Meiners
experiments but a variety of setups are described: the standard free-fall apparatus, the
free-fall apparatus with an Atwood attachment, an inclined plane, an inclined air track,
and a horizontal air track with a pulley attachment.
Chapter 3 FORCE AND NEWTON'S LAWS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Overview
A. Explain that objects may interact with eacl1other and as a result their velocities cl1ange.
State that the strength of an interaction depends on properties of the objects and their
relative positions. Gravitational mass is responsible for gravitational interactions, electric
cl1argeis responsible for electric and magnetic interactions, for example.
B. Explain that we split the problem into two parts and say that eacl1body exerts a force on
the other and that the net force on a body cl1angesits velocity. Remark that an equation
that gives the force in terms of the properties of the objects and their positions is called
a force law. Force laws are discussedthroughout the course. The dominant theme of this
cl1apter,however, is the relationship between any force and the acceleration it produces.
II. Newton's first law.
A. State the law: if an object does not interact with any other objects, its acceleration is zero.
B. Point out that the acceleration depends on the reference frame used to measure it and
that the first law can be true for only a select set of frames. Define an inertial frame. Tell
students that an inertial frame can be constructed, in principle, by finding an object that
is not interacting with other objects, then attaching a reference frame to it. Any frame
that moveswith constant velocity relative to an inertial frame is also an inertial frame, but
one that is accelerating relative to an inertial frame is not.
C. Explain that we may take a referenceframe attacl1ed to Earth as an inertial frame for the
description of most laboratory phenomenabut we cannot for the description of ocean and
wind currents, spaceprobes, and astronomical phenomena.

III. Newton's secondlaw.
A. Explain that the environment influences the motion of an object and that force measures
the extent of the interactidn. The result of the interaction is an accelemtion. Place a cart
at re~t on the air track. Push it to start it moving and note that it continues at (nearly)
constant velocity. After it is moving, push it to increaseits speed, then push it to decrease
its speed. In each casenote the direction of the force and the direction of the acceleration.
Also give an eraser a shove acrossa table and note that it stops. Point out that the table
top exerts a force of friction while the eraseris moving. Push the eraser at constant velocity
and explain that the force of your hand and the force of friction sum to zero.
B. Define force in terms of the acceleration imparted to the standard l-kg mass. Explain how
this definition can be used to calibrate a spring, for example. Point out that force has a
direction and for one-dimensionalmotion we indicate the direction by the sign of the force.
A force is positive if it produces a positive acceleration, in the positive direction of the
coordinate axis we use. Similarly a force is negative if it produces a negative acceleration.
If two or more forces act on the standard mass, its acceleration is the same as when a force
equal to the sum acts. Explain that the forces enter this sum with their signs.
C. Emphasize that objects exert forces and that students should be able to point out the
object that is exerting any force. Many students erroneously include nonexistent forces
wlien they work problems. To stress this point the text uses subscripts to denote the
object that exerts a force and the object on which the force is exerted. Thus F AB is the
symbol for the force that object B exerts on object A.
D. Define mass in terms of the ratio of the acceleration imparted to the standard mass and to
the unknown mass, with the same total force acting. Emphasize that mass is a property
of an object and, for example, does not depend on the force applied to the object. Attach
identical springs to two identical carts, one empty and the other containing a lead brick.
Pull with the same force (same elongation of the springs) and observe the difference in
acceleration. Units: kg, slug.
E. State the secondlaw in vector form: 2:: F = ma, where m is the mass of the object and a
is its acceleration. Stress that the sum over forces includes their signs and that the sum is
called the net or total force. Explain that the law holds only in inertial frames. Point out
that this is an experimentally established law and does not follow as an identity from the
definitions of force and mass. Emphasize that ma is not a force.
F. Discuss examples: calculate the constant force required to stop an object in a given time,
given its mass and initial velocity; calculate the acceleration of an object being pushed by
two constant forces in opposite directions and note that the acceleration vanishes if the
forces have equal magnitudes. Emphasize that the forces continue to act but their sum
vanishes. Some students believe that the forces literally cancel'each other and no longer
act.
G. Consider an object in free fall, with only the force of gravity acting on it and use Newton's
second law to show that the force of gravity has magnitude mg, where m is the mass of
the object and 9 is the acceleration due to gravity. Tell students that this force is called
the weight of the object, although it really is a property of the interaction between Earth
and the object. Remark that the weight varies from place to place because9 varies. Mass
is a property of the object and does not vary.
IV. Newton's third law.
A. State the law: Ifobject A exerts a force FBA on object B, then object B exerts a force F AB
on object A and these two forces have the samemagnitudes and are opposite in direction.
Write F AB = -FBA. Stressthat the two forces in question act on different bodies and each
helps to determine the acceleration of the body on which it acts. Explain that the third

law describesa characteristic of force laws. State that the two forces in an action-reaction
pair are of the same type: gravitational, for example.
B. Discuss examples. Hold a book stationary in your hand, identify action-reaction pairs
(hand-book, book-earth). Now allow your hand and the book to acceleratedownward with
an acceleration less than 9 and again identify action-reaction pairs. Note that you can
control the acceleration of the book by means of the force you exert but once you exert a
given force you cannot control the force that the book exerts on you.
v Applications of Newton's laws.
A. Go over the steps used to solve a one-body problem: identify the body and all forces
acting on it, draw a free body-diagram, choosea coordinate system, write the secondlaw
in component form, and finally solve for the unknown. Work several sample problems,
either the sample problems in the text, exercisesat the end of the chapter, or problems of
your own devising. Be sure to include at least one for which the third law must be invoked.
B. Go over Sample Problem 3-7, but also consider a downward acceleration less than 9 and
a downward acceleration equal to g. Be sure to explain that the scale measuresthe force
it exerts on the passenger.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Newton's first Iaw: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2j question 9.
b. Definition of force: multiple-choice questions 3 and 4.
c. Definition of mass, mass and weight compared: multiple-choice questions 5, 12, and 13j
questions 4, 24, and 31; exercises9, 12, and 14 or 15.
d. Newton's secondIaw: multiple-choice questions 7 and 8; questions 8, 10, and 28; exercises
2, 4, and 10.
e. Newton's third Iaw: multiple-choice questions 9 and 10 or 11; questions 12, 13, and 14.
f. Applications of Newton's Iaws: multiple-choice question 14; questions 32 and 34; exercises
20, 22, 23, 26, and 27; problems 2, 5, 6, 7, and 11.
2. Demonstrations
a. Inertia: Freier and Anderson Mcl -5, Mel.
b. F = ma: Freier and Anderson Md2, MIl.
c. Third-Iaw pairs: Freier and Anderson Mdl, 3,4.
d. Mass and weight: Freier and Anderson Mf1, 2.
e. Tension in a string: Freier and Anderson Ml1.
Resource Letters, Book Four; American Association of Physics Teachers, One Physics
Ellipse, College Park, MD 2074~3845. Contains a resource Ietter on mechanics.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Frames of Reference Videodiscj video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lex-
ington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Human Mass Measurement from Skylab Physics Videodisc; video diskj available from Ztek
c. Newton's First and SecondLaws; Newton's Third Lawj Inertial Forces; Translational Ac-
celeration; from AAPT collection 2 of single-conceptfilmsj video tapej available from Ztek
d. Inertial Forces-Translational Acceleration; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept
films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
e. Forces, Newton's Laws; Side A: Mechanics (I) of Cinema Classics; video disk; available
from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).

f. Newton's First Law; Demonstrations of Physics: Motion; VHS video tape (5:40); Media
Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
g. Newton's SecondLaw; Demonstrations of Physics: Motionj VHS video tape (6:31); Media
Design Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
h. Inertia; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
i. Mechanics in Action; VHS video tape (25 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
j. Energy and Force: Part 1; VHS video tape (24 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences
(see above for address).
k. The Laws of Motion; VHS video tape (21 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
I. The Laws of Motion Applied; VHS video tape (21 min); Films for the Humanities &
Sciences(seeabove for address).
m. Newton's lst Lawj Newton's 2nd Lawj Newton's 3rd Law; Physics Demonstrations in Me-
chanics, Part IIj VHS video tape; ~3 min eachj Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585
Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
n. Newton's lst Law; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part III; VHS video tape or video
disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction (see above for address).
o. Fundamental Forces; Mass and Weightj Newton's 2nd Law; Newton's 2nd and 3rd Laws;
Force Componentsj Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part IVj VHS video tape or
video disk; ~3 min each; Physics Curriculum & Instruction (see above for address).
5. Computer Software
a. Freebody;Graham Oberumj available from Physics Academic Software, Box 8202, North
Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8202. Students draw force vectors and can
changethe length and orientation of the vectors in responseto questions. The screengives
the components.
b. Force and Motion Microworldj Ping-Kee L. Tao and Ming-Wai Tse; available from Physics
Academic Software (see above for address). Uses velocity graphs to display the effects of
force on the motion of an object. Includes drag forces.
c. Dynamic Analyzer; Roger Sipsonj Windowsj available from Physics Academic Software
(seeabove for address).The program allows students to explore one- and two-dimensional
motion, harmonic motion, and motion in electric and magnetic fields. The motions are
simulated on the screen and various graphs are drawn side-by-side with the simulations.
The user can changethe parameters of the motion.
d. Newtonian Sandbox. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
e. Motionj Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue,
PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on second law problems, including
projectiles, frict¡on, and uniform circular motion.
6. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 8-2: Concept of Mass: Newton's Second Law of Motion. Students
measure the accelerations of two pucks that interact via a spring on a nearly frictionless
surface and compare the ratio to the ratio of their masses. This experiment may be done
with dry ice pucks or on an air table or air track.
20 Lecture notes: Chavter 3

Chapter 4 MOTION IN TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Three-dimensional motion with constant acceleration.
A. Write down the kinematic equations for r(t) and v(t). Stress that these form three sets
of one dimensional equations, linked by the common variable t and are to be solved si-
multaneously. Note that ax affects only Vx, not Vy or Vz. Make similar statements about
the other components. Throw a ball vertically, then catch it. Repeat while walking with
constant velocity acrossthe room. Ask students to observe the motion of the ball relative
to the chalkboard and to describe its motion relative to your hand.
B. Remark that sometimes the magnitude and direction of the acceleration are given, rather
than its components. Remind students how to find the components if such is the case.
II. Newton's laws in vector form.
A. Although the laws were covered previously in one-dimensional form, the extension to a
greater number of dimensions requires some discussion. Explain that force is a vector and
that mass is a scalar. Explain that experiments must be done to show that force obeys the
rules of vector addition and give an example: compare the accelerations produced by two
forces acting simultaneously with the acceleration produced by the resultant, acting as a
single force.
B. Write N ewton' s second law in the form E F = ma and explain that the sum is a vector
sum. Review vector addition using the component method and say that the vector law is
shorthand for three component equations. Write the equations.
C. Write Newton's third law in the form F AB = -FBA, where F AB is the force that object B
exerts on object A and F BA is the force that object A exerts on object B. Remind students
that the negative of a vector is another vector with the same magnitude and opposite
direction. Also remind students that the two forces in a third law pair act on different
objects.
III. Projectile motion.
A. Demonstrate projectile motion by using a spring gun to fire a ball onto a surface at the
firing height. Use various firing angles, including 45°, and point out that the maximum
range occurs for a firing angle of 45°. Remark on the symmetry of the range as a function
of firing angle. Demonstrate that the maximum range occurs for a different angle when
the ball is fired onto a surface at a different height.
B. Explain that the magnitude of the force of gravity acting on an object near the surface of
the Earth is given by F = mg, where m is the mass of the object and 9 is the magnitude
of the local acceleration due to gravity, and that the force is directed downward, toward
the center of the Earth.
C. Show that if the force of gravity is the only force acting on the object then Newton's
secondlaw tells us that the acceleration of the object is g, downward, and that this value
is constant and independent of the mass.
D. Draw the initial velocity vector on the trajectory diagram and derive its components in
terms of the initial speed and firing angle.
E. Write down the kinematic equations for x(t), y(t), vx(t), and Vy(t). At first, include both
ax and ay but then specialize to ax = O and ay = -g for positive y up. Point out that the
acceleration is the same at all points of the trajectory, even the highest point. Also point
out that the horizontal component of the velocity is constant. Explain that these equations
are valid only while the projectile is in flight. They are not valid after it hits the ground
or other target. Remind students how to find the components of the initial velocity, given
the initial speed and firing angle.

F. Draw the trajectory of a projectile and explain that
it is a parabola. Point out that all projectiles fol-
low some piece of the full paJ:abolictrajectory. For
example, A to D could be the trajectory of a ball
thrown at an upwaJ:dangle from a roof to the streetj
B to D could be the trajectory of a ball thrown hor-
izontallyj C to D could be the trajectory of a ball
thrown downwaJ:d.
G. Work examples. Use punted footballs, hit baseballs,
or thrown basketballs according to season.
1. Find the time for the projectile to reach its highest point, then find the coordinates of
the highest point.
2. Find the time for the projectile to hit the ground, at the samelevel as the firing point.
Then find the range and the velocity componentsjust before landing.
3. Show that maximum range over level ground is achieved when the firing angle is 45°.
4. Show how to work problems for which the landing point is not at the samelevel as the
firing point.
H. Explain how to find the speed and direction of travel for any time. Specialize to the time
of impact on level ground and show that the speedis the same as the firing speedbut that
vertical component of the velocity has changed sign. Remark that this result is true only
becauseair resistance has been neglected.
I. Discuss air resistance and drag. Say that the force of the air on a projectile depends on
the velocity and is directed opposite to the velocity. To give a one-dimensional example:
consider an object that is dropped in the air and take the drag for to be proportional to
the velocity: D = -W. Derive an expressionfor the velocity as a function of time. Draw
a graph of the result and point out the approach to terminal velocity. Use the condition
that the acceleration vanishesat terminal velocity to show that the terminal speedis given
by VT = mg/b. Point out Table 4-1, which gives the values of some terminal speeds. If
you have time you might extend the discussion to two-dimensional projectile motion and
compaJ:ethe trajectory with that of a projectile in the absenceof drag.
IV. Circular motion.
A. Draw the path and describe uniform circulaJ:motion, emphasizing that the speedremains
constant. Remind students that the acceleration must be perpendiculaJ:to the velocity.
By drawing the velocity vector at two times, aJ:guethat it must be directed inwaJ:d. On
the diagram show the velocity and acceleration vectors for several positions of the particle.
B. Derive a = v2/r. As an alternative to the derivation given in the text, write the equations
for the particle coordinates as functions of time, then differentiate twice. One form that
works particulaJ:ly well is x = rcos(vt/r) and y = rsin(vt/r).
C. Show that Newton's second law leads us to conclude that a force is required to make an
object go around a circle, even with constant speed. Show that the magnitude of the force
is given by F = mv2/r, where m is the mass of the object and explain that the force is
directed toward the center of the circle. Suggestthat students tie a string to an object and
whirl it in a horizontal circle. Ask that they take note of the force they must exert and
observewhat happens to the magnitude as they increase the speed of the object. Remark
that the string exerts a force of equal magnitude and opposite direction on them and they
can feel this force.
D. Example: calculate the speed of an eaJ:thsatellite, given the orbit radius and the accel-
eration to due to gravity at the orbit. Also calculate the centripetal force acting on the
satellite. SeeSample Problem 4-6. Emphasize that the acceleration is towaJ:dEaJ:th.

E. In preparation for the chapter on rotational kinematics you might explain that if the speed
is not constant the acceleration has a component tangent to the path. On a diagram of
the orbit show the acceleration vector for a particle that is speeding up and one that is
slowing down. Point out that the tangential component is given by VT = dv / dt. Explain
that the radial component is aR = v2/r, even if aT # O. Remind students how to calculate
the magnitude of a vector from its components, then state that a = Va;j, + a~. Explain
that aR and a depend on the time if ~ does not vanish.
V. Relative motion.
A. Material in this section can be used to discussinertial frames and, later, to discussrolling
without slipping. It is also useful as a prelude to relativity.
B. Relate the position of a particle as given in coordinate system S to the position as given
in coordinate system S/ by i!ps = i!pS/ + i!S/S, where i!S/S is the position of the origin
of S/ relative to the origin of S. Differentiate to show that vps = VpS/ + VS/S and
aps = apS/ + aS/S, where VS/S and aS/S are the velocity and acceleration, respectively, of
S/ relative to S.
C. Discuss examples of a ball thrown or rolled in accelerating and non-accelerating trains.
The discussion may be carried out for motion in a plane or for one dimensional motion
only.
D. Remark that apS/ = aps ifthe two systemsare not accelerating with respect to eachother.
This is an important point for the discussion of inertial reference frames.
E. Work severalproblems dealing with airplanes flying in the wind and boats sailing in moving
water. See Sample Problem 4-7. Emphasize that relative motion problems are chiefly
exercisesin vector addition. To help students read some of the problems explain that an
airplane's "heading" is its direction of motion in a frame attached to the air, while its
direction of travel is its direction of motion in a frame attached to the ground.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Motion in three dimensions: multiple-choice question 2; questions 3 and 4j exercises2 and
4j problems 1 and 2.
b. Newton's laws in two and three dimensions: multiple-choice questions 4,5, and 6j question
7j exercises5, 7, 9, and 11.
c. Projectile motion: multiple-choice questions 7 and 8j questions 11, 14, 15, 18, and 20;
exercises13, 15, 19, 24, and 27j problems 5, 6, 9, and 12.
d. Projectile motion with drag: multiple-choice questions 11 and 13j questions 17,19, and
23j exercises29 and 30; problems 15 and 18.
e. Uniform circular motion: multiple-choice question 15j question 29j exercises 36 and 38j
problems 19 and 21.
f. Relative motion in one dimension: question 36j exercises40 and 41j problem 26.
g. Relative motion in more than one dimension: multiple-choice question 17; questions 34,
35, 37, and 38; exercises42 and 44j problems 26 and 28.
2. Demonstrations
Projectile motion: Fi-eier and Anderson Mb14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23, 24, 28.
3. Audio/Visual
a. A Matter ofRelative Motion, Galilean Relativity -Ball Droppedfrom Mast of Shipj Object
Droppedfrom Aircraft , Projectile Fired Verticallyj from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept
filinsj video tapej available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Projectile Motion, Circular Motionj Side B: Mechanics (II) of Cinema Classics;video disk;
available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).

c. Projectile Motion; VHS video tape (15 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO
Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
d. Circular Motion; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove
for address).
e. Introduction to Relative Motion; VHS video tape (8 min); Films for the Humanities &
Sciences(see above for address).
f. The Ape in the Tree; Demonstrations of Physics: Motion; VHS video tape (3:13); Media
g. ReferencePrames from Skylab Physics Videodisc; video disk; available from Ztek Co. (see
above for address).
h. Projectile Motion; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part I; VHS video tape; ~3 min;
Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
i. Circular Motion; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part I; VHS video tape; ~3 min;
Physics Curriculum & Instruction (seeabove for address).
j. Velocity and Acceleration Vectors;Prame of Reference;Physics Demonstrations in Mechan-
ics, Part III; VHS video tape or video disk; ~3 min each; Physics Curriculum & Instruction
k. Projectile Motion; Circular Motion; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part V; VHS
video tape or video disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction (seeabovefor address).
a. Adding Velocities; Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue,
PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Relative velocity is considered in both one and two
dimensions.
b. Projectiles; Vernier Software, 8565 S.W .Beaverton-Hillside Hwy., Portland, OR 97225-
2429. A simulation program that allows students to experiment with projectile motion.
c. Mechanics in Motion; Stephen Saxon; available from Physics Academic Software, Box 8202,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8202. Contains projectile, pendulum,
and collision simulators. Can also be used to demonstrate conservation of energy and
rotational motion.
d. Newtonian Sandbox. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
e. Objects in Motion. See Chapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
f. Physics Demonstrations.See Chapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
g. Dynamic Analyzer. See Chapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-9: Ballistic Pendulum -Projectile Motion (use only the first
method in connection with this chapter). Students find the initial velocity of a ball shot
from a spring gun by measuring its range. Emphasizesthe use of kinematic equations.
b. Inelastic Impact and the Velocity of a Projectile (use only Procedure B with this chapter).
In addition to using range data to find the initial velocity, students plot the range as a
function of firing angle.
Chapter 5 APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Somespecial forces.
A. Remind students that weight is the gravitational force on an object and point out that its
magnitude is mg, where 9 is the local acceleration due to gravity and m is the massof the
object. It is directed toward the center of Earth.

B. Point out that a masslessrope transmits force unaltered in magnitude and that the mag-
nitude of the force it exerts on an object at each end is called the tension. Actually, the
tension in the rope is the force that any piece of rope exerts on a neighboring piece. If a
person pulls an object by exerting a force on a string attached to the object, the motion is
as if the person pulled directly on the object. The string servesto define the direction of
the force. A frictionless, masslesspulley servesto change the direction of a force but does
not changethe tension in the rope passing over it.
C. Explain that the normal force of a surface on an object originates in elastic and ultimately
electric forces. It prevents the object from moving through the surface. State that it is
perpendicular tothe surface. If the surface is at rest the normal force adjusts so the accel-
eration component perpendicular to the surface vanishes. More generally, the object and
the surface have the same perpendicular acceleration component. In this course Newton's
second law is used to find the value of the normal force. Place a book on the table and
press on it. State that the normal force is greater than when you were not pressing. Hold
the book against the wall by pressing on it and mention that the normal force is horizontal.
D. Consider a crate being pulled acrossa horizontal floor by means of a rope at some angle (J
above the horizontal and show that the normal force is given by mg -T cos(J. Emphasize
that the normal force depends on the angle (Jand, in particular, it is not mg unless (J= O.
II. Frictíonal forces.
A. Place a large massive wooden block on the lecture table. Attach a spring scale, large
enough to be read easily. If necessary,tape sandpaper to the table under the block. Pull
weakly on the scale and note that the reading is not zero although the block does not
move. Pull slightly harder and note that the reading increasesbut the block still does not
move. Remark that there must be a force of friction opposing the pull and that the force
of friction increasesas the pull increases. Now increase your pull until the block moves
and note the reading just before it starts to move. Pull the block at constant speed and
note the reading. Have the students repeat the experiment in a qualitative manner, using
books resting on their chair arms. To show that the phenomenondependson the nature of
the surface, the demonstration can be repeated after waxing the wooden block and table
top (or removing the sandpaper).
B. Give a brief qualitative discussionabout the sourceof frictional forces. Emphasize that the
frictional force is actually the vector sum of a great many forces, one at each weld. This
idea is important for the discussionof the work done by friction, later in the course.
C. Stress that the force of static friction has whatever magnitude and direction are required
to hold the two bodies in contact at rest relative to each other, up to a certain limit in
magnitude. Define the coefficient of static friction and explain the use of f 8 < J.1-8N.In
particular , explain that if the surface is stationary the force of static friction is determined
by the condition that the object on it have zero acceleration. To test if an object remains
at rest, the frictional force required to produce zero relative acceleration is calculated and
compared with J.1-8N .
D. Define the coefficient of kinetic friction and explain that fk = J.1-kN gives the frictional force
as long as the object is sliding on the surface. Also explain that if the surface is stationary
the force of kinetic friction is directed opposite to the velocity of the object sliding on it.
Remark that this is an example of a force law.
E. Point out Table 5-1, which gives the coefficients of friction for various surfaces.
F. Work some examples:
1. Find the angle of an inclined plane for which sliding starts; find the angle at which the
body slides at constant speed. These examples can be analyzed in association with a
demonstration and the students can use the data to find the coefficients of friction.

2. Analyze an object resting on the floor, with a person applying a force that is directed
at an angle above the horizontal. Find the minimum applied force that will start the
object moving and point out that it is a function of the angle between the applied force
and the horizontal.
3. Consider the same situation but with the object moving. Find its acceleration. This
and the previous example demonstrate the dependenceof the normal force and the
force of friction on the externally applied force.
4. To give an illuminating variant, consider a book being held against the wall by a
horizontal force. Calculate the minimum applied force that will keep the book from
falling.
III. Uniform circular motion.
A. Remind students that for uniform circular motion to occur there must be a radially inward
force of constant magnitude and that something in the environment of the body supplies
the force. Whirl a mass tied to a string around your head and explain that the string
supplies the force. Set up a loop-the-Ioop with a ball or toy cart on a track and explain
that the combination of the normal force of the track and the force of gravity supplies the
centripetal force. Have students identify the source of the force in examples and problems
as they are discussed.
B. Point out that F= mv2/r is just F= ma with the expressionfor centripetal acceleration
substituted for a.
C. Piscuss problem-solving strategy. After identifying the forces, find the radial component
of the resultant and equate it to mv2/r.
D. Examples:
1. Find the speed and period of a conical pendulum.
2. Find the speedwith which a car can round an unbanked curve, given the coefficient of
static friction.
3. Find the angle of banking required to hold a car on a curve without aid of friction.
4. Analyze the loop-the-Ioop and point out that the ballleaves the track when the normal
force vanishes. Show that the critical speed at the top is given by v2/r = g.
IV. Variable forces.
A; Explain that forces need not be constant. Many depend on the time, the position of the
object, or the velocity of the object.
B. Discuss time dependent forces. If you have done yet done so, use methods of integral
calculus to derive the kinematic equations for constant acceleration, then consider a force
that is a polynomial in the time. As an example, consider a crate being pulled acrossthe
floor with a horizontal force that is decreasing in proportion to the time: F = A -Bt,
say. Include friction and find expressionsfor the velocity and distance as functions of time.
Compare with the expressionsfor constant acceleration. Find the distance traveled from
t = O to the time the applied force vanishes.
v. Inertial forces. --
A. Remind students that F = ma is valid only if a is measured in an inertial frame.
B. Explain that if a' is the acceleration of the object in a non-inertial frame then the accel-
eration a in an inertial frame is given by a = a' + A, where A is the acceleration of the
non-inertial frame, as measured in an inertial frame. Emphasize that a, not a' , is used in
Newton's secondlaw. Thus F = m(a'+A) or F-mA = ma'. State that -mA is called an
inertial force. If we use F I to represent -mA then the secondlaw becomesF + F I = ma' ,
an equation that looks like F = ma but with an additional force term. Stress that F1 is
not a real force. No object in the environment is responsible for it. It does not obey the
third law.

C. Give an example of a person sitting on a smooth seat of a car that is slowing down. In an
inertial frap1ethe car slows and the person continues with (nearly) constant velocity. In a
frame attacl1ed to the car the person acceleratesforward.
D. Discuss centrifugal and Coriolis forces and their significance for d~ter~ing apparent
weight and for wind and water currents.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Tension forces: multiple-choice questions 1, 5, and 6; question 1; exercises1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, and 8; problems 1 and 2.
b. Normal forces: multiple-choice questions 3 and 4.
c. Basis for friction: question 2.
d. Static friction: multiple-choice question 11; questions 3, 6, 7, and 8; exercises9, 11, 13, 15,
16,17,26, and 27; problems 4,6,7,9, and 15.
e. Kinetic friction: multiple-choice questions 7 and 9; questions 4 and 9; exercises12, 19, 21,
f. Both static and kinetic friction: multiple-choice questions 8 and 10; exercises 14, 18, 20,
22, 23, 25, 29, and 31; problem 5.
g. Ulliform circular motion: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13; questions 13, 14, 17, 18, 19,
and 20; exercises34, 38, 42, 44, and 47; problems 16 and 19.
h. Collical pendulum: question 15; exercise35.
i. Relative motion, pseudoforces:questions 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26.
j. Time-dependent forces: exercises48 and 49; problem 20.
2. Demonstrations
a. Friction: Freier and Anderson Mk.
b. Inclined plane: Freier and Anderson Mj2.
c. Centripetal acceleration: Freier and Anderson Mb29, 31, Mml, 2, 4- 8, Ms5.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Tt-ajectories; from AAPT collection 2 of single-concept films; video tape; available from
Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Inertial Forces -Centripetal Acceleration; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept
films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
c. Uniform Circular Motion; Demonstrations of Physics: Motion; VHS video tape (5:57);
Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
d. Circular Motion; VHS video tape (10 min); Fihns for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
e. Terminal Velocity; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part n; VHS video tape; ~3
min; Physics CurriculUm & InStruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
a. Dynamic Analyzer. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Motion; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue,
PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on second law problems, including
projectiles, friction, and uniform circular motion.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-6: Coefficient of Priction -The Inclined Plane. Students deter-
mine the coefficients of static and sliding friction for three blocks on an inclined plane.
They devise their own experimental procedures.

b. Meiners Experiment 7-7: Radial Acceleration (Problem I only). The centripetal force and
the speedof a ball on a string, executing uniform circular motion, are measuredfor various
orbit radii. Essentially a verification of F = mv2/ r .
c. Meiners Experiment 7-8: Investigation of Uniform Circular Motion, or Bernard Exper-
iment 13: Centripetal Force. Students measure the force acting on a body undergoing
uniform circular motion, with the centripetal force provided by a spring.
d. Meiners Experiment 8-3: Centripetal Force. Students measure the speed of a puck under-
going uniform circular motion on a nearly frictionless surface. The data is used to calculate
the centripetal force.
Chapter 6 MOMENTUM
BASIC TOPICS
I. Properties of Collisions
A. Set up a collision between two carts on an air track. Point out the interaction interval, the
intervals before and after the interaction.
B. Explain that for the collisions considered two bodies interact with each other over a short
period of time and that the times before and after the collision are well defined. The force of
interaction is great enough that external forces can be ignored duÍ"ing the interaction time.
Explain that the identities of the bodies that exit the interaction may be different from
those that enter: decaysof fundamental particles and nuclei can be included in discussions
of collisions.
II. The linear momentum of a particle.
A. Define linear momentum for a single particle: p = mv.
--
B. Show that Newton's second law can be written EF = dp/dt for a particle. Emphasize
that the mass of the particle is constant and that this form of the law does not imply that
a new term vdm/dt has been added to E F = ma.
III. Impulse and the impulse-momentum theorem.--
A. Define the impulse associatedwith a force F in the time interval from ti to t f as the integral
of the force with respect to time:
J= t¡ Fdt. 1
t.
t
B. Integrate Newton's second law in the form F = dp/dt from time ti to time t¡ and show
that J = P¡ -pi. Explain that here J is the total impulse acting on the object since F
must be the total force.
C. Explain that it is not only the total force that counts in producing a changein momentum
but also the time over which the total force acts. Draw a graph of a force as function of
time, such as is shown in Fig. 6-6, and explain that the magnitude oí the impulse is the
area under the curve.
D. Define the averageforce over the interval from ti to t¡ as
Fav=
-..I ¡ t¡ -..
t¡-t. Fdt
t t.
t
and use the impulse-momentum theorem to show that in any interval the cl1ange in the
-..
momentum of a particle is given by ~p = F av~t, where ~t is the duration of the interval.
Remark that when the cl1angein momentum and the duration of the interaction can be
28 Lecture notes: Cbapter 6

measuredthen the averageforce can be calculated and that this gives us a measureof the
strength of the interaction.
E. Refer to the air track collision and point out that it is the impulse of one body on the
other that changes the momentum of the second body. Repeat the air track collision.
Measure the velocity of one cart before and after the collision and calculate the changein
momentum. Equate this to the impulse the other cart exerts. Estimate the collision time
and calculate the averageforce exerted on the cart.
IV, Conservation ofmomentum.
A. Consider a two-body collision and use Newton's third law to show that the impulse exerted
by one of the objects on the other is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the
impulse exerted by the secondobject on the first. Show that, if other (external) impulses
can be ignored, this leads to the result that Pl + P2 is constant.
B. Consider a projectile that splits in two and find the velocity of one part, given the velocity
of the other. The exploding projectile idea can be demonstrated with an air track and two
carts, one more massive than the other. Attach a brass tube to one cart and a tapered
rubber stopper to the other. Arrange so that the tube is horizontal and the stopper fits in
its end. The tube has a small hole in its side, through which a firecracker fuSefits. Start
the carts at rest and light a firecracker in the tube. The carts rapidly separate, strike the
ends of the track, come back together again, and stop. Arrange the initial placement so
the carts strike the ends of the track simultaneously. Explain that Pl + P2 = Othroughout
the motion. For a less dramatic demonstration, tie two carts together with a compressed
spring between them, then cut the string.
C. Explain that observersin two different inertial frames will measure different values of the
momentum for a system but they will agree on the conservation of momentum.
v. Two-body collisions in one dimension.
A. Define the center-of-mass frame as the reference frame in which the total momentum is
zero. Let Vl be the velocity of object 1 in this frame and let V be the velocity of the
--
center-of-massframe relative to the laboratory. State that Vl + V is the velocity of the
object relative to the laboratory. Similarly, V2+ V is the velocity of object 2 relative to the
laboratory. Show that the total momentum in the laboratory frame is p = (ml + m2)V
and that therefore the velocity of the center-of-massframe is V = p /(ml + m2).
B. State that conservation of momentum tells us that the total momentum in the center-of-
mass frame is zero before, during, and after the collision. Diagram a two-body collision
as viewed in the center-of-massframe. The objects enter the collision with momenta of
equal magnitude and opposite direction; the collision reversestheir directions and perhaps
changesthe magnitudes of their momenta but they leavewith momenta of equal magnitude
and opposite direction.
C. Define an elastic collision as one in which the magnitudes of the individual momenta do
not change in the center-of-massframe. A11that happens is that the individual momenta
change directions. Define an inelastic collision as one in which the magnitudes of the
individual momenta are decreasedand an explosive collision as one in which the individual
momenta increase. Define a completely inelastic collision as one in which the individual
momenta become zero.
D. Two-body elastic collisions in one dimension.
1. Use the definition of an elastic collision to derive expressionsfor the final velocities
in the laboratory frame in terms of the massesand initial velocities in the laboratory
frame.
2. Specializethe general result to the caseof equal massesand one body initially at rest.
Demonstrate this collision on the air track using carts with spring bumpers. Point out

that the carts excl1angevelocities.
3. Specialize the general result to the case of a light body, initially at rest, struck by a
heavy body. Demonstrate this collision on the air track. Point out that the velocity
of the heavy body is reduced only slightly and that the light body shoots off at high
speed. Relate to a bowling ball hitting a pin.
4. Specialize the general result to the case of a heavy body, initially at rest, struck by
a light body. Demonstrate this collision on the air track. Point out the low speed
acquired by the heavy body and the rebound of the light body. Relate to a ball
rebounding from a wall. A nearly elastic collision can be obtained with a superball.
E. Two-body completely inelastic collisions in one dimension.
1. Use the definition of a completely inelastic collision to derive an expression for the
velocity in the laboratory frame of the bodies after the collision in terms of their
massesand initial velocities in the laboratory frame.
2. Demonstrate the collision on an air track, using carts with velcro bumpers.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Definition of momentum: multiple-choice questions 2, 3, and 4; exercises1 and 3.
b. Definition of impUlse, impulse-momentum theorem, average force: multiple-choice ques-
tions 5, 6, and 7; questions 3, 4, and 6; exercises 5, 8, 9, 10, and 13; problems 2 and
3.
c. Streams ofparticles: question 8; exercise 14; problems 1,5, and 7.
d. Conservation of momentum: multiple-choice question 11; question 10; exercises16 and 18;
problems 8 and 10.
e. Collisions: multiple-choice question 12; questions 11, 12, 14, and 15; exercises19, 20, 25,
26, 28, 31, 32, 33, and 35; problems 11, 12, and 15.
2. Demonstrations
a. Conservation of momentum: Freier and Anderson Mg4, 5, Mi2.
b. Collisions: Freier and Anderson Mgl -3, Mil, 3,4, Mw3, 4.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Finding the Speedof a Rifte Bullet; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept films; video
tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Conservation of Linear/ Angular Momentum, Conservation of Momentum; from AAPT
collection 2 of single-concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for
address).
c. Linear Momentum; Side E: Conservation Laws of Cinema Classics; video disk; available
from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
d. Momentum; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for theHumanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
Princeton, N J 08543-2053.
e. Human Momenta, No Initial Motion, Human Momenta, Initial Translation from Skylab
Physics Videodisc; video disk; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
f. Impulse and Momentum; Conservation of Momentum; Physics Demonstrations in Mechan-
ics, Part V; VHS video tape or video disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction,
22585Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
g. One-Dimensional Collisions, Two-Dimensional Collisions, Scattering of a Cluster of Ob-
jects, Dynamics of a Billiard Ball, Inelastic One-Dimensional Collisions, Inelastic Two-
Dimensional Collisions, and Colliding Preight Cars; from AAPT collection 1 of single-
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).

h. Drops and Splashes, Collisions in Two Dimensions, Inelástic Collisions; from AAPT col-
lection 2 of single-conceptfi1ms;video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabovefor address).
i. Elastic Collisions, Inelastic Collisions, Collisions; Side E: Conservation Laws of Cinema
Classics;video disk; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
j. Air Track Collisions; Demonstrations ofPhysics: Energy and Momentum; VHS video tape
(7:24); Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
k. The Dynamics of a Kamte Punch; Demonstrations of Physics: Energy and Momentum;
VHS video tape (4:55); Media Design Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
1. Collisions from Skylab Physics Videodisc; video disk; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove
for address).
m. Physics and Automobile Collisions; interactive video disk by Dean Zollman (John Wiley,
1984). The disk showscollisions of cars with fixed barriers and two car collisions (head-on,
at 90°, and at 60°). One sequenceshows the influence of bumper design, others show
the influence of air bags and shoulder straps on manikins. All are slow motion movies of
manufacturers' tests and many show grids and clocks. Students can stop the action to
take measurements,then make calculations of momentum and energy transfers. For most
exercises,a standard disk player is satisfactory; for a few, a computer-controlled player is
required.
n. Characteristics of Collisions; Elastic Collision; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics,Part
V; VHS video tape or video disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction (see above
for address).
4, Computer Software
Conservation Laws; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536,Ruston, LA 71270. Includes a section on conservation ofmomentum.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 8-7: Linear Momentum. Essentially the same as 8-Q but data is
analyzed to give the individual momenta and total momentum as functions of time. Kinetic
energy is also analyzed.
b. Meiners Experiment 7-10: Impulse and Momentum. Students use a microprocessor to
measure the force as a function of time as a toy truck hits a force transducer. They
numerically integrate the force to find the impulse, then compare the result with the
changein momentum, found by measuring the velocity before and after the collision.
c. Bernard Experiment 8: Impulse, Momentum, and Energy. Part A deal with a mass that
is hung on a string passing over a pulley and attached to an air track glider. The glider
acceleratesfrom rest for a known time and a spark timer is used to find its velocity at the
end of the time. The impulse is calculated and compared with the momentum. In part
B a glider is launched by a stretched rubber band and a spark record of its position as a
function of time is made while it is in contact with the rubber band. A static technique is
used to measure the force of the rubber band for each of the recorded glider positions and
the impulse is approximated. The result is again compared with the final momentum of
the glider .
d. Meiners Experiment 7-11: Scattering (for advanced groups). The deflection of pellets
from a stationary disk is used to investigate the scattering angle as a function of impact
parameter and to find the radius of the disk.
e. Meiners Experiment 8-5: One-Dimensional Collisions. A puck moving on a nearly friction-
less surface collides with a stationary puck. A spark timer is used to record the positions
of the pucks as functions of time. Students calculate the velocities, momenta, and energies
before and after the collision. May be performed with dry ice pucks or on an air table or
track.

f. Meiners Experiment 8-8: Two-Dimensional Collisions. Sameas Meiners 8-5 but the pucks
are allowed to scatter out of the original line of motion. Students must measure angles
and calculate components of the momenta. The experiment may be performed with dry
ice pucks or on an air table.
g. Bernard Experiment 12: Elastic Collision -Momentum and Energy Relations in Two
Dimensions. A ball rolls down an incline on a table top and strikes a target ball initially
at rest at the edge of the table. The landing points of the balls on the floor are used
to find their velocities just after the collision. The experiment is run without a target
ball to find the velocity of the incident ball just before the collision. Data is used to
check for conservation of momentum and energy. Both head-on and grazing collisions are
investigated. A second experiment, similar to Meiners 8-8, is also described.
Chapter 7 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES
BASIC TOPICS
I. Center of mass.
A. Explain what is meant by a system of particles. Explain that for a crate sliding on a rough
floor we might, for example, take the system to be the collection of particles in the crate
or the collection of particles in the crate and floor. Explain that particles in the system
might interact with each other and with particles outside the system.
B. Spin an eraser as you toss it. Point out that, if the influence of air can be neglected,
one point (the center of mass) follows the parabolic trajectory of a projectile although the
motions of other points are more complicated.
C. Define the center of mass by giving its coordinates in terms of the coordinates of the
individual particles in the system. As an example, consider a system consisting of three
discrete particles and calculate the coordinates of the center of mass, given the massesand
coordinates of the particles. Point out that no particle need be at the center of mass.
D. Extend the definition to include a continuous mass distribution. Note that if the object
has a point, line, or plane of symmetry, the center of mass must be at that point, on that
line, or in that plane. Examples: a uniform sphere or spherical shell, a uniform cylinder,
a uniform square, a rectangular plate, and a triangular plate. Show how to compute the
coordinates of the center of mass of a complex object comprised of a several simple parts,
a table for example. Each part is replaced by a particle with massequal to the massof the
part, positioned at the center of mass of the part. The center of mass of the replacement
particles is then found.
E. Explain that the general motion of a rigid body may be described by giving the motion of
the center of mass and the motion of the object around the center of mass.
F. Derive expressionsfor the velocity and acceleration of the center of mass in terms of the
velocities and
-- accelerations of the particles in the system.
G. Derive E F ext = M8cm, where the sum is over all external forces acting on objects of the
system. As an example, consider a two-particle system with external forces acting on both
particles and each particle interacting with the other. Invoke Newton's third law to show
that the internal forces cancel when all forces are summed.
H. Show that the total momentum of a system of particles equals the total massof the system
times the velocity ofits center ofmass. Then show that Newton's secondlaw for the center
of mass can be written E F ext = dP / dt, where p is the total momentum of the system.
Stress that this equation is valid only if the mass of the system is constant.
I. Show that if the velocities of the particles in a system are measured relative to the center
of mass, then the total momentum is zero. Refer back to the relevant portions of Chapter

6, where the center-of-massframe was defined as the frame for which the total momentum
is zero.
II. Conservation of linear momentum.
A. Remind students of the momentum conservation principle for two-body collisions, as dis-
cussedin Chapter 6 and remark that the principle can now be extended to a many particle
system. Point out that p = constant if E F ext = o. Stress that one examines the external
forces to see if momentum is conserved in any particular situation. Point out that one
component of p may be conservedwhen others are not.
B. Put two carts, connected by a spring, on a horizontal air track and set them in oscillation
by pulling them apart and releasing them from rest. Explain that the spring forces are
internal to the two-cart system, that the center of mass does not accelerate, and that the
total momentum of the system is constant. Use the conservation of momentum principle to
derive an expressionfor the velocity of one cart in terms of the velocity of the other. Push
one cart and explain that the center of mass is now accelerating and the total momentum
is changing.
C. State that if E F ext = 0 and the center of mass is initially at rest, then it remains at the
same point no matter how individual parts of the system move. Refer to the two carts of
B above. Also consider two skaters with different masseson frictionless ice, separated by
a given distance. Find where they meet when they pull on opposite ends of a rope.
D. Explain that observersin two different inertial frames will measure different values of the
momentum for a system but they will agree on the conservation of momentum. That is,
if the net external force is found to vanish in one inertial frame, it vanishes in all inertial
frames.
E. lllustrate the use of conservation of momentum to solve problems by considering the firing
of a cannon initially resting on a frictionless surface. Assume the barrel is horizontal and
calculate the recoil velocity of the cannon. Explain that muzzlevelocity is measuredrelative
to the cannon and that we must use the velocity of the cannonball relative to Earth.
III. Variable mass systems.
A. Derive the rocket equation, Eq. 7-30 and recast it as Eq. 7-31. Emphasize that we must
consider the rocket and fuel to be a single constant mass system. Calculate the momentum
before and after a small amount of fuel is expelled and equate the time rate of changeof
momentum to the net external force.
B. Define the thrust of the rocket as vrel(dM/dt, where Vrel is the velocity with which fuel is
ejected, measured relative to the rocket.
C. Specialize to the case of a rocket starting from rest with no external forces acting on it.
Supposethe initial mass of the rocket and fuel is Mo. Show that after mass mf of fuel has
be expelled the velocity of the rocket is given by
-Vrel m
vi
Explain that the relative velocity is taken to be a constant and that the velocity of the
rocket itself is not constant.
D. To demonstrate, screw severalhook eyesinto a toy CO2 propelled rocket, run a line through
the eyesand stri~g the line acrossthe lecture hall. Start the rocket from rest and have the
students observe its acceleration as it crossesthe hall.
E. As a secondexample of a variable mass system, consider the loading of sand on a conveyor
belt and calculate the force required to keep the belt moving at constant velocity.

SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Center of mass (two particles): multiple-cl1oice questions 1, 4, and 5j question 2j exercise
1.
b. Center of mass (many particles): multiple-cl1oice questions 7 and 8j question 3j exercises
10 and llj problem 4.
c. Center of mass (solid objects): multiple-cl1oice questions 9 and 10j questions 4, 7, 8, 10,
and llj exercises13 and 14j problems 3,5, and 6.
d. Motion of the center of mass, conservation of momentum: multiple-cl1oice questions 11 and
13j questions 13, 14, and 15j exercises4, 5, 8, 16, and 17j problems 2 and 3.
e. Variable mass systems: questions 17, 21, and 22j exercises20, 21, and 23j problems 8, 9,
10, and 11.
2. Demonstrations
a. Center of mass, center of gravity: Freier and Anderson Mp7, 12, 13.
b. Motion of center of mass: Freier and Anderson Mpl, 2, 16 -19.
c. Rockets: Freier and Anderson Mh.
Rocketsby David Keeportsj available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD
20740-3845.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Center of Massj from AAPT collection 2 ofsingle-concept fihnsj video tapej available from
b. Center of Mass Motionj Physics Experimentsj VHS video tape (15 min)j Films for the
Humanities & Sciences1PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
c. Motion of Center of Massj Physics Demonstrations in Mecl1anics,Part rrj VHS video tapej
~3 minj Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
d. Motion of Center ofMassj Physics Demonstrations in Mecl1anics,Part Vj VHS video tape
or video diskj ~3 minj Physics Curriculum & Instruction (see above for address).
5. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 8-6: Center of Mass Motion. Two pucks are connected by a rubber
band or spring and move toward eacl1other on a nearly frictionless surface. A spark timer
is used to record their positions as functions of time. Students calculate and study the
position of the center of mass as a function of time. They also find the center of mass
velocity. Can be performed with dry ice pucks or on an air table or air track.
Chapter 8 ROTATION AL KINEMATICS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Rotation about a fixed axis.
A. Spin an irregular object on a fixed axis. A bicycle wheel or spinning platform with the
object attached can be used. Draw a rough diagram, looking along the axis. Explain that
each point in the body has a circular orbit and that, for any selectedpoint, the radius of
the orbit is the perpendicular distance from the point to the axis. Contrast to a body that
is simultaneously rotating and translating. SeeFigs. 8-1 and 8-2.
B. Draw a referenceline on the diagram, perpendicular to the rotation axis, and say that the
line rotates with the object. Define angular position ~ (in radians and revolutions) as the
angle between the referenceline and a line that is fixed in space. Note that ~ is positive for

an angle in one direction and negative for an angle in the other. By convention in this text
position angles are positive in the counterclockwise direction. Remark that as the body
rotates tt>continues to increase, even after a revolution.
C. If necessary,define radian measure and review the relationship between degree, radian,
and revolution.
D. Define angular displacement l1tt>,angular velocity i.I)(in rad/s, deg/s, and rev/s) and an-
gular acceleration a (in rad/s2, deg/s2, and rev/s2). Treat both averageand instantaneous
quantities but emphasizethat the instantaneous quantities are most important for us.
E. Interpret the signs of i.I)and a. Give examples of spinning objects for which i.I)and a have
the same sign and for which they have opposite signs.
F. Point out the analogy to one-dimensionallinear motion. tt>corresponds to x, i.I)to v, and
a to a.
II. Rotation with constant angular acceleration.
A. Emphasize that the discussionhere is restricted to rotation about a fixed axis but that the
same equations can be used when the axis is in linear translation.
B. Derive the kinematic equations for tt>(t)and i.I)(t). The text uses integration to obtain the
kinematic equations. If the calculus coursehas not yet coveredintegration you might adapt
the arguments used earlier for 1inear motion.
C. Make a comparison with the analogous equations for linear motion. Point out that the
problems of rotational kinematics are similar to those for one-dimensionallinear kinematics
and that the same strategies are used for their solution.
D. Go over examples. Calculate the time and number of revolutions for an object to go from
someinitial angular velocity to some final angular velocity, given the angular acceleration.
If time permits, consider both a body that is speedingup and one that is slowing down. For
the latter calculate the time to stop and the number of revolutions made while stopping.
Calculate the time to rotate a given number of revolutions and the final angular velocity,
again given the angular acceleration.
III. Vector properties of rotation.
A. Point out that i.I)and a can be thought of as the components of vectors i:J and a, re-
spectively. For fixed axis rotation, the vectors lie along the axis, with the direction of
i:J determined by a right-hand rule: if the fingers curl in the direction of rotation, then
the thumb points in the direction of ii:J.If di.IJ / dt > O then a is in the same direction; if
di.IJ
/ dt < Othen it is in the opposite direction.
B. Use Fig. 8-5 to explain that a vector cannot be associatedwith a finite angular displacement
becausetwo displacements do not add as vectors.
IV .Linear speed and acceleration of a point rotating about a fixed axis.
A. Write down s = rtt>for the arc length. Explain that it is a rearrangement of the defining
equation for the radian and that tt>must be in radians for it to be valid.
B. Wrap a string on a large spool that is free to rotate about a fixed axis. Mark the spool
so the angle of rotation can be measured. Slowly pull out the string and explain that the
length of string pulled out is equal to the arc length through which a point on the rim
moves. Compare the string length to rtt>for tt>= 7r/2, 7r, 37r/2, and 27r.Show that s = rtt>
reducesto the familiar result for tt>= 27r.
C. Differentiate s = rtt>to obtain v = ri.l) and aT = ra. Emphasize that radian measure must
be used. Point out that v gives the speed and ar gives the acceleration of the string as
it is pulled provided it does not slip on the spool. Point out that all points in a rotating
rigid body have the same value of i.I)and the same value of a but points that are different
distances from the axis have different values of v and different values of ar.

D. Point out that the velocity is tangent to the circular orbit but that the total accelerationis
not. ~ gives the tangential component while aR = v2/r = r1.1)2 gives the radial component.
The tangential component is not zero only when the point on the rim speedsup or slows
down in its rotational motion while the radial component is not zero as long as the object
is turning. For students who have forgotten, reference the derivation of aR = v2/r, given
earlier.
E. Explain how to find the magnitude and direction of the total acceleration in terms of 1.1),
a, and r.
F. Make the connection to the discussion -- of angular velocity and angular acceleration as
vectors. For the special case~ = l.l)k, show that regardlessof the choice of origin along the
z axis, v = ~ x i!. Differentiate this to show that a = a x i! + iJ x v. Interpret the first term
as the tangential acceleration and the second as the centripetal acceleration. Note that
this approach correctly gives the direction and magnitude of the velocity and acceleration
of a point on the rotating body. To cover this topic you will probably need to discussthe
vector product. Define the magnitude in terms of the magnitudes of the two vectors in the
~roduct and the angle between them and give the right-hand rule for finding the direction
of the product.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Ideas of rotational motion: multiple-cl1oice questions 1, 2, and 3j questions 1, 2, 3j exercise
1.
b. Angular variables: questions 5, 6, and 14; exercises 2, 3, 5, 7, and 9j problems 1 and 2.
c. Vector nature of rotational variables: multiple-cl1oice question 4; questions 7, 8, 10, and
llj exercises 10 and 11.
d. Rotation with constant angular acceleration: multiple-cl1oice question 5j question 4j exer-
cises 12, 14, 15, 17, and 19; problems 4 and 5.
e. Relationships between linear and angular variables: multiple-cl1oice question 6; questions
12, 13, 16, 17, and 18; exercises 18, 23, 26, 28, 29, and 31; problems 6, 8, 10, and 11.
f. Vector relationships between linear and angular variables: multiple-cl1oice questions 7 and
8j exercises 33 and 34; problems 12, 13.
2. Audio/visual
Non-Commutivity of Angular Displacementsj Bruce Marsh; available from the American
Association ofPhysics Teachers, 5112 Berwyn Road, College Park, MD 20740-4100. Slides
showing the results of several rotations performed in different order .
a. Motion. See Chapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Circular Motion; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
Chapter 9 ROTATION AL DYN AMICS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Torque.
A. Define torque for a force acting on a single particle: T = r x F, where r is a vector from the
origin to the point of application of the force. State that the magnitude of T is given by
-+
T = r F sin t/J,where t/Jis the angle between r and F when they are drawn with their tails

at the same point. Explain that T = r FT = r l.F , where FT (= F sin ()) is the tangential
component of F and r l. (= r sin ()) is the moment arm.
-+
B. Explain that the torque vanishes if F is along the same line as r and that only the compo-
-+
nent of F that is perpendicular to r produces a torque. This is a mechanism for picking out
the part of the force that produces angular acceleration, as opposed to the part that pro-
ducescentripetal acceleration. Also explain that the sameforce can produce a larger torque
if it is applied at a point farther from the origin. If this is the first time a vector product is
discussedyou should consider assigning one or two exercises. Seethe Assi~ents section
below.
C. Use a wrench tightening a bolt as an example and take the origin to be at the bolt. The
force is applied perpendicular to the wrench arm and a long moment arm is used to obtain
a large torque.
D. Explain the sign convention for torques applied to a body rotating about a fixed axis. For
example, torques tending to give the body a counterclockwise (positive) angular accelera-
tion are positive while those tending to give the body a clockwise angular momentum are
negative. Remark that the convention is arbitrary and the opposite convention may be
convenient for some problems.
E. Consider an object that is falling along a straight line under the influence of gravity. Take
the origin to be a distance d from the line of fall and show that the torque due to gravity
is mgd.
F. Show that the net torque on an object may not be zero even if the net force is zero. By
way of example, consider two forces of equal magnitude but opposite direction acting at
the ends of a meter stick and calculate the net torque about the center of the stick.
II. Newton's secondlaw for rotation.
A. Use a single particle on a circular orbit to introduce the topic. Start with FT = mar and
show that T = la, where I = mr2. Here FT is the tangential component of the force on
the particle.
B. Explain that a similar equation also holds for extended rigid objects rotating about a fixed
axis. For them T is replaced by a sum over all etemal torques and I is the sum ¿:::mir;
over all particles in the object. Here mi is the massof particle i and ri is the distance from
particle i to the rotation axis. I is called the rotational inertia of the object. You might
remark that some authors call it the moment of inertia. The law is ¿:::Text = I a.
C. Remark that ¿:::Text= la is analogousto Newton's secondlaw for one-dimensionalmotion
and that it is used to solve dynamics problems dealing with rotation about a fixed axis.
Emphasizethat ¿:::Text is the total external torque and explain that a sign must be included
with each torque in the sum.
D. Remark that problems are solved similarly to secondlaw problems. Detail the steps: draw
a force diagram, identify torques, choosethe direction of positive rotation, and substitute
the total torque into ¿:::Text= la.
E. Wrap a string around a cylinder, free to rotate on fixed horizontal axis. Attach the free end
of the string to a massand allow the massto fall from rest. Note that its acceleration is less
than g, perhaps by dropping a free mass beside it. Draw force diagrams for the cylinder
and falling mass. Choose coordinate systems so a positive acceleration of the falling mass
is consistent with a positive angular acceleration of the cylinder. Write Newton's second
law for rotation of the cylinder in terms of the tension in the string. Also write Newton's
second law for the motion of the falling mass. Remark that since the string does not slip
on the cylinder and becausethe coordinates were chosen as they were, a = ra, where a
is the acceleration of the falling mass, r is the radius of the cylinder, and a is its angular
acceleration. Eliminate the string tension and the angular acceleration of the cylinder,

then solve for the acceleration of the falling mass. Point out that theory predicts it is less
than g.
m. Rotational inertia.
A. Remind students of the definition: I = E mirl. Point out that rotational inertia depends
on the distribution of mass and on the position of the rotation axis. Explain that two
bodies may have the same mass but quite different rotational inertias. Point out that
Fig. 9-15 gives the rotational inertia for various objects and axes. Particularly mention
the rotational inertia of a hoop rotating about the axis through its center and perpendicular
to its plane. Note that all its mass is the same distance from the axis. Also mention the
rotational inertias of a cylinder rotating about its axis and a sphere rotating about a
diameter. Note that the mass is now distributed through a range of distances from the
axis and the rotational inertia is less than that for a hoop with the same mass and radius.
B. Show how to convert the sum for I to an integral. Use the integral to find the rotational
inertia for a thin rod rotating about an axis through its center and perpendicular to its
length. If the students have experiencewith volume integrals using spherical coordinates,
derive the expressionfor the rotational inertia of a sphere.
C. Prove the parallel axis theorem. The proof can be carried out using a sum for I rather
than an integral. Explain its usefulnessfor finding the rotational inertia when the axis is
not through the center of mass. Emphasize that the actual axis and the axis through the
center of mass must be parallel for the theorem to be valid. Point out the two entries in
Fig. 9-15 for a thin rod and use the parallel axis theorem to obtain the rotational inertia
for rotation about one end from the rotational inertia for rotation about the center.
IV. Equilibrium of a rigid body.
--
A. Write down the equilibrium conditions for a rigid body: EFext = o, EText = 0 (about
any point) .State that only external forces and torques enter. Explain that these conditions
mean that the acceleration of the center of mass and the angular acceleration about the
center of mass both vanish. Point out that the equilibrium conditions form 6 equations
that are to be solved for unknowns, usually the magnitudes of some of the forces or the
angles made by some of the forces with fixed lines. Explain that we will be concerned
chiefly with static equilibrium.
B. Show that, for a body in equilibrium, E Text = 0 about every point.
C. Explain that the gravitational forces and torques, acting on individual particles of the
body, can be replaced by a single force acting at a point called the center of gravity. If the
gravitational field is uniform over the body the center of gravity coincides with the center
of mass and the magnitude of the replacement force is Mg, where M is the total mass.
D. Give the problem solving steps: isolate the body, identify the forces acting on it, draw a
force diagram, choosea referenceframe for the resolution of the forces, choosea reference
frame for the resolution of the torques, write down the equilibrium conditions in component
form, and solve these simultaneously for the unknowns. Point out that the two reference
frames may be different and that the referenceframe for the resolution of torques can often
be chosenso that one or more of the torques vanish.
E. Work examples. Consider a person on a ladder leaning against a wall (Sample Problem 9--7)
or a beam supporting a weight (Sample Problem 9-8). In each caseshow how the situation
can be analyzed qualitatively to find the directions of the forces, then solve quantitatively.
v. Rolling
A. Remark that a rolling object can be considered to be rotating about an axis through the
center of mass while the center of mass moves. The text considers the special case for
which the axis of rotation does not changedirection. Point out that the rotational motion
obeys E Text = I a and the translational motion of the center of mass obeys E:F = m8cm.

Emphasize that one of the forces acting might be the force of friction produced by the
surface on which the object rolls.
B. Explain that the speedof a point at the top of a rolling object is Vcm+ YJRand the speed
of a point at the bottom is Vcm-YJR. Specialize to the case of rolling without slipping.
Point out that the point in contact with the ground has zero velocity, so Vcm= YJR. As
evidence point out that tire tracks in the snow are clean (not smudged) if the tires do not
slip.
C. Consider objects ro11ingdown an inclined plane and show how to calculate the acceleration.
If time permits, carry out an analysis using the equations of motion and show how to find
the frictional force that prevents slipping.
D. Roll a sphere, a hoop, and a cylinder, all with the same radius and mass, down an incline.
Start the objects simultaneously and ask students to pick the winner .
E. Demonstrate the object shown in Fig. 9--35,built from three concentric cylinders with the
string wrapped around the smallest, like a yo-yo. Place it on the table and pull the string
at various angles. The three difIerent possibilities are shown in the figure. Work out the
answersto Question 3.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Torque: multiple-choice questions 1,2, and 3; exercise 2 or 4.
b. Vector product: exercises5, 6, 7, and 8.
c. Rotational inertia: multiple-cl1oice question 4; exercises 12, 13, 17, and 19; problems 12
and 15.
d. Radius of gyration: exercise20.
e. Center of gravity: questions 4 and 5.
f. Newton's secondlaw for rotation: multiple-cl1oicequestion 8; questions 22 and 23; exercises
11, 15, 34, 38, and 40; problems 17 and 19.
g. Equilibrium: multiple-cl1oice questions 5 and 6; questions 7, 8, 9, 11, and 12; exercises23,
24, 26, 28, 29, and 30; problems 1, 4, and 8.
h. Combined rotation and translation, rolling: multiple-cl1oice questions 9 and 10; questions
1, 2, 3, 29, 30, 32, 33, and 35j exercises41 and 43; problems 21, 22, and 25.
2. Demonstrations
a. Rotational dynarriics: Freier and Anderson Ms7, Mt 5, 6, Mo5.
Equilibrium: Freier and Anderson Mol, 2, 4, 6 -9, Mp4 -6, 9, 11, 14, 15, Mql, 2.
b. Rolling: Freier and Anderson Mb4, 7,30, Mo3, Mp3, Mrl, 4, Msl, 3,4,6.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Newton's Second Law for Rotational Motion; Demonstrations of Physics: Motion; VHS
video tape (8:35); Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
b. Rotational Dynamics; Physics Demonstrations in Mecl1anics,Part VI; VHS video tape or
video diskj ~3 rriin; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville,
MN 55044.
c. Equilibrium ofForcesj VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO
Statics; Apple, Windowsj Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue, PO Box
1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-14: Rotational Inertia. The rotational inertia of a disk is measured
dynamically by applying a torque ( a falling mass on a string wrapped around a flange on
Lecture notes: Cbapter 9 39

the disk). A microprocessor is used to measure the ang1llar acceleration. Small masses
are attached to the disk and their influence on the rotational inertia is studied. The
acceleration of the mass can also be found by timing its fall through a measured distance.
Then, at = Qr is used to find the angular acceleration of the disk. Also see Bernard
Experiment 14: Moment of Inertia.
b. Meiners Experiment 7-12: Rotational and Translational Motion. Students measure the
center of mass acceleration of various bodies rolling down an incline and calculate the
center of mass velocities at the bottom. Results are compared to measured velocities.
c. Meiners Experiment 7-13: Rotational Kinematics and Dynamics. Students find the veloc-
ity and acceleration of a ball rolling around a loop-the-loop and analyze the forces acting
on it.
d. Bernard Experiment 5: Balanced Torques and Center of Gmvity. A non-uniform rod is
pivoted on a fulcrum. A single weight is hung from one end and the pivot point moved
until equilibrium is obtained. The data is used to find the center of gravity and mass of
the rod. Additional weights are hung and equilibrium is again attained. The data is used
to check that the net force and net torque vanish.
Bernard Experiment 6: Equilibrium of a Cmne. Students study a model crane: a rod
attached to a wall pivot at one end and held in place by a string from the other end to
the wall. Weights are attached to the crane and the equilibrium conditions are used to
calculate the tension in the rod and in the string. The latter is measured with a spring
balance.
Chapter lO ANGULAR MOMENTUM
BASIC TOPICS
I. Angular momentum and torque.
A. Define angular momentum for a single particle using vector notation: .t-= r x p. Review
the vector product and give the right-hand rule for finding the direction.
B. Derive the relationship between the magnitudes of the angular momentum and angular
velocity for a particle moving on a circle centered at the origin: t' = mr2(,¡)(= I(,¡)). Also find
the angular momentum if the origin is on a line through the circle center, perpendicular to
the circle, but not at the center. Explain that the component along the axis is independent
of the position of the origin along the line and that the component perpendicular to the
axis rotates with the particle.
C. To show that a particle may have angular momentum even if it is not moving in a circle,
calculate the angular momentum of a particle moving with constant velocity along a line
not through the origin. Point out that the angular momentum depends on the choice of
origin. In preparation for E below you might- want to find the time rate of changeof l
D. Use Newton's secondlaw to derive ¿T = d.t/dt for a particle. Consider a particle moving
in a circle, subjected to both centripetal and tangential forces. Take the origin to be at
-
the center of the circle and show that ¿ T = d.tl dt reduces to ¿ FT = m~ , as expected.
Take the origin be on the line through the center, perpendicular to the circle, but not at
the center. Show that the torque associated with the centripetal force produces the change
--
in.t expected from ¿T = dL/dt.
E. Show that the magnitude of the torque about the origin exerted by gravity on a falling
massis mgd, where d is the perpendicular distance from the line of fall to the origin. Write
down the velocity as a function of time and show that the angular momentum is mgtd.
Remark that ¿T = dt'/dt by inspection. SeeSample Problem 10--1.

II. Systemsof particles.
A. Explain that the total angular momentum for a system of particles is the vector sum of
the individual angular momenta.
--
B. Show that E.¡ext = dL/dt for a system of particles for which internal torques cancel.
Emphasize that E.¡ ext is the result of sumrning all torques on all particles in the system
--
and that L is the sum of all individual angular momenta. Demonstrate in detail the
cancellation of internal torques for two particles which interact via central forces. Point
out that this equation is the starting point for investigations of the rotational motion of
bodies.
C. Show that the component along the axis of the total angular momentum of a rigid body
rotating about a fixed axis is I¡.). Use the example of a single particle to point out that the
angular momentum vector is along the axis if the body is symmetric about the axis but
that otherwise it is not. Emphasize that for fixed-axis rotation we are chiefiy interested in
the components of angular momentum and torque along the rotation axis.
D. Make a connection to material of the last chapter by showing that L = I¡.) and E Text=
dL / dt lead to E Text = I a for a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis. Here E Text is the
component of the total external torque along the axis.
E. To give an example, work Sample Problem 10-3 or a similar problem. If possible set up a
demonstration.
III. Conservation of angular
-- momentum.
A. Point out that L = constant if E.¡ext = O and show that, for rotation about a fixed axis,
I ¡.)= Io¡.)oif the net torque vanishes.
B. As examples consider a mass dtopped on the rim of a freely spinning platform, a person
running tangent to the rim of a merry-go-round and jumping on, and a spinning skater
whose rotational inertia is changedby dropping her arms.
C. The third example can be demonstrated easily if you have a rotating platform that can
hold a person. Have a student hold weights in each hand to increase the rotational inertia.
Start him spinning with arms extended, then have him bring his arms in toward the sides
ofhis body. A1socarry out the spinning bicycle wheel demonstration described in the text.
IV Precession
A. Point out that if a torque is always perpendicular to the angular momentum, then the
angular momentum vector rotates in the plane of T and maintains a constant magnitude.
If you have a bicycle wheel with a leaded rim, set up the demonstration shown in Fig. 10-5.
Before letting go, point out the directions of the torque due to gravity and the angu1ar
momentum and ask students to predict what the wheel will do.
B. Use a diagram to point out the direction of the torque. Draw an overhead view and show
the angular momentum vector at two times a short interval apart. Note that the change
in angular momentum is in the direction of the torque. Remark that the torque remains
perpendicular to the angular momentum as the axle turns.
C. Geometrically show that if the angu1armomentum vector turns through the angle ~l/J then
the magnitude of the changein the angular momentum is ~L = L~l/J. Equate this to 'T~t
and show that the precessionalangular velocity is given by l.l)p= 'T/ L. Finally show that
the torque is mgr, where m is the mass of the wheel and any attached weights.
D. If the class is interested you might consider the same setup but with the wheel at rest
and explain that the same changein angular momentum is obtained if the wheel and axle
simply rotate downward about the pivot point. Point out that when the wheel is spinning
the motion is a combination of precessionand falling down and that the larger the angular
momentum the more nearly the motion is one of pure precession.
Lecture notes: Cha.pter 10 41

E. Measure the time for one precessionand calculate the precessionalangular velocity. Com-
pare the result with the predicted value. Add weights to the axle near the wheel and
repeat.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Properties of angular momentum: question 1.
b. Angular momentum of a single particle: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; exercises1
and 5; problem 1.
c. Angular momentum of a system of particles: multiple-choice questions 4 and 5; exercise6;
problem 2.
d. Relationship between angular momentum and angular velocity: multiple-choice questions
6 and 7; questions 2, 3, and 4; exercises8 and 11.
e. Newton's second law for angular momentum: questions 8 and 9; exercises8, 9, 10, 13, 14,
and 15; problems 4, 5, and 7.
f. Conservation of angulár momentum: multiple-choice questions 9 and 10; questions 5, 6, 7,
14, 16, 17, and 18; exercises17, 18,20,21, and 24 or 25; problems 8, 11, and 12.
g. Gyroscopesand precession: multiple-choice question 11; question 25; exercise 26 or 27.
2. Demonstrations
a. Conservation of angular momentum: Freier and Anderson Mtl -4, 7, 8, Mul.
b. Gyroscopes: Freier and Anderson Mu2 -18.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Human Momenta, Initial Translation and Rotation from Skylab Physics Videodisc; video
disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Conservation of Linear/ Angular Momentum; from AAPT collection 2 of single-concept
fihns; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
c. Angular Momentum; Side F: Angular Momentum and Modern Physics of Cinema Classics;
video disk; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
d. Conservation of Angular Momentum; Demonstrations of Physics: Energy and Momentum;
VHS video tape (5:52); Media Design Associates,Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
e. Why a Spinning Top Doesn't Fall; Demonstrations of Physics: Energy and Momentum;
VHS video tape (4:24); Media Design Associates,Inc. (seeabove for address).
f. Conservation Laws in Zero-G; Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (18 min); Media
Design Associates, Inc. (seeabove for address).
g. Conservation of Angular Momentum; Center of Percussion; Physics Demonstrations in
Mechanics, Part II; VHS video tape; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Includes a section on conservation of angular
momentum.
5. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 8-9: Conservation of Angular Momentum. Uses the Pasco rotational
dynamics apparatus. A ball rolls down a ramp and becomes coupled to the rim of a
disk that is free to rotate on a vertical axis. Students measure the velocity of the ball
before impact and the angular velocity of the disk-ball system after impact, then checkfor
conservation of angular momentum.

Chapter 11 ENERGY 1: WO RK AND ENERG y
BASIC TOPICS
I. Work done by aconstant force.
A. Write down W = F-- .s = Fs cos<fJand point out <fJon a diagram. Explain that this is the
work done on a particle by the constant force F as the particle undergoes a displacement
s. You may need to define the scalar product of two vectors in terms of the magnitudes of
the vectors and the angle between them when they are drawn with their tails at the same
point. Explain that the scalar product can be interpreted as the product of the magnitude
of the either of the vectors and the component of the other vector along the axis defined
by the first vector .
B. Explain that work can be calculated for each individual force and that the total work
done on the particle is the work done by the resultant force. Point out that work is a
scalar quantity. Also point out that work is zero for a force that is perpendicular to the
displacement and that, in general, only the component of F tangent to the path contributes
to the work. The force does no work if the displacement is zero. Emphasize that work can
be positive or negative, depending on the relative orientation of F and s. For a constant
force the work depends only on the displacement, not on details of the path. Units: joule,
erg, ft.lb, eV. Give the conversionfrom electron volts to joules.
C. Calculate the work done by the force of gravity as a mass falls a distance h and as it rises
a distance h. Emphasize the sign. Calculate the work done by a non-horizontal force used
to pull a box across a horizontal floor. Point out that the work done by the normal force
and the work done by the force of gravity are zero. Consider both an accelerating box and
one moving with constant velocity. Repeat the calculation for a crate being pulled up an
incline by a force applied parallel to the incline. Show the work done by gravity is -mgh,
where h is the changein the height of the crate. Point out that it is no longer zero.
II. Work done by a variable force.
A. For motion in one dimension, discussthe integral form for work as the limit of a sum over
infinitesimal path segments. Explain that the sum can be carried out by a computer even
if the integral cannot be evaluated analytically.
B. Examples: derive expressionsfor the work done by an ideal spring and a force of the form
k / x2.If you have not yet discussedthe force of an ideal spring, do so now as a preface to
the calculation of work. Explain how the force constant can be found by hanging a mass
from the spring and measuring the extension. Demonstrate changesin the spring length
during which the spring does positive work and during which the spring does negative
work.
C. For motion in more than one dimension, write down the expression for the work in the
form Jif F .ds and explain its interpretation as the limit of a sum over infinitesimal path
segments. Explain that this is the general definition of work. Calculate the work done by
the applied force, the force of gravity, and the tension in the string as a simple pendulum
is pulled along its arc until it is displaced vertically through a height h by a horizontal
applied force F .
III. Power.
A. Introduce the topic by saying that in someinstances the rate with which a force doeswork
is just as important as the amount of work. A motor that raises an elevator in a hotel does
the same amount of work if the trip takes two days as it does if the trip takes two minutes.
B. Define power as p = dW/dt. Units: watt, horsepower.
--
C. Show that p = F .v. Explain that the work done over a time interval is given by J p dt.

IV .Kinetic energy and the work-energy theorem.
A. Define kinetic energy for a particle. Point out that kinetic energy is a scalar and depends
on the speed but not on the direction of the velocity. Point out that v2 = v~ + v~ for
two-dimensional motion and remark that the appearance of velocity components in the
expressionfor K does not mean K has components.
B. Use Newton's secondlaw to prove the theorem for motion in one dimension. Ifthe students
are mathematical1y sophisticated, extend the theorem to the general case. Stressthat it is
the total work (done by the resu1tant force) that enters the theorem.
C. Point out that only the component of a force paral1elor antiparallel to the velocity changes
the speed. Other components changethe direction of motion. Positive total work resu1tsin
an increase in kinetic energy and speed,negative total work resu1tsin a decrease.Remind
students of previous examples in which the object moved with constant speed (including
uniform circu1ar motion). The total work was zero and the kinetic energy did not change.
Avoid quantitative calculations involving frictional forces.
D. Demonstrate the theorem by considering a ball thrown into the air. At first neglect air
resistanceand point out that during the upward part of the motion the force of gravity does
negative work and the kinetic energy decreases.Use energy considerations to compute the
maximum height of the ball. Note that v2 = v~ + 2as (which can be derived from kinematic
considerations) follows from the work-energy theorem if the force is constant. As the ball
fal1s,the force of gravity does positive work and the kinetic energy increases. Show that
the bal1 returns with its initial speed. Then include air resistance and argue that the bal1
returns with less than its original speed.
E. As an example consider a stone dropped onto a vertical spring and calcu1atethe maximum
compressionof the spring, given the massof the stone, the height from which it is dropped,
and the force constant of the spring.
F. Explain that observersin different inertial frames will measure different values for the net
work done and different values for the change in the kinetic energy but both will find
Wnet= f1K.
V. Energy considerations in rotational motion.
A. Show that K = ~mr2w2 for a particle moving around a circle with angu1arvelocity w and
K = ~Iw2, where I = ¿mir; , for a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis.
B. By substituting ds = Rd<pand RFT = Textinto dW = F. ds, show that the work done by
a torque is given by W = JText d<pand that power de1iveredat any instant is p = TextW.
C. Postu1atethe work-energy theorem for rotational motion. Write W = ~IwJ -~Iw; and
emphasizethat W is the total work done by all external torques. Prove the theorem for
rotation about a fixed axis, starting with ¿ T = I a.
VI .Energy considerations in collisions.
A. State that in a two-body elastic collision the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies
does not change. Prove that this follows directly from the definition given ear1ier: the
magnitudes of the momenta in the center-of-massframe do not changein an elastic collision.
Make the transformation to the laboratory frame and show that the total kinetic energy
doesnot changein that frame. State that many texts use the conservation ofkinetic energy
as the definition of an elastic collision.
B. Point out that, although the total kinetic energy does not change,kinetic energy is usual1y
transferred from one body to the other in an elastic collision. Consider an elastic collision
in which one body is initially at rest and calcu1atethe fraction that is transferred. Show
that the fraction is smal1if either massis much greater than the other and that the greatest
fraction is transferred if the two massesare the same. This is important, for example, in
deciding what moderator to use to thermalize neutrons from a fission reactor .

c. State that in a two-body inelastic collision the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies
decreases.Prove that this follows directly from the definition given ear1ier: the magnitudes
of the momenta in the center-of-massframe decreasein an inelastic collision. Make the
transformation to the laboratory frame and show that the total kinetic energy also decreases
in that frame. State that many texts use the loss of total kinetic energy as the definition
of an inelastic collision.
D. Consider a two-body completely inelastic collision and remind students that both bodies
are stopped in the center-of-massframe. Observe that this means a1lkinetic energy is lost
and remark that this is the most that can be lost. Remark that the energy is dissipated
by the mechanism that binds the objects to each other. Consider the completely inelastic
collision in the laboratory frame and note that the kinetic energy retained is given by
~(ml + m2)V~m.
E. State that in a two-body explosive collision the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies
increases.Prove that this follows directly from the definition given ear1ier: the magnitudes
of the momenta in the center-of-massframe increase in an explosive collision. Make the
transformation to the laboratory frame and show that the total kinetic energy also increases
in that frame. State that sometexts use the increasein total kinetic energy as the definition
of an explosive collision.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Work done by a constant force: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; questions 3, 8, and
11; exercises1, 4, and 6; problems 2, 3, and 4.
b. Scalar product: exercises7, 8, 9, and 10.
c. Force of an ideal spring: questions 13 and 14; exercise 23
d. Work done by a variable force: multiple-choice questions 2 and 8; exercises21 or 22 and
24; problems 11, 12, and 13.
e. Power: multiple-choice questions5 and 8; question 10; exercises11, 12, 14, and 18; problems
6,7, and 8.
f. Kinetic energy and the work-energy theorem: multiple-choice questions 9, 10, and 11;
questions 15, 16, 17, 19, and 20; exercises31 and 33; proQlems 16 and 20.
g. Rotational energy: multiple-choice questions 13 and 15; exercises35, 36, and 38; problems
23, 24, 25, and 27.
h. Energy in collisions: multiple-choice question 16; questions 22 and 25; exercises40,41, and
42; problems 32 and 33.
i. Referenceframe considerations: problems 34 and 35.
2. Demonstrations
a. Work: Freier and Anderson Mvl.
b. Rotational work and energy: Freier and Anderson Mv2, Mr5, Ms2.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Work and Energy; Side E: Conservation Laws of Cinema Classics; video disk; available
from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Energy and Force: Part 2; VHS video tape (25 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
c. Potential Energy and Kinetic Energy; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities
& Sciences(seeabove for address).
d. Work and Energy; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part VI; VHS video tape or
video disk; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville,
MN 55044.

4. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-16: Elongation of an Elastomer. Students measure the elongation
of an elastomer for a successionof applied forces and use a polar planimeter to calculate the
work done by the force. The experiment may also be done in connection with Chapter 13.
b. Bernard Experiment 10: Mechanical Advantage and Efficiency of Simple Machines. This
experiment can be used to broaden the course to include these topics. A lever, an inclined
plane, a pulley system, and a wheel and ax1eare studied. In each casethe force output is
measuredfor a given force input and the work input is compared to the work output.
c. Meiners Experiment 8-5: One-Dimensional Collisions. A puck moving on a nearly friction-
less surface collides with a stationary puck. A spark timer is used to record the positions
of the pucks as functions of time. Students calculate the velocities, momenta, and energies
before and after the collision. May be performed with dry ice pucks or on an air table or
track.
d. Meiners Experiment 8-8: Two-Dimensional Collisions. Sameas Meiners 8-5 but the pucks
are allowed to scatter out of the original line of motion. Students must measure angles
and calculate components of the momenta. The experiment may be performed with dry
ice pucks or on an air table.
e. Bernard Experiment 12: Elastic Collision -Momentum and Energy Relations in Two
Dimensions. A ball rolls down an incline on a table top and strikes a target ball initially
at rest at the edge of the table. The landing points of the balls on the floor are used
to find their velocities just after the collision. The experiment is run without a target
ball to find the velocity of the incident ball just before the collision. Data is used to
check for conservation of momentum and energy. Both head-on and grazing collisions are
investigated. A second experiment, similar to Meiners 8-8, is also described.
Chapter 12 ENERGY 2: POTENTIAL ENERGY
BASIC TOPICS
I. Conservative and non-conservativeforces
A. Definitions. Explain that a force is conservative if either of the following hold:
1. the work done by the force on every round trip is zero.
2. the work done by the force is independent of the path.
Show that the two definitions are equivalent. Stress the importance of the word "every"
in the first definition.
B. Discuss the force of gravity and the force of an ideal spring as examples. For either or
both of these show that the work done depends only on the end points and not on the
path between, then argue that the work vanishesfor a round trip. Point out that on some
parts of the path the force does positive work while on other parts it does negative work.
Demonstrate that the work done by a spring is independent of path by considering two
different motions with the sameend points. For the first motion have the mass go directly
from the initial point to the final pointj for the secondhave it first go away from the final
point before going to the final point .
C. Use a force of friction with constant magnitude as an example of a non-conservativeforce.
Argue that the work done by the force cannot vanish over a round trip since it is negative
for each segment. Consider a casefor which friction is the only force that does work, such
as an object moving around a circle on a horizontal surface. Argue that the object returns
to its initial position with less kinetic energy than it had when it started.
D. Use a cart on a linear air track to demonstrate these ideas. Couple each end of the cart, via
a spring, to a support at the corresponding end of the air track. Explain the equivalence

with Fig. 12-1 of the text. Give the cart an initial velocity and tell students to observeits
speedeach time it returns to its initial position. Point out that the kinetic energy returns
to nearly the samevalue and that the springs do zero work during a round trip. Reduceor
eliminate air fiow to show the infiuence of a non-conservative force. If this is done rapidly
and skillfully, you can causethe cart to stop at the opposite end from which it started.
II. Potential energy.
A. Give the definition of potential energy in terms of work for motion in one dimension. See
Eq. 12-4 and emphasizethat W is the work done by the force responsible for the potential
energy. Stress that potential energy is an energy of configuration. It must have the same
value when the system returns to the same configuration. Also stress that a potential
energy can be associatedwith a force only if the force is conservative.
B. Discuss the following properties:
1. The zero is arbitrary. Only potential energy differenceshave physical meaning.
2. The potential energy is a scalar function of position.
3. The force is given by F = -:-dU/ dx in one dimension.
4. Units: joule, erg, ft.lb, eV.
C. Derive expressionsfor the potential energy functions associated with the force of gravity
(uniform gravitational field) and the force of an ideal spring. Stress that the potential
energy is a property of the object-earth or spring-masssystem and depends on the config-
uration of the system.
D. Use the force of friction as an example to explain why a potential energy function cannot
be defined for non-conservativeforces.
E. Use the work-energy theorem to show that W = ~U is the work that must be applied
by an external agent to increasethe potential energy by ~U without changing the kinetic
energy. Show that ~U is recoveredas kinetic energy when the extemal agent is removed.
Example: raising an object in a gravitational field.
III. Conservation of mechanical energy.
A. Explain that if all the forces acting between objects of a system are conservative then
K + U = constant. This follows from the work-energy theorem with the work of the
conservative forces represented by the negative of the change in potential energy. The
negative sign in Eq. 12-4 is essentialto obtain this result. Emphasize that U is the sum of
the individual potential energiesif more than one conservative force acts. Define the total
mechanical energy as E = K + U, where K is the total kinetic energy of objects in the
system.
B. Discuss the conversion of kinetic to potential energy and vice versa. Drop a superball on
a rigid table top and point out when the potential and kinetic energiesare maximum and
when they are minimum. The question of elasticity can be glossedover by saying that to
a good approximation the ball rebounds with unchanged speed. Also discussthe energy in
a spring-mass system. Return to the cart on the air track and discussits motion in terms
of K + U = constant. To avoid later confusion in the students' minds, start the motion
with neither K nor U equal to zero. Emphasize that the energy remains in the system
but changesits form during the motion. The agent of the change is the work done by the
forces of the springs.
C. Show how to calculate the total energy for a spring-mass system from the initial condi-
tions. Write the conservation principle in the form ~mv2 + U(x) = ~mv~ + U(xo). Use
conservation of energy to find expressionsfor the maximum speed, maximum extension,
and maximum compression,given the total energy.
D. Use the example of a ball thrown upward to demonstrate that conservation of energy must
be applied to a system rather than to a single particle. Remark that Earth does work on

the ball, the ball does work on Earth, and the change in potential energy is the negative
of the sum. Show it is mgh, where h is the change in their separation. Remark that both
kinetic energieschangeand the total changeis the negative of the change in the potential
energy. Explain that becausethe earth is so massive the change in its kinetic energy is
smaI1and may be neglected.
E. Generalizethe discussionby deriving Eq. 12-21 for the velocity of an object as a function
of its position. Explain how this expression can be used, in principIe, to :find the position
as a function of time when the mechanical energy and the potential energy function are
known. Remark that the integral t = Jdx/V2[E- U(x)]/m can often be evaluated by
numerical means even if an analytic solution cannot be found.
F. Discuss potential energy curves. Use the curve for a spring-mass system, then a more
general one, and show how to calculate the kinetic energy and speed from the coordinate
and total energy. Point out the turning points on the curves and discuss their physical
significance. Use F = -dU /dx to argue that the particle turns around at a turning point.
For an object on a frictionless roller coaster track :find the speed at various points and
identify the turning points.
G. De:finestable, unstable, and neutral equilibrium. Use a potential energy curve (a frictionless
roller coaster, say) to illustrate. Emphasize that dU /dx = O at an equilibrium point.
IV. Conservation of mechanical energy for rotating systems.
A. Explain that when a system contains a rotating object the kinetic energy of rotation must
be included in the mechanical energy and remind students that this is given by K = !I(¡.)2,
where I is the rotational inertia and (¡.)is the angular speed of the object.
B. Wrap a string around a cylinder, free to rotate on fixed horizontal axis. Attach the free end
of the string to a mass and allow the mass to faI1 from rest. Remark that since the string
does not slip on the cylinder, the angular speed (¡.)of the cylinder and the speed v of the
falling mass are related by v = Rw, where R is the radius of the cylinder. Use conservation
of energy to :find the angular speed of the disk and the speed of the mass after the mass
has fallen a distance h.
C. Remark that a rolling object can be considered to be rotating about an axis through the
center of masswhile the center of massmoves. Explain that the total kinetic energy of the
object is K = !mv~m + !I(¡.)2, where m is the mass of the object, Vcmis the speed of its
center of mass, I is its rotational inertia about the center of mass, and (¡.)is the angular
speed of its rotation about the center of mass. Remind students that if the object rolls
without slipping, then Vcm= Rw, where R is the radius of the object. Explain that this
relationship can be used to write the expressionfor the kinetic energy in terms of Vcmor
in terms of (¡.).
D. Consider objects rolling down an inclined plane and show how to calculate the speed at
the bottom using energy considerations. If time permits, carry out an analysis using the
equations of motion and show how to :find the frictional force that prevents slipping.
E. Roll a sphere, a hoop, and a cylinder, all with the same radius and mass, down an incline.
Start the objects simultaneously and ask students to pick the winner .
v. Potential energy in 2 and 3 dimensions.
A. De:finepotential energy as a line integral and explain that it is the limit of a sum over in-
:finitesimal path segments. Remark that conservation of energy leads to !mv2 + U (x, y, z) =
constant.
B. Example: simple pendulum. Since the gravitational potential energy depends on height,
in the absenceof non-conservativeforces the pendulum has the same swing on either side
of the equilibrium point and always returns to the sameturning points. Demonstrate with
a pendulum hung near a blackboard and mark the end points of the swing on the board.

For a more adventurous demonstration, suspend a bowling ball pendulum from the ceiling
and releasethe ball from rest in contact with your nose. Stand very still while it completes
its swing and returns to your nose.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Definition of a conservative force: multiple-cl1oice question 1 or 2; question 1 or 2.
b. Potential energy: multiple-cl1oice question 4; question 6; exercise 1; problem 1.
c. Conservation of mecl1anical energy: multiple-cl1oice question 5j questions 9, 10, and 12;
e:Xercises6, 7, 9, 11, 15, 17, and i9j problems 2, 3, 5, 6, and 11.
d. Conservation of energy, including rotational energy: multiple-cl1oice questions 6, 8, and 9;
question 15; exercises 23, 24, and 27; problem 13.
e. Potential energy curves: exercise 29; problem 16.
f. Two- and three-dimensional conservative systems: exercises 31 or 32 and 33.
2. Demonstrations
a. Conservation of energy: Freier and Anderson Mnl -3, 6.
b. Nonconservative forces: Freier and Anderson Mwl.
The Bicycle by Phillip DiLavore; available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park
MD 20740-3845. Deals chiefly with energy.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Gravitational Potential Ener:YYj Conservation of Energy -Pole Vault and Aircraft Take-
off ; from AAPT collection 1 of single-concept filmSj video tapej available from Ztek Co.,
PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Energy Conservation; Side E: Conservation Laws of Cinema Classics; video diskj available
c. Conservation of Energyj Work and Conservation of Energy; Physics Demonstrations in
Mecl1anics, Part I; VHS video tape; ~3 min eacl1j Physics Curriculum & Instruction,
22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Includes a section on conservation of energy.
Chapter 13 ENERGY 3: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
BASIC TOPICS
I. Systemsof particles.
A. Remind students what is meant by a system of objects, external forces, and external work.
B. Explain that we may think of the energy of a system as composedof three parts and give
examples:
1. the macroscopickinetic energy K, associatedwith the motion of the system as a whole
or with its macroscopic parts (the kinetic energy of a crate sliding across the fioor or
the pistons of an engine).
2. the macroscopic potential energy U, associated with the interaction of macroscopic
parts of the system with eachother (the potential energy associatedwith the elongation
or compressionof a spring in the system, the gravitational potential energy associated
with the interaction of Earth and a ball, both in the system).

3. the internal energy Eint, associatedwith the kinetic energiesof the individual particles
within each object in the system and the potential energiesof their interactions with
each other. This energy is in excessof whatever contributions the particles make to
the macroscopic kinetic and potential energies.
Argue that ~U + ~K + ~Eint = W, where W is the work done on the system by objects
outside the system. By way of a little review, you might start with the work-energy theorem
and replace the total work with the sum of the internal and external work. Then replace
the internal work with a sum of the work done by conservative forces and the work done
by nonconservative forces, all acting between objects in the system. Replace the first of
these with the negative of the changein potential energy and the secondwith negative of
the changein internal energy.
C. Remark that if the total external work is zero then the energy of the system is conserved.
Remind students that the energy of the system is the sum of its kinetic, potential, and
internal energies. Say that the energy of the system may change form, from internal to
kinetic and potential, for example, but that the value of the total does not change if no
external work is done on objects of the system.
D. As an example consider a block on a spring, moving on a rough, horizontal table top.
First consider the system to be the block alone and write ~K + ~Eint = W8 + Wf , where
W8 is the work done on the block by the spring and Wf is the work done on the block by
friction. Note that, according to the usual model, the work ofthe spring changeschiefiy the
macroscopic kinetic energy while the work done by friction changesboth the macroscopic
kinetic energy and the internal energy. Then consider the system to be the block and
the spring and write ~U + ~K + ~Eint = Wf , where U is the potential energy stored
in the spring. Note that the work done by the spring is internal to this system and may
change the form of the system energy from potential to kinetic or vice versa but it does
not change the total energy of the system. Finally consider the system to be the block,
spring, and table top. This is a closed systemj no external objects do work on it. Write
~U + ~K + ~Eint = O. Explain t4at Eint includes the internal energiesof both the block
and the table. Remark that the energy of the system composedof the block, the spring,
and the table is said to be conserved.
E. Slide a block up an incline. The block should slide about two meters before friction brings
it to rest. U se a photogate timer to measurethe initial speedof the block (as it leavesyour
hand. Calculate the initial kinetic energy. Measure the final height of the block above the
releasepoint and calculate the gain in gravitational potential energy. Use the principle of
energy conservation to compute the gain in internal energy of the block and incline.
II. Work done by friction.
A. Explain that the quantity J f. dr along the path of an object sliding on a stationary surface
doesNOT give the work done by friction. The work done by friction is algebraically greater
than the value of the integral and the difIerence appears as a changein the internal energy
of the object and surface. To be more precise, consider a constant frictional force f that
retards the motion of an object as it slides a distance d on a surface. Write the work done
by friction in the form Wf = -fd + ~, where ~ is a positive quantity.
B. Explain that the force of friction ¡ is actually the vector sum of many forces, acting at
the welds that form between the object and the surface on which it slides. Each of these
microscopic forces acts through different displacements as the welds deform and break.
The work done by friction is the sum of the works done by the individual forces and this
is not the product of the total frictional force and the displacement of the object.
C. Remark that when an object slides a distance d on a horizontal surface the work done by
friction on the block can be written Wf = -afd, where a is a number between 0 and 1.
50 Lecture notes: Chavter 13

The mech8Jlicalenergy of the block changesby -f d and the intemal energy of the block
changesby (1 -a)fd. Look at the extreme cases. If a = O, the work done by friction
is 0, the mechanical energy of the block ch8Jlgesby -fd, and its internal energy changes
by + fd. All mech8Jlicalenergy that is lost is converted to intemal energy. If a = 1, the
work done by friction is -fd, the mech8Jlicalenergy of the block ch8Jlgesby -fd, 8Jld its
intemal energy ch8Jlgesby 0. All of the work done by friction goesto reduce the mechanical
energy of the block. fu reality a is always somewherebetween 0 8Jld 1. Calculations of its
value are extremely difficult 8Jld are model dependent.
D. The text gives a simple model for friction that you may W8Jltto use to justify the 8Jlalysis.
An object slides a distance d on a horizontal surface 8Jld N welds are assumedto form,
each exerting a force of magnitude f / N, where f is the magnitude of the total frictional
force. Half of these move through the distance d and half are stationary. The magnitude
of the work done by friction is then fd/2. If you want to give a little more detail say that
weld i exerts a force f i 8Jld moves a dist8Jlce di. Then the magnitude of the work done
by friction is Wf = ¿:: fidi, where the sum is over all welds. Set this equal to afd, where
f = ¿:: fi, 8Jld argue that becausedi is less than d for all the welds, a is less th8Jl 1.
III. Center-of-massenergy.
A. Define the center-of-masskinetic energy of a system as Kcm = ~Mv~m, where M is the
total mass of the system 8Jld Vcmis the speed of its center of mass. Show that for one-
dimensional motion J Fextdxcm = 6Kcm, where the integral is over some displacement
of the center of mass, 6Kcm is the ch8Jlgein the center-of-masskinetic energy over that
displaGement,8Jld F ext is the total external force acting on the system. Carefully explain
that the integral is NOT the necessarilythe extemal work done on the system becausethe
displacement of the center of mass is not necessarily the same as the displacement of the
point of application of the force. fu addition, Fext includes frictional forces exerted by the
environment of the system, but J f dxcm is not the work done by friction.
B. Give some examples:
1. A skater on frictionless ice, who shoves off from a wall by extending her arm 8Jld
applying a const8Jlt horizontal force of magnitude F on the wall. If her center of mass
movesa dist8Jlced during the shove,her center-of-masskinetic energy increasesby Fd
but the force of the wall does no work on the skater since the point of application (the
skater's h8Jld) does not move during the shove. fu terms of energy the entire increase
in the skater's kinetic energy comesfrom a decreasein the magnitude in her intemal
energy.
2. A ball that rolls without slipping a distance d down an incline. The ch8Jlgein the
center-of-masskinetic energy is ( M 9 sin (J-f)d, where M is the mass of the ball, (Jis
the 8Jlgle of the incline, 8Jld f is the frictional force of the incline on the ball. Note
that the frictional force does no work since the point of contact is inst8Jlt8Jleouslyat
rest. fu terms of energy, only the force of gravity does work on the ball 8Jld this work
increaseboth the center-of-masskinetic energy 8Jld the rotational kinetic energy of the
ball.
3. A jumper, starting with bent legs and jumping straight up by pushing against the
floor. If the center of mass of the jumper moves a dist8Jlce d 8Jld the floor exerts a
force N, then the increase in the jumper's center-of-masskinetic energy is N- Mg)d.
Note that the normal force exerted by the floor doesno work. fu fact, the only extemal
force that does work on thejumper is the force of gravity 8Jld this is negative. It tends
to decreasethe energy of the jumper. The energy lost to gravity 8Jld the increasein
kinetic energy results from a ch8Jlgein the internal energy of the jumper .

IV Reactions and decays.
A. Say that at the level of nuclei and fundamental particles the identities of the interacting
particles might change, so that a reaction might have the form A + B -4 C + D. The
principle of conservation of energy becomesEint i + Ki = Eint f + K f , where Eint i is the
initial total internal energy, Ki is the initial total kinetic energy, Eint f is the final total
internal energy, and Kf is the final total kinetic energy. If you intend to include special
relativity as part of the course. mention that the total mass after the reaction might be
different from the total mass before the reaction and that the mass is taken into account
as part of the internal energy.
B. Explain that for some reactions the internal energy decreasesand the kinetic energy in-
creaseswhile for others the internal energy increases and the kinetic energy decreases.
Define the terms exoergic and endoergic.
C. Explain that totallinear momentum is also conservedin reactions and that the principles
of energy and momentum conservation are used to analyze reactions. Say that the analysis
is quite similar to the analysis carried out for collisions.
D. Explain that a single particle might decay into two or more other particles. Give alpha de-
cay as an example. Say that energy and momentum are conservedand that these principles
are used to analyze decays.
v. Heat.
A. Explain that a changein the internal energy may be reflected in a change in temperature
and that if the temperature of an object is different from the temperature of its environment
heat is exchangedbetweenthe two. Define heat as a mechanismfor energy transfer between
a system and its environment that depends on the temperature difference between them.
B. Explain that work and heat are alternative means by which the energy of a system can be
changed. State that another term is added to the energy equation so it becomesAK +
AU + AEint = W + Q, where Q is the heat entering the system. Say that this is called
the first law of thermodynamics.
C. State that the SI unit of heat is the joule. Heat is often measured in calories ( 1 cal =
4.186J) and British thermal units (1 Btu = 1055J).
D. Explain that temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the
atoms or moleculesof a system. The moleculesand atoms might also have potential energies
due to their interactions with each other and they might have rotational kinetic energies.
Changesin these energiesare not accompaniedby a changein temperature. Thus different
processesfor which the work done on the system is the sameand the heat entering it is also
the samemay lead to different changesin temperature. For one process,for example, more
of the work and heat might go to increase the rotational kinetic energy of the molecules
and less to increase the translation kinetic energy. The rise in temperature would then be
less.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. External work: multiple-choice questions 1 and 3j exercises 2, 3, 4.
b. Internal energy: multiple-choice question 4j questions 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9j exercise 5.
c. &ictional work: multiple-choice question 7j question 10j exercises 6, 8, 11, and 12.
d. Conservation of energy: multiple-choice question 8j questions 1, 2, 15, 16, 18, and 25j
exercises 13 and 15j problems 1, 3,4, and 7.
e. Center-of-mass energy: multiple-choice questions 9j question 24j exercises 17, 18, 19.
f. Reactions and decays: multiple-choice question 12j exercise 21.
52 Lect'ure notes: Chapter 13

2. Demonstrations
Non-conservative forces: Freier and Anderson Mwl.
3. Laboratory
Bernard Experiment 9: Work, Energy, and Friction. A string is attached to a car on an
incline and passesover a pul1ey at the top of the incline. Weights on the free end of the
string are adjusted so the car rolls down the incline at constant speed. The work done
by gravity on the weights and on the car is calcu1atedand used to find the change in
mechanical energy due to friction. The coefficient of friction is computed. The experiment
is repeated for the car rolling up the incline and for various angles of incline. It is also
repeated with the car sliding on its top and the coefficients of static and kinetic friction
are found.
Chapter 14 GRAVITATION
BASIC TOPICS
I. Newton's law of gravity.
A. This is an important cl1apter. It reviews the concepts of potential energy, angular mo-
mentum, and centripetal acceleration in the context of some important applications. It
also introduces the idea of a field. In addition, the discussion of the gravitational fields of
continuous mass distributions is a precursor to Gauss' law.
B. Write down Newton's equation for the magnitude ofthe force of one point masson another.
Explain that the force is one of mutual attraction and lies along the line joining the masses.
Give the value of G (6.67 x 10-11N.m2/kg2) and explain that it is a universal constant
determined by experiment. If you have a Cavendish balance, show it but do not take
the time to demonstrate it. As a thought experiment dealing with the magnitude of G,
consider a pair of 100-kg spheresfalling from a height of 100m, initially separated by a bit
more then their radii. As they fall, their mutual attraction pulls them only slightly closer
together. Air resistance has more influence.
C. Explain that the samemathematical form holds for bodies with spherically symmetric mass
distributions (this was tacitly assumed in B) if r is now the separation of their centers.
Explain that the force on a point mass anywhere inside a uniform spherical shell is zero.
(Optional: use integration to prove that this follows from Newton's law for point masses.)
Use this to derive an expressionfor the force on a point massinside a spherically symmetric
mass distribution. See Sample Problem 14-4.
D. Point out the assumedequivalenceof gravitational and inertial mass.
E. Use Newton's law of gravity to calculate the acceleration due to gravity go for objects near
the surface of the earth and justify the use of a constant acceleration due to gravity in
previous cl1apters. Remark that the acceleration due to gravity is independent of the mass
of the body.
F. Optional: Discuss factors that influence the free-fall acceleration 9 and apparent weight.
II. Gravitational potential energy.
A. Use integration to show that the gravitational potential energy of two point massesis given
by U = -GMm/r if the zero is cl1osenat r 4 00. Demonstrate that this result obeys
F = -dU/dr.
B. Argue that the work neededto bring two massesto positions r apart is independent of the
path. Divide an arbitrary path into segments,some along lines of gravitational force and
others perpendicular to the gravitational force.

C. Consider a body initially at rest far from the earth and calculate its speedwhen it gets to
the earth's surface. Calculate the escapevelocity for the earth and for the moon.
D. Show how to calculate the gravitational potential energy of a collection of discrete masses.
Warn the students about double counting the interactions -a term of the sum is associated
with each pair of masses.Relate this energy to the binding energy of the system.
III. The gravitational field
A. This section introduces students to the concept of a field. The idea is used again in
connection with fluids, temperature, electricity, and magnetism.
B. Define the gravitational field 9 at any point as the gravitational force per unit mass acting
on a test mass. Point out that it is a vector field. Remark that the field is independent
of the test mass and is thus associatedwith the massescreating it, not the mass used to
measure it. Remark that 9 is the acceleration due to gravity at the position of the test
mass.
C. Derive the expressionfor the field of a point mass at a point r distance away. Explain that
the vector sum of the individual fields gives the field of a collection of masses.
IV Planetary motion and Kepler's laws.
A. Consider a single planet in orbit about a massive sun. The center of mass for the system
is essentially at the sun and it remains stationary.
B. Explain that the orbit is elliptical with the sun at one focus. This is so becausethe force
is proportional to 1/r2 and the planet is bound. Draw a planetary orbit and point out the
semimajor axis, the perihelion point, and the aphelion point. Define eccentricity. Show
that Rp = a(l -e) and Ra = a(l + e), where a is the semimajor axis, Rp is the perihelion
distance, and Ra is the aphelion distance.
C. Explain that the displacement vector from the sun to the planet sweepsout equal areasin
equal time intervals. Sketch an orbit to illustrate. Showthat the torque acting on the planet
is zero becausethe force is along the displacement vector, then show that conservation of
momentum leads to the equal area law. Note that the result is true for any central force.
D. For circular orbits show that the squareof the period is proportional to the cube of the orbit
radius and that the constant of proportionality is independent of the planet's mass. State
that the result is also true for elliptical orbits if the radius is replaced by the semimajor
axis. Verify the result for planets in nearly circular orbits. The data can be found in Table
14-3.
E. For a body held by gravitational force in circular orbit about anotheri much more massive
body, show that the kinetic energy is proportional to 1/ r and that the total mechanical
energy is -G M m/2r .Explain that the energy is zero for infinite separation with the
bodies at rest, that a negative energy indicates a bound system, and that a positive energy
indicates an unbound system. Describe the orbits of recurring and non-recurring comets.
Explain that the expression for the energy is valid for elliptical orbits if r is interpreted
as the semimajor axis. Remark that the energy of a satellite cannot be altered without
changing the semimajor axis of its orbit.
F. Remark that the laws of planetary motion hold for moons (including artificial satellites)
traveling around planets, binary star systems,stars traveling around the center of a galaxy,
and for galaxies in clusters. Explain that when the massesof the two objects are com-
parable, both objects travel around the center of mass and it is the relative displacement
that obeys Kepler's laws. When discussing stars in galaxies you might show how the law
of periods has been used to argue for the existence of dark matter .

SUPPLEMENTARY TOPICS
1. Deta11edcalculatioris of the gravitational force of a spherical distribution of mass on a point
mass.
2. The general theory of relativity. Include a discussion of the distinction between gravitational
and inertial mass and the principle of equivalence.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Newton's law of gravitation: multiple-choice question 1 or 2; questions 10, 13, and 33j
exercises2 and 3j problems 1,3, 5, and 16.
b. Gravitation near Earth's surface: multiple-choice question 5; question 9; exercises7 and 8.
c. Apparent weight: questions 8 and 40j problem 6.
d. The shell theorems: multiple-choice question 6 and 7; exercises 10 and llj problems 9 or
11, 12, and 13.
e. Gravitational potential energy: multiple-choice question 8; exercises13, 15, 16, 19, and 21j
problem 20.
f. Planetary motion: multiple-choice questions 9 and 10; questions 2, 18, 30, 42, 43, and 47;
exercises22, 23, 24, 28, 29, 33, and 36; problems 26 and 29.
Measurementsof Newtonian Gravitation, edited by George T. Gillies. A collection of jour-
nal articles covering the measurement of G and the measurement of gravitational effects.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Retrogmde Motion -Heliocentric Model and Geocentric Model; Kepler's Laws; Jupiter
Satellite Orbitsj from AAPT collection 1 of single-conceptfilms; video tapej available from
b. Measurement of "G" -The Cavendish Experimentj from AAPT collection 2 of single-
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Planetary Motion; Side B: Mechanics(II) and Heat of Cinema Classicsjvideo diskj available
d. Zero-G; Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (15 min); Media Design Associates,Inc.,
Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
e. The Determination of the Newtonian Constant of Gmvitation; VHS video tape (15 min)j
Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
f. Newton's Law of Universal Gmvitation; Physics Demonstrations in Mechanics, Part IVj
VHS video tape or video diskj ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585Woodhill
Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
a. Orbits; James B. Harold, Kenneth Hennacy, and Edward Redishj Windows; available from
Physics Academic Software, North Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC
27690-0739. Calculates and plots the trajectories of up to seven bodies. Two can be
massive and infiuence the motions of the others. The rest are light. The user can change
the value of the gravitational constant and can shift the view to various referenceframes.
b. Orbital Maneuvers; Windowsj Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue,
PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
c. Orbits; Vernier Software, 8565 S.W. Beaverton-Hil1sideHwy., Portland OR, 97225-2429.
The student can place a satellite in orbit and changethe orbit with thruster rockets. The
motion is plotted and the position and speed of the satellite are continuously displayed.
d. Objects in Motion. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.

5. Labaratary
Meiners Experiment 7-21: Analysis of Gravitation. Students use the Leybald-Heraeus
Cavendish tarsianal balance ta determine G. Requires extremely careful wark and a salid
vibratian free wall ta maunt the apparatus.
Chapter 15 FLUID STATICS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Pressureand density.
A. Introduce the subject by giving a few examples of fiuids, including both liquids and gases.
Remark that fluids cannot support shear.
B. Explain that fluid in any selectedvolume exerts a force on the material acrossthe boundary
of the volume. The boundary may be a mathematical construct and the material on the
other side may be more of the same fluid. The boundary may also be a container wall or
an interface with another fluid or another portion of the same fluid. Explain that, for a
small segment of surface area, the force exerted by the fluid is normal to the surface and
is proportional to the area. The pressure is the force per unit area and F = pA, where
the magnitude of A is the area and the direction of A is outward, normal to the surface.
Units: Pa (= N/m2), atmosphere, bar, torr, mm of Hg. Give the conversion or point out
Appendix G of the text.
C. Define density as the mass per unit volume in a region of the fluid. Point out that the
limit is a macroscopic limit: the limiting volume still contains many atoms. The density
is a scalar and is a function of position in the fluid.
D. Show that in equilibrium with y measured positive above some reference height dp/dy =
-pg, where p is the fluid density. Then note that P2 -Pl = -J pg dy, where the integral
limits are yl and y2. Point out that the difference in pressure arises becausea fluid surface
is supporting the fluid above it. Finally, point out that if the fluid is incompressible and
homogeneous,then p is a constant. If y2 -yl is sufficiently small that 9 is also'constant,
P2 -Pl = -pg(y2 -Yl ) .Point out that if Po is the surface pressure, then the pressure a
distance d below the surface is p = Po + pgd. Note that the pressure is the same at all
points at the same depth in the fluid. Explain that Po is atmospheric pressureif the surface
is open to the air and is zero if the fluid is in a tube with the region above the surface
evacuated.
E. For contrast, assumethe density is proportional to the pressureand derive Eq. 15-13 for the
variation of pressure in a gas. Remark that the result is applicable to Earth's atmosphere.
F. Connect a length of rubber tubing to one arm of a U-tube partially filled with colored
water. Blow into the tube, then suck on it. In each case note the change in water level.
Insert the U-tube into a deep beaker of water, with the free end of the tubing out of the
water. As the open end is lowered, the changein the level of the colored water will indicate
the increasein pressure. Go over Sample Problem 15-1 to show the equilibrium positions
of two immiscible liquids of different densities. Point out that the pressure is the same
at the fluid surfacesin the two branches of the U-tube and that the pressure is the same
at the two points labelled C in the text diagram. Explain that the pressure is always the
same at two points which are at the same height and can be joined by a line along which
neither p nor 9 vary. Explain that the pressure is not the same for two points above C in
different branches.
II. Pascal's and Archimedes' principles.
A. State Pascal's principle. Start with p = Po + pgh, consider a change in Po, and show
~p = ~PO if the fluid is incompressible. You can demonstrate the transmission of pressure
56 Lecture notes: ChaDter 15

with a soda bottle full of water, fitted with a tight rubber stopper. Wrap a towel around
the neck of the bottle and hit the stopper sharply. With some practice you can blow the
bottom out of the bottle cleanly.
B. Apply the principle to a hydraulic jack. SeeSample Problem 15-2. A hydraulic jack can
be made from a hot water bottle, fitted with a narrow rubber tube. Put the bottle on the
floor and fasten the tube to a tall ringstand so it is vertical. Place a thin wooden board on
the bottle to distribute the weight and have a student stand on it. To changethe pressure,
use a plunger or rubber squeezeball from an atomizer, or blow into the tube.
C. State Archimedes' principle. Stress that the buoyant force acts as if through the center of
gravity of the fluid before it is displaced. A1sostressthat the force is due to the surrounding
fluid. Contrast the caseof an immersed body surrounded by fluid with one placed on the
bottom of the container. Consider a flat board floating on the surface of a liquid, compute
the net upward force in terms of the difference in pressure and use p = Po + pgh to show
that this is the weight of the displaced liquid.
D. Explain why some objects sink while others float.
E. Fill a large mouthed plastic vesselwith water precisely up to an overflow pipe. Immerse
a dense object tied by string to a spring balance. Weigh the object while it is immersed
and weigh the displaced water. Observe that the buoyant force is the same as the weight
of the displaced water .
F. Explain that for purposes of calculating torque the buoyant force can be taken to act
through the center of gravity of the fluid that will be displaced when the object is in place.
The force of gravity acts through the center of gravity of the object. Show that these
points may not be the same and that the two forces may produce a net torque. Show
the relative positions of the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity for stable and
unstable equilibrium.
III. Measurement of pressure.
A. This section not only describes some pressure measuring instruments but also provides
some applications of previous material, especially the variation of pressure with depth in
a fluid.
B. Show a mercury barometer. A lens system or an overhead projector suitably propped on
its side can be used to project an image of the mercury column on a screenfor viewing by
a large class. Use p = Po + pgh to show why the height of the column is proportional to
the pressure at the mercury pool. Emphasize that the pressure at the top of the column
is nearly zero and that this is important for the operation of the barometer.
C. Show a commercial open-tube manometer or explain that such an instrument is similar to
the U-tube demonstration done earlier. Emphasize that the instrument measuresgauge
pressure.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Surface tension. Submerge a steel needle in water and observe that the buoyant force is not
great enough to float the needle. Point out that the density of steel is greater than the density
of water. Dry the needle or use an identical needle. Gently place it on the surface and observe
that it floats. Explain how surface tension can be measured and point out that the force is
not elastic but rather is proportional to the length of the line along which it is applied. Define
surface tension as force per unit length. Discuss the microscopic theory and explain that a
surface stretches by the addition of more fluid from the interior and that this mechanism gives
rise to the dependenceof the force on the line length and to its independencefrom the amount
of stretching. Finally explain how the needle depressesthe surface, thereby stretching it. Since

the surface force is parallel to the depressedsurface there is a net upward force that holds the
needle up. Explain that surface tension is responsible for the spherical shape of raindrops.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Pressure and density: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; question 1; exercises 2 and 3;
problems 1 and 4.
b. Variation of pressure with depth: multiple-choice question 4; question 7; exercises8, 11,
c. Pascal's principle: exercise 18.
d. Archimedes' principle: multiple-choice questions 5, 8, and 9; questions 8, 13, 19, 21, and
25; exercises19, 24, and 26; problems 14 and 16.
e. Measurement of pressure: exercise33.
f. Surface tension: question 38; exercise35; problem 19.
2. Demonstrations
a. Force and pressure: Freier and Anderson Fa, Fb, Fc, Fd, Fe, Ff, Fh.
b. Archimedes' principle: Freier and Anderson Fg.
Hydraulic Devices;by Malcolm Goldber, John P. Ouderkirk, and Bruce B. Marsh ; available
from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Why Divers Exhale While Surfacing; Demonstrations of Physics: Liquids and Gases;VHS
b. Archimedes' Principle for Gases; Demonstrations of Physics: Liquids and Gases; VHS
video tape (3:18); Media Design Associates, Inc. (seeabove for address).
c. The Cartesian Diver; Demonstrations of Physics: Liquids and Gases; VHS video tape
(6:27); Media Design Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
d. Fluids in Weightlessness;Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (15 min); Media Design
Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
e. Pressure; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
f. Atmospheric Pressure; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
g. Fluid Pressure; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above
for address).
h. Liquid Drops, Water Bridges, Soap and Water from AAPT Skylab videotape; American
Association of Physics Teachers,One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845.
Fluids; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc.; 508 E. Kentucky Avenue, PO
Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270.
6. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-7: Radial Acceleration (Problem II only). Students measure the
orbit radii of various samples floating on the surface of water in a spinning globe and
analyze the forces on the samples. This experiment is an application of buoyancy forces to
rotational motion.
b. Bernard Experiment 16: Buoyancy of Liquids and Specific Gravity. Archimedes' principle is
checkedby weighing the water displaced by various cylinders. Buoyant forces are measured

by weighing the cylinders in and out of water. The same cylinder is immersed in various
liquids and the resUlts are used to find the specific gravities of the liquids.
Chapter 16 FL VID DYN AMICS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Velocity and density fields
A. Describe what is meant by a velocity field. Draw a diagram showing a meandering stream
and mark several points with velocity vectors. Remark that the field gives the velocity of
the fluid at each point and each instant of time rather than the velocity of any particle
as a f1lllction of time. Explain that the field can be described by giving a vector f1lllction
v(x, y, z, t) of position and time.
B. Describe what is meant by a density field. On the diagram label several points with
numbers indicating the density. Remark that this field tells us the mass per unit volume at
each point. Also remark that as particles move into and out of the region near any point,
the density there may change. Explain that the field can be described by giving a scalar
f1lllction p(x, y, z, t) of position and time.
C. Describe:
1. Steady and non-steady flow. Emphasize that the velocity and density fields are inde-
pendent of time if the flow is steady. They may depend on position, however.
2. Compressible and incompressible flow. Emphasize that the density is independent of
both position and time if the flow is incompressible.
3. Rotational and irrotational flow.
4. Viscous and nonviscous flow.
D. Describe streamlines for steady flow and point out that streamlines are tangent to the fluid
velocity and that no two streamlines cross. Remark that the velocity is not necessarily
constant along a streamline. Describe a tube of flow as a bundle of streamlines. Sketch a
tube of flow with streamlines far apart at one end and closetogether at the other. Explain
that since streamlines do not cross the boundaries of a tube of flow they are closetogether
where the tube is narrow and far apart where the tube is wide. Remark that particles do
not cross the boundaries of a tube of flow.
II. Equation of continuity
A. Define volume flow rate (volume flux) and mass flow rate (mass flux). Consider a tube of
flow with cross sectional area A at one point and give the physical significance of Apv and
Av. Remark that the first can be measuredin kg/s and the secondin m3/s. Show how to
convert m3/sto gal/ S and li/ s.
B. State the equation of continuity: Apv = constant along a streamline if there are no sources
or sinks of fluid and if the flow is steady. Argue that if the equation were not true there
would be a build up or depletion of fluid in someregions and the flow would not be steady.
C. Discussthe special caseof an incompressiblefluid and explain that the fluid speedis great
where the tube of flow is narrow and vice versa. Point out that the fluid velocity is great
where the streamlines are close together and small where they are far apart. Use the
diagram of section ID above as an example.
m .Bernoulli's equation.
A. Apply the work-energy theorem to a tube of flow to show that for steady, nonviscous,
incompressible flow p + ~pv2 + pgy = constant along a streamline. Point out that this
equation also gives the pressurevariation in a static fluid (v = O everywhere).

B. Remark that a typical fluid dynamics problem gives the conditions v, p, y at one point on
a streamline and asks for conditions at another. The equation of continuity and Bernoulli's
equation can be solved simultaneously for two quantities.
C. Work a sample problem. Consider horizontal flow (y = const) through a pipe than narrows.
Give the fluid velocity where the pipe is wide and use the equation of continuity to calculate
the velocity where it is narrow. Then use Bernoulli's equation to calculate the pressure
difference. Emphasize that the pressuremust decreaseto provide the force that accelerates
the fluid as it passesinto the narrow region.
D. Now work the sameproblem but supposethe height ofthe pipe increasesalong the direction
of flow. Point out the difference in the answersfor the pressure.
IV. Applications
A. Section 16-4 of the text servestwo purposes. It showsstudents somepractical applications
of the continuity and Bernoulli equations and it also provides examples of problem solving
techniques.
B. Show a Venturi meter if you have one available. Mention that it can be used to measure
fluid velocity and volume flow rate. Draw a diagram of a meter and point out the narrow
part of the tube. Explain that the velocity is higher there and the pressure is lower than in
the main part of the tube. The manometer measuresthe pressure difference between the
narrow and main parts ofthe tube. Review the discussionofpressure in U-tubes containing
two immiscible fluids and relate the pressure difference to the difference in height of the
manometer liquid. Write down Bernoulli's equation for horizontal flow and point out that
the pressure difference is directly related to the difference in the squares of the velocities
at the two places in the tube. Explain that the velocities are related by the continuity
equation and use that equation to eliminate the velocity in the narrow part of the tube.
Finally solve for the velocity in the main part ofthe tube and obtain Eq. 16-11 ofthe text.
C. Show a pitot tube if one is available and carry out the same type analysis.
D. The analysis of thrust on a rocket is slightly different in that here a large pressuredifference
is used to obtain a high exhaust speed. In a sensecauseand effect are reversedas compared
to the preceding applications.
E. Hang two pith balls by strings of equal length, slightly separated. Blow gently between
them. Discuss the reduction in pressurein the region between the balls. If you have a high
pressureline available, shoot a high velocity air stream vertically upward and hang a smooth
handled screw driver in the jet. About 80 psi is needed to lift it. Discuss applications to
flying shapes: air foils, baseballs, and golf balls.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Fluid flow: question 2; exercise 1
b. Continuity equation: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; question 3; exercises 2, 3, and 5
c. Bernoulli's equation: multiple-choice questions 4, 5, and 7; questions 12, 15, and 18;
exercises 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18; problems 2, 3, 4, 6
d. Applications: questions 19 and 32; exercises 22, 23, and 25; problem 9.
2. Demonstrations
Bernoulli's principle: Freier and Anderson Fj, Fl1.
3. Audio/Visual
Bernoulli's Equation and Streamlines; Demonstrations ofPhysics: Liquids and Gases; VHS

Chapter 17 OSCILLATIONS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Oscillatory motion.
A. Set up an air track and a cart with two springs, one attached to each end. Mark the
equilibrium point, then pull the cart aside and release it. Point out the regularity of the
motion and show where the speedis the greatest and where it is the least. By referenceto
the cart define the terms periodic motion, equilibrium point, period, frequency, cycle, and
amplitude.
B. Explain that x(t) = XmCOS(wt+ <t»describes the coordinate of the cart as a function of
time if x = O is taken to be the equilibrium point, where the force of the springs on the
cart vanishes. State that this type motion is called simple harmonic. Show where x = Ois
on the air track, then show what is meant by positive and negative x. Sketch a mass on
the end of a single spring and explain that the mass also moves in simple harmonic motion
if friction and drag forces are negligible.
C. Discuss the equation for x(t).
1. Explain that Xm is the maximum excursion of the mass from the equilibrium point
and that the spring is compressedby Xm at one point in a cycle. Xm is called the
amplitude of the oscillation. Explain that the amplitude depends on initial conditions.
Draw several x(t) curves, identical except for amplitude. mustrate with the air track
apparatus.
2. Note that w is called the angular frequency of the oscillation and is given in radians/s.
Define the frequency by f = w/27r and the period by T = 1/ f .Show that T = 27r/w
is in fact the period by direct substitution into x(t)j that is, show x(t) = x(t + T).
Explain that the angular frequency does not depend on the initial conditions. For the
cart on the track, use a timer to show that the period, and hence W, is independent
of initial conditions. Draw several x(t) curves, for oscillations with different periods.
Replace the original springs with stiffer springs and note the change in period. A1so
replace the cart with a more massive cart and note the changein period.
3. Define the phase of the motion and explain that the phase constant <t> is determined
by initial conditions. Draw several x(t) curves, identical except for <t>,and point out
the different conditions at t = O. Remark that the curves are shifted copies of each
other. mustrate various initial conditions with the air track apparatus.
D. Derive expressionsfor the velocity and acceleration as functions oftime for simple harmonic
motion. Show that the speed is a maximum at the equilibrium point and is zero when
x = Xm. Also show that the magnitude of the acceleration is a maximum when x = :i:xm
and is zero at the equilibrium point.
E. Show that the initial conditions are given by Xo = XmCOs<t>and Vo = -XmW sin <t>.Solve
for Xm and <t>:x~ = x5 + v~/w2 and tan<t>= -vo/wxo. Calculate Xm and <t>for a few
special cases: Xo = 0 and Vo positive, Xo = 0 and Vo negative, Xo positive and Vo = 0, Xo
negative and Vo= 0. Tell students how to test the result given by a calculator for <t> to see
if 7r should be added to it.
II. The force law.
A. Remark that the potential energy for a spring-masssystem in simple harmonic motion has
the form U(x) = ~kx2, where k is the force constant of the spring. Remind students it is
an intrinsic property of the spring.
B. By differentiating U(x) with respect to x show that the force on the mass is given by
F = -kx and point out that the minus sign is necessaryfor the force to be a restoring force.
Hang identical masseson springs with different force constants, measure the elongations

and calculate the force constants. Remark that stiff springs have larger force constants
than weak springs. Remark that the expressionsfor the potential energy and force are
idealizations. They are somewhat different for real springs.
C. Start with Newton's second law and derive the differential equation for x(t). Show that
x = X7ncos(wt + 4>) satisfies the equation if w = Jk?m and explain that this is the most
general solution for a given force constant and mass. If you think the phrase "differential
equation" tends to frighten some students use "equation of motion" , as the text does.
D. Show a vertical spring-mass system. Point out that the equi1ibrium point is determined by
the mass, force of gravity, and the force constant. Show, both analytically and with the
apparatus, that the force of gravity does not infiuence the period, phase, or amplitude of
the oscillation.
m. Energy considerations.
A. Derive expressionsfor the kinetic and potential energiesas functions of time. Showthat the
total energy is constant by adding the two expressions. Remark that the energy changes
from kinetic at the equi1ibrium point to potential at a turning point, then back again.
B. Show how to use the conservation of energy to find the amplitude, given the initial position
and velocity, to find the maximum speed, and to find the speed as a function of position.
N. Applications.
A. Demonstrate a torsional oscillator and discussit analytically. Derive the differential equa-
tion for the angle as a function of time and compare with the differential equation for a
spring to obtain the angular frequency and period in terms of the force constant and the
rotational inertia.
B. Demonstrate a simple pendulum and discuss it analytically in the small amplitude ap-
proximation. Derive the differential equation for the angle as function of time and obtain
expressionsfor the angular frequency and period from the equation. Emphasize that the
angular displacement must be measured in radians for the small angle approximation to
be va1id. Have students use their calculators to find the sines of some angles, in radians,
starting with large angles and progressing to small angles.
C. Demonstrate a physical pendulum. Use Newton's second law for rotation to obtain the
differential equation for the angular displacement. Obtain expressionsfor its angular fre-
quency and period in the small amplitude approximation. Remind students that the rota-
tional inertia depends on the position of the pivot and show them how to use the parallel
axis theorem to find its value.
D. Optional. Discuss center of oscillation (center of percussion). Consider a ball striking a
bat. Show how to find the point at which the ball should be hit so that the instantaneous
center of rotation is at the place where the bat is held. The striking point is called the
center of percussion. When the ball is hit there the batter feels no sting.
V. Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion.
A. Mount a bicycle wheel vertically and arrange for it to be driven slowly with uniform angular
speed. Attach a tennis ball to the rim and project the shadow of the ball on the wall. Note
that the shadow movesup and down in simple harmonic motion. Point out that the period
of the wheel and the period of the shadow are the same. It is possible to suspend a mass
on a spring near the wall and adjust the angular speed and initial conditions so the mass
and shadow move together for several cycles. A period of about 1 s works well.
B. Analytically show that the projection of the position vector of a particle in uniform circular
motion undergoes simple harmonic motion. Mention the converse: if an object simulta-
neously undergoes simple harmonic motion in two orthogonal directions, with the same
amplitude and frequency, the result is a circular orbit.

c. Explain that if the simple harmonic motions have different amplitudes, the orbit is an
ellipse. Demonstrate using an audio oscillator and an oscilloscope. Run the oscillator
output to both oscilloscope inputs through adjustable voltage dividers. You might also
show the Lissajous figures that result from signals of different frequency at the vertical and
horizontal inputs.
VI. Damped and forced harmonic motion.
A. Write the differential equation for a spring-mass oscillator with a damping term propor-
tional to the velocity (bv). Treat the case (b/2m)2 < k/m and write the solution, including
the expressionfor the angularfrequency in terms of k, m, and b. If there is time, prove it
is the solution by direct substitution into the differential equation or leave the proof as an
exercise for the students. Remark that the natural angular frequency is nearly Jk7ffl if
damping is small.
B. Show a graph of the displacement as a function of time. See Fig. 17-18. Point out
the exponential decay of the amplitude. Mention that the oscillator is losing energy to
dissipative forces.
C. Explain that if (b/2m)2 > k/m then the mass does not oscillate but rather moves directly
back to the equilibrium point. The displacement is a decreasing exponential function of
time. To demonstrate under and over damping, attach a vane to a pendulum. Experiment
with the size so the pendulum oscillates in air but does not when the vane is in water.
D. Write the differential equation for a forced spring-masssystem, including a damping term.
Assume an applied force of the form Fm cos(w//t) and point out that w// is not necessarily
the same as the natural angular frequency of the oscillator. Give the steady-state solution
(Eqs. 17-43,17-44, and 17-45 ofthe text).
E. Mention that when the system is first started transients are present and the motion is
somewhat complicated. However, it settles down to a sinusoidal motion with an angular
frequency that is the same as that of the impressed force.
F. A1sopoint out that in steady state the amplitude is constant in time but that it dependson
the frequency of the applied force. mustrate with Fig. 17-19, which shows the amplitude
as a function of the forcing frequency for various values of the damping coefficient. Mention
that the amplitude is the greatest when the forcing frequency nearly matches the natural
frequency and say this is the resonance condition. A1so mention that at resonancethe
amplitude is greater for smaller damping and that small damping produces a sharper
resonancethan large damping.
G. Resonancecan be demonstrated with three identical springs ~
and two equal masses,as shown. Fasten the bottom spring ~
to a heavy weight on the floor and drive the upper spring
by hand (perhaps standing on a table). Obtain resonance
at each of the normal modes (massesmoving in the same
and opposite directions) .After showing the two resonances, ~
drive the system at a low frequency to show a small re-
sponse, then drive it at a high frequency to again show a
small response. Repeat at a resonancefrequency to show
the larger response. To show pronounced damping effects, ~
attach a large stiff piece of aluminum plate to each mass. ~J base
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
To introduce a modern topic into the course discussvibrations oí a diatomic molecule.

SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Simple harmonic motion: multiple-choice questions 1, 2 and 3; questions 4, 6, 7, and 10;
exercises2,4, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 17.
b. Energy in simple harmonic motion: multiple-choice question 6; exercises 18, 20, and 22;
problems 2, 5 or 6, 9, and 11.
c. Applications of simple harmonic motion: multiple-choice question 7; questions 19, 21, and
23; exercises26, 27, 32, 35, 36, and 38; problems 13, 16, 17, and 20.
d. Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion: multiple-choice question 9; exercise
41.
e. Damped harmonic motion: exercises44 and 46; problem 25.
f. Forced oscillations: multiple-choice questions 11 and 12; question 31; exercises47 and 51.
2. Demonstrations
a. Simple harmonic motion: Freier and Anderson Mxl, 2, 3, 4, 7.
b. Pendulums: Freier and Anderson Mx6, 9, 10, 11, 12, Myl, 2,3,8, Mzl, 2,3,6,7,9.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Simple Harmonic Motion; The Stringless Pendulum; Sand Pendulum; from AAPT col-
lection 2 of single-concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,
Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Oscillations from Skylab Physics Videodisc; video disk; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove
for address).
c. Tacoma N arrows Bridge Collapse; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept films;
video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
d. Coupled Oscillators -Equal Masses; Coupled Oscillators -Unequal Masses; from AAPT
Miller collection of single-conceptfilms; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for
address).
e. Periodic Motion; Side B: Mechanics (II) and Heat of Cinema Classics;video disk; available
f. The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse; video disk; American Association of Physics Teach-
ers, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845.
a. Dynamic Analyzer. See Chapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Physics of Oscillation; Eugene L. Butikov; Windows; Physics Academic Software, North
Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739.
c. Simple Harmonic Motion; Socrates Software, 6187 Rosecommon Drive, Norcross, GA
30092. User controls the parameters of mass-spring oscillator. The motion is shown and
graphed.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 7-2: The Vibrating Spring. Students time a vertical vibrating spring
with various massesattached, then use the data and a logarithmic plot to determine the
relationship between the period and mass.
b. Bernard Experiment 15: Elasticity and Vibratory Motion. The experiment is much the
same as Meiners 7-2, in that a graph is used to determine the relationship between the
mass on a spring and the period of oscillation. This measurement is preceded by a static
determination of the spring constant.
c. Meiners Experiment 7-4: The Vibmting Ring. Students time the oscillations of various
diameter rings, hung on a knife edge,then use the data and a logarithmic plot to determine

the relationship between the period and ring diameter. A good example of a physical
pendullllll.
d. Meiners Experiment 7-15: Investigation of Variable Acceleration. A pendullllll swings
above a track and a spark timer is used to record its position as a function of time. Its
velocity and acceleration are investigated.
e. Meiners Experiment 7-19: Harmonic Motion Analyzer. This apparatus allows students
to vary the spring constant, mass, driving frequency, driving amplitude, and damping
coefficient of a spring-mass system. They can measure the amplitude, period, and relative
phase of the oscillating mass. A variety of experiments can be performed.
f. Meiners Experiment 8-4: Linear Oscillator. A spark timer is used to record the position
of an oscillating mass on a spring, moving horizontally on a nearly frictionless surface. The
period as a function of mass can be investigated and the conservation of energy can be
checked.
g. Meiners Experiment 7-18: Damped Driven Linear Oscillator. The amplitude and relative
phase of a driven damped spring-mass system are measured as functions of the driving
frequency and are used to plot a resonancecurve.
h. Meiners Experiment 7-20: Analysis of Resonancewith a Driven Torsional Pendulum. The
driving frequency and driving amplitude of a driven damped torsional pendulum are varied
and the frequency,amplitude, and relative phaseare measured. Damping is electromagnetic
and can be varied or turned off. A variety of experiments can be performed.
Chapter 18 WAVE MOTION
BASIC TOPICS
I. General properties of waves.
A. .Explain that wave motion is the mechanism by which a disturbance created at one place
travels to another. Use the example of a pulse on a taut string and point out that the
displaced string causesneighboring portions of the string to be displaced. Stress that the
individual particles have limited motion (perhaps perpendicular to the direction of wave
travel), whereas the pulse travels the length of the string. Demonstrate by striking a taut
string stretched across the room. Point out that energy is transported by the wave from
one place to another. Ask the students to read the introductory section of the chapter for
other examples of waves.
B. Point out that a wave on a string travels in one dimension, water waves produced by
dropping a pebble travel in two, and sound wavesemitted by a point sourcetravel in three.
C. Explain the terms longitudinal and transverse. Demonstrate longitudinal waves with a
slinky.
D. State that waves on a taut string of uniform density travel with constant speed and that
this course deals chiefly with idealized waves that do not change shape. Take the string
to lie along the x axis and draw a distortion in the shape of a pulse, perhaps a sketch of
exp[-a(x -XO)2]. Remark that the initial displacement of the string can be described by
giving a function f(x). Now supposethe pulse moves in the positive x direction and draw
the string at a later time. Point out that the maximum has moved from Xo to Xo + vt,
where v is the wave speed. Remark that the displacement can be calculated by substituting
x -vt for x in the function f(x). Substantiate the remark by showing that x -vt = Xo
if x is the coordinate of the maximum at time t. Explain that x + vt is substituted if the
pulse travels in the negative x direction.
II. Sinusoidal traveling waves.
A. Write f(x) = Y1nsin(kx) for the initial displacement of the string and sketch the function.

Identify the amplitude as giving the limits of the displacement and point it out on the
sketch. Also point out the periodicity of the function and identify the wavelength on the
sketch. Show that k must be 27r/>..for f(x) to equal f(x + n>..)for all integers n. Remark
that k is called the wave number of the wave.
B. Substitute x -vt for x in f(x) and explain you will assumethe wave travels in the positjve
x direction. Show that the result is Y(x, t) = Ymsin(kx -wt), where w = kv.
C. State that the motion of the string at any point is simple harmonic and that w is the
angular frequency. Show that at a given place on the string the motion repeats in a time
equal to 27r/w. This is the period T. Remind students that the frequency is w/27r.
D. Remark that any given point on the string reachesits maximum displacement whenever a
maximum on the wave passesthat point. Since the time interval is one period a sinusoidal
wave travels one wavelength in one period and v = >../T = >..f = w/k, in agreement with
the derivation of Y(x, t).
E. Explain that Y(x, t) = Ymsin(kx+wt) representsa sinusoidal wave traveling in the negative
x direction.
F. Show that the string velocity is u(x, t) = fjy/fjt = -WYm cos(kx -wt). Point out that
x is held constant in taking the derivative since the string velocity is proportional to the
difference in the displacement of the same piece of string at two slightly different times.
Remark that different points on the string may have different velocities at the same time
and the same point may have a different velocity at different times. Contrast this behavior
with that of the wave velocity. Point out that for a transverse wave u is transverse.
G. Explain that the wave speedfor an elastic medium dependson the inertia and elasticity of
the medium. State that, for a taut string, v = ..jF1ii, where F is the tension in the string
and JLis the linear mass density of the string. Show how to measure JLfor a homogeneous,
constant radius string. The expression for v may be derived as in Section 4 of the text
or by first deriving the one-dimensionalwave equation, as in Section 5, then showing that
y = f(x ::I:vt) satisfies this differential equation provided v = JF?;;-.
H. Point out that the frequency is usually determined by the source and that doubling the
frequency for the same string with the same tension halves the wavelength. The product
>..f remains the same. Remark that if a wave goes from one medium to another the speed
and wavelength change but the frequency remains the same. Work an example: given the
two densities and the frequency, calculate the wave speed and wavelength in each segment.
Draw a diagram of the wave.
m. Energy considerations.
A. Point out that the energy in the wave is the sum of the kinetic energy of the moving
string and the potential energy the string has becauseit is stretched in the region of the
disturbance. Energy moveswith the disturbance.
B. Multiply the transverse component of the string tension by the string velocity to show
that the power transmitted past a point on the string is given by p = -F(fjy/fjx)(fjy/&t).
Substitute the expression for Y(x, t) and find an equation for the power transmitted by a
sinusoidal wave. Remark that the averageover a cycle of cos2(kx -wt) is ~ and show that
the averagepower is p = ~JLvw2y:n.Remark that it is proportional to the square of the
amplitude. Relate the power transmitted to sound or light intensity. Define intensity as
the averagepower transmitted per unit area.
C. Use conservation of energy to find the dependenceof the amplitude on distance from a
point source for two- and three-dimensional waves.
IV. Superposition and interference.
A. Stress that displacements, not intensities, add. State that if Yl and y2 are waves that are
simultaneously present, then y = Yl + Y2 is the resultant wave. Using diagrams of two

similar sinusoidal waves, show that the resultant amp1itude can be twice the amp1itude of
one of them, can vanish, or can have any value between. Mention that the medium must
be linear .
B. Start with the waves yl = Ym sin(kx -l.1)t -<t>1) and y2 = Ym sin(kx -l.1)t -<t>2) and show
that y = 2ym cos(~<t>/2) sin(kx-1.1)t-<t>'), where ~<t>= <t>2
-<t>1 and <t>'= «t>1+<t>2)/2. Show
that maximum constructive interference occurs when ~<t> = 2n1r, where n is an integer
and maximum destructive interference occurs when ~<t> = (2n + 1)1r, where n is again
an integer. Remark that the maximum amp1itude is 2ym and the minimum is O. The
derivation depends heavily on the trigonometric identity given as Eq. 18-39. You may
wish to verify this identity for the class. Use the expressions for the sine and cosine of the
sum of two angles to expand the right side of Eq. 18-39.
C. Explain that a phase difference can arise ifwaves start in phase but travel different distances
to get to the same point. Show that ~<t>= k~x and find expressions for the path differences
that result in maximum constructive and maximum destructive interference. In the first
case ~x is a multiple of >., while in the second it is an odd multiple of >./2.
D. Interference can easily be demonstrated with a monaural amplifier, a signal generator, a
microphone, an oscilloscope, and a pair of speakers. Fix the position of speaker Sl and,
with S2 disconnected, show the wave form on the oscilloscope. Then connect S2 and show
the wave form as S2 is moved. Because both speakers are driven by the same amp1ifier ,
the on1y phase difference is due to the path difference.
Microphone
Oscilloscope
v. Standing waves.
A. Use a vibrating tuning fork (driven, if possible) to set up a standing wave pattern on a
string. Otherwise, draw the pattern. Point out nodes and antinodes. Explain that all
parts of the string vibrate either in phase or 180° out of phase and that the amplitude
depends on position along the string. The disturbance does not travel. If possible, use a
stroboscopeto show the standing wave pattern. CAUTION: students with epilepsy should
not watch this demonstration.
B. Explain that a standing wave can be constructed from two sinusoidal traveling wavesof the
same frequency and amplitude, traveling with the same speed in opposite directions. Use
a trigonometric identity to show that Yl + y2 = 2ym sin(kx) cos(wt) if the phase constant
for both wavesis 0. Find the coordinates of the nodes and show they are half a wavelength
apart. Also find the coordinates of the antinodes and show they lie halfway between nodes.
C. Point out that standing wavescan be created by a wave and its reflection from a boundary.
By means of a diagram show how the incident and reflected waves cancel at the fixed end
of a string.
D. Remark that for a string fixed at both ends, each end must be a node. Derive expressions
for the standing wave frequencies of such a string. Draw diagrams showing the string at
maximum displacement for the lowest 3 or 4 frequencies. Explain that if a standing wave
is generated in a string by moving one end in simple harmonic motion, the driven end is
very nearly a node.
E. Place two speakers,driven by the same signal generator and amplifier, well apart on the
lecture table, facing the class. Standing waves are created throughout the room. Have

each student place a finger in one ear and move his head slowly from side to side in an
attempt to find the nodes and antinodes. Use a frequency of about 1 kHz.
F. Consider a driven string and describeresonance.Explain that the amplitude becomeslarge
when the driving frequency matches a standing wave frequency. Explain that at resonance
the energy supplied by the driving force is dissipated and that off resonancethe string does
work on the driving mechanism.
G. You may wish to explain that when the string is driven at a non-resonant frequency, each
traveling wave and its reflection from an end produce a standing wave, just as at resonance.
The standing waves produced by successivereflections, however, do not coincide and a
jumble results.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Fourier series. State that any function of x with period ). can be expanded as the (perhaps
infinite) sum of the form
f(x) = Ao + Al sin(kx) + A2 sin(2kx) + A3 sin(3kx) + ...
+ B1 cos(kx) + B2 cos(2kx) + B3 cos(3kx) + ...,
where k = 27r/ ).. Demonstrate with a ramp or sawtooth function. Substitute x -vt to obtain
a wave that moves without change of shape in the positive x direction and observe that the
various component waves have different angular frequencies but all are multiples of w = kv.
Remark that in a dispersive medium the various component waves have different speeds and the
waveform changes as it moves. Some data analysis programs for computers, such as Labview,
allow you to show the result of summing a finite Fourier series. If one of these is available to
you use it to show students the sum after 1 term, 2 terms, 3 terms, etc. They can watch the
construction of the function as a Fourier series.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Traveling waves: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; question 8j exercises 3 and 4;
problem 2.
b. Wave speed: multiple-choice question 4; exercises 6, 9, 10, and 12; problems 3, 4, and 8.
c. Wave equation: multiple-choice question 7; exercise 14.
d. Energy in waves: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; questions 1 and 5; exercises 15 and 17.
e. Interference: multiple-choice questions 10 and 11; questions 11 and 12j exercises 19 and
20; problem 13.
f. Standing waves: multiple-choice questions 12, 14, and 15; questions 14 and 16; exercises
26, 28, 29, and 31j problems 11, 16, 21, and 22.
2. Demonstrations
a. Traveling waves: Freier and Anderson Sa3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 13.
b. Reflection: Freier and Anderson Sa7, 12, 14.
c. Standing waves: Freier and Anderson Sa8, 9.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Superposition; Vibrations of a Wire; Vibrations of a Drumj from AAPT collection 1 of
single-concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY
40577-1768.
b. Nonrecurrent Wavefronts; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept films; video tape;
available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Wave Propagation, Periodic Waves, Superposition, Standing Waves; Side C: Chapter 10
of Cinema Classicsj video diskj available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).

d. Wave Characteristics; Demonstrations of Physics: Waves; VHS video tape (7:50)j Media
e. Chladni Platesj Demonstrations of Physics: Wavesj VHS video tape (4:46)j Media Design
f. Resonancej Demonstrations of Physics: Wavesj VHS video tape (4:32)j Media Design
g. The Nature of Wavesj VHS video tape (11 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO
h. Standing Wavesj VHS video S video tape (15 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences
i. The Propagation of Wavesj VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
j. The Puzzle of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse Videodiscj video disk; available from
Ztek Co. (see above for address).
k. Mechanical Resonancej Velocity/Wavelength fj Frequencyj Standing Wavesj Change in
Medium/lnterferencej Physics Demonstrations in Sound & Waves, Part Ij VHS video tape;
~3 min eachj Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN
55044.
a. Physics Simulation Programsj Robert H. Good; Windows, Apple II; requires GW-BASICj
available from Physics Academic Software, North Carolina State University, PO Box 8202,
Raleigh, NC 27690-0739. Contains simulations of traveling and standing waves.
b. WaveMakerj Freeman Deutsch, Philip Sadler, Charles Whitney, Stephen Engquist, and
Linda Shore; Apple; available from Physics Academic Software (see above for address).
Beads are attached to elastic, masslessstrings and oscillate transversely. The user can
control the massesand the spring constants. The program sill plot the position, velocity,
.and acceleration of any bead. Demonstrates beats, reflection at fixed and free ends, nor-
mal oscillations, wave superposition, and transmission through a boundary between two
different media.
c. Interferencej Socrates Software, 6187 Rosecommon Drive, Norcross, GA 30092. Shows
wavesfor constructive and destructive interference.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 12-1: Transverse Standing Waves (Part A). Several harmonics are
generated in a string by varying the driving frequency. Frequency ratios are computed
and compared with theoretical values. Values of the wave speed found using ),f and using
.JT7¡i are compared. The experiment can be repeated for various tensions and various
linear densities.
b. Bernard Experiment 22: A Study of Vibrating Strings. A horizontal string is attached to
a driven tuning fork vibrator. It passesover a pulley and weights are hung on the end.
The weights are adjusted so standing wave patterns are obtained and the wavelength of
each is found from the measured distance between nodes. Graphical analysis is used to
find the relationship between the wave velocity and the tension in the string and to find
the frequency. Several strings are used to show the relationship between the wave velocity
and the linear density.

Chapter 19 SOUND WAVES
BASIC TOPICS
I. Qualitative description of sound waves.
A. Explain that the disturbance that is propagated is a deviation from the ambient density
and pressure of the material in which the wave exists. This comes about through the
motion of particles. If Chapter 15 was not covered, you should digress to discuss density
and pressure briefly. Point out that sound wavesin solids can be longitudinal or transverse
but sound waves in fluids are longitudinal: the particles move along the line of wave
propagation. Waves in crystalline solids moving in low symmetry directions are examples
that are neither transverse nor longitudinal. Use a slinky to show a longitudinal wave and
point out the direction of motion of the particles. State that sound can be propagated in
all materials.
B. Draw a diagram, similar to Fig. 19-1, to show a compressionalpulse. Point out regions of
high, low, and ambient density. Also show the pulse at a later time.
C. Similarly, diagram a sinusoidal sound wave in one dimension and draw a rough graph of
the pressure as a function of position for a given time. Give the rough frequency limits of
audible sound and mention ultrasonic and infrasonic waves.
D. Discuss the idea that the wave velocity depends on an elastic property of the medium
(bulk modulus) and on an inertia property (ambient density). Recall the definition of
bulk modulus (or introduce it) and show by dimensional analysis that v is proportional
to fi7p. Assert that the constant of proportionality is 1. Point out the wide range of
speedsreported in Table 19-1.
II. Mathematical description of one-dimensional sound waves.
A. If desired, derive v = fi7P as it is done in the text.
B. Write s = Smcos(kx -wt) for the displacement of the material at x. Show how to
calculate the pressure as a function of position and time. Relate the pressure ampli-
tude to the displacement amplitude. ExpJain that the text deals chiefly with pressure
waves and that a sinusoidal pressure wave traveling in the positive x direction is written
A.p(x, t) = A.pmsin(kx -wt). Remind students that A.p is the deviation of the pressure
from its ambient value. Also remind students that k = 27r/ )., f = w/27r, and ).f = v.
C. Remark that power is transmitted by a sound wave because each element of fluid does
work on neighboring elements. State that the power is given by the product of the force
AA.p on an element and the velocity 8s/8t of the element. Derive Eq. 19-16 of the text.
Define intensity as the averagepower crossing a unit area perpendicular to the direction
of propagation and show that the intensity is given by I = ~(A.pm)2/ pV.
D. Show a scale of the range of human hearing in terms of intensity. Introduce the idea of
sound level and define the bel and decibel. Discussboth absolute (relative to 10-12W /m2)
and relative intensities. Remark that an increase in intensity by a factor of 10 means
an increase in sound level by 10db. If you have a sound level meter, use an oscillator ,
amplifier, and speaker to demonstrate the changeof a few db in sound level.
III. Standing longitudinal waves and sourcesof sound.
A. Use a stringed instrument or a simple taut string to demonstrate a source of sound. Point
out that the wave pattern on the string is very nearly a standing wave, produced by a
combination of wavesreflected from the ends. If the string is vibrating in a single standing
wave pattern then sound waves of the same frequency are produced in the surrounding
medium. Demonstrate the same idea by striking a partially filled bottle, then blowing
acrossits mouth. Also blow acrossthe open end of a ball point pen case. If you have them,
demonstrate CWadni plates.

B. Derive expressionsfor the natural frequencies and wavelengths of air pipes open at both
ends and closed at one end. Stress that pressure nodes occur near open ends and that
pressure antinodes occur at closed ends. Define the terms fundamental, overtone, and
harmonic.
C. Optional: Discuss the quality of sound for various instruments in terms of harmonic con-
tent. If possible, demonstrate the instruments.
D. Demonstrate voice patterns by connecting a microphone to an oscilloscope and keeping
the set up running through part or all of the lecture. This is particularly instructive in
connection with part C.
IV Beats.
A. Demonstrate beats using two separate oscillators, amplifiers, and speakers, operating at
nearly, but not exactly, the same frequency. If possible, show the time dependenceof the
wave on an oscilloscope. Remark that the sound is like that of a pure note but the intensity
varies periodically. Explain that this technique is used to tune instruments in an orchestra.
B. Remark that you will consider pressure oscillations at a point in space when two sound
wavesof the same amplitude and nearly the samefrequency are present. Write the expres-
sion for the sum of ~Pl = ~Pm sin(wlt) and ~P2 = ~Pm sin(w2t), where Wl ~ W2,but the
two frequencies are not exactly equal. Remark that becausethe difference in frequencies
is much smaller than either constituent frequency we can think of the oscillation as having
an angular frequency of {i) = (Wl + w2)/2 and a time dependent amplitude. Note that the
angular frequency of the amplitude is Wamp= IWl -w21/2 but the angular frequency of the
intensity is Wbeat= IWl -W21. The latter is the beat angular frequency.
v. Doppler effect.
A. Explain that the frequency increaseswhen the source is moving toward the listener, de-
creaseswhen the source is moving away, and that similar effects occur when the listener
is moving toward or away from the source. Use Figs. 19-14 and 19-15 to illustrate the
physical basis of the phenomenon.
B. .Derive expressionsfor the frequency when the sourceis moving and for the frequency when
the listener is moving. Point out that the velocities are measured relative to the medium
carrying the sound. To emphasize this point, you might work an example in which the
wind is blowing along the line between the sound source and the detector .
C. The effect can be demonstrated by placing an auto speaker and small audio oscillator (or
sonalert type oscillator) on a rotating table. The sonalert can also be secured to a cable
and swung in a circle. Show the effect of a passivereflector by moving a hand-held sonalert
rapidly toward and away from the blackboard.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Traveling sound waves: multiple-choice question 1; exercises1 and 2; problem 3.
b. Speedof sound: multiple-choice question 2; question 5; exercises5, 7, and 8; problem 2.
c. Power and intensity: multiple-choice question 5; question 21; exercises12, 13, 15, 17, and
d. Interference: multiple-choice question 6; exercises25 and 26; problems 6
e. Standing sound waves: multiple-choice question 7; questions 9 and 25; exercises28, 29,
f. Sourcesof sound: multiple-choice question 9; exercises33 and 36.
g. Beats: multiple-choice question 10; exercises37 and 39.
h. Doppler effect: multiple-choice question 12; questions 35, 36, and 42; exercises40, 42, 44,

i. Sonic boom: problem 17.
2. Demonstrations
a. Wavelength and speedof sound in air: Freier and Anderson Sa16, 17, 18, Sh1.
b. Sound not transmitted in a vacuum: Freier and Anderson Sh2.
c. Sourcesof sound, acoustical resonators: Freier and Anderson Sd3, Se, Sf, Sj6.
d. Harmonics: Freier and Anderson Sj2 -5
e. Beats: Freier and Anderson Si4 -6.
f. Doppler shift: Freier and Anderson Sil -3.
a. ResourceLetters, Book Four and ResourceLetters, Book Five; American Association of
Physics Teachers, One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contain resource
letters on sound and acoustics.
b. Musical Acoustics; edited by Thomas D. Rossingj available from AAPT (see above for
address).Reprints.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Measuring the Speedof Soundj Demonstrations of Physics: Wavesj VHS video tape (7:48);
Media Design Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
b. Waves and Sound; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO
c. Experiments on the Doppler Effectj Physics Experiments; VHS video tape (15 min)j Films
for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove for address).
d. Longitudinal Wavesj Longitudinal Standing Wavesj Physics Demonstrations in Sound &
Waves, Part I; VHS video tapej ~3 min eachj Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585
e. Nature of Sound Wavesj Propagation of Sound; Transmission of Soundj ReJraction of
Soundj Interference of Soundj diffraction of Soundj Doppler Effect; Physics Demonstra-
tions in Sound & Waves, Part IIj VHS video tapej ~3 min each; Physics Curriculum &
Instruction (see above for address).
f. Standing Sound Waves; Standing Sound Waves in Two Dimensions; Resonance/Real
Timej Superposition Principle; Physics Demonstrations in Sound & Waves, Part III; VHS
video tape; ~3 min eachj Physics Curriculum & Instruction (seeabove for address).
a. Sound Waves; Apple, Windowsj Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Av-
enue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on beats, Doppler shift, reso-
nancesin open and closed tubes.
b. Physics Demonstrations .See Chapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
c. Doppler Effect; Socrates Software, 6187 Rosecommon Drive, Norcross, GA 30092. Ani-
mated display of the sound waves for both subsonic and supersonic flight of an aircraft.
6. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 12-2: Velocity of Sound in Air and Bernard Experiment 23: Velocity
of Sound in Air -Resonance- Tube Method. Resonanceof an air column is obtained by
holding a tuning fork of known frequency at the open end of a tube with one closed end.
The length of the column is changed by adjusting the amount of water in the tube. The
wavelength and speed of sound are found.
b. Meiners Experiment 12-3: Velocity of Sound in Metals and Bernard Experiment 24: Ve-
locity of Sound in a Metal -Kundt's-Tube Method. A Kundt's tube is used to find the
frequency of sound excited in a rod with its midpoint clamped and its ends free. The
wavelength is known to be twice the rod length and >..f is used to find the speed of sound.

In another experiment, a transducer and oscilloscopeare used to time a sound pulse as it
travels the length of a rod and returns.
c.
Meiners Experiment 12-4: Investigation ofLongitudinal Waves. The amplitude and phase
of a sound wave are investigated as functions of distance from a speaker source. To do
this, Lissajous figures are generated on an oscilloscopescreenby the source signal and the
signal picked up by a microphone. To eliminate noise, the speaker and microphone should
be in a large sound-proof enclosurewith absorbing walls. Use Meiners Experiment 10-10
to familiarize students with the oscilloscopeand Lissajous figures.
Chapter 20 THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
BASIC TOPICS
I. Introduction
A. Consider a wave on a string and remind students that its speed relative to the string is
given by Vw = ~, where F is the tension and J.tis the linear mass density. Explain
that, according to non-relativistic mechanics, an observer running with speed Vo with the
wave measuresa wave speedof Vw-Vo and an observer running against the wave measures
a wave speed of Vw+ vo. Remark that these results are not valid for light (or fast moving
waves and particles). The speed of light in a vacuum is found to be the same regardlessof
the speed of the observer (or the speed of the source).
B. Remark that this fact has causedus to revise drastically our idea of time. If, for example,
two observers moving at high speed with respect to each other both time the interval
between two events they obtain different results.
C. Explain that special relativity is a theory which relates measurements taken by two ob-
servers who are moving with respect to each other. Although it sometimes seems to
.contradict everyday experience,it is extremely well supported by experiment.
D. State the postulates: the laws ofphysics are the samefor observersin all inertial frames; the
speedof light in a vacuum is the samefor all directions and in all inertial frames. Remind
students what an inertial frame is. Explain that the laws of physics are relationships
between measured quantities, not the quantities themselves. Newton's laws and Maxwell's
equations are examples. State that relativity has forced us to revise Newton's secondlaw
but not Maxwell's equations.
II. Time measurements.
A. Explain the term event and note that three spacecoordinates and one time coordinate are
associatedwith each event. Explain that each observer may think of a coordinate system
with clocks at all placeswhere eventsof interest occur and that the clocks are synchronized.
Outline the synchronization processinvolving light. State that the coordinate system and
clock used by an observer are at rest with respect to the observer and may be moving from
the viewpoint of another observer.
B. Explain the light fiasher used to measure time, in principle. See Figs. 20-4 and 20-5.
Consider a fiasher at rest in one frame, take two events to be a fiash and the subsequent
reception of refiected light back at the instrument, then remark that the time interval is
6.to = 2Lo/ c, where Lo is the separation of the mirror from the fiash bulb. Consider the
events as viewed in another frame, moving with speed u perpendicularly to the light ray,
and show the interval is 6.t = 2Lo/c.yi1-u2/c2 = 6.to/.yi1- u2/c2. This is also written
6.t = 'Y6.to, where 'Y (= 1/.yi1-u2/c2) is called the Lorentz factor. State that u/c < 1
and 'Y > 1.
C. Remark that 6.to is the proper time interval and that both events occur at the same coor-
dinate in the frame in which it is measured. Point out that 6.t is larger than 6.to. Explain

that the same result is obtained no matter what clocks are used for the measurement(as
long as they are accurate and each is at rest in the appropriate frame). Ask students to
identify a frame to measure the proper time interval for a ball thrown from third to first
base. Note that L\t ~ L\to if u « c"
D. State that time dilation has been observed by comparing clocks carried on airplanes to
clocks remaining behind and by comparing the average decay time of fast moving funda-
mental particles to their decay time when at rest. You might want to discuss the twin
paradox here.
E. State that two observers in relative motion cannot both claim that two events at differ-
ent places are simultaneous if their motion is not perpendicular to the line joining the
coordinates of the events. To illustrate show Fig. 20-16" The light strikes both clocks
simultaneously in S' but strikes clock 1 before clock 2 in S.
III. Length measurements.
A. Point out the problem with measuring the length of an object that is moving relative to
the meter stick: the position of both ends must be marked simultaneously (in the rest
frame of the meter stick) on the meter stick" If the speedu of the object is known another
method can be used to measureits length: put a mark on a coordinate axis along the line
of motion of the object, then measurethe time L\to taken by the object to pass the mark.
The length is given by L = uL\to. Note that L\to is a proper time interval"
B. Explain that the length of the object, as measuredin its rest frame is Lo = uL\t, where L\t
is the time interval measuredin that frame. Substitution of L\t = ,L\to leads to L = Lo/,"
State that Lo, the length as measured in the rest frame of the object, is called the rest
length. Since , > 1, all observersmoving with respect to the object measure a length that
is less than the rest length. The same result is obtained no matter what method is used
to measurelength" Note that L ~ Lo if u « c.
IV. The Lorentz transformation"
A. Consider two referenceframes: S' moving with speedu in the positive x direction relative
to S. Remark that the coordinates of an event as measured in S are written x, y, z, t
while the coordinates as measured in S' are written x' , y' , z' , t'. Write down the Lorentz
transformation for the coordinate differencesoftwo events: L\x' = ,(L\x-uL\t), L\y' = L\y,
L\z' = L\z, L\t' = ,(L\t -uL\X/C2). Remark that these equations reduce to the Galilean
transformation if u « c: L\x' = L\x -uL\t, L\y' = L\y, L\z' = L\z, L\t' = L\t"
B. Explain that the transformation equations can be solved for L\x and L\t, with the result
L\x = ,(L\x' + uL\t'), L\t = ,(L\t' + uL\x' /C2). From the viewpoint of an observer in S', S
is moving in the negative x' direction, so the two sets of equations are obtained from each
other when u is replaced by -u and the primed and unprimed symbols are interchanged"
C. Discuss some consequencesof the Lorentz transformation equations:
1. Take L\t = O, L\x # 0 and show that L\t' = -,uL\X/C2 (# 0). If two events are
simultaneous and occur at different places in S, then they are not simultaneous in
S'. Point out that L\t' is positive for L\x negative and is negative for L\x positive.
Similarly, take L\t' = 0, L\x' # 0 and show L\t = ,uL\x' /c2 (# 0).
2. Time dilation. Consider two events that occur at the same place in S and show that
L\t' = , L\t. Point out that L\t is the proper time interval. Also show that the events
do not occur at the same place in S': L\x' = -,uL\t" Work the same problem for two
events that occur at the same place in S'.
3. Length measurement. Supposethe object is at rest in S' and the meter stick is at rest
in S. Marks are made simultaneously in S on the meter stick at the ends of the object"
Thus L\t = 0. Show that L\x' = ,L\x and point out that L\x' is the rest length. Work
the same problem with the object at rest in S and the meter stick at rest in S'.

4. Causality. Consider two events, the first of which influences the second. For example a
particle is given an initial velocity along the x axis and collides with another particle.
Remark that t2 (the time of the collision) must be greater than 4 (the time of firing).
Take ~t = t2 -t1 and ~x > O, then show that the Lorentz transformation predicts
~t' is positive for every frame for which u < c. The collision cannot happen before
the firing in any frame moving at less than the speed of light.
5. Velocity transformation. Tell students that u representsthe velocity offrame S' relative
to S, v and v' represent thevelocity ofa particle, as measuredin S and S', respectively.
Divide the Lorentz equation for ~x' by the Lorentz equation for ~t' to show that the
x component of the particle velocity in S' is v~ = (vx -u)/(1 -uvx/c2). Show this
reduces to the Galilean transformation v~ = Vx -u for u « c. Take Vx = c and show
that v~ = c. If Vx < c then v~ < c for all frames moving at less than the speedof light.
Derive the transformation equations for the other components: v~ = vy/'Y(l- UVx/c2)
and v~ = vz/'Y(l -UVx/c2). Have students read or reread Section 4-6.
v. Relativistic momentum and energy.
A. Explain that the non-relativistic definition ofmomentum must be generalizedifmomentum
is to be conservedin collisions involving particles moving at high speeds. State that the
proper generalization is p = mv / J1 -v2 / c2. Remark that p is unbounded as the particle
speed approachesthe speedof light.
B. Remark that m/ J1 -v2/c2 is sometimesreferred to as the relativistic massofthe particle;
m is then called its rest mass and is representedby mo. In this text m is used for the rest
mass and is called simply the mass.
C. Remark that the definition of energy must be changed if the work-energy theorem is to
hold for particles at high speeds. State that the relativistically correct expressionfor the
energy of a free particle is E = mc2/ J 1 -v2 / c2.Take the limit as V/ c becomessmall
and show that E can then be approximated by mc2 + ~mv2. Thus the correct relativistic
.definition of the kinetic energy is K = E -mc2. Point out that the particle has energy
mc2 when it is at rest and remark that mc2 is called the rest energy.
D. Explain that rest mass and rest energy are not conservedin many interactions involving
fundamental particles but that total energy E is; rest energy can be converted to kinetic
energy and vice versa.
E. Derive E2 = (Pc)2 + (mc2)2 and explain that this expression replaces E = p2/2m (=
mv2/2). Remark that E = pc for a masslessparticle, such as a photon.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Postulates of special relativity: questions 4, 5, 6, and 7.
b. Time and length measurements: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 13 and 15;
exercises2, 4, and 5; problems 1 and 3.
c. Lorentz transformation: multiple-choice questions 5,6, and 7; exercises12, 13,23,24, and
d. Transformation of velocities: multiple-choice question 4; question 18; exercises6, 9, 15, 17,
and 19; problem 2.
e. Relativistic momentum and energy: multiple-choice questions 8, 9, and 10j questions 19
and 21; exercises29, 31, 34, 37, 41, and 42; problems 13, 15, and 17 or 18.
a. RelLab; Paul Horwitz, Edwin F; Taylor, and Kerry Shetlinej Apple; available from Physics
Academic Software, North Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-
0739. Show the coordinates and times of events, as measured in user-selectedreference

frames. Presents some relativity paradoxes that can be understood with the aid of the
program.
b. Spacetime;Edwin F. Taylorj Windows, Apple; available from Physics Academic Software
(seeabove for address). Shows a "spacetime highway" , on which objects in different lanes
move with different speeds. Showsthe corresponding spacetime diagram, on which events
are identified. All the clocks and rulers are also shown so the user can compare readings
in different frames.
Chapter 21 TEMPERATURE
BASIC TOPICS
I. The zeroth law of thermodynamics.
A. Explain that if two bodies, not in thermal equilibrium, are allowed to exchange energy
then they will do so and one or more of their macroscopicproperties will change. When no
further changestake place the bodies are in thermal equilibrium. Explain that two bodies
in thermal equilibrium are said to have the same temperature.
B. For gases the properties of interest include pressure, volume, internal energy, and the
quantity of matter. Other properties may be included in the list for other materials. The
quantity of matter may be given as the number of particles or as the number of moles.
C. Explain what is meant by diathermal and adiabatic walls and remark that diathermal walls
are used to obtain thermal contact without an exchangeof particles. Adiabatic walls are
used to thermally isolate a system.
D. State the zeroth law: ifbody A and body B are each in thermal equilibrium with body C,
then A is in thermal equilibrium with B. Discuss the significance of the zeroth law. State
that it is the basis for considering the temperature to be a property of an object. If it were
not true then, at best, an object might have a large number of temperatures, depending
on what other objects were in thermal equilibrium with it.
E. Explain that the temperature of a body is measured by measuring some property of a
thermometer in thermal equilibrium with it. mustrate by reminding students that the
length of the mercury column in an ordinary household thermometer is a measure of the
temperature. Explain that the zeroth law guarantees that the same temperature will be
obtained for two substancesin thermal equilibrium with each other .
II. Temperature measurements.
A. Define the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales. Give the relationships between the degreesizes
and the zero points. Give equations for conversionfrom one scale to another and give the
temperature value for the ice and steam points in each system. Use Fig. 21-3.
B. Define the Kelvin scaleand explain the Kelvin as a unit of temperature. Give the relation-
ship between the Celsius and Kelvin scales. Give the ice and steam points on the Kelvin
scale.
C. Mention that the value of the temperature obtained dependson the substanceused for the
thermometer and on the property measuredbut that several techniques exist that allow us
to define temperature independently of the thermometric substance and property.
D. Describe a constant-volume gas thermometer. If one is available, demonstrate its use. The
gas is placed in thermal contact with the substancewhose temperature is to be measured
and the pressure is adjusted so that the volume has some standard value (for that ther-
mometer).After corrections are made, the temperature is taken to be proportional to the
pressure: T = ap, where a is the constant of proportionality.
E. Describe the triple point of water and explain that water at the triple point is assignedthe
temperature T = 273.16K. Solve for a and show that T = 273.16(P/ptr).

F. Point out that thermometers using different gasesgive different values for the temperature
when used as described. Explain the limit used to obtain the ideal gas temperature. See
Fig. 21-5.
G. Explain that the thermodynamic or Kelvin scale is identical to the ideal gas scale for
temperatures above 1 K and can be extended to lower temperatures, for which gas ther-
mometers cannot be constructed.
III. Thermal expansion.
A. Describe linear expansion and define the coefficient of linear expansion: a = 6L / L6T .
Point out Table 21-3. Obtain a bimetallic strip and use both a bunsen burner and liq-
uid nitrogen (or dry ice) to show bending. Explain that these devices are often used in
thermostats.
B. Discuss area and volume expansion. Consider a plate and show that the coefficient of
area expansion is 2a. Consider a rectangular solid and show that the coefficient of volume
expansion is 3a. In each caseapply the equation for linear expansion to each dimension of
the object and find 6A or 6 V to first order in 6T .
C. Explain that the length of a scratch on the flat face of an object increasesas the temperature
increases. The area of a hole also increases. Carefully drill a 1/2 inch hole in a piece of
aluminum, roughly 1~ inch thick. Obtain a 13mm diameter steel ball bearing and place
it in the hole. It will not pass through. Heat the plate on a bunsen burner and the ball
passesthrough easily.
D. Demonstrate volume expansion of a gas using a flat
bottomed flask, a bulbed tube, a two hole stopper, and
somecolored water. Partially evacuatethe bulb so the
colored water stands in the tube somewhat above the
stopper. Place your hand on the bulb to warm the air
inside and the water in the tube drops in response.
IV. Ideal gases
A. Remark that if equal amounts of different gasesare
placed in containers of equal volume and the pressures
are measuredas functions of the temperature, the dif-
ferent gaseswill display different behaviors. However,
if the densities are small enough, the behaviors will be nearly the same. This limiting case
is called an ideal gas. Explain that model of an ideal gas consists of point particles that
interact with each other only via elastic collisions.
B. Define the mole. Define the Avogadro constant NA and give its value, 6.02 x 1023mol-l.
Explain the relationships between the mass of a molecule, the mass of the sample, the
molar mass, the number of moles, the number of molecules, and the Avogadro constant.
These often confuse students.
C. Write down the ideal gas equation of state in the form pV = nRT and in the form pV =
NkT. Here N is the number ofmolecules and n is the number ofmoles. Give the values of
R and k and state that k = R/NA. Explain that for real gasesat low densitypV/T is nearly
constant. Point out that the equation of state connects the thermodynamic variables n (or
N), p, V, and T.
D. Show Fig. 21-13 and explain how this device can be used to vary each ofthe macroscopic
quantities p, V, T, and N. Show how the device can be used to carry out several processes,
such as varying p while holding T and N constant and varying p while holding V and N
constant. In each case draw the corresponding curve on a p- V diagram. Also consider a
processin which N varies.
Lecture notes: ChaDter 21 77

SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Use Fig. 21-12 to discuss thermal expansion from a microscopic viewpoint. Point out the
importance oí the asymmetry in the potential energy function íor the interaction between two
molecules.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Temperature and temperature scales: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 8, 10,
and 19; exercises1, 7, and 11; problem 4.
b. Newton's law of cooling: problems 1 and 2.
c. Thermal expansion: multiple-choice questions 5, 7, and 8; questions 22, 24, 28, and 31;
exercises13, 14, 17,21,23,27,28, and 31; problems 6,7,8, and 13.
d. Ideal gas: multiple-choice questions 11 and 12; question 39; exercises36, 37, 43, and 44;
problems 16 and 18.
2. Demonstrations
a. Thermometers: Freier and Anderson Hal -4.
b. Thermal expansion: Freier and Anderson Ha5 -12.
ResourceLetters, Book Five; American Association of Physics Teachers, One Physics El-
lipse, College Pal"k, MD 20740-3845. Contains a resource letter on heat and thermody-
namics.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Heat and Temperature; Side B: Mechanics (n) and Heat of Cinema Classics; video disk;
available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Expansion Due to Heating; Demonstrations of Physics: Thermal Effects; VHS video tape
c. Temperature; VHS video tape (30 min); Fi1ms for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
d. The Thermal Expansion of Metals; VHS video tape (20 min); Fi1ms for the Humanities &
5. Computer Softwal"e
a. Thermodynamics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Softwal"e, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
b. ThermodynamicsLecture Demonstrations; Kurt Wick and Philip Johnson; Windows; avail-
able from Physics Academic Softwal"e, North Cal"olina State University, PO Box 8202,
Raleigh, NC 2769Q-{)739.Simulations of ten thermodynamic processes,including isochoric,
adiabatic, and isothermal processes,the Carnot cycle, and the Otto and diesel engines. The
processesal"ealso diagramed on p- V and T -S diagrams.
6. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 9-3: Linear Expansionand Bernard Experiment 18: Linear Coefficient
of Expansion of Metals. The length of a metal rod is measured at room temperature and
at loo°C (in a steam jacket), then the data is used to compute the coefficient of thermal
expansion. The experiment can be repeated for several different metals and the results
compared.

Chapter 22 MOLECULAR PROPERTIES OF GASES
BASIC TOPICS
I. Molecular description of an ideal gas.
A. Explain that kinetic theory treats the same type problems as thermodynamics but from
a microscopic viewpoint. It uses averagesover the motions of individual particles to find
macroscopic properties. Here it is used to clarify the microscopic basis of pressure and
temperature.
B. Go over the assumptions of kinetic theory for an ideal gas, as given in Section 2. Consider
a gas of molecules with only translational degreesof freedom. Assume the molecules are
small and are free except for collisions of negligible duration. Also assume collisions with
other molecules and with walls of the container are elastic. At the walls the moleculesare
specularly reflected.
C. Discuss a gas in a cubic container and explain that the pressure at the walls is due to
the force of molecules as they bounce off. By considering the change in momentum at the
wall per unit time, show that the pressure is given by p = iPv~ms. Define the rms speed.
Use Table 22-1 to give some numerical examples of v~msand calculate the corresponding
pressure. For many students the rms value of a quantity needs clarification. Consider a
system of 5 or so moleculesand select numerical values for their speeds,then calculate v~ms
numerically.
D. Substitute p = ipv~msinto the ideal gas equation of state and show that ~Mv~ms= ~RT,
where M is the molar mass. Show this can be written ~mv~ms= ~kT, where m is the
mass of a molecule. Remark that the left side is the mean kinetic energy of a molecule and
point out that the temperature is proportional to the mean kinetic energy.
E. Explain that the internal energy of an ideal gas is the sum of the kinetic energiesof the
molecules and write Eint = ~Nmv:ms = ~NkT = ~nRT. For an ideal gas the internal
energy is a nmction of temperature alone. This is an approximation for a real gas.
II. Mean free path.
A. This section will be important for the discussionof fusion reactors and you should cover it
if you intend to include the chapter on energy from the nucleus. It is also a good example
of the techniques of kinetic theory.
B. Define the mean free path as the averagedistance traveled by a molecule between collisions.
C. Consider the changedI in intensity of a beam of molecules as it passesthrough a thickness
dr of the system and argue that the exiting intensity is proportional to the incident intensity
and to the thickness: dI = -cI dr, where c is a constant. Integrate to find I = Ioe-cr. This
is a plausibility argument that f(r) dr = Ce-cr dr gives the probability that the distance
a molecule in the system travels between collisions is in the range from r to r + dr. C is
another constant and can be determined by requiring that Jooof(r) dr = 1. The mean free
path is given by A = Jooorf(r) dr = l/c. Show a plot of f(r) = Ce-r/A.
D. Supposeall the moleculesofa gasare identical and have diameter d. Take the concentration
of molecules to be Pn. Consider a molecule traveling with speed v and show that in time t
it will have collisions with 7rd2vtpnother molecules, if they are stationary. Argue that the
mean free path is A = 1/7r~ Pn. Explain that if the other molecules are moving the mean
free path is l/J27r~Pn.
E. Mention the values of the mean free path for various gases.For air at sealevel the mean free
path is about 0.1 J.Lm.At 100km it is about 16cm. In a fairly good laboratory "vacuum"
it is about 1 km.

III Molecular speed and energy distributions.
A. Remark that not all moleculesin a gas have the same speedbut that there is a distribution
of speeds. Also mention that molecules are moving in all directions.
B. Write down Eq. 22-14 for N(v) and draw a graph of the function. Remind students that
N(v) dv gives the number of molecules with speed between v and v + dv. Point out that
somemolecules have extremely high speeds. Remark that the number of molecules in the
gas is given by N = JoooN(v) dv.
C. Mention that external forces, such as gravity, were ignored in the derivation of N(v).
If gravity were included we would seethat the concentration of particles is greater at the
bottom of the vesselthan at the top but at all placesthere would be moleculesof all possible
speedsmoving in all directions, including upward. The gas fills the vessel. Explain that
evaporation occurs becausehigh speed molecules leave the system.
D. By superposing another graph on the one already drawn, show what happens to the dis-
tribution as the temperature increases. It broadens and the peak lowers and moves to a
greater speed.
E. Set the derivative of N(v) equal to zero and show that the most probable speed is given
by Vp = ,¡¡kT7m, where m is the molecular mass and k is the Boltzmann constant.
Remark that the averagespeedis givenby vav = (1/N) JooovN(v) dv and this is V8kT/7rm.
Remark that the mean square speed is given by (v2)av = (1/N)Jooov2N(v)dv and that
the root-mean-square speed is Vrms= ,fikT!ffl. You might show the students how to
obtain these results using a table of integrals. Remark that Vp < vav < Vrmsand show
the positions of these speedson the graph of N(v). Note that the inequalities are a result
of the asymmetrical nature of the function. Give values of the characteristic speedsfor
several values of the temperature and for several molecular masses.
F. Discuss the distribution of kinetic energies. First show that N(E) = N(v) dv/dE, where
N(E) dE gives the number of moleculeswith energy between E and E + dE, then derive
Eq. 22-25. Remark that N(E) is called the Maxwell-Boltzmann energy distribution for
moleculesin an ideal gas. Also remark that for classical systems the probability a particle
has energy E is proportional to e-E/kT, no matter what the form ofthe energy. The factor
in front, however, is different for different forms of energy. Explain that when quantum
mechanicsmust be used the distribution takes a different form.
G. Demonstrate molecular motion using a commercial demonstrator consisting of small pellets
activated by a vibrator. Changes in pressure and temperature can be simulated. Some
models allow you to project images of the moving pellets on the lecture-hall screen.
H. Discuss Brownian motion. Remark that small grains (pollen, for example) suspended
in a liquid move as if they were large-mass molecules. The motion can be seen with a
microscope and historically was strong evidence for the Maxwell-Boltzmann theory. Use
smoke or tiny dust particles in a glass chamber, suitably illuminated and magnified, to
construct a hallway demonstrations.
IV, Van der Waals equation of state.
A. The primary purpose of this section is to show a non-ideal gas equation of state. Even if
you do not cover the section in detail, remark that the van der Waals equation of state
is more realistic than the ideal gas law because it takes into account the finite sizes of
molecules and the forces of interaction between them.
B. Write down the van der Waals equation of state and note the constants a and b in Eq. 22-
33. Explain the equation qualitatively by saying the effective pressure is greater than the
true pressure p and the effective volume is less than the true volume V. Note that the
equation becomesthe ideal gasequation of state when the molecular concentration is small.
C. Draw an isotherm for a van der Waals gas on a p- V diagram and compare it to an ideal

gas isotherm for the same temperature. Note the minimum.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
futermolecular forces. The potential energy of interaction for two molecules is used to discuss
intermolecular forces. This helps distinguish between a solid, liquid, and gas and shows how
the ideal gas assumptions come about at low density. Use this section to broaden the courseif
there is time.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Molecular description of an ideal gas: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; questions 2, 4,
and 14; exercises2, 5, 6, and 7; problems 1, 2, and 3.
b. Mean free path: multiple-choice questions 5 and 6; questions 17 and 21; exercises9 and
c. Distribution of molecular speeds: multiple..choice questions 9, 10, and 11; questions 6 and
24; exercises15, 16, 23, and 27; problem 9.
d. Distribution of molecular energies: exercises29 and 30.
2. Demonstrations
Kinetic theory models: Freier and Anderson In11, 2,4, 5.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Boyle's Law, Equipartition of Energy, Maxwellian SpeedDistribution, Random Walk and
Brownian Motion, Diffusion, Gas DijJusion Rates; from AAPT collection 2 of single..
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-
1768.
b. Gas Laws; Side B: Mechanics (II) and Heat of Cinema Classics;video disk; available from
.Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Temperature and Kinetic Theory; Physics Experiments; VHS video tape (15 min); Films
for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
a. Thermodynamics Lecture Demonstrations. See Chapter 19 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Thermodynamics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
5. Laboratory
a. Bernard Experiment 17: Pressure and Volume Relations for a Gas. The volume of gas in a
tube is adjusted by changing the amount ofmercury in the tube and a U-tube manometer is
used to measurepressure. A logarithmic plot is used to determine the relationship between
pressure and volume.
b. Meiners Experiment 9-8: Kinetic Theory Model. The Fisher kinetic theory apparatus,
consisting of a large piston-fitted tube of small plastic balls, is used to investigate relation-
ships between pressure, temperature, and volume for a gas. A variable-speed impeller at
the base allows changesin the averagekinetic energy of the balls; the piston can be loaded
to changethe pressure. A variety of experiments can be performed.
Lecture notes: Cha.pter22 81

Chapter 23 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Heat.
A. Explain that when thermal contact is made between two bodies at different temperat1ll'es,
a net flow of energy takes place from the higher temperature body to the lower temperat1ll'e
body. The temperat1ll'e of the hotter body decreases,the temperat1ll'e of the cooler body
increases, and the net flow continues until the temperat1ll'es are the same. Energy also
flows from warmer to cooler regions of the same body. State that heat is energy that is
transferred because of a temperat1ll'e difference. Distinguish between heat and internal
energy. Emphasize that the idea of a body having heat content is not. meaningfu1. A1so
emphasize that heat is not a new form of energy. The energy transferred may be the
kinetic energy of moleculesor the energy in an electromagnetic wave. Examples: a bunsen
burner flame, radiation across a vacuum. State that heat is usually meas1ll'edin Joules
but calories and British thermal units are also used. 1 kcal = 3.969Btu = 4187J. Remark
that the unit used in nutrition, a Calorie (capitalized) is 1 kcal.
B. Remind students ofthe energy equation studied in Chapter 13: t1K +t1U +t1Eint = W +Q.
Tell them that for the systems consideredhere there are no changesin macroscopickinetic
or potential energy. Processesconsidered change only the internal energy. Write t1Eint =
W + Q. Remind students that t1Eint is the change in mechanical energy (kinetic and
potential energy) of all the particles that make up the system.
C. Stress the sign convention for heat absorbed and work done as the system goes from one
thermodynamic state to another. Each is positive if energy is absorbed by the system.
D. Stress that heat and work are alternate means of
transferring energy and explain that, for exam-
,J
ple, temperat1ll'e changes can be brought about tube
by both heat and mechanical work. To demon-
strate this, connect a brass tube, fitted with a o
rubber stopper, to a motor as shown. Make a
wooden brake or clamp which fits tightly around
the tube. Put a few drops of water into the tube, I Lr\ I clam -
start the motor, and exert pressure on the tube I~ I b kp
with the clamp. Soon the stopper will fly off. ra e
Note that mechanical work was done and steam
was produced.
II .Transfer of heat.
A. Explain that steady state heat flow can be obtained if both ends of a slab are held at
different temperat1ll'es. Define the thermal conductivity k of the material using H =
-kAdT/dx for a slab ofuniform crosssection A. Here H is the rateofheat flow. Emphasize
that the negative sign appearsbecauseheat flows from hot to cold. Stressthat H and T are
constant in time in the steady state. Explain that H = kA(TH -TG) / L for a uniform bar
oflength L, with the cold end held at temperat1ll'eTG and the hot end held at temperat1ll'e
TH.
B. A demonstration that shows both thermal conductivity and heat capacity can be con-
structed from three rods of the same size, one made of aluminum, one made of iron, and
one made of glass. Use red wax to attach small ball bearings at regular intervals along
each rod. Clamp the rods so that each has one end just over a bunsen b1ll'ner. The rate
at which the wax melts and the ball bearings drop off is mostly dictated by the thermal
conductivity of the rods, but it is influenced a bit by the specific heats.
82 Lecture notes: ChaDter 23

C. For a practical discussion, introduce the idea of R value and discuss home insulation.
Consider a compound slab.
D. Qualitatively discuss radiation as a means of energy transfer. Place a heating element at
the focal point of one spherical reflector and some matches, stuck m a cork, at the focal
point of the another. Place the reflectors several meters apart and adjust the positions so
that the heater is imaged at the matches. Use a 1 kW or so heater. The matcheswill ignite
in about a minute.
III.Heat, work, and the first law of thermodynamics.
A. Describe a gas in a cylinder fitted with a piston. Remind students that as the piston moves
the gas volume changesand the piston does work W = -f p dV on the gas. Explain that
when heat enters the cylinder the gas exchangesenergy with its environment through both
work and heat.
B. Draw a p-V diagram (such as Fig. 23-14) and mark initial and final states, with Vf > Vi.
Explain that p and V are thermodynamic state variables and have definite, well defined
values for a given thermodynamic state. They can be used to specify the state. Point
out there are many paths from the initial to the final state. Define the term "quasi-
static process" and explain that the various paths on the diagram represent quasi-static
processes,for which the system is infinitesimally closeto equilibrium states. Point out that
for different paths p is a different Í1U1ctionof V and different amounts of work are done
by the gas. Also explain that different amounts of heat are transferred for different paths.
Work and heat are not thermodynamic state variables.
D. Explain that Q + W is independent of path and that the internal energy is a state Í1U1ction.
6.Eint is the same for any two selected states regardlessof the path used to get from one
to the other. Stress that the first law 6.Eint = Q + W is an expressionof the conservation
of energy.
IV. Heát capacity.
A. Define the heat capacity of a body as the amount of heat absorbed per degreeof temper-
ature change: for a small temperature change C = Q / 6.T .Point out that it dependson
the temperature and on the constraints imposed during the transfer. The heat capacity at
constant volume is different from the heat capacity at constant pressure becausenegative
work is done on the system when the temperature is increased at constant pressure. More
heat is therefore required to obtain the same increasein internal energy and temperature.
B. Point out that the heat capacity depends on the amount of material. Define the specific
heat c and that it is independent of the amount of material. Point out Table 23-2.
C. Do a simple calorimetric calculation (see Sample Problem 23-3). Stress the Í1U1damental
idea: the heat that leaves one body enters another, so the sum of the heats absorbed by
all objects in a closed system vanishes.
D. Explain that energy must be transferred to or from a body when it changesphase (liquid
to gas, etc.) .The energy per unit mass is called the heat of transformation or latent heat.
Point out Table 23-3. If time permits work a calorimetric problem that involves a change
in phase.
v. Work.
A. Explain that the environment does work on a gas if the volume of the gas changes. Point
out that the work is positive if the gas contracts and negative if it expands. Use the
device of Fig. 21-13 to illustratej when the piston moves downward the volume of the gas
decreasesand the piston does positive work on the gas. Remark that we consider only
changesthat take place slowly enough that the gas is essentially in equilibrium throughout
the change. Also remark that there are many ways of getting from a given initial volume
to a given final volume, depending on how the pressure and temperature change during

the process. mustrate some processeswith a p- V diagram.
B. U sethe definition of work to show that the work done on the gas is given by W = -J p dV,
where the lower limit is the initial volume Vi and the upper limit is the final volume Vf.
Explain that the functional dependenceof p on V must be substituted into the integrand
and that this is different for different processes.
C. Derive expressionsfor the work done in isobaric, isothermal, and adiabatic processes.In
the last caseyou will need to postulate pV'Y = constant. Explain that ; can be taken as a
constant for a given gas and that its significance will be explained later .
VI. Internal energy and equipartition of energy.
A. Argue that the only internal energy a monatomic ideal gas can have is the translational
kinetic energy of its molecules, so Eint = ~nMv:ms. Use the previously derived result to
show this is ~nRT (= ~NkT). Remark that the internal energy ofan ideal gasdependsonly
on the temperature ( and number of particles) , not the pressure and volume. Emphasize
that the velocities used in computing the internal kinetic energy are measured relative
to the center of mass and that the internal energy does not include the kinetic energy
associatedwith motion of the system as a whole.
B. Point out that if adiabatic work W is done on the gas the internal energy increasesby W
and the temperature increasesby ~T = 2W/3nR.
C. Point out that the values of ~T obtained above are close to experimental values for
monatomic gasesbut are too high for gasesof diatomic and polyatomic molecules. Draw
diagrams of these types of molecules and explain that they have two and three degrees
of rotational freedom, respectively. Some of the energy goes into motions other than the
translational motion of the molecules. Define the term degreeof freedom and show how to
count the number for monatomic, diatomic and polyatomic molecules.
D. State the equipartition theorem: the energy is distributed equally among all degreesof
freedom, with each receiving ~kT. Point out that this agreeswith the previous result for
monatomic gases: there are three degreesof freedom per molecule and an energy of ~kT
is associatedwith each.
E. Discuss diatomic molecules and explain there are 2 new degreesof freedom, rotational in
nature. Show that Eint = ~nRT = ~NkT.
F. Discuss polyatomic molecules. State that there are now 3 rotational degreesof freedom
and show that Eint = 3nRT = 3NkT.
G. Explain that vibrational motions may also contribute to the internal energy and that, since
a vibration has both kinetic and potential energy, there are two degreesof freedom and
energy kT associatedwith each vibrational mode. Explain that, in fact, vibrational modes
generally do not contribute to the internal energy except at high temperatures. Quantum
mechanicsis required to explain why vibrational modes are frozen out.
H. Define the molar heat capacity.
I. Show that the molar heat capacities of an ideal gas are related by Cp = Cv + R and derive
the formulas for the molar heat capacities at constant volume and at constant pressurefor
monatomic, diatomic, and polyatomic ideal gases. Use equations previously derived for
~Eint to obtain expressionsfor Cv. Then use Cp = Cv + R to obtain expressionsfor Cp.
J. A1soobtain expressionsfor ; = Cp/Cv. Point out these are independent of T.
K. (Optional) Discuss the heat capacities of a solid and explain qualitatively why they even-
tually decreaseas the temperature is lowered.
v Applications of the first law.
A. Adiabatic process. Explain that Q = Oand ~Eint = W. As an example, consider a gasin a
thermally insulated cylinder and allow the volume to changeby moving the piston. Explain
that when the internal energy increasesthe temperature goesup for most materials. This

can be acl1ieved by compressing the gas. The opposite occurs when the piston is pu1led out.
Stress that no heat has been excl1anged. mustrate an adiabatic process on a p- V diagram.
Derive pV'Y = constant for an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic quasi-static process. Also
remind students that the work is given by W = (PfVf -PiVi)/("Y -1).
B. Isothermal process. Remind students that the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only
on the temperature, not the volume or pressure. Thus ó.Eint = O and Q + W = O for an
isothermal process. Consider the isothermal expansion of an ideal gas and remind students
ofthe expression previously derived for the work.
C. Constant volume process. Explain that ó.Eint = Q since W = O. mustrate on a p-
V diagram. Assume the initial and final pressures are given for an ideal gas and show
students how to compute the initial and final temperatures, the cl1ange in the internal
energy, and the heat absorbed.
D. Isobaric process. Explain that W = -p(V f -Vi ) and Q = mcpÓ.T for a quasi-static isobaric
process. If the cl1angesin temperature and volume are both known ó.Eint = mCpÓ.T-pÓ. V
can be used to find the cl1ange in internal energy, provided no phase change takes place.
For a change in phase, show that ó.Eint = mL -pÓ. V. mustrate the two processes on a
P- V diagram.
E. Describe adiabatic free expansion and note that ó.Eint = 0. Explain that this process is
not quasi-static and cannot be shown on a P- V diagram. The end points, however, are well
defined thermodynamic states and are points on a P- V diagram. Remark that there is no
temperature change for the adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas.
F. Cyclical process. Explain that all state variables return to their original values at the end
of each cycle and, in particular , ó.Eint = 0. Thus Q = -W. mustrate on a P- V diagram.
For later reference stress that heat may be absorbed and work done during a cyclic process.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments.
a. Heat transfer: multiple-choice questions 1,2, and 3; questions 10 and 39; exercises2, 5, 7,
b. First law of thermodynamics: multiple-choice question 4; questions 4 and 30; exercises10
and 11.
c. Heat capacity, specific heat, and heats of transformation: multiple-choice questions 6 and
7; exercises14, 15, 18, and 22; problems 6, 8, and 9.
d. Work: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; exercises25, 26, and 29.
e. Internal energy: multiple-choice question 10; question 2; exercises33 and 34; problem 16.
f. Ideal gas heat capacities: multiple-choice question 11; question 24; exercises36, 37, and
39.
g. Applications of the first law: multiple-choice question 13; question 42; exercises40, 41, 42,
45, and 48; problems 18, 19, and 20.
2. Demonstrations.
a. Heat capacity and calorimetry: Freier and Anderson Hbl, 2.
b. Work and heat: Freier and Anderson Hel -6.
c. Heat transfer: Freier and Anderson Hc, Hdl -7, Hf.
d. p- V relations: Freier and Anderson Hgl -3.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Heat of FUsion; Demonstrations ofPhysics: Thermal Effects; VHS video tape (6:14); Media
b. Heat; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,

c. Heat and Energy Systems; VHS video tape (15 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences
d. The Conduction of Heatj VHS video tape (15 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
e. The Convection of Heat; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
Physics Vol. 6: Thermodynamics, Cross Educational Software, P.O. Box 1536, Ruston, LA
71270. Apple II. Thtorial programs on calorimetry, p-V, p-T, and V-T diagrams, thermody-
namic cycles, heat engines, and molecular motion. Reviewed TPT April1985.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 9-1: Calorimetry -Specific Heat and Latent Heat of F'usion. Students
use a calorimeter to find the specific heat of water and a metal sample. They also measure
the latent heat of fusion of ice. Sincethe specific heat of the stirring rod and the calorimeter
must be taken into account, this is a good exercisein experimental design.
b. Meiners Experiment 9-2: Calorimetry -Mechanical Equivalent of Heat and Bernard
Experiment 30: The Heating Effect of an Electric Current. A calorimeter is used to find
the relationship between the energy dissipated by a resistive heating element and the
temperature rise of the water in which it is immersed. Students múst accept p = i2 R for
the power output of the heating element. With slight revision these experiments can also
be used in conjunction with Chapter 32.
c. Bernard Experiment 19: Specific Heat and Tempemture of a Hot Body. A calorimeter is
used to obtain the specific heat of metal pellets. In a second part, a calorimeter and a
metal sample with a known specific heat are used to find the temperature of a Bunsen
burner flame.
d. Bernard Experiment 20: Change of Phase -Heat of Pusion and Heat of Vaporization.
A calorimeter is used to measure the heat of fusion and heat of vaporization of water. If
the lab period is long or writeups are done outside of lab, experiments 19 and 20 may be
combined nicely.
e. Meiners Experiment 9-6: Calorimetry Experiments (with a microprocessor).
f. Meiners Experiment 9-4: Thermal Conductivity. The sample is sandwiched between a
thermal reservoir and a copper block. The rate at which energy passesthrough the sampleis
found by measuring the rate at which the temperature ofthe copper increases. Temperature
is monitored by means of a thermocouple.
g. Meiners Experiment 9-5: Thermal Conductivity with Microprocessor.
Chapter 24 ENTROPY AND THE SECOND LAW

OF THERMODYNAMICS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Entropy.
A. Distinguish between reversible and irreversible processes.Remark that reversible processes
are quasi-static but not all quasi-static processesare reversible ( i. e. quasi-static processes
involving friction) .Also mention that íor a gas the path oí a reversible process can be
plotted on a p- V diagram. As examples consider reversible and irreversible compressions
oí an ideal gas.
B. Define the entropy difference between two infinitesimally close equilibrium states as dS =
dQ/T and between any two equilibrium states as ~S = J dQ /T .Explain that the integral

is independent of path and that S is therefore a thermodynamic state Í1U1ction. Stress
that a reversible path must be used to evaluate the integral but that entropy differences
are defined regardless of whether the actual process is reversible or irreversible. The end
points must be equilibrium states, however.
C- Derive expressions for the change in entropy for an ideal gas undergoing processesat
constant volume (nCvln(Tf/Ti)), constant pressure (nCpln(Tf/Ti)), and constant tem-
perature (nRln(Vf/Vi))-
D- Consider the adiabatic free expansion of an ideal gas. Point out that the process is ir-
reversible, Q = O, and ~Eint = 0. Since the gas is ideal, Tf = Ti- Find the change
in entropy by evaluating J dQ/T over a reversible isotherm through the initial and final
states. Point out that the isothermal path does not represent the actual process. Show
that ~S = nRln(Vf/Vi) and state this is positive.
E- Consider two identical rigid containers of ideal gas, at different temperatures, TH and
TL- Place them in contact in an adiabatic enclosure- Show they reach equilibrium at
temperature Tm = (TH+TL)/2. Then, consider a reversible, constant volume processthat
connects the initial and final states and show that ~S = Cv ln(T~/THTL). Remark that
this is positive-
II. The secondlaw of thermodynamics.
A- State the secondlaw: for processesthat proceed from an initial equilibrium state to a final
equilibrium state the total entropy of a closed system (or a system and its environment)
does not decrease.State that if the processis reversible the total entropy does not change
and if the processis irreversible it increases. Point out that the previous two examplesare
consistent with this statement-
B. Stress that the entropy change of the environment must be included. The entropy of a
system can decreasebut if it does the entropy of its environment increasesby at least as
much.
C- Remark that for reversible processesthe total entropy of the system and its environment
.doesnot change because,for the combination of system and environment, the processis
adiabatic and dQ = 0 for each segmentof the reversible path. On the other hand, entropy
increasesfor an adiabatic irreversible process-
III. Engines and refrigerators-
A- Discuss heat engines and refrigerators in general, from the point of view of the first law
only- Explain that they run in cycles and that an engine absorbs energy as heat at a
high temperature, rejects energy as heat at a low temperature, and does work- Describe
a refrigerator in similar terms. Define the efficiency of an engine and the coefficient of
performance of a refrigerator. Remark that heat enginesand refrigerators may be reversible
or irreversible-
B. Remind students that a cycle is a processfor which the system starts and ends in the same
equilibrium state and that ~Eint = 0, ~p = 0, ~T = 0, ~ V = 0, and ~S = 0 for a cycle.
C. As an example, consider a gas undergoing a reversible cycle consisting of two isothermal
processesat different temperatures and linked by two adiabatic processes(a Carnot cycle).
lliustrate with a p- V diagram. Mention that, when run as a heat engine, energy enters the
gas as heat during the isothermal expansion that energy leavesthe gas as heat during the
isothermal compression-
D- Over a cycle the change in the entropy of the working substance is zero, the change in
the entropy of the high-temperature reservoir is -Q H /TH , and the change in entropy
of the low temperature reservoir is -QL/TL. Thus, the change in the total entropy of
the system and its environment is ~S = -(QL/TL) -(QH /TH ). Since the process is
reversible this must be zero- So QL/QH = -TL/TH and the efficiency of the engine is

t: = W/QH = (QH + QL)/QH = 1- (TL/TH ). You may prefer to write these equations in
terms of the absolute magnitudes of the quantities involved.
E. Remark that the efficiency is independent of the working substance. Also remark that
no engine, even if it is reversible, has a greater efficiency than a Carnot engine operating
between the same two reservoirs. The efficiencies of real engines, which are of necessity
irreversible, are less.
F. Show that the secondlaw forbids an engine with zero heat output. In particular, observe
that the total entropy of the engine and reservoirs decreasesif IQLI < IQHITL/TH and
that this violates the secondlaw.
G. Say that if the process is irreversible the total entropy must increase, so IQLI/TL >
IQHI/TH and the efficiency must be less than the ideal efficiency.
H. Carry out a similar analysis for a Carnot refrigerator. Show that the coefficient of perfor-
mance is given by K = TL/(TH -TL), independently ofthe working substance. State that
no refrigerators, reversible or not, have lower coefficients for the same reservoirs. Use an
entropy argument to show that the secondlaw forbids a refrigerator that operates with no
work input.
IV. The statistical basis of entropy.
A. Explain that for any system composed of many molecules, there are many possible ar-
rangements of the molecules. lllustrate by considering a small collection of moleculesin a
box. Say that each possible arrangement is called a microstate and that microstates can
be grouped into configurations such that all the microstates in a given configuration are
macroscopicallyequivalent. That is, the system has the same macroscopic properties. Use
the molecules in the box to illustrate two equivalent and two non-equivalent microstates.
State that the number of microstates associatedwith a configuration is called the multi-
plicity of the configuration.
B. Say that the fundamental assumption of statistical mechanics is that the system has the
sameprobability of being in any microstate. Thus, the most likely configuration is the one
wjth the largest multiplicity.
C. Show that if there are N moleculesin the box, with nR in the right half and nL in the left
half, the multiplicity is W = N!/(nR!)(nL!).
D, Say that the entropy of a system when it has a given configuration is given by S = k ln W,
where W is the multiplicity of the configuration and k is the Boltzmann constant.
E. Use the statistical definition ofentropy to show that the entropy changesby ~S = nRln2
when the volume available to the moleculesin the box is suddenly doubled. You will need
to use Stirling's approximation (lnN! ~ NlnN -N).
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Definition of entropy: multiple-cl1oice question 2; questions 3 and 8; exercises 1, 2, 3, and
4; problems 1 and 4 or 5.
b. Entropy cl1anges for irreversible processes: multiple-cl1oice question 3; exercises 8 and 9;
problems 2 and 6.
c. Second law of thermodynamics: multiple-cl1oice question 4; questions 21, 23, and 26;
exercises 10 and 11.
d. Heat engines: multiple-cl1oice question 5; exercises 13, 17, and 18; problem 9.
e. Refrigerators: multiple-cl1oice question 6; question 9; exercises 23, 25, 27, 30, and 33.
f. Efficiencies of engines: multiple-choice questions 7 and 8; questions 16 and 17; exercises 22
and 23; problem 10.
g. Statistical view of entropy: multiple-cl1oice questions 10 and 11; exercise 35.

2. Demonstrations
Engines: Freier and Anderson Hm5, Hn.
3. Audio/Visual
Entropy; Physics Demonstrations in Heat, Part III; VHS video tape; ~3 min; Physics
Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville" MN 55044.
a. Thermodynamics Lecture Demonstrations. See Chapter 21 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Thermodynamics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Chapter 25 ELECTRIC CHARGE

AND COULOMB'S LAW
BASIC TOPICS
I. Charge.
A. Explain that there are two kinds of charge, called positive and negative, and that like
charges repel each other, lllllike charges attract each other. Give the SI unit (coulomb)
and explain that it is defined in terms of current, to be discussedlater. Optional: explain
that current is the flow of charge and is measured in amperes. One coulomb of charge
passesa cross section each secondin a wire carrying a steady current of 1 A.
B. Carry out the following sequenceof demonstrations. They work best in dry weather.
1. Suspend a pith ball by a string. Charge a rubber rod by rubbing it with fur , then
hold the rod near the pith ball. The ball is attracted, touches the rod, then flies away
after a short time. Use the rod to push the ball around without touching it. Explain
that the rod and ball carry the same type charge. Hold the fur near the pith ball and
explain that they are oppositely charged.
2. Repeat using a secondpith ball and a wooden rod charged by rubbing it on a plastic
sheet (this replacesthe traditional glassrod -silk combination and works much better).
Place the two pith balls near each other and explain they are oppositely charged.
3. Suspend a charged rubber rod by a string. Use another charged rubber rod to push
it around without touching it. Similarly, pull it with the charged wooden rod. Also
show that only the rubbed end of the rubber rod is charged.
II. Quantization of charge.
A. State that all measured charge is an integer multiple of the elementary charge e: q = ne.
Give the value of e: 1.60 x 10-19 C. State that the charge on the proton is +e, the charge
on the electron is -e, and the neutron is neutral.
B. Remark that macroscopic objects are normally neutral; they have the same number of
protons as electrons. Stress that the word "neutral" describes the algebraic sum of the
charges and does not indicate the absenceof charged particles. Remark that when an
object is charged the charge imbalance is usually slight but significant. Go over Sample
Problem 25-1.
III. Conductors and insulators.
A. Explain the difference between a conductor and an insulator as far as the conduction
of charge is concerned. Explain that excess charge on a conductor is free to move and
generally does so when influenced by the electric force of other charges. Under static
conditions, excesscharge on a conductor is distributed so the net force on any of it is zero.
On the other hand, any excesscharge on an insulator does not move far from the place

where it is deposited. Remind students of the demonstration which showedthat only the
rubbed end of the rubber rod remains charged. Metals are conductors. The rubber rod is
an insulator. Mention semiconductors and superconductors.
B. Use an electroscopeto demonstrate the conducting properties of conductors. Charge the
electroscopeby contact with a chargedrubber rod and explain why the leavesdiverge. Dis-
charge it by touching the top with your hand. Explain why the leaves converge. Recharge
the electroscopewith a charged wooden rod, then bring the charged rubber rod near the
electroscope, but do not let it touch. Note the decreasein deflection and explain this
by pointing out the attraction of the charge on the rod for the charge on the leaves.
Throughout, emphasizethe motion of the charge through the metalleaves and stem of the
electroscope.
C. Demonstrate charging by induction. Bring a charged rubber rod near to but not touching
an uncharged electroscope. Touch your finger to the electroscope,then remove it. Remove
the rubber rod and note the deflection of the leaves. Bring the rubber rod near again
and note the decreasein deflection. Observe that the electroscopeand rod are oppositely
charged. Confirm this with the wooden rod. Explain the process.
D. Explain polarization in an insulator by saying that an external charge causesthe electron
distribution to shift slightly (less than the diameter of an atom) .State that this always
results in attraction.
E. Touch a grounded wire to several places within a small area of a wall. Rub a balloon with
fur and place it in contact with that area. Run a plastic comb through your hair and use
it to pick up small pieces of paper. Remark that the wall and paper are neutral but that
charge on the balloon and comb causepolarization and attraction.
IV. Coulomb's law.
A. Assert that experimental evidence convinces us that there are only two kinds of cha;rge
and that the force between a pair of chargesis along the line joining them, has magnitude
proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the chargesand is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. F\1rther, the force is attractive for un1ike
chargesand repulsive for like charges.
B. Write down Coulomb's law and include a unit vector along the line joining the cha;rges.
Give the SI value for EOand for 1/47rEo.Stressthat the law holds for point charges. Note in
detail that the mathematical form of the law contains all the qualitative features discussed
previously. If Chapter 14 was covered,point out the similarity with Newton 's law of gravity
and mention that, unlike charge, there is no negative mass.
C. Explain that a superposition law holds for electric forces and illustrate by finding the
resultant force on a charge due to two other charges.
D. State the two shell theorems (perhaps using an analogy with the gravitational case):
1. The force exerted by a uniform spherical shell of cha;rgeon a point charge outside is
the same as the force that would be exerted on the point charge if all the chargeof the
shell were placed at its center.
2. The force exerted by a uniform spherical shell of charge on a point charge inside is
zero.
v. Continuous distributions of charge.
A. As an introduction, go over the ideas of linear, area, and volume charge densities. Graphi-
cally show how a line of charge is divided into infinitesimal segmentsand point out that a
segment of length ds contains charge dq = ). ds. Explain that for purposes of calculating
electrical forces each segment can be treated as a point charge and that the fields of all
segmentsare summed vectorially to find the total field.

B. Derive an expression for the force exerted by a uniform ring of cl1argeon a point cl1arge
located on its axis of cylindrical symmetry. Carefully explain how the integral is set up
and how the vector nature of the force is taken into account by dealing with components.
Explain in detail the symmetry argument used to show the force is along the axis.
C. Extend the calculation to find an expression for the force exerted by a uniformly cl1arged
disk on a point cl1argelocated on its axis of cylindrical symmetry. Allow the radius of
the disk to become infinite and find an expressionfor the force exerted by a uniform sheet
of cl1argeon a point cl1arge. Remark that the force is perpendicular to the sheet and is
independent of the distance from the sheet to the point cl1arge. This will be useful later
when parallel-plate capacitors are studied.
VI. Conservation of cl1arge.
A. State that charge is conservedin the sensethat for a closed system the sum of all cl1arge
before an event or process is the same as the sum after the event or process. Stress that
the cl1argesin the sum must have appropriate signs. Example: rubbing a rubber rod with
fur .The rod and fur are oppositely cl1argedafterwards and the magnitude of the cl1arge
is the same on both.
B. Also discuss the conservation of cl1argein the annihilation and creation of fundamental
particles and note that the identity of the particles may cl1angein an event but cl1argeis
still conserved. Examples: beta decay, electron-positron annihilation.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Electric charge: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 1, 2, and 5; exercise 1.
b. Conductors and insulators: multiple-choice questions 5, 6, and 7; questions 13 and 14.
c. Coulomb's law: multiple-choice questions 8 and 10; question 24; exercises4, 5, 6, and 8;
problems 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 11.
d. .Continuous charge distributions: multiple-choice question 12; exercises16 and 19.
e. Conservation of charge: multiple-choice question 14; exercises21,26, and 31.
2. Demonstrations
a. Charging, electroscopes:Freier and Anderson Eal, 2, 11.
b. Electric force: Freier and Anderson Ea5, 6, 8, 12, 15, 17, Eb3, 4, 9, 10, 12, Ec4 -6.
c. Induction: Freier and Anderson Ea12, 13, 14.
Teaching about Electrostatics; by Robert A. Morse; available from AAPT, One Physics
Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845. Describes reliable and inexpensive apparatus for
demonstrations and student activities.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Electrostatics; Side D: Waves (II} & Electricity and Magnetism of Cinema Classics;video
disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Static Electricity; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS video tape
(7:12); Media Design Associates,Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
c. Electrostatic Generators; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS
video tape (10:54); Media Design Associates, Inc. (see above for address).
d. Electrostatics 1; VHS video tape (21 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
e. Electrostatics 2; VHS video tape (21 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove
for address).
f. Conductors and Insulators; Electricity; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities
& Sciences(see above for address).

g. Charging and Discharging; Electricity; VHS video tape (10 min); FilIns for the Humanities
h. Charging by Induction; VHS video tape (10 min); FilIns for the Humanities & Sciences
i. Electrostatics; Isolation of Charges;Physics Demonstrations in Electricity and Magnetism,
Part I; VHS video tape; F::j3min each; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585Woodhill
Electric Field Hockey; Ruth W. Chabay; Windows, Apple; available fromPhysics Academic
Software, North Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739. The
user tries to scorea goal by placing stationary chargesso they guide a charged puck around
obstacles and into the net. The force on the puck can be shown as the puck moves.
6. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 10-2: The Electrostatic Balance. A coulomb torsional balance is used
to find the functional relationship between the electrostatic force of one small charged ball
on another and the separation of balls. An electrostatic generator is used to charge the
balls.
Chapter 26 THE ELECTRIC FIELD
BASIC TOPICS
I. The electric field.
A. Use a fluid to introduce the idea of a field. The temperature of the fluid T(x, y, z, t) is an
example of a scalar field and the velocity v(x, y, z, t) is an example of a vector field. Point
out that these functions give the temperature and velocity at the place and time specified
by the dependent variables.
B. Explain that chargesmay be thought to create an electric field at all points in space and
that the field exerts a force on another charge, if present. The important questions to be
answered are: given the charge distribution what is the field? given the field what is the
force on a charge?
C. Consider two point chargesand remark that each creates a field and that the field of either
one exerts a force on the other. Explain that the two together produce a field that is the
superposition of the individual fields and that this field exerts a force on a third charge,if
present.
D. Define the field at any point as the force per unit charge on a positive test charge at the
point, in the limit of a vanishingly small test charge. Mention that the limiting process
eliminates the influence of the test charge on the charge creating the field. SI units: N/C.
E. Use Coulomb's law to obtain the expression for the field of a point charge. Explain that
the field of a collection of chargesis the vector sum of the individual fields.
II. Calculation of the electric field.
A. Remind the students of the field of a point charge. Include the unit vector radially outward
from the charge. Also remind them that the total field is the vector sum of the individual
fields of the charge being considered.
B. Derive an expressionfor the field of an electric dipole by considering the field of two charges
with equal magnitudes and opposite signs. Consider a field point on a lin~ perpendicular
to the dipole moment, on a line along the dipole moment, or a general point. Evaluate the
expression in the limit of vanishingly small separation and finite dipole moment. Define

the dipole moment and stress that it points from the negative toward the positive charge.
Point out that the field is proportional to 1/r3 for points far from the dipole.
C. Consider a small set of discrete charges and calculate the electric field by evaluating the
vector sum of the individual fields. Example: the field at the center of a squarewith various
chargeson its corners.
D. Consider the charge distributions discussedin Chapter 25: a uniform ring of charge, a
uniform disk of charge, and a uniform sheet of charge. In each casewrite the expression
for the force exerted on a point charge qo, then divide by qo to obtain an expressionfor
the field at a point on the axis of the distribution.
III. Field lines.
A. Explain that field lines are useful for visualizing the field. Draw field lines for a point
charge and explain that, in general, the field at any point is tangent to the line through
that point and that the magnitude of the field is proportional to the number of lines per
unit area that cut a surface perpendicular to the lines.
B. By considering a spherearound a point charge and calculating the number of lines per unit
area through the sphere, show that the 1/r2 law allows us to associatelines with a charge
and to take the number of lines to be proportional to the charge. Explain that lines can
be thought of as directed, that they originate at positive charge and terminate at negative
charge.
C. Field lines can be illustrated by floating somelong seedsin trans-
former oil in a shallow, flat bottomed dish. Place two metal plates
in the line
seeds dishup
and connect
along themlines.
the field to anYou
electrostatic
can placegenerator. The
the apparatus II -see~
~ --I) -I I
on an overhead projector and shadow project the seeds.

IV .Motion of a charge in an electric field. --
A. Point out that the electric force on a chargeis qE and explain that the electric field usedis
that due to all other charges(except q) .Substitute the force into Newton 's secondlaw and
remind the students that once the acceleration and initial conditions are known, kinematics
can be used to find the subsequentmotion of the charge.
B. Find the trajectory of a charge moving into a region of uniform field, perpendicular to its
initial velocity. Compare to projectile motion problems studied in Chapter 4. SeeSample
Problem 26-6. --
C. Show that the force on a dipole in a uniform field is zero and that the torque is p x E. A1so
--
show that the potential energy of a dipole is -p .E. Emphasize that the potential energy
minimum occurs when the dipole moment is aligned with the field. To review oscillatory
rotational motion calculate the angular frequency of small angle oscillations for a dipole
with rotational inertia I in an electric field. Assume no other forces act.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. The electric field: exercise4.
b. The electric field of a point charge: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 10 and 12;
exercises7 and 8; problem 2.
c. The electric field of a continuous charge distribution: multiple-choice question 5; exercises
16 and 18; problems 3 and 6.
d. Electric field lines: multiple-choice questions 6 and 7; questions 5 and 5; exercises20 and
22.
e. A point charge in an electric field: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; exercises28 and 30;
problems 10 and 12.

f. A dipole in an electric field: multiple-choice question 11; questions 19, 27, and 18; exercises
2. Demonstrations
Electric field lines: Freier and Anderson Eb1, Ec2 -4.
3. Audio /Visual
a. Electrostatic Induction; The Van de Graaff Generator; Field as a Vector; from AAPT
collection 2 of single-concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,
Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Millikan's Oil-Drop Experiment; Physics Experiments; VHS video tape (15 min); Films for
the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
c. Electric Fields; Physics Demonstrations in Electricity and Magnetism, Part II; VHS video
tape; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & fustruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN
55044.
a. Electric Field; Socrates Software, 6187 RosecommonDrive, Norcross, GA 30092. Graph-
ically displays field lines, force vectors, and equipotential lines for a variety of charge
distributions.
b. Electric Field Plotter; Windbws; Bob Nelson; Physics Academic Software, North Carolina
State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690--0739. Draws electric field lines and
equipotential lines. Students can place up to nine charges anywhere on the screen. The
program also searchesfor points where the electric field vanishes.
c. EM Field; David Trowbridge; Windows, Apple; available from Physics Academic Software
(seeabove for address).Plots electric field lines and equipotential surfacesof point and line
charges,set up by the user. The electric field vectors can be shown. Plots magnetic field
lines of user-selectedcurrent distributions. Users can draw gaussian surfaces or amperian
-+
paths. The program gives the flux through the surface or the contribution to J B .ds.
When the surface or line is closed the program gives the charge or current enclosed. A
game asks the user to find hidden charge or current .
d. Chargedparticles; Vernier Software, 8565 S.W. Beaverton-Hillside Hwy., Portland, OR
97225-2429. A simulation program that shows the motion of chargesin an electric field.
e. Dynamic Analyzer. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
Chapter 27 GAUSS' LAW
BASIC TOPICS
I. Electric flux.
A. Start by discussing some of the important concepts in a general way. Define a vector
surface element. Define the flux of a vector field through a surface. Distinguish between
open and closed surfacesand explain that for the latter the surface normal is taken to be
outward. Interpret the surface integral for the flux as a sum over surface elements. If you
covered Chapter 16 use the velocity field of a fluid as an example.
B. Define electric flux. Point out that it is the normal component of the field that enters. Also
point out that the si~"' of the contribution of any surface element depends on the choice
for the direction of dA.
C. Interpret electric flux as a quantity that is proportional to the net number of field lines
penetrating the surface. Remind students that the number of lines through a small area
perpendicular to the field is taken to be proportional to the magnitude of the field. By
considering surfaceswith the samearea but different orientations, show that the net number

of penetrating lines is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the field and the
normal to the surface. Conclude that E. dA is proportional to the nUlIlber of lines through
--
dA.
D. Stress that lines roughly in the same direction as the normal contribute positively to the
flux, lines roughly in the opposite direction contribute negatively, and lines that pass
completely through a volume do not contribute to the flux through its boundary. Point
out that zero flux through a surface does not imply zero field at points on the surface.
E. As an example, calculate the flux through each side of a cube in a uniform electric field.
II. Gauss' law.
A. Write down the law. Stress that the surface is closed and that the charge appearing in
the law is the net charge enclosed. Interpret the law as a statement that the nUlIlber of
(signed) lines crossing the surface is proportional to the net charge inside and make the
statement plausible by reminding students that the field of each charge is proportional to
the charge and its direction depends on the sign of the charge.
B. nlustrate by considering the surface of a sphere with positive charge inside, with negative
charge inside, with both positive and negative charge inside, and with charge outside. In
each case draw representative field lines with the nUlIlber of lines proportional to the net
charge. Stress that the position of the charge inside is irrelevant for the flux through the
surface. AIso use Gauss' law to calculate the flux.
C. Use Gauss' law and symmetry arguments to obtain an expressionfor the electric field of a
point charge.
nI. Gauss' law and conductors.
A. Argue that the electrostatic field vanishes inside a conductor and use Gauss' law to show
that there can be no net charge at interior points under static conditions. Point out that
exterior charge and chargeson the surface separately produce fields in the interior but that
.the resultant field vanishes. For contrast, point out that an insulator may have charge
distributed throughout.
B. Demonstrate that any excesscharge on a conductor resides on the exterior surface. Use a
hollow metal sphere with a small hole cut in it. As an alternative, solder shut the top on
an empty metal can and drill a small hole in it. This will not work as well becauseof the
sharp edges. Charge a rubber rod by rubbing it with fur and touch it to the inside of the
sphere, being careful not to touch the edge of the hole. Repeat several times to build up
charge. Now scrape at the interior with a metal transfer rod, again being careful not to
touch the edge of the hole. Touch the transfer rod to an uncharged electroscopeand note
the lack of deflection. Scrape the exterior of the sphere with the transfer rod and touch
the electroscope. Note the deflection.
C. Show how to calculate the charge on the inner and outer surfaces of neutral and charged
conducting spherical shells when cl1argeis placed in the cavities. Seeproblem 11.
D. Use Gauss' law to show that the magnitude of the field just outside a charged conductor
is given by E = (J'/ EO,where (J'is the surface charge density.
IV. Applications of Gauss' law.
A. Derive expressionsfor the electric field at various points for a uniformly chargedsphereand
for a uniformly charged thick spherical shell. Remark that such distributions are possible
if the sphere or shell is not conducting. Carefully give the symmetry argument to show
the field is radial and has the same magnitude at all points on a concentric sphere.
B. Derive an expressionfor the electric field at a point outside an infinite sheet with a uniform
cl1argedistribution. Contrast with the field outside an infinite conducting sheet with the
same area charge density on one surface. Point out that for the conductor the field is not

due only to the charge on the surface being considered. Another field must be present to
produce a net field of zero in the interior and this doubles the field in the exterior .
C. Consider a point charge at the center of a neutral spherical conducting shell and derive
expressionsfor the electric field in the various regions. Repeat for a charged shell.
D. Work one problem with cylindrical symmetry. For example, consider charge distributed
uniformly throughout a cylinder and find the field in all regions.
E. Note that Gauss' law can be used to find E only if there is adequate symmetry.
F. Use Gauss' law to derive the shell theorems for spherically symmetric charge distributions.
First give the symmetry argument to show that the electric field, if it exists, must be radial.
Then show that for points outside a spherical shell with a uniform charge distribution the
field is the same as it would be if all the charge were concentrated at the shell center and
for a point inside the shell the field is zero.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Experimental verification of Gauss' law. Explain that Gauss' law depends sensitively on the
1/r2 nature ofCoulomb's law and can be used toverify that law. Explain somethe experiments.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. The flux of the electric field: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; exercise 1.
b. Gauss' law: multiple-choice questions 4, 5, 6, and 7; questions 4, 5, and 10; exercises4, 8
and 9; problem 2.
c. Applications of Gauss' law: multiple-choice questions 8, 9, and 11; questions 13, 14, and
19; exercises13, 15, 18, and 20j problem 3.
d. Gauss' law and conductors: multiple-choice questions 12, 13, and 14; exercise27; problems
4,13, and 17.
2. Demonstrations
Charges on conductors: Freier and Anderson Ea7, 18, 23, Eb7.
3. Audio/Visual
Charge Distribution -Famday Ice Pail Experimentj from AAPT collection 2 of single-
concept filinsj video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-
1768.
a. EM Field. See Chapter 26 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Electricity & Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on Gauss' law.
Chapter 28 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERG y

AND POTENTIAL
BASIC TOPICS
I. Electrostatic potential energy.
A. If you coveredChapter 14, use the similarity of Coulomb's law and Newton's law of gravity
to argue that the electrostatic force is conservative, the work is independent of path, and
potential energy can be defined. If you did not cover Chapter 14, either derive or state
these results.

B. Show that the potential energy of two point charges is given by qlq2/47rEOr,where r is
their separation. The zero of potential energy is taken to be infinite separation. Point out
that the potential energy is positive if the chargeshave like signs and negative if they have
opposite signs. Explain that the potential energy decreasesif two chargesof the samesign
move apart or two chargesof opposite sign move closer together .
C. Remind students that potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy. Explain what
happens if the chargesused in the last example are releasedfrom their positions. Consider
a proton fired directly at a heavy nucleus with charge Ze and find the distance of closest
approach in terll1Sof the initial speed.
D. Calculate the potential energy of a simple system: charges at the corners of a triangle
or square. Assume the charges are brought in from infinity one at a time and sum the
potential energies. Explain that the total is the sum over charge pairs. Show how to
calculate the potential energy of any collection of point charges.
E. Explain that the potential energy of a system of chargesis the work an agent must do to
assemblethe system from infinite separation. This is the negative of the work done by the
field.
II. Electric potential
A. Define the potential difference between two points as the negative of the work per unit
charge done by the electric field when a positive test charge moves from one point to
the other. Stress the sign of the potential: the potential of the end point is higher than
that of the initial point if the work is negative. The electric field points from regions of
high potential toward regions of low potential and positive charge tends to be repelled
from regions of high potential. The region near an isolated positive charge has a higher
potential than regions far away. The opposite is true for a negative charge. Unit: volt.
Define electron volt as a unit of energy.
B. Point out that the potential is a scalar and that only potential differences are physically
meaningful. One point can be chosenarbitrarily to have zero potential and the potential
at other points is measuredrelative to the potential there. Often the potential is chosento
be zero where the field (or force) is zero. For a finite distribution of charge the potential
is usually chosento be zero at a point far away (infinity). Show a voltmeter and remark
that the meter reads the potential difference between two leads.
C. Show that the potential a distance r from an isolated point chargeis given by V = q/47rEor.
Remark that this is the potential energy per unit test charge of a system consisting of the
point charge q and the test charge. Show how to calculate the potential due to a collection
of point charges. Include a calculation of the potential of an electric dipole.
D. Show how to calculate the potential of a continuous charge distribution: write V =
( 1/ 47rEO
) J dq/ r .Consider some of the examples of the last chapter: a uniformly charged
rod, a uniformly charged ring, a uniformly charged disk, -+ and a uniformly charged sheet.
E. Show that the definition is equivalent to Vb-Va= -J E. ds, where the integral is along
a path from a to b. Point out that the potential is constant in regions of zero field. Note
-+
that the unit N/C is the same as V/m and the latter is a more common unit for E.
F. Give some examples of calculations of the potential from the electric field. Start with a
uniform electric field, like that outside a uniform plane distribution of charge, and show
that potential is given by -Ex+C, where C is a constant. Since the distribution is infinite
the point at infinity cannot be picked as the zero of potential.
G. Remark that when a charge Q moves from point a to point b the potential energy of the
system changesby Q(Vb -Va) , where V is the potential due to the other charges. When
charge Q is brought into position from infinity (where the potential is zero), the potential
energy changesby QV, where V is the potential at the final position of Q due to charge

akeady in place.
III. Equipotential surfaces.
A. Define the term equipotential surface. Show diagrams of equipotential surfaces for an
isolated point charge and for the region between two uniformly charged plates. Show that
the equipotential surfaces associatedwith an isolated point charge are spheresand those
associatedwith the plates are planes.
B. Point out that the field does zero work if a test charge is carried between two points on
-+
the same surface and note that this means that the force, and hence E, is perpendicular to
the equipotential surfaces. Show Fig. 28-19 and point out the field lines and equipotential
surfaces. Remark that the equipotential surfacesare spheresfar from all chargesand close
to any single point charge, but elsewherethey are quite different. Note further that the
work done by the field when a charge is carried from any point on one surface to any point
on another is the product of the charge and the negative of the potential difference.
-+
IV, Calculation of E from V.
A. Remind students that ~V = -E~x for a uniform field in the positive x direction. Note
-+
that E has the form -~ V/ ~x and E is directed from high to low potential. Use this result
to reenforce the idea of an equipotential surface and the fact that :E is perpendicular to
equipotential surfaces.
B. Generalize the result to E = -dV/ds, where s is the distance along a normal to an
equipotential surface. Then broaden this further to Ex = -8V / 8x, Ey = -8V / 8y, and
Ez = -8V/8z. Verify that the prescription works for a point charge and for a dipole.
v. An insulated conductor.
A. Recall that the electric field vanishes at points in the interior of a conductor. Argue that
the surface must be an equipotential surface and that V at all points inside must have the
same value as on the surface. State this is true whether or not the conductor is charged
a:ndwhether or not an external field exists. Write expressionsfor the potential inside and
outside a sphere with charge uniformly distributed on its surface.
B. As a more complicated example, consider a point charge at the center of a spherical con-
ducting shell. Take the potential to be zero at infinity and compute its value at points
outside the outer surface, within the shell, and inside the inner surface.
C. Consider two spherical shells of different radii and far apart, connected by a very fine wire.
Explain that V1 = V2 and show that ql/ R1 = q2/R2, then show that the surface charge
density varies inversely with the radius: 0"1/0"2= R2/ R1. Recall that E is proportional to
0"just outside a conductor and argue that 0"and E are large near places of small radius of
curvature and small near places oflarge radius ofcurvature. Use an electrostatic generator
to show dischargefrom a sharp point and from a rounded (larger radius) ball. Discussthe
function of lightning rods and explain their shape.
The electrostatic generator. Explain how it works. This might be done in lab ir they are used
there. Spend some time explaining sarety precautions.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Electric potential energy: exercise 2j problem 3.
b. Electric potential: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 1 and 5; exercises 6, 8, 10,
and 12.
c. Calculating the potential from the field: multiple-choice question 4; questions 15 and 16j
exercise 13j problems 4 and 12.

d. Potential due to point charges: multiple-choice questions 6, 7, and 9; exercises17, 21" 24,
and 16.
e. Potential of continuous charge distributions: multiple-choice question 11; exercise29.
f. Calculating the field from the potential: multiple-choice question 12; question 24; exercises
30 and 34.
g. Equipotential surfaces: multiple-choice question 14; exercise 37; problem 9.
h. The potential of a charged conductor: multiple-choice questions 15 and 16; questions 10
and 20; exercises42 and 48; problem 17.
2. Demonstrations
Electrostatic generators: Freier and Anderson Ea22, Ecl.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Potential Difference; Electricity; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities &
Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton" NJ 08543-2053.
a. Electric Field Plotter; Windows; Bob Nelson; Physics Academic Software, North Carolina
State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739. Draws electric field lines and
equipotential lines. Students can place up to nine charges anywhere on the screen. The
program also searchesfor points where the electric field vanishes.
b. EM Field. SeeChapter 23 SUGGESTIONS.
5. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 10-1: Electric Fields and Bernard Experiment 25: Mapping of Electric
Fields. Students map equipotentiallines on sheets of high resistance paper with metallic
electrodes at two sides. In the Meiners experiment an audio oscillator generatesthe field
and an oscilloscope or null detecting probe is used to find points of equal potential. If
students are not familiar with oscilloscopes,you might want to preface this experiment
with Part A of Meiners Experiment 10-10. In the Bernard experiment the field is generated
by a battery and a galvanometer is used as a probe.
Chapter 29 THE ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

OF MATERIALS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Conductors, insulators, semiconductors, and superconductors.
A. Explain qualitatively the differences between these types of materials. Emphasize the
free-electron concentrations in conductors, insulators, and semiconductors. State that
normal conductors have electrical resistanceat all temperatures except the absolute zero of
temperature and that electrical resistanceis a result of the scattering of electrons by moving
atoms, impurities, and crystal defects. State that superconductors have zero electrical
resistance at nonzero temperatures.
B. Explain that the electrical properties of conductors and semiconductors stem from the free
electrons and that the electrical properties of insulators stem from slight distortions of the
electron orbits in an applied electric field.
C. Discuss a conductor in an applied electric field under static conditions. Remind students
that the electric field is zero inside the conductor and that just outside the surface the field
is perpendicular to the surface and if the surface charge density is O"at some point on the
surface then the magnitude ofthe field there is given by E = o"/EO.Use the result for the
electric field produced by a sheet of charge to argue that the charge in a small region of

the surface produces a field E = u /2EO, even inside the conductor and that combination of
the applied field and the field of charge at other places on the surface produces a field of
equal magnitude but opposite direction, so the total field is zero inside and u / EOoutside.
II. Current and current density.

A. Explain that electric current is moving cl1arge.Draw a diagram ofa long straightwire with
positive charge moving in it. Consider a cross section and state that the current is dq/dt
if charge dq passesthe cross section in time dt. Give the sign convention: both positive
cl1argemoving to the right and negative charge moving to the left constitute currents to
the right. Early on it is good to use the words " conventional current" quite often. Later
" conventional" can be dropped. Many lúgh scl1oolcoursesnow take the current to be in
the direction of electron flow and it is worthwlúle making the effort to reduce confusion in
students' minds. Unit: 1 ampere = 1 C/s.
B. Explain that under steady state conditions, in wlúch no charge is building up or being
depleted anywhere in the wire, the current is the same for every cross section. Remark
that current has direction but is not a vector. Arrows are used to show the direction of
positive charge flow.
C. Explain that current is produced when charge is free to move in an electric field. For
most materials it is the negative electrons that move and their motion is opposite to the
direction of the electric field. Current is taken to be in the direction opposite to that of
electron drift.
D. Distinguish between the drift velocity and the velocities of individual charges. Note that
the drift velocity of electrons in an ordinary wire is zero unless an electric field is turned
on. Also note that the drift speed is many orders of magnitude smaller than the average
electron speed.
E. Explain that current density is a microscopic quantity used to describe current flow at a
póint. Use the same diagram but now consider a small part of the cross section and state
that j = i/A, in the limit as the area diminishes to a point. State that current density
is a vector in the direction of the drift velocity for .positjve charge and opposite the drift
velocity for negative cl1arge. Explain that i = J j .dA is the current through a finite
--
surface, where dA is normal to the surface. Tlús reduces to j = i/A for uniform current
density and for an area that is perpendicular to the current. Unit: A/m2.
--
F. Derive j = envd and show how to calculate the drift speed from the free electron concen-
tration and current in the wire, assuming uniform current density. You may want to go
over the calculation of the free electron concentration from the mass density of the sample
and the atomic or molecular mass numbers of its constituents.
III. Resistanceand resistivity.
A. Use j = O"Eand E = pj to define conductivity O"and resistivity p. Say that for many, but
not all, materials the conductivity and resistivity do not depend on the electric field. They
are properties of the material. These materials are said to be ohmic. Point out Table 29-1.
B. Define resistance by R = V/i and point out that R may depend on V. Unit: 1ohm =
1 V / A; abbreviation: n. Explain that resistance depends on the sample shape and the
positions of the current leads as well as on the material.
B. Make a sketch similar to the one shown here. Indicate that
Va -~ = iR is algebraically correct, even if i is negative, R
and effectively defines the resistance of the sample with the ~~ I\ I\ ~
leads connected at a and b. Emphasize that the point at -V V v:--
wlúcl1 the current enters is iR lúgher in potential than the ::;;..'l
point at wlúch it leaves.

c. Show that R = pL/A for a conductor with uniform cross section A and length L, carrying
a current that is uniformly distributed over the cross section.
D. Point out that for many samples the current is proportional to the potential difference
and the resistanceis independent of the voltage applied. These materials obey Ohm's law.
Also point out that many important materials do not obey Ohm's law. Show Fig. 29-7.
E. Use a variable-voltage power supply and connect, in turn, samples of ohmic (carbon resis-
tor) and non-ohmic (solid state diode) material across the terminals. Use analog meters
to display the current and potential difference as you vary the supply smoothly and fairly
rapidly. For the ohmic material it will be apparent that i is proportional to V, while for
the non-ohmic material it will be apparent that i is not proportional to V.
F. Gi~e a qualitative description of the mechanismthat leads to Ohm 's law behavior. Explain
that collisions with atoms causethe drift velocity to be proportional to the applied field.
Assume the electrons have zero velocity after each collision and that they acceleratefor a
time T between collisions. Show that an electron goes the same distance on the average
during the first five collisions as it does during the second five so the drift velocity is
proportional to the field even though the electron accelerates between collisions. Now
consider the quantitative aspects: derive the expression for the drift velocity in terms of
E and the mean free time T, then derive p = m/ne2T. Point out that a long mean free
time means a small resistivity becausethe electrons accelerate for a longer time between
collisions and thus have a higher drift speed.
G. Remark that the resistivity of a sample dependson the temperature. Define the tempera-
ture coeflicient of resistivity and point out the values given in Table 29-1. For conductors
this behavior is a result of changein the mean free time. You might also remark that for
semiconductors the number of carriers in the current increasesdramatically with temper-
ature and that therefore the resistivity decreaseswith temperature.
IV. Dielectrics
A. Explain polarization in an insulator. Remark that it might come about becausean external
electric field aligns the dipole moments of molecules that have permanent moments or
it might come about because dipole moments are induced by a field on molecules that
otherwise would have zero dipole moments. In the latter case remark that the center of
negative charge movesonly slightly (lessthan an atomic radius ) from the center of positive
charge.
B. Explain that for most insulators the consequenceof a uniform external field is to induce
polarization chargeon the surface of the insulator, leaving the interior neutral. Argue that
the field of the surface polarization charge is opposite in direction to the applied field, so
the net field in the interior of the insulator is less in magnitude than the applied field.
C. Remark that for many insulators the polarization field is proportional to the applied field,
so the total field is also proportional to the applied field. The constant of proportionality
is a property of the material. Write E = EO/Ke,where Eo is the magnitude of the applied
field and E is the magnitude of the total field. The constant Ke is called the dielectric
constant of the material and is a property of the material. Point out Table 29-2, which
gives the values for some materials.
D. As an example, consider a point charge imbedded in a dielectric and write the expression
for the magnitude of the total field.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assigmnents
a. A conductor in an electric field: static conditions: multiple-choice question 1.

b. A conductor in an electric field: dynamic conditions: multiple-choice questions 4 and 6;
exercises3, 4, and llj problems 3 and 4.
c. Ohmic materials: multiple-choice questions 7, 9, and 10j questions 7, 10, 12, and 14;
exercises15, 19,22, and 27; problems 7, 9, 11, and 13.
d. Microscopic view of Ohm's law: multiple-choice question llj problem 11.
e. An insulator in an electric field: multiple-choice question 13; question 27; exercises29 and
31.
Demonstrations
a. Model of resistance: Freier and Anderson Egl.
b. Thermal dissipation by resistors: Freier and Anderson Eh3.
c. F\1ses:Freier and Anderson Eh5.
d. Ohm's law: Freier and Anderson Eg2, Eol.
e. Measurement of resistance, values of resistance: Freier and Anderson Eg3, 6.
f. Temperature dependenceof resistance: Freier and Anderson Eg4, 5.
g. Dielectrics: Freier and Anderson Ed2, 4.
2. Audio/Visual
a. Electric Currents; Side D: Waves (II) & Electricity and Magnetism of Cinema Classics;
b. Voltagej VHS video tape (15 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
c. Resistance;VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above for
address).
d. Current Electricity; Electricityj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities &
Sciences(see above for address).
e. ]it Electric Current; VHS video tapej Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above for
address).
f. Direct Current and Alternating Currentj VHS video tape (14 min); Films for the Human-
ities & Sciences(seeabove for address).
g. Temperature and Resistance; Physics Demonstrations in Electricity and Magnetism, Part
IIj VHS video tapej ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive,
Lakeville, MN 55044.
3. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 10-3: Electrical Resistance. An ammeter and voltmeter are used to
find the resistanceof a light bulb and wires of various dimensions,made of various materials.
The dependenceof resistance on length and cross section is investigated. Resistivities of
the substancesare calculated and compared.
b. Bernard Experiment 29: A Study of the Factors Affecting Resistance.A Wheatstone bridge
and a collection of wire resistors are used to investigate the dependenceof resistance on
length, cross section, temperature, and resistivity.
c. Meiners Experiment 10-8: Temperature Coefficient of Resistors and Thermistors. A
Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the resistances of a resistor and thermistor in a
water-filled thermal reservoir. The temperature is changed by an immersion heater. Stu-
dents seetw9 different behaviors. A voltmeter-ammeter technique can replace the bridge
if desired.
d. Also seeMeiners Experiment 9-2 and Bernard Experiment 30.

Chapter 30 CAPACITANCE
BASIC TOPICS
I. Capacitance.
A. Describe a generalized capacitor. Draw a diagram showing two separated, insulated con-
ductors. Assume they carry charge q and -q respectively, draw representative field lines,
and point out that all field lines start on one conductor and terminate on the other. Ex-
plain that there is a potential difference V between the conductors. Point out that the
positively charged conductor is at the higher potential. Define capacitance as C = q/V.
Explain that V is proportional to q and that C is independent of q and V. C does depend
on the shapes, relative positions, and orientations of the conductors and on the medium
between them. Unit: 1farad = 1 C/V.
B. Show a radio tuning capacitor and some commercial fixed capacitors. Mention that one
usually encounters p,F and pF capacitors. Capacitors on the order of 1 F have been devel-
oped for the electronics industry.
C. Remark that in circuit drawings a capacitor is denoted by -1 f--.
D. Remark that a battery can be used to charge a capacitor. The battery transfers charge
from one plate to the other until the potential difference of the plates is the same as
the terminal potential difference of the battery. Calculate the charge given the battery
potential difference and the capacitance.
E. Show how to calculate capacitance in principle. Put charge q on one conductor, -q on the
other, and calculate the electric field due to the charge, then the potential difference be-
tween the conductors. Except for highly symmetric situations, the charge is not uniformly
distributed over the surfacesof the conductors and fairly sophisticated means must be used
to calculate V.
F. Examples: derive expressionsfor the capacitance of two parallel plates (neglect fringing)
and two coaxial cylinders or two concentric spherical shells. Use the expressionspreviously
developedfor the electric field. SeeChapter 26. Then evaluate the integral for the potential
difference. Emphasize that the field is due to the charge on the plates.
G. Large demonstration parallel plate capacitors with variable plate separation are available
commercially. You can also make one using two ~ 1-ft diameter circular plates of 1/8 inch
aluminum sheet. Attach an insulating rod to the center of one and a metal rod to the
center of the other. By sliding the two conductors closer together, you can show the effect
of changing d while holding q constant. An electroscopeservesas a voltmeter .
H. Explain how the equivalent capacitanceof a device can be measured. Consider a black box
with two terminals. State that a potential difference V is applied and the total charge q
deposited is measured. The capacitance is q/V.
I. Derive l/Ceq = 1/C1 + 1/C2 for the effective capacitance of two capacitors in series and
Ceq= C1 + C2 for the effective capacitance of two capacitors in parallel. Emphasize that
two capacitors in parallel have the same potential difference and two in series have the
same charge. Explain the usefulnessof these equations for circuit.analysis.
II. Energy storage.
A. Derive the expression W = ~q2/C for the work required to charge & capacitor. Explain
that, as an increment of chargeis transferred, work is done by an external agent (a battery,
for example) against the electric field of the charge already on the plates. Show that this
expressionis equivalent to W = ~CV2. Interpret the result as the potential energy stored
in the charge system and explain that it can be recoveredwhen the capacitor is discha;rged.
B. Rema;rkthat if two capacitors are in parallel the la;rger stores the greáter energy. If two
capacitors are in seriesthe smaller stores the greater energy.

C. Show that the energy density in a parallel plate capacitor is ~EoE2. State that this result
is quite general and that its volume integral gives the work required to assemblecharge to
create the electric field E. Explain that the energy may be thought to reside in the field
or it may be consideredthe potential energy of the charges.
D. Integrate the energy density to find an expressionfor the energy stored in the electric field
of a charged spherical capacitor or a charged cylindrical capacitor. Compare the result
with ~q2/C.
m. Dielectrics.
A. Explain that when the region between the conductors of a capacitor is occupied by in-
sulating material the capacitance increasesby a factor K,e> 1, where K,eis the dielectric
constant of the material. Remark that K,e= 1 for a vacuum.
B. Use a large commercial or home-made capacitor to show the effect of a dielectric. Charge
the capacitor, then isolate it and insert a glass plate between the plates. The electroscope
showsthat V decreasesand, since q is fixed, the capacitance increases.
C. Calculate the changein stored energy that occurs when a dielectric slab is inserted between
the plates of an isolated parallel plate capacitor (seeSample Problem 30-9) .Also calculate
the change in stored energy when the slab is inserted while the potential difference is
maintained by a battery. Explain that the battery now does work in moving charge from
one plate to the other.
D. Remind students that the dielectric material between the plates becomespolarized, with
the positively charged ends of the dipoles attracted toward the negative conductor. The
field of the dipoles opposesthe external field, so the electric field is weaker between the
plates than it would be if the material were not there. Remind students that E = Eo/ K,e,
where Eo is the field in the absenceof a dielectric. This reduces the potential difference
between the conductors for a given charge on them. The new value is V = Vo/K,e. Since
the potential difference is less for the same chargeon the plates, the capacitanceis greater.
E. Say that Gauss' law becomesEO.f K,eE.dA = q, where q is the free charge enclosedby the
Gaussian surface. Remark that if the entire Gaussian surface is in vacuum, where K,e= 1,
this equation reduces to the previous equation for Gauss' law.
F. Show that if the polarization is uniform, the material behaveslike neutral material with
chargeon its surfaces. Derive O"'= O"(K,e-1) / K,efor the polarization surface charge density
of a completely filled parallel-plate capacitor. Remark that this is the polarization surface
chargedensity on the surface of the dielectric near the negative plate while the polarization
surface charge density on the surface near the positive plate is the negative of this.
G. Consider a parallel-plate capacitor filled with dielectric material and use Gauss' law to find
an expression for the field between the plates (O" / K,eEO
) , the potential difference between
the plates (O"d/K,eEO), and the capacitance (K,eEOA/d).
SUGGEST¡ONS
1. Assignments
a. Capacitors: multiple-choice question lj questions 1 and 4.
b. Capacitance: multiple-choice question 2; questions 6 and 12; exercise 2.
c. Calculating the capacitance: multiple-choice question 4; exercises 6 and 7; problems 2 and
5.
d. Capacitors in series and parallel: multiple-choice questions 7, 8, and 9; exercises 9, 11, 13,
14, 16, and 18; problems 7, 8, and 9.
e. Energy in an electric field: multiple-choice questions 10 and 11; exercises 22 and 23j prob-
lems 14, 15, and 16.

f. Capacitor with dielectric: multiple-choice questions 14 and 15; question 15; exercises29,
2. Demonstrations
a. Charge storage: Freier and Anderson Eb8, Ed3, 7.
b. Capacitance and voltage: Freier and Anderson Ed1.
c. Energy storage: Freier and Anderson Ed8
3. Audio/Video
a. Capacity of a Condenser; VHS video tape (14 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
Electricity & Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on capacitors.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 10-7 (Part B): Measuring Capacitancewith a Ballistic Galvanometer.
A ballistic galvanometer is used to measure the capacitance of individual capacitors and
capacitors in series and parallel. Students must temporarily accept on faith that the
deflection of the galvanometer is proportional to the total charge that passesthrough it.
b. Meiners Experiment 11-2 (Part C): Coulomb Balance Attachment (to the current balance).
Students use gravitational force to balance the force of one capacitor plate on the other.
The voltage and plate separation are used to find the charge on the plates, then EOis
calculated.
Chapter 31 DC CIRCUITS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Sourcesof emf.
A. Explain that a sourceof emf movespositive chargefrom its negative to its positive terminal
or negative chargein the opposite direction and maintains the potential difference between
its terminals. Sourcesof emf are used to drive currents in circuits. Example: a battery
contains a source of emf in series with an internal resistance. Note the symbol ~ 1- used
in circuit diagrams.
B. Explain that a direction is associatedwith an emf and that it is from the negative to the
positive terminal, inside the source. This is the direction current would flow if the source
acted alone in a completed circuit. Point out that when current has this direction the
source does positive work on the charge and define the emf as the work per unit positive
charge: e = dW / dq. Also point out that the positive terminal of an ideal sourceis e higher
in potential than the negative terminal, regardless of the direction of the current. Unit:
volt.
II. Single loop circuits.
A. State the loop rule (Kirchhoff's secondrule).
B. Consider a circuit containing a single source of emf and a single resistor. Derive the loop
equation by picking a point on the circuit, selecting the potential to be zero there, then
traversing the circuit and writing down expressionsfor the potential at points between
the elements until the zero potential point is reached again. Tell the students that if the
current is not known a direction must be chosenfor it and used to determine the sign of
the potential difference across the resistor. When the circuit equation is solved for i, a
negative result will be obtained if the wrong direction was chosen. As you carry out the

derivation remind students that current enters a resistor at the high potential end and that
the positive terminal of a source of emf is at a higher potential than the negative terminal.
C. Consider slightly more complicated single loop circuits. Include the internal resistanceof
the battery and solve for the current. Place two batteries in the circuit, one charging and
the other discharging.
D. For the circuits considered, show how to calculate the potential difference between two
points on the circuit and point out that the answer is independent of the path used for the
calculation. Explain the difference between the closed and open circuit potential difference
acrossa battery.
nI. Electric fields in conductors.
A. Remind students that normal conductors (non-superconductors) require an electric field
to maintain a current.
--~ Refer to Chapter 29 and recal1 that the relationship between the
current density j at any point in a material medium and the electric field E at the same
--~
point is j = u E, where u is the conductivity of the material.
B. Remark that the electric field in a current-carrying wire is produced by charge at the ends
of the wire, where it attaches to the source of emf, and along the surface of the wire where
it bends. Show Fig. 31-12. Explain that the charge densities required are extremely small.
C. Say that when a sourceof emf is first connectedto a wire, charge moves to the appropriate
places to set up the electric field.
IV. Resistors in series and parallel.
A. Use the loop rule to derive an expression for the equivalent resistance of two (or more)
resistors in series. Emphasize that the currents are the same in the resistors and that the
potential differencesare not the same (unless the resistance are the same).
B. Explain the junction rule (Kirchhoff's first rule) for steady state current flow. State that it
follows from the conservation of chargeand the fact that charge doesnot build up anywhere
when the steady state is reached.
C. Derive an expression for the equivalent resistance of two (or more) resistors in parallel.
Emphasize that the potential differencesare the sameand that the currents are not (unless
the resistanceshappen to be the same).
D. Contrast the equivalent-resistanceequations with the equations for the equivalent capaci-
tance of two capacitors in series and in parallel.
E. Show how to calculate potential differencesacrossresistors in seriesand currents in resistors
in parallel. Show how series and parallel combinations can sometimes be used to solve
complicated circuits. Mention that not all circuits can be considered combinations of
series and parallel connections.
v. Energy considerations.
A. Point out that when current flows from the high to the low potential side of any device,
energy is transferred from the current to the device at the rate p = iV. Note that if p is
negative the device is supplying energy at the rate -p .
B. Give examples: Energy may be converted to mechanical energy (a motor), to chemical
energy (a charging battery), or to internal energy (a resistor). Also note the converse:
mechanical energy (a generator), chemical energy ( a discharging battery ) , and internal
energy (a thermocouple) may be converted to electrical energy.
C. Explain that in a resistor the electronslose energy in collisions with atoms and this increases
the thermal motion of the atoms. Show that becauseV = iR, the rate of energy loss in a
resistor is given by p = i2R = V2 / R.
D. Point out that the rate at which energy is supplied by a source of emf is iE. State that
for a battery the energy comesfrom a store of chemical energy. Mention that a battery is
charging if the current and emf are in opposite directions.

E. Consider a circuit containing a single source of emf and a single resistor. Use energy
considerations to derive the steady state loop equation (Kirchhoff's second rule): equate
the power supplied by the emf to the power loss in the resistor. Alternatively, consider
the single loop equation derived earlier using the loop rule: E -iR = O. Multiply by i to
obtain iE = i2 R and interpret the equation by saying that all power supplied by the source
of emf is lost in the resistor.
VI. RC circuits.
A. Consider a series circuit consisting of a source of emf, a resistor, a capacitor, and a switch.
Suppose the switch is closed at time t = O with the capacitor uncharged. Use the loop
rule and i = dq/dt to show that R(dq/dt) + (q/C) = E. By direct substitution, show
that q(t) = CE[l -e-t/RC] satisfies this equation and yields q = O for t = O. Also find
expressionsfor the potential differencesacrossthe capacitor and acrossthe resistor. Show
that q = CE for times long compared to RC.
B. Explain that T = RC is called the time constant for the circuit and that it is indicative of
the time required to charge the capacitor. If RC is large the capacitor takes a long time
to charge. Show that q/CE ~ 0.63 when t = T.
C. Show that the current is given by i( t ) = (E/ R)e-t/ RC.Point out that i = E/ R for t = 0 and
that the potential difference acrossthe capacitor is zero at that time becausethe capacitor
is uncharged. Thus the potential difference across the resistor is E. Also point out that
the current tends toward zero for times that are long compared to T. Then the potential
difference across the resistor is zero and the potential difference acrossthe capacitor is E.
D. Derive the loop equation for a seriescircuit consisting of a capacitor and resistor. Suppose
the capacitor has charge qo at time t = 0 and show that q = qoe-t/ RC.Again find
expressionsfor the potential differences across the capacitor and resistor. Point out that
RC is indicative of the time for discharge.
E. ~rite the expressionfor the energy initially stored in the capacitor: U = ~qg/C. Evaluate
Jooo i2 R dt to find the energy dissipated in the resistor as the capacitor discharges. Show
that these energiesare the same.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assiglllnents
a. Electric current: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2 or 3.
b. Emf: questions 1,6, and 9; exercise 2.
c. Analysis of circuits: multiple-choice questions 6 and 7; question 12; exercises6, 9, 11, 13,
and 14; problems 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, and 12.
d. Resistors in series and parallel: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; question 14j exercises
17, 19, and 23.
e. Energy in an electric circuit: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13; questions 8 and 28j
exercises32, 33, and 38; problem 17.
f. RC circuits: multiple-choice questions 14 and 15j questions 22 and 23; exercises42, 44,
and 47j problem 18.
2. Demonstrations
a. Sourcesof emf: Freier and Anderson Ee2, 3, 4.
b. Measurement of emf: Freier and Anderson Eg7.
c. Resistive circuits: Freier and Anderson Ehl, 2,4, Eo2 -8.
3. Audio/Visual
Series and Pamllel Circuits; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS

a. Electricity f.1Magnetismj Apple, Windowsj Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on resistors, basic
circuits, and RC circuits.
b. DC Circuitsj Windowsj Miky Ronen, Matzi Eliahu, and Igal Yastrubinezkyj Physics Aca-
demic Software, North Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739.
Circuit elements can be put together to form circuits, values of the parameters can be
selected,and the circuits can then be analyzed.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 10-7 (Part A): Measuring Current with a d'Arsonval Galvanometer.
Students determine the cl1aracteristicsand sensitivity of a galvanometer. To expand this
lab, ask the students to design an ammeter and a voltmeter with full scale deflections
prescribed by you. Students practice circuit analysis while trying to understand design
considerations.
b. Meiners Experiment 10-9: The EMF of a Solar Cell. Students study a slide wire poten-
tiometer and use it to measure the emf of a solar cell. This is another experiment that
gives them practice in circuit analysis.
c. Bernard Experiment 28: Measurementsof Potential Difference with a Potentiometer. Stu-
dents study a slide wire potentiometer and use it to investigate the emf and terminal
voltage of a battery and the workings of a voltage divider .
d. Bernard Experiment 26: A Study of Series and Parallel Electric Circuits. Students use am-
meters and voltmeters to verify Kirchhoff's laws and investigate energy balance for various
circuits. They also experimentally determine equivalent resistancesof resistors in seriesand
parallel. This experiment can be extended somewhat by having them consider a network of
resistors that cannot be reduced by applying the rules for seriesand parallel resistors. A1so
see Bernard Experiment 27: Methods of Measuring Resistance. Two voltmeter-ammeter
methods and a Wheatstone bridge method are used to measureresistanceand to cl1eckthe
equivalent resistance of series and parallel connections.
e. Bernard Experiment 31: Circuits Containing More Than One Potential Source. Similar
to Bernard Experiment 26 described above except circuits with more than one battery are
considered. The two experiments can be done together, if desired.
f. Meiners Experiment 10-4: The R-C Circuit. Students connect an unknown resistor to a
known capacitor, cl1argedby a battery. The battery is disconnected and a voltmeter and
timer are used to measure the time constant. The value of the resistance is calculated. In
a secondpart an unknown capacitor is cl1argedby means of a square wave generator and
the decay is monitored on an oscilloscope. Again the time constant is measured, then it
is used to calculate the capacitance. A third part explains how to use a microprocessor
to collect data. Also see Bernard Experiment 32: A Study of Capacitance and Capacitor
Tt-ansients.
Chapter 32 THE MAGNETIC FIELD
BASIC TOPICS
I. Definition of the field and force on a moving cl1arge.
A. Explain that moving cl1argescreate magnetic fields and that a magnetic field exerts a force
on a moving cl1arge. Both the field of a moving cl1argeand the force exerted by a field
depend on the velocity of the cl1argeinvolved. The latter property distinguishes it from
an electric field.

...
B. Define the magnetic field: the force on a moving test cl1argeis qov x B in the absence
of an electric field. Review the rules for finding the magnitude and direction of a vector
product. Point out that the force must be measured for at least two directions of v since
the component of B along v cannot be found from the force. The direction of B can be
found by trying~various directions for v until one is found for whicl1 the force vanishes. The
magnitude of B can be found by orienting v so the magnitude of the force is maximum.
Units: 1 tesla = 1 N/ A .m, 1 gauss = 10-4 T. Point out the magnitudes of the fields given
in Table 32-1.
C. Explain that the magnetic force on any movin:l;,cl1argeis given by F = qV x B. Point out
that
... the force is perpendicular to both v and B and is zero for v parallel or antiparallel to
B. Also point out that the direction of the force depends on the sign of q. Remark that
the field cannot do work on the cl1argeand so cannot cl1angeits speedor kinetic energy. A
magnetic field can cl1angethe direction of travel of a moving cl1arge. It can, for example,
be used to produce a centripetal force and thus causea cl1argeto move in a circular orbit.
D. To show a magnetic force qualitatively, slightly defocus an oscilloscopeso the central spot
is reasonably large and easily seen. Move a bar magnet at an angle to the face of the scope
and note the movement of the beam.
E. Point out that the total force on a cl1argeis q(E + v x B) when both an electric and a
magnetic field are present.
II. Magnetic field lines.
A. Explain that field lines can be associatedwith a magnetic field. At any point the field is
tangent to the line through that point and the number of lines per unit area that pierce a
plane perpendicular to the field is proportional to the magnitude of the field.
B. Show Fig. 32~ or place a sheet of clear plastic over a bar magnet and place iron filings on
the sheet. Place the arrangement on an overhead projector. Explain that the filings line
up along field lines.
C. Point out that magnetic field lines form closedloops; they continue into the interior of the
-magnet, for example. Contrast with electric field lines and remark that no magnetic cl1arge
has yet been found. Mention that magnetic field lines would start and stop at magnetic
monopoles, if they exist. Remark that by convention lines enter at the south pole of a
magnet and exit at the north pole.
III. Motion of cl1argesin magnetic fields.
A. Derive v = E / B for the speed of a cl1argepassing through a velocity selector.
B. Outline the Thompson experiment and derive Eq. 32-8 for the cl1arge-to-massratio of an
electron (or other cl1argedparticle) .
C. Show how the Hall effect can be used to determine the sign and concentration of cl1arge
carriers in a conductor. Mention that these measurements are important for the semi-
conductor industry. Also mention that the Hall effect is used to measure magnetic fields.
Show a Hall effect teslameter.
D. Consider a cl1argewith velocity perpendicular to a constant magnetic field. Show that the
orbit radius is given by r = mv / qB and the period of the motion is given by T = 27rm/qB
(independently of v) for non-relativistic speeds. If you are covering modern topics state
that r = p/qB is relativistically correct but p = mv/ V1 -v2/c2, where c is the speed of
light, must be used for the momentum. Remark that the orbit is a helix if the velocity
of the cl1argehas a component along the field. Mention that cyclotron motion is used in
cyclotrons and synchrotrons. If you have time, explain how a cyclotron works.
IV .Force on a current loop .
A. Run a flexible non-magnetic wire near a strong permanent magnet. Observe that the wire
does not move. Turn on a power supply so about 1 A flows in the wire and watcl1 the wire

move. Remark that magnetic fields exert forces on currents.
B. Consider a thin wire carrying current, with all charges in the current moving with the
drift velocity. Start with the force on a single charge and derive dF = i d:E x B for an
infinitesimal segment and F = iL x B for a finite straight segment in a uniform field. Stress
that dL and L are in the direction of the current.
C. Consider an arbitrarily shaped segment of wire in a uniform
field. Show that the force on the segment between a and b
is F = iL x B, where L is the vector joining the ends of the
segment. This expression is valid only if the field is uniform. -..
D. Point out that the force on a closed loop in a uniform field ( L
-..
is zero since L = O.
E. Calculate the force of a uniform field on a semicircular loop of wire, in the plane perpen-
dicular to B. See Sample Problem 32-5. Do this as in the text, then repeat using the
result given in C above.
v. Torque on a current loop.
A. Calculate the torque exerted by a uniform field on a rectangular loop of wire arbitrarily
-..
oriented with two opposite sides perpendicular to B. See Fig. 32-26.
B Define the magnetic dipole moment of a current loop (p, = NiA) and give the right-hand
rule for determining its direction. For a rectangular loop in a uniform field, show that
-..
T = ¡1.X B. State that the result is generally valid for any loop in a uniform field. Mention
that other sources of magnetic fields, such as bar magnets and the earth, have dipole
moments. Mention that many fundamental particles have intrinsic dipole moments.
C. Note that this is a restoring torque and that if the dipole is free to rotate it will oscillate
about the direction of the field. If damping is present it willline up along the field direction.
Remark that this is the basis of magnetic compasses.
,D .Explain how analog ammeters and voltmeters work. To demonstrate the torque on a
current carrying coil, remove the case from a galvanometer and wire it to a battery and
resistor so that it fu11y deflects.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Motion of a chaJ:gein a nonuniform magnetic field. The text derives equations for the com-
ponents of the acceleration. Use this section to broaden the course for mathematically adept
students or as the basis for numerical calculations with a computer.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Magnetic force on a moving charge: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, 5, 6, and 7j questions
1, 9, and 12j exercises 1 and 3j problem 2.
b. Circulating charges: multiple-choice question 9j exercises 10, 12, 16, and 21j problems 5
and 9.
c. The Hall effect: multiple-choice question llj question 18j exercises 25 and 26.
d. Magnetic force on a current-carrying wire: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13j exercises
29, 31, and 32j problem 15.
e. Torque on a current loop: multiple-choice questions 15 and 16j exercise 36j problem 19.
Teaching about magnetismj by Robert J. Reilandj available from AAPT, One Physics
Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845. A PTRA workshop manual. Contains a collection
of demonstrations and student activities.

3. Audio/Visual
a. The Force on a Current; from AAPT collection 2 of single-concept films; video tape;
b. Magnetism and Magnetic Fields; Side D: Waves (II) & Electricity and Magnetism of Cin-
ema Classics;video disk; available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
c. Magnetic Fields; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS video tape
d. Magnetic Effects in Space;Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (14 min); Media Design
e. Magnetism in Space; Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (19 min); Media Design
Associates, Inc. (seeabove for address).
f. Magnetic Fields; VHS video tape (18 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
g. Magnetic Foree; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove
for address).
h. Magnetic Fields; VHS video tape (15 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove
for address).
i. Creating Magnetic Force; VHS video tape (12 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
j. Magnetic Fields; Physics Demonstrations in Electricity and Magnetism, Part III; VHS
video tape; ~3 min; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville,
MN 55044.
a. Dynamic Analyzer. SeeChapter 2 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Electricity f1 Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on magnetic force.
5. Denionstrations
a. Force on an electron beam: Freier and Anderson Ei18, Ep8, 11.
b. Forces and torques on wires: Freier and Anderson Ei7, 12, 13 -15, 19, 20.
c. Meters: Freier and Anderson Ej1, 2.
d. Hall effect: Freier and Anderson Ei16.
6. Laboratory
a. Bernard Experiment 33: A Study of Magnetic Fields. A small magnetic compassis used
to map field lines of various permanent magnets, a long straight current-carrying wire, a
single loop of current-carrying wire, a solenoid, and Earth. Parts of this experiment might
be performed profitably in connection with Chapter 31.
b. Meiners Experiment 11-3: Determination ofe/m. Students use the accelerating potential
and the radius of the orbit in a magnetic field to calculate the charge-to-massratio for the
electron.
c. Meiners Experiment 11-5: The Hall Effect. Students measure the Hall voltage and use it
to calculate the drift speed and carrier concentration for a bismuth sample. The influence
of the magnetic field on the Hall voltage is also investigated. Values of the magnetic field
are given to them by the instructor .

Chapter 33 THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF A CURRENT
BASIC TOPICS
I. Magnetic field of a moving charge.
A. Write the expression for the magnetic field of a moving charge. Explain the vectors and
remind students of the right-hand ru1eto determine the direction of a vector product.
B. Draw a diagram to show the field lines and explain that they are circles in planes that are
perpendicular to the velocity of the charge and are centered on the line through the charge
and parallel to the velocity. State that if the thumb of the right hand is in the direction
of travel of the charge, then the fingers curl in the direction of the field lines for a positive
charge and in the direction opposite the field lines for a negative cl1arge. State that the
magnitude of the field is constant on a field line.
C. Work an example. Consider a proton traveling at about 105m/s and calculate the field
at various distances. Point out the direction at representative points. Replace the proton
with an electron and point out the direction of the field at the same points.
II. Magnetic field of a current.
A. Place a magnetic compassnear a wire. Turn the current on and off, reverse the current.
Note the deflection ofthe compassneedleand remark that the current produces a magnetic
field and that the field reverseswhen the current reverses.
B. Use the expressionfor the magnetic field of a moving charge to derive the Biot-Savart law
for the field produced by an infinitesimal segment of a current-carrying wire. Give the
value for ..Uo.Draw a diagram to show the direction of the current, the displacement vector
from the segment to the field point, and the direction of the field. Explain that dB... is in
the direction of dS x r. Point out the angle between r and dS. Mention that the integral
for the field of a finite segmentmust be evaluated one component at a time. Point out that
the angle between dB and a coordinate axis must be used to find the component of dB.
C. Example: Show how to calculate the magnetic field of a straight finite wire segment. See
the text, but use finite limits of integration. State that magnetic fields obey a superposition
principle and point out that the result of the calculation can be used to find the field of
a circuit composed of straight segments. Specialize the result to an infinite straight wire.
...
Demonstrate the right-hand rule for finding the direction of B due to a long straight wire.
D. Explain that the field lines around a straight wire are circles in planes perpendicular to
the wire, centered on the wire. Drawa diagram to illustrate. Give the right-hand ru1efor
finding the direction of the field. Use symmetry to argue that the magnitude of the field is
uniform on a field line. Point out that for other current configurations B is not necessarily
uniform on a field line.
E. Show how to find the force per unit length of one long straight wire on another. Treat
currents in the same and opposite directions. Lay two long automobile starter cables on
the table. Connect them in parallel to an auto battery, with a 0.5 n, 500w resistor and
an "anti-theft" switch or starter relay in each circuit. Close one switch and note that
the wires do not move. Close the other switch and note the motion. Show parallel and
antiparallel situations. It is better to reconnect the wires or rearrange them rather than
to use a reversing switch.
F. Give the definition of the ampere and remind students of the definition of the coulomb.
G. Use the Biot-Savart law to derive an expressionfor the field of a circular current loop at
...
a point on its axis. Stress the resolution of dB into components. Take the limit as the
radius becomesmuch smaller than the distance to the field point and remark that the field
is proportional to 1/r2, like the electric field of an electric dipole. Explain that the loop is
a magnetic dipole and will be discussedin detaillater .

H. Use the Biot-Savart law to derive an expressionfor the magnetic field produced by an arc
of current-carrying wire at its center. Explain that leads are needed to carry the current
into and out of the arc. The arc is a segment of a circuit.
III Ampere's law.
A. Write the law in integral form. Explain that the integral is a line integral around a closed
contour and interpret it as a sum over segments. Point out that it is the tangential
component of B that enters. Explain that the current that enters is the net current through
the region bounded by the contour .Two currents in opposite directions tend to cancel,
for example. Illustrate by considering a contour that bounds a region with 5 or 6 wires
passingthrough, with somecurrents in eacl1direction. Also consider a wire passingthrough
the plane of the contour but outside the contour .Mention that this current produces a
magnetic field at all points on the contour but the integral of its tangential component is
zero.
B. Explain the right-hand rule that relates the direction of integration around the contour
and the direction of positive current through the contour .
C. Pick a functional form for the magnetic field (Bx = 2xy, By = -y2, Bz = O,for example).
Be sure the divergence is zero and the curl is not. Now consider a simple contour, sucl1
as a square in the xy plane. Integrate the tangential component of the field around the
contour and calculate the net current through it.
D. Use Ampere's law to calculate the magnetic field outside a long straight wire. Either use
without
-- proof the circular nature of the field lines or give a symmetry argument to show
that B at any point is tangent to a circle through the point and has constant magnitude
--
around the circle. Point out that the integration contour is taken tangent to B in order to
--
evaluate the integral in terms of the unknown magnitude of B.
E. Use Ampere's law to calculate the field inside a long straight wire with a uniform current
distribution. Note that the use of Ampere's law to find B has the same limitations as
Gauss' law when used to find E: there must be sufficient symmetry. ,
F. Use Ampere's law to calculate the field inside a solenoid. First argue that, for a long tightly
wound solenoid, the field at interior points is along the axis and nearly uniform while the
field at exterior points is nearly zero.
G. Similarly, use Ampere's law to calculate the field inside a toroid.~
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Referenceframes. Consider the electric and magnetic forces on a charge that is stationary in
the laboratory frame outside a current-carrying wire, from the point of view of the laboratory
referenceframe and from the point of view of a frame that is moving with the chargesin the
current. Explain that what is found to be a magnetic force in one frame is found to be an
electric force in another.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Magnetic field of a moving charge: mu1tiple-choice question lj question 5; exercise 1.
b. Magnetic field of a current: mu1tiple-choice questions 3 and 4j question 3j exercises 4, 6,
8, 11, 13, 14, and 18; problems 1, 7, and 8.
c. Two parallel currents: mu1tiple-choice questions 5 and 6 or 7; questions 12, 13, and 14j
exercises 23 and 24.
d. Magnetic field of a solenoid: mu1tiple-choice question 9j question 24j exercise 28.
e. Ampere's law: mu1tiple-choice question 13; question 23j exercises 31, 32, 33, and 35j
problems 10, 11, 13, and 14.

2. Demonstrations
a. Magnetic fields of wires: Freier and Anderson Ei8 -11.
b. Magnetic forces between wires: Freier and Anderson Eil -6.
The Solenoid; by Carl R. Stannard, Arnold A. Strassenberg, and Gabriel Kousourou;
available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845. Covers the
magnetic field of a solenoid and practical applications as a mechanical switch.
4. Audio/Video
a. Magnetism and Electron Flow; VHS video tape (11 min); Fi1ms for the H1Lmanities&
Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
b. Creating Magnetic Fields; VHS video tape (11 min); Fi1ms for the Humanities & Sciences
a. EM Field; David Trowbridge. SeeChapter 26 SUGGESTIONS.
b. Electricity & Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on Ampere's law.
6. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 11-1: The Earth's Magnetic Field. A tangent galvanometer is used
to measure Earth's magnetic field. The dip angle is calcu1ated.
b. Meiners Experiment 11-2: The Current Balance. The gravitational force on a current-
carrying wire is used to balance the magnetic force due to current in a second wire. The
data can be used to find the value of .Uoor to find the current in the wires. The second
version essentially definesthe ampere. Part B describeshow a microprocessor can be used
to collect and analyze the data.
c. Bernard Experiment 34: Measurement of the Earth 's Magnetic Field. The oscillation
period of a sma1l permanent magnet suspended inside a solenoid is measured with the
solenoid and Earth 's field aligned. The reciprocal of the period squared is plotted as a
function of the current in the solenoid, and the slope, along with calcu1atedvalues of the
solenoid's field, is used to find Earth's field.
d. Meiners Experiment 11-3: Determination of e/m. Students find the speedand orbit radius
of an electron in the magnetic field of a pair of He1mholtzcoils and use the data to calcu1ate
e/m. Information from this chapter is used to compute the field, given the coil radius and
current. If you are willing to postu1ate the field for the students, this experiment can be
performed in connection with Chapter 32.
Chapter 34 FARADAY'S LAW OF INDUCTION
BASIC TOPICS
I. The law of induction.
A. Connect a coil (50 to 100 turns) to a sensitive galvanometer and move a bar magnet in
and out of the coil. Note that a current is induced only when the magnet is moving. Show
all possibilities: the north pole entering and exiting the coil, the south pole entering and
exiting the coil. In each casepoint out the direction of the induced current. With a little
practice you might also demonstrate effectively that the deflection of the galvanometer
dependson the speedof the magnet.
B: To show the current produced by changing the orientation of a loop, align the loop axis
with the earth's magnetic field and rapidly rotate the loop once through 180°. Note the

deflection of a galvanometer in serieswith the loop. Explain that this forms the basis of
electric generators.
C. Connect a coil to a switchable DC power supply. Connect a voltmeter ( digital, if possible)to
the supply to show when it is on. Place a secondcoil, connectedto a sensitive galvanometer,
near the first. Show that when the switch is opened or closed current is induced in the
second coil, but that none is induced when the current in the first coil is steady.
D. Define the magnetic flux through a surface. Unit: 1 weber = 1 T.m2. Point out that
B measuresthe number of magnetic field lines that penetrate the surface. Remark that
B= BAcos(} when B is uniform over the surface and makes the angle (} with its normal.
E. Give a qualitative statement of the law: an emf is generated around a closed contour
when the magnetic flux through the contour changes. Stress that the law involves the flux
through the surface bounded by the contour.Point out the surface and contour for each
of the demonstrations done, then remark that the contour may be a conducting wire, a
physical boundary of somematerial, or it may be a purely geometric construction. Remark
that if the contour is conducting then current flows.
F. Give the equations for Faraday's law, in terms ofmagnitudes: lel = IdB/dtlfor a single
loop and lel = NldB/dtl for N tightly packed loops. Note that the emf's add.
II. Lenz' law.
A. Explain Lenz' law in terms of the magnetic field produced by the current induced if the
contour is a conducting wire. Stress that the induced field must re-enforce the external
field in the interior of the loop if the flux is decreasing and must tend to cancel it if the
flux is increasing. This gives the direction of the induced current, which is the same as
the direction of the emf. Review the right-hand rule for finding the direction of the field
produced by a loop of current-carrying wire. State that Lenz' law can be used even if the
contour is not conducting. The current must then be imagined.
B. Optional: Give the right-hand rule for finding the direction of positive emf. When the
.thumb points in the direction of d.A, then the fingers curl in the direction of positive emf.
If Faraday's law gives a negative emf, then it is directed opposite to the fingers. Stress
that the negative sign in e = -dB/dt is important if the equation, with the right-hand
rule, is to describe nature.
C. Consider a rectangular loop of wire placed perpendicular to a magnetic field. Assume a
function B(t) and calculate the emf and current. Show how the directions of the emf and
current are found. Point out that an area integral is evaluated to find Band a time
derivative is evaluated to find the emf. Some students confuse the variables and integrate
with respect to time.
III. Motional emf.
A. Consider a rectangular loop being pulled with constant velocity past the boundary of a
uniform magnetic field. Calculate the emf and current.
B. Consider a rod moving with a constant velocity that is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic
field. Show how to complete the loop and calculate the emf. Mention that the emf exists
only in the moving rod, whether the rest of loop is conducting or not.
C. Consider a rectangular loop of wire rotating with constant angular velocity about an axis
that is in the plane of the loop and through its center. Take the magnetic field to be
uniform and point out that now the flux is changing becausethe angle between the field
and the normal to the loop is changing. Derive the expressionfor the emf and point out it
is time dependent. Say that this is the basis for electric generators.
IV .Energy considerations.
A. Point out that an emf does work at the rate ei, where i is the current. Explain that for a
current induced by motion the energy comesfrom the work done by an external agent or

from the kinetic energy of the moving portion of the loop.
B. Consider four conducting rails that form a rectangle, three fixed and the fourth riding on
two of them. Take the magnetic field to be uniform and normal to the loop. Assume most
of the electrical resistance of the loop is associatedwith the moving rail. First supposethe
moving rail has constant velocity and derive expressionsfor the emf, current, and magnetic
force on the rail. Next derive expressionsfor the rate at which an external agent must do
work to keep the velocity constant and for the rate at which energy is dissipated by the
resistance of the loop. Point out that all the energy supplied by the agent is dissipated.
C. Now supposethe rail is given an initial velocity and thereafter it is acted on by the magnetic
field alone. Use Newton's secondlaw to derive an expressionfor the velocity as a function
of time. Compare the rate at which the kinetic energy is decreasingwith the rate of energy
dissipation in the resistance. Remark that this phenomenon finds practical application in
magnetic braking.
D. Mention that energy is also dissipated when a current is induced by a changing magnetic
field and it comesfrom the agent that is changing the field. Remark that more details will
be given in the next chapter.
v. Induced electric fields.
A. Explain that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, which is responsible for
the emf. The emf and electric field are related by e = .f E. ds, where the integral is around
the contour. Remind students that this integral is the work per unit charge done by the
field as a charge goes around the contour .Write Faraday's law as .f E. ds = -1t J B .d.A.
N?te that dS and d.A are related by a right-hand rule: fingers along ds implies thumb along
dA. This is consistent with Lenz' law.
B. State that the induced electric field is like an electrostatic field in that it exerts a force on
a charge but that it is unlike an electrostatic field in that it is not conservative. For an
electrostatic field the integral defining the emf vanishes. Explain that an electric potential
can be associatedwith an electrostatic field but not with an induced electric field.
C. Consider a cylindrical region containing a uniform magnetic field, along the axis. Assume
a time dependencefor B and derive expressionsfor the electric field inside the region and
--
outside the region. See Sample Problem 34-6. Point out that the lines of E form closed
circles concentric with the cylinder and that the magnitude of E is uniform around a circle.
Section 34- 7 of the text gives details of the transfer of energy from an external agent to the
moving chargesof the current when the current is associatedwith a motional emf. The section
also explains that in the rest frame of the moving circuit element the magnetic field is changing
and the emf is attributed to an electric field. Emphasize the interdependence of electric and
magnetic fields. What one observer calls an electric force another might call a magnetic force
and vice versa. Consider covering this section for the better students.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Law of induction: multiple-choice questions 2 and 4; questions 3 and 5; exercise 2; problem
2.
b. Lenz's law: multiple-choice questions 6, 9, and 10; questions 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18;
exercises 4, 6, 10, 11, and 13.
c. Motional emf: multiple-choice question 11; questions 21 and 22; exercises 16, 17, 18, 21,
and 23; problems 6, 8, 9, and 10.
d. Generators and motors: multiple-choice questions 12 and 13; exercise 26.

e. Induced electric fields: multiple-choice questions 17 and 18; question 30; exercises30 and
31; problem 18.
2. Demonstrations
a. As a supplementary demonstration, take a large, long ~ a;tuminum
coil, mount it vertically, insert a solid, soft-iron rod with rmg
a foot or so sticking out, and connect the coil via a switch
to a large dc power supply. Place a solid aluminum ring
around the iron rod. The ring should fit closely but be
free to move. Close the switch and the ring 'Jfill jump up,
then settle down. Repeat with a ring that has a gap in
it. Finally, use an ac power supply. The effect can be
enhanced by cooling the ring with liquid nitrogen. coil
b. Generation of induced currents: Freier and Anderson Ek1
-6.
c. Eddy currents: Freier and Anderson Ei1 -6.
d. Generators: Freier and Anderson: Eq4 -7, Er1.
3. Audio/Visual
a. Electromagnetism; Side D: Waves (II) & Electricity and Magnetism of Cinema Classics;
b. Electromagnetic Induction; Demonstrations of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism; VHS
c. The Genemtion of Current; VHS video tape (12 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
PO Box 2053, Princeton, N J 08543-2053.
d. Electromagnetic Induction; VHS video tape (14 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
e. The Genemtion of Electricity; VHS video tape (19 min); Films for the Humanities &
.Sciences(seeabove for address).
f. Electricity and Magnetism; Electromagnetic Effects; Induction Application; Eddy Currents;
Physics Demonstrations in Electricity and Magnetism, Part III; VHS video tape; ~3 min
each; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill Drive, Lakeville, MN 55044.
4. Laboratory
a. Bernard Experiment 35: Electromagnetic Induction. Students measure the magnitude
and observe the direction of current induced by a changing magnetic flux in a simple
galvanometercircuit. Changing flux is produced by moving permanent magnets, by moving
current-carrying coils, and by changing current in a coil.
b. Meiners Experiment 11-4: The Magnetic Field of a Circular Coil. The emf generated in
a small search coil when a low frequency ac current flows in a given circuit (a circular coil
in this case) is used to determine the magnetic field produced by the circuit. The field is
investigated as a function of position, specified in spherical coordinates.
Chapter 35 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER
BASIC TOPICS
I. Magnetic dipoles in matter .
A. State that the magnetic dipole is the most fundamental source of magnetism and that
current loops and bar magnets produce magnetic fields which, for points far away, are
dipole fields. Review the expressionsfor the magnetic field of a dipole and for the dipole
moment of a loop in terms of the current and area. Place a bar magnet under a piece of

plastic sheet on an overheadprojector. Sprinkle iron filings on the sheet and show the field
pattern of the magnet. Remind students that field lines emerge from the north pole and
enter at the south pole. ...
B. Remind students that the torque of a magnetic field on a dipole is given by T = ¡1 x B.
State or briefly derive U = -mu .B for the potential energy of a magnetic dipole in an
...
external field B .
C. Explain that electrons in atoms create magnetic fields by virtue of their orbital motions.
Derive Eq. 35-10, which gives the relationship between orbital angular momentum and
dipole moment. Explain that orbital angular momentum is quantized in units of h/27r
and show that the Bohr magneton (J.LB= eh/47rm) is the natural unit for atomic dipole
moments. Give its value (9.27 x 10-24 J/T).
D. Explain that the electron and many other fundamental particles have intrinsic dipole mo-
ments, related to their intrinsic spin angular momentum. Give the magnitude of the
electron's intrinsic dipole moment: 9.27 X 10-24 J/T .
E. Remark that it is chiefly the orbital and spin dipole moments of electrons that are respon-
sible for the magnetic properties of materials. Explain how to calculate the dipole moment
of an atom: jl = ( -e/2m)L + ( -e/m)S, where L is the total orbital angular momentum
...
and S is the total spin angular momentum of the electrons of the atom.
F. Explain that protons and neutrons also have intrinsic dipole moments but that these are
much smaller than that of an electron becausethe massesare so much larger. Remark that
nuclear magnetism has found medical applications.
II. Magnetization
A. Define magnetization as the dipole moment per unit volume. Although only uniformly
magnetized objects are considered in the text you may wish to state the definition as the
limiting value as the volume shrinks to zero.
B. State that a magnetized object produces a magnetic field both in its exterior and interior
and write B = Bo + B M for the total field. Here Bo is the applied field and B M is the
field due to dipoles in the material.
C. Draw a diagram of a long cylindrical sample of magnetic material. State that if the
material is uniformly magnetized with the magnetization vector along the axis then the
field produced by the dipoles is given by B M = J.LoMin the interior. For this special case
it is zero in the exterior .
III. Paramagnetism and diamagnetism.
A. Give a qualitative discussion of paramagnetism. Explain that paramagnetic substances
are composed of atoms with net dipole moments and, in the absenceof an external field,
the moments have random orientations, so that they produce no net magnetic field. An
external field tends to align the moments and the material produces its own field. Since
the moments, on average, are aligned with the external field, the total field is stronger
than the external field alone. Alignment is opposed by thermal agitation and both the net
magnetic moment and magnetic field decreaseas the temperature increases.
B. Give the Curie law for small applied fields. Point out that M is proportional to B and
inversely proportional to T. Describe saturation and explain that there is an upper limit to
the magnetization. The limit occurs when all atomic dipoles are aligned. Use a teslameter
or flip coil to measure the magnetic field just outside the end of a large, high current coil.
Put a large quantity of manganesein the coil and again measure the field.
C. Consider an ideal cylindrical solenoid filled with paramagnetic material. State that if the
applied field is sufficiently weak the total field in the interior is given by B = K,mBo,where
K,mis the permeability constant of the sample. Show that BM = (K,m-l)Bo and that the
magnetization is proportional to the applied field. Remark that for paramagnetic materials

K,Tn-1 is positive, that BTn is in the same direction as Bo, and that the magnitude of the
total field is greater than the magnitude of the applied field. Point out the values of
K,Tn-1 given in Table 35-3 and note the relatively small fields produced by paramagnetic
materials.
D. Give a qualitative discussion of diamagnetism. Explain that an external field changesthe
electron orbits so there is a net dipole moment and that the induced moment is directed
opposite to the field. This tends to make the total field weaker than the external field
alone. Bismuth is an example of a diamagnetic substance.
E. Explain that diamagnetic effects are present in all materials but are overshadowedby
paramagnetic or ferromagnetic effects if the atoms have dipole moments.
F. Explain that the total field and the field due to dipoles in the material are given by the
equations used for paramagnetic materials but now K,Tn-1 is negative. M and B M are
opposite the applied field and the magnitude of the total field is less than the magnitude
of the applied field. Point out Table 35-4.
IV.Ferromagnetism.
A. Explain that, for iron and other ferromagnetic substances(such as Co, Ni, Gd, and Dy),
the atomic dipoles are aligned by an internal mechanism (exchange coupling) so the sub-
stance can produce a magnetic field spontaneously,in the absenceof an external field. At
temperatures above its Curie temperature, a ferromagnetic substance becomesparamag-
netic. Gadolinium is ferromagnetic with a Curie temperature of about 20° C. Put a sample
in a beaker of cold water (T < 20° C) and use a weak magnet to pick it up from the bottom
of the beaker but not out of the water. Add warm water to the beaker and the sample will
drop from the magnet.
B. Describe ferromagnetic domains and explain that the dipoles are aligned within any domain
but are oriented differently in neighboring domains. The magnetic fields produced by the
various domains cancel for an unmagnetized sample. When the sample is placed in a
magnetic field domains with dipoles aligned with the field grow in size while others shrink.
The dipoles in a domain may also be reoriented somewhat as a unit.
C. Define hysteresis (see Fig. 35-11) and explain that the growth and shrinkage of domains
are not reversible processes.Domain size is dependent not only on the external field but
also on the magnetic history of the sample. When the external field is turned off, the
material remains magnetized. Explain the difference between soft and hard iron in terms
of hysteresis. U se a large, high current coil to magnetize a piece of hard iron and show
that it remains magnetized when the current is turned off. Also magnetize a piece of soft
iron and show it is magnetized only as long as the current remains on. When the current is
turned off, very little permanent magnetization remains. Soft iron is used for transformer
coils.
v. Gauss' law for magnetism.
A. Explain that a magnetic monopole is a particle that produces a magnetic field even while
at rest. Remark that no magnetic monopole has been observedyet but it is currently being
sought. Write down Gauss' law for the magnetic field and state that magnetic field lines
form closed contours so the flux through any closed surface vanishes. If monopoles were
found to exist, the law would be modified to include them. Compare with Gauss' law for
the electric field.
B. To show that the ends of a magnet are not monopoles, magnetize a piece of hard iron
wire. Use a compassto locate and mark the north and south poles. Break the wire into
pieces and again use the compassto show that each piece has a north and a south pole.
Repeat a few times using smaller pieceseach time. Remark that the sameresults would be
obtained if the breaking processwere continued to the atomic level. Individual particles

are magnetic dipoles, not monopoles.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Plan~tary magnetism. Section 35-6 describesthe magnetic fields of the earth and other planets.
The shape, cause, and some of the ramifications of the earth's field are important topics and
should be covered if you have the time. If not, you might intersperse some of the information
in your other lectures. With the great interest in exploration of the solar system, the sections
on planetary magnetism can be used to motivate students.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assi~ments
a. Magnetic dipole: multiple-cl1oice questions 1 and 2; question 5; exercises4 and 8; problem
2.
b. Force on a magnetic dipole: multiple-cl1oice questions 3 and 4j questions 1 and 15.
c. Atomic and nuclear magnetism: multiple-cl1oice question 5; exercise 11.
d. Magnetization: exercises12 and 14; problem 6.
e. Magnetic materials: multiple-cl1oice question 8j questions 7, 22, and 34; exercises15, 16,
18, and 21.
f. Planetary magnetism: multiple-cl1oice question 10; question 28; exercises22 and 23; prob-
lem 9.
g. Gauss' law for magnetism: multiple-cl1oice question 12; exercise 28.
2. Demonstrations
a. Field of a magnet: Freier and Anderson Er4
b. Gauss' law: Freier and Anderson Er12
c. Paramagnetism: Freier and Anderson Es3, 4
d. Ferromagnetism: Freier and Anderson Esl, 2, 6 -10.
e. Levitation: Freier and Anderson Er10, 11
magnetic Monopoles; edited by Alfred S. Goldhaber and W. Peter Trowerj available from
AAPT, One Physics Ellipse, College Park MD 20740-3845. Reprint collection, with a
resourceletter .
4. Audio/Visual
a. Ferromagnetic Domain Wall Motion; Paramagnetism of Liquid Oxygen; from AAPT Miller
collection of single-concept fihns; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,
..Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Magnetic Effects in Space;Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (14 min); Media Design
Associates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
c. Magnetism in Spacej Skylab Demonstrations; VHS video tape (19 min)j Media Design
d. Earth 's Magnetic Fieldj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
e. Domain Theoryj Electromagnetism; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities
f. Magnetism and Static Electricityj VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities &
Electricity f1 Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on ferromagnetic
domains.

6. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 11-6: Magnetization and Hysteresis. Faraday's law is used to measure
the magnetic field inside an iron toroid for various applied fields. A plot of the field as a
function of the applied field shows hysteresis. A method for obtaining the hysteresis curve
as an oscilloscopetrace is also given.
Chapter 36 INDUCTANCE
BASIC TOPICS
I. Definition of inductance.
A. Connect a light bulb and choke.coil in parallel across a switchable DC supply. Close the
switch and note that the lamp is initially brighter than when steady state is reached. Open
the switch and note that the light brightens before going off. Remark that this behavior
is due to the changing magnetic fiux through the coil and that the fiux is created by the
current in the coil itself.
B. Point out that when current fiows in a loop it generates a magnetic field and the loop
contains magnetic fiux due to its own current. If the current changesso does the fiux and
an emf is generated around the loop. The total emf, due to all sources, determines the
current. Remark that the self fiux is proportional to the current and the induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change of the current.
C. Define the inductance by &L = Ldi/dt, where &L is the emf generated by the changing
magnetic fiux. Consider a tightly wound coil and show that if the fiux is the samethrough
every turn of the coil then L = NcI>B/i, where cI>Bis the fiux through any one turn. Unit:
1 henry = 1 V.s/ A.
D. Inductors are denoted by -0-0-0-0-0-in circuit diagrams. Point out that if the circuit element
looks like a ~ b' then Vb-Va = -Ldi/dt is algebraically correct no matter what the
sign of di/dt. As an example usei(t) = im sin(Y)t). Note that i is positive when it is directed
from a to b and negative when it is directed from b to a. Compute Va-Vb = LimY)COS(Y)t).
Graph i and the potential difference as functions of time to show the phase relationship.
Remark that a real inductor can be regarded as a pure inductance in series with a pure
resistance.
E. Show how to calculate the inductance of an ideal solenoid. Use the current to calculate
the field, then the fiux, and finally equate NcI>Bto Li and solve for L. Point out that L is
independent of i but dependson geometric factors such as the cross-sectionalarea, length,
and the number of turns per unit length.
F. Optional: Show how to calculate the inductance of a toroid.
II. An LR circuit.
A. Derive the loop equation for a single loop containing a sourceof emf, resistor, and inductor
in series: & -iR -L di / dt = O,where the current is positive if it leavesthe positive terminal
of the emf source. Use the prototypes developed earlier:
a b a-l
lb ~b
~ i o---+t:
~ -Va = -iR
~-va=t:
Remark that these are correct no matter whether the current is positive or negative or
whether it is increasing or decreasing.Write down the solution for the current as a function
121
oftime for the case i(O) = O: i = (&/R)[l- e-Rt/L]. Show that the expression satisfies
the loop equation and meets the initial conditions. Show a graph of i( t ) ; point out the
asymptotic limit i = &/ R and the time constant TL = L / R. Remark that if L / R is large
the current approachesits limit more slowly than if L/ R is small.
B. Explain the qualitative physics involved. When the battery is turned on and the current
increases,the emf of the coil opposesthe increase and the current approachesits steady
state value more slowly than if there were no inductance. At long times the current is
nearly constant so di / dt and the induced emf are small. The current is nearly the sameas
it would be in the absenceof an inductor.
C. Repeat the calculation for a circuit with an inductor and resistor, but no battery. Take
the initial current to be io and show that i(t) = ioe-t/TL. Graph the solution and show
the position of TL on the time axis. Point out that the emf of the coil opposesthe decrease
in current.
D. Demonstrate the two circuits by connecting a resistor and coil in series to a square wave
generator. Observe the current by placing oscilloscopeleads across the resistor. Observe
the voltage drop acrossthe coil. Vary the time constant by varying the resistance.
III. Energy considerations.

A. Consider a single loop circl.Út containing a source of emf, a resistor, and an inductor .
Assume the current is increasing. Write down the loop equation, multiply it by i, and
identify the power supplied by the emf source and the power lost in the resistor. Explain
that the remaining term describesthe power being stored by the inductor, in its magnetic
field. Point out the similarity between iE and -iL di / dt for the rate at which work is being
done by a sourceof emf, such as an ideal battery, and by an inductor (with emf -Ldi/dt).
B. Integrate p = iLdi/dt to obtain UB = !Li2 for the energy stored in the magnetic field
(relative to the energy for i = O).
C. Consider the energy stored in a long current carrying solenoid and show that the energy
density is uB = B2/2J.Lo. Explain that this gives the energy density at a point in any
IÍ1agnetic field and that the energy reql.Úredto establish a given magnetic field can be
calculated by integrating the expressionover the volume occupied by the field.
IV. LC oscillations.
A. Draw a diagram of an LC circl.Út and assume the capacitor is charged. Explain that as
charge flows, energy is transferred from the electric field of the capacitor to the magnetic
field of the inductor and back again. When the capacitor has maximum charge, the current
(dq/dt) vanishes, so no energy is stored in the inductor. When the current is a maximum
the charge on the capacitor vanishesand no energy is stored in that element.
B. Write down the loop equation, then convert it so the charge q on the capacitor is the
dependent variable. If the direction of positive current is into the capacitor plate with
positive charge q, then i = dq/dt. If it is out of that plate, then i = -dq/dt. Note that
the form of the differential equation is the same as that of the displacement of a simple
harmonic oscillator .
C. Write down the solution: q(t) = qmCOS(l..)t + <P).Show by direct differentiation that this is
a solution if 1..)2
= 1/ LC .Show that <Pis determined by the initial condition and treat the
special casefor whicl1 q = qm, i = 0 at t = 0.
D. Once the solution is found, derive expressionsfor the current, the energy stored in the
capacitor, and the energy stored in the inductor, all as functions of time. Sketcl1graphs of
these quantities. Show that thetotal energy is constant.
122 Lecture Notes: Chapter 36

v. Damped and forced oscillations.
A. Write down the loop equation for a single LCR loop, then convert it so q is the dependent
variable. State that q(t) = qme-Rt/2L cos(w't + <I»satisfies the differential equation. Here
w' is somewhat less than 1/ VW .If time permits, the expression for w' can be found by
substituting the assumedsolution into the differential equation.
B. Draw a graph of q(t) and point out that the envelope decreasesexponentially. Each time
the capacitor is maximally charged,the chargeon the positive plate is lessthan the previous
time. Explain that this does not violate the conservation of chargeprinciple since the total
of the charge on both plates of the capacitor is always zero. Energy is dissipated in the
resistor.
C. To show the oscillations, wire a resistor, inductor, and capacitor in serieswith a squarewave
generator and connect an oscilloscope across the capacitor. The scope shows a function
proportional to the charge. Show the effect of varying C (use a variable capacitor), R
(use a decade box), and L (insert an iron rod into the coil). If time permits, show that
oscillations occur only if l/LC > (R/2L)2.
D. Consider an LCR circuit with a sinusoidal oscillator and write down the loop equation.
You may also want to write down the solution. fu any event, show the solution by sketching
graphs of the current amplitude as a function of the impressed frequency for severalvalues
of the resistance (see Fig. 36-13). Point out that the current amplitude is greatest when
the impressed frequency matches the natural frequency of the circuit and that the peak
becomeslarger as the resistance is reduced.
E. Demonstrate resonancephenomenaby wiring an LC R loop in serieswith a sinusoidal audio
oscillator. Look at the current by putting the leads of an oscilloscope across the resistor.
U se a decadebox for the resistor and measurethe current amplitude for various frequencies
and for several resistance values. Be sure the amplitude of the oscillator output remains
the same. Explain that similar circuits are used to tune radio and TV's.
F. Use a sweepgenerator to show the current amplitude. Set the oscilloscope sweeprate to
accommodate that of the generator and put a small diode in series with the scope leads.
Usually this will have enough capacitance that only the envelopewill be displayed.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Calculating inductance: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 5; questions 4 and 6; exercises
2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10; problem 3.
b. LR circuits: multiple-choice question 7; questions 10 and 13; exercises 12, 15, and 21;
problem 6.
c. Magnetic energy: exercises 23, 24, 28, and 32; problems 10 and 11.
d. Electromagnetic oscillations: multiple-choice questions 10, 11, 13, and 14; questions 26,
29, and 34; exercises 34,37,41,44,48, and 49; problem 12.
e. Damped and forced oscillations: exercises 52 and 54; problem 15.
2. Demonstrations
a. Self-inductance: Freier and Anderson Eql -3.
b. LR circuit: Freier and Anderson Eoll, En5- 7.
Lecture Notes: Chapter 36 123

Chapter 37 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Elements of circuit analysis.
A. Consider a sinusoidally varying current in a resistor and state that the potential difference
acrossthe resistor is in phasewith the current and the amplitudes are related by (iR)max =
(VR)max/R. Emphasize that VR(t) gives the potential ofone end ofthe resistor relative to
the other. Draw a phasor diagram: two arrows along the sameline with length proportional
to (iR)max and (VR)maxrespectively. Both make the angle wt with the horizontal axis and
rotate in the counterclockwise direction. Point out that the vertical projections represent
iR(t) and VR(t) and these vary in proportion to sin(wt) as the arrows rotate.
B. Consider sinusoidally varying current in a circuit branch containing a capacitor. Start with
ic = dq/dt = CdVc/dt, then show that Vc lags ic by 90° and that the amplitudes are
related by (ic)max = (VC)max/XC, where Xc = l/wC is the capacitive reactance. Drawa
phasor diagram to show the relationship. Mention that the unit of reactance is the ohm.
C. Consider a sinusoidally varying current in a circuit branch containing an inductor. Start
with VL = LdiL/dt, then show that VL leads iL by 90° and that the amplitudes are
related by (iL)max = (VL)max/XL, where XL = wL is the inductive reactance. Drawa
phasor diagram to show the relationship.
D. Wire a small resistor in series with a capacitor and a signal generator. Use a dual trace
oscilloscopewith one set of leads acrossthe resistor and the other set acrossthe capacitor.
Remind students that the potential difference across the resistor is proportional to the
current, so the scope shows ic and Vc. Point out the difference in phase. Repeat with an
inductor in place of the capacitor.
II. An LCR series circuit.
A. Draw the circuit. Assume the generator emf is given by E(t) = Emsin(wt) and the current
is given by i(t) = im sin(wt -r/J). Pick consistent directions for positive emf and positive
current. Construct a phasor diagram step by step (see Fig. 37-5). First draw the current
and resistor voltage phasors, in phase. Remind students that the current is the same in
every element of the circuit so voltage phasors for the other elements can be drawn using
the phase relations between voltage and current developed earlier. Draw the capacitor
voltage phasor lagging by 90° and the inductor voltage phasor leading by 90°. Make
(VL)max> (VC)max.Their lengths are imXc and imXL respectively. Draw the projections
of the phasors on the vertical axis and remark that the algebraic sum must be E(t).
B. Draw the impressedemfphasor. Remark that its projection on the inductance phasor must
be [(VL)max-(VC )max]and that its projection on the resistance phasor must be (VR)max.
Make the analogy to a vector sum.
C. Use the phasor diagram to derive the expression for the current amplitude: im = Em/Z,
where Z = V R2 + (XL -Xc )2 is the impedance of the circuit. Show that the impedance
is frequency dependent by substituting the expressionsfor the reactances. A1soshow that
im is greatest for Xc = XL or w = l/VW and remark that this is the resonancecondition
discussedin the last chapter.
D. Use the phasor diagram to derive the expression for the phase angle of i relative to E:
tan r/J= (XL -XC) / R. Point out that the phase angle vanishes at resonanceand E leads
i if XL > XC, but E lags i if XL < XC. For later use show that cosr/J= R/Z.
nr .Power considerations.
A. Discuss averagevalues over a cycle. Show that the averageof sin2(wt + r/J)is ~ and that
the averageof sin(wt) cos(wt) is 0. Define the rms value of a sinusoidal quantity. Point out
that AC meters are usually calibrated in terms of rms values.
124 Lecture Notes: Chavter 37

B. Derive the expression for the power input of the AC source: p = ie = imem sin(wt +
<P)sin(wt). Show that the averageover a cycle is given by p = ermsirmscos<p.Do the same
for the power dissipated in the resistor. In particular, show that its averagevalue can be
written i~msR or ermsirmsR/Z. Recall that R/Z = cos<pand then use this relationship
to show that the averagepower input equals the averagepower dissipated in the resistor.
Remark that the averagerate of energy storage in the capacitor and inductor are zero.
c. Explain that cos<Pis called the power factor. If it is 1 the source delivers the greatest
possible power for a fixed generator amplitude. Remark that the power factor is 1 at
resonance.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
The transformer. Use Faraday's law to show how the potential difference acrossthe secondary
is related to the potential difference acrossthe primary. Explain what step-up and step-down
transformers are. A dual trace oscilloscopecan be used to demonstrate transformer voltages.
Assume a purely resistive load and show how to find the primary and secondary currents. Show
that, as far as the primary current is concerned,the transformer and secondary circuit can be
replaced by a resistor with ~q = (Np/N8)2R, where Np is the number ofturns in the primary
coil, N 8 is the number of turns in the secondary coil, and R is the load resistance. Explain
impedance matching.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Circuit elements: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 4; question 6; exercises 3 and 4;
problem 1.
b. RLC circuits: multiple-choice questions 5, 6, and 8; questions 8, 14, 15, and 25; exercises
6, 9, 11, and 15; problems 6 and 10.
c. Power: multiple-choice question 9; questions 2, 20, and 24; exercises17, 20, 23, 24, and 26;
problems 5 and 8.
d. Transformers: questions 32 and 33; exercises29 and 32.
2. Demonstrations
a. LCR series circuit: Freier and Anderson En12, Eo13.
b. Measurementsof reactance and impedance: Freier and Anderson Eo9.
c. Transformers: Freier and Anderson Ek7, Eml, 2,4,5,7,8,10.
3. Audio/Visual
Direct Current and Alternating Current; VHS video tape (14 min); Films for the Human-
ities & Sciences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
Electricity & Magnetism; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Ken-
tucky Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on RLC circuits.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 10-11: A.C. Series Circuits. Students use an oscilloscope and ac
meters to investigate voltage amplitudes, phases, and power in RC and RLC circuits.
Voltage amplitudes and phases are plotted as functions of the driving frequency to show
resonance. Reactancesand impedances are calculated from the data.
b. Bernard Experiment 37: A Study of Alternating Current Circuits. An ac voltmeter is used
to investigate the voltages acrosscircuit elementsin R, RC, RL, and RLC circuits, all with
60Hz sources. Reactancesand impedancesare computed. If possible, oscilloscopesshould
be used. A section labelled optional describestheir use. This experiment is pedagogically

similar to the text and can be usedprofitably to reenforcethe ideas ofthe chapter. Warning:
the lab book uses the word vector rather than phasor.
Chapter 38 MAXWELL'S EQU ATIONS

AND ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
BASIC TOPICS
I. The Ampere-Maxwelllaw .
A. Compare Faraday's and Ampere's laws and note the absenceof any counterpart to Fara-
day's law, i.e. the creation of magnetic fields by changing electric fiux. Tell students it
should be there and you will now discussits form.
B. Consider the charging of a parallel plate capacitor. Remind students that in Ampere's law
dS and dA are related by a right-hand rule and the surface integral is over any surface
bounded by the closed contour .
In the diagram, surfaces A, B, and
C are all bounded by the contour which -
forms the left end of the figure. If we 1- \ I-~
choosesurface A or C then Ampere's law I I
-. I I
as we have taken it gives .f B .ds = J1oi, --t , -¿
but if we choosesurface B, it gives .f B . i A I 'B I 'G ~
~~ ,-~ ,-"
dS = o. Since the integral on the left side
is exactly the samein all cases,something
is wrong.
C. Note that the situation discussedand the lack of symmetry in the electromagnetic equations
suggeststhat Ampere's law as used so far must be changed. Experiment confirms this
conjecture.
D. Explain that if the electric fiux through an open surface changes with time then there
is a magnetic field and the magnetic field has a tangential component at points on the
boundary. Write down the Ampere-Maxwelllaw: .fB .dS = J1oi+ J1oEodCPE/dt, where
CPEis the electric fiux through the surface. Compare to Faraday's law and point out the
interchange of B and E, the change in sign, and the appearanceof the factor J10EO.
E. Give the right-hand rule that relates the normal to the surface used to calculate cPE and
the direction of integration around its boundary. State that the surface may be a purely
mathematical construction and that the law holds for any surface.
II .Displacement current .
A. Define the displacement current id = EOdCPE/dt. Explain that it does not represent the
fiow of charge and is not a true current, but that it enters the Ampere-Maxwelllaw in the
same way as a true current. Discuss the direction of id. Consider a region in which the
electric field is uniform and is changing. Find the direction for both an increasing and a
decreasingfield.
B. Refer to the Ampere-Maxwelllaw. Explain that there are no changing electric fields in
the examples of Chapter 33 so only true currents were considered. Explain that in the
region between the plates of a charging capacitor there is no true current but there is a
displacement current.
C. Consider a parallel plate capacitor with circular plates, for which dE / dt is given. Show that
the total displacement current in the interior of the capacitor equals the true current into
the capacitor. Explain that the sum of the true and displacement currents is continuous.
Optional: discuss a leaky capacitor.
126 Chapter 38: Maxwell 's Equations a.ndelectromagnetic waves

--
D. Derive expressions for B at various points along the perpendicular bisector of the line
joining the plate centers. Consider points between the plates and outside them. See
Sample Problem 38-1.
III. Maxwell's equations.
A. Write down the four equations in integral form and review the physical processesthat each
describes. SeeTable 38-1.
B. Carefully distinguish between the line and surface integrals that appear in the equations
and give the right-hand rules that relate the direction of integration for the contour integrals
and the normal to the surface for the surface integrals.
C. Review typical problems: the electric field of a point charge, the magnetic field of a uniform
current in a long straight wire, the magnetic field at points between the plates of a capacitor
with circular plates, the electric field accompanying a changing uniform magnetic field with
cylindrical symmetry.
D. State that in the absenceof dielectric and magnetic materials these equations describe all
electromagnetic phenomena to the atomic level and the natural generalizations of them
provide valid descriptions of electromagnetic phenomena at the quantum level. They are
consistent with modem relativity theory. Optional: for completenessyou may want to
rewrite the equations and include magnetization and electric polarization terms.
E. You may also want to include magnetic monopole terms in Gauss' law for magnetism and
in Faraday's law. Remark on the symmetry between electric and magnetic fields.
IV; Qualitative features of electromagnetic waves.
A. Explain that an electromagnetic wave is composed of electric and magnetic fields. The
disturbance, analogous to the string shape that moves on a taut string, is made up of
the fields themselves, moving through space or a material medium. Also explain that
electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum.
B. State that the wave speed in empty space is given by c = 1/ VJiOEOand is about 3.00 x
108m/s. The existence of waves and this expression for the wave speed in vacuum are
predicted by Maxwell's equations. Since the values of c and Jlo are fixed, this fixes EO.
C. State that an accelerating charge creates electromagnetic radiation. Show diagrams of an
oscillating electric dipole antenna and its fields (see Figs. 38-5 and 38-6). Point out that
E and B are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation and that they
oscillate in phase with each other at any point. Explain the term polarization.
v. Traveling sinusoidal waves.
A. Take E(x, t) = Em sin(kx -wt), along the y axis, and B(x, t) = Bm sin(kx -wt), along
the z axis. Remark that both fields travel in the positive x direction and that they are in
phase. Remind students that the minus sign in the argument becomes a plus sign for a
wave traveling in the negative x direction.
B. Consider a rectangular -- area in the xy plane, with infinitesimal width ~x and length h
(alongy). Evaluate .f E.dS and CPB,then show that Faraday's law yields 8E/8x = -8B/8t.
Substitute the expressionsfor E and B to show that E = cB, where c = w/k. Stressthat
the magnitudes of E and B are related. Remark that E is different at different points
--
becauseB changeswith time.
C. Consider a rectangular area in the xz plane, with infinitesimal width ~x and length h
--
(along z). Evaluate .f B .dS and CPE,then show that the Ampere-Maxwelllaw yields
-8B/8x = JloEo8E/8t. Combine this with the result ofpart B to show that c = 1/ J¡LOEO.
Remark that B is different at diff.erent points becauseE changeswith time.
Chapter 38: Maxwell 's Equations and electromagnetic waves 127

VI. Energy and momentum transport.-+ -+ -+
A. Define the Poynting vector S = (1/ ¡.J;o)Ex B and explain that it is in the direction of
propagation and that its magnitude gives the electromagnetic energy per unit area that
crossesa unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation per unit time. Remark
that for a plane wave S = EB/¡.J;o::;;:E2/¡.J;oc= cB2/¡.J;o.
B. Consider the plane wave of Section V, propagating in the positive x direction. Consider a
volume of width ~x and cross section A (in the yz plane) and show that the electric and
magnetic energiesin it are equal and that the total energy is ~U = (EBA/ ¡.J;oc) ~x, for
smal1~x. This energy passesthrough the area A in time ~ t = ~x / c so the rate of energy
flow per unit area is EB / ¡.J;o,
as previously postulated.
C. Explain that most electromagnetic waves of interest oscillate rapidly and we are not nor-
mal1y interested in the instantaneous values of the energy or energy density. If you have
not done so previously, explain how to find the average over a period of the square of
a sinusoidal function. Define the intensity as the time average of the magnitude of the
Poynting vector and write expressionsfor it in terms of the averageenergy density and in
terms of the field amplitudes.
D. Explain that electromagnetic waves transport momentum and that S/ c gives the momen-
-+
tum that crossesa unit area per unit time. The momentum is in the direction of S. A1so
explain that if an object absorbs energy U then it receives momentum U/ c. If the ob-
ject reflects energy U then it receives momentum 2U/ c. If you have time carry out the
derivation by considering the Lorentz force on electrons of the material.
E. Show that the radiation pressure is I/ c for total absorption and 2I/ c for total reflection.
Here I is the intensity.
F. As an example of radiation pressure, you may wish to consider solar pressure. S can be
determined from the solar constant 1.38kW /m2 (valid just above the earth's atmosphere).
Problems 20, 36, and 37 provide interesting examples.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
Cavity oscillations. Draw a diagram of a cylindrical resonant cavity and remark that the ends
act as a capacitor. Say that a sinusoidal source of emf is attached to the ends and remark that
both electric and magnetic fields are present and both are sinusoidal. Show Fig. 4 and explain
that energy oscillates between electric and magnetic forms. Apply Ampere's and Faraday's
laws to find expressions for the fields. Show that each field is zero when the other is at a
maximum.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Induced magnetic fields and displacement currents: multiple-choice question 2; questions
2 and 6; exercises2, 5, 6, 7, and 9; problems 1,3, and 4.
b. Maxwell's equations: exercises11 and 13.
c. Generation of electromagnetic waves: multiple-choice question 6; questions 15 and 17.
d. Traveling electromagnetic waves: multiple-choice question 7; exercises16 and 18.
e. Energy transport: multiple-choice questions 8, 9, and 10; exercises 20, 24, 26, and 28;
problems 5, 9, 11, and 12 or 14.
f. Radiation pressure: multiple-choice question 11; question 26; exercises33,34, 38, and 40;
problem 13.
2. Demonstrations
Radiation: Freier and Anderson Ep4, 5.
128 Chapter 38: Maxwell's Equations and electromagnetic waves

3. Audio/Visual
The Wave Model; VHS video tape (10 min); Fihns for the Humanities & Sciences,Inc.
Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543.
Chapter 39 LIGHT WAVES
BASIC TOPICS
I. The human eye as a light detector .
A. Remind students that the visible spectrum extends from just over 400nm to just under
700nm. Remark that while color is largely subjective, violet is at the short wavelength end
while red is at the high wavelength end. Show a diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum
(Fig. 39-1 or a large colored wall chart) .U se a prism to display the spectrum.
B. Show Fig. 39-6 of the text and remark that human eyes are most sensitive in the green-
yellow portion of the spectrum and that sensitivity falls off rather rapidly on either side.
II. Sourcesof visible light.
A. Explain that electromagnetic radiation is produced when excited electrons jump to lower
energy states. Say that electrons can be excited thermally, electrically, and chemically.
B. Explain the terms "thermal radiation" and "incandescent".
C. State that cool objects may also emit light and explain the term "luminescence".Dis-
tinguish between fluorescent and phosphorescentemitters. Also say that luminescent ma-
terials can be categorized according to the source of the excitation and define the terms
"chemiluminescence", "bioluminescence", and "triboluminescence" .
III. The speed of light.
A. Describe some of the experiments that have been done to measure the speed of light:
Roemer's and Fizeau's experiments, modern experiments using lasers. The results ofmany
measurementsare given in Table 39-1.
B. Remark that the speed of light is now defined and give its value: 299,792, 458m/s. The
second is also a base SI unit and the experiments essentially determine the length of a
meter. Say that a meter is the distance light travels in 3.335641x 10-9 s.
C. Explain that light traveling in a material medium has a speedthat is less than the speedin
vacuum and that for linear materials the speed depends on the dielectric constant K,eand
the relative permeability constant Km. Write v = c/ ~. Explain that most optical
materials are non-magnetic and K,mcan be taken to be 1. Also explain that K,edepends
on the wavelength of the light, so the speed in matter is different for light of different
wavelengths.
D. Give a qualitative explanation. Argue that oscillating dipoles constitute a current and
that the sum of the displacement and polarization currents is K,eEO dE/dt. Remark this
is proportional to K,e. Suppose the frequency is fixed. Then a large value of K,emeans
the change in the magnetic field with position is great and the wavelength is small. Since
~ v = ).v this means the wave speed is small.
IV. Wave and geometrical optics
A. Explain that optical phenomena outside the quantum realm can be understood in terms
of Maxwell 's equations and that the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation must be
taken into account to explain many important phenomena. State that some of these will
be discussedlater .
B. Explain that if the wavelength of the light is much smaller than any obstacles it meets or
any slits through which it passes,then the important property is the direction of motion,
not details of the wave nature. This is the realm of geometrical optics.

C. Define a rayas a Iine that gives the direction of traveI of a wave. It is perpendicu1arto
the wave fronts (surfacesof constant phase). Explain that geometricaI optics deals Iargely
with tracing rays as Iight is reflected from surfacesor passesthrough materials.
D. Explain that when light traveling in one medium strikes a boundary with another medium,
someis reflected and someis transmitted into the secondmedium. Draw a plane boundary
between two media and show an incident, a reflected, and a refracted ray. LabeI the angles
these rays make with the normal to the surface.
E. Remind students that the speed of light may be different in different materials and state
that the speedsof light in the two media are crucial for determination of the amplitudes
of the reflected and refracted Iight and for determination of the angle of refraction. Define
the index ofrefraction of a medium as the ratio of the wave speedin vacuum and the wave
speedin the medium and write v = c/n. Remark that the index of refraction is a property
of the medium and depends on the wavelength. Point out Table 39-3, which gives the
indices of refraction of various materials. Note that the index of refraction for a vacuum
is 1 and is nearly 1 for air. Point out Fig. 39-10.
v. Reflection and refraction at a plane surface.
A. Consider a plane wave incident on a plane surface. Write down the Iaw of reflection:
(}1= (}~.
B. Consider a point source in front a plane mirror and draw a few rays. Draw both incident
and reflected rays.
C. Write down the Iaw of the Iaw of refraction: nl sin(}l = n2 sin(}2.
D. Explain that Iight rays are bent toward the normal when Iight enters a more optically dense
medium (higher index of refraction) and are bent away from the normal when it enters a
Iessoptically densemedium.
E. Consider light striking a water surface from air and trace a few rays; Consider light from
an underwater source and trace a few rays as they enter the air. Consider a sIab of gIass
with paralleI sides and show that the emerging ray has the same direction as the entering
ray but is displaced along the sIab. OptionaI: derive the expressionfor the displacement.
F. Thace a ray through a prism and derive the expression for the angle of deviation: 'l/J=
(}1+ (}2+ a, where (}1 is the angle of incidence, (}2 is the angle of emergence,and a is
the prism angle. Explain that 'l/Jis different for different colors because n depends on
wavelength.
G. Shine an intense, monochromatic, well-collimated beam on a prism and point out the
reflected and refracted beams. A Iaser works reasonably well but it is difficu1t for the class
to seethe beam. Use smoke or chalk dust to make it visible. To avoid the mess, use an
arc beam or the beam from a 35mm projector, filtered by red gIass. Make a ~in. hole in
a 2 in. by 2 in. piece of aluminum and insert it in the film gate. Use white light from the
projector and the prism to show that different wavelengths are refracted through different
angles.
H. State Huygens' principIe. Explain that it can be derived from Maxwell's equations. Use
it to show the propagation of a plane wave, then use it to derive the Iaws of reflection and
refraction. Emphasize that refraction is causedby the change in the speed of light as the
light crossesthe boundary between two difference media.
I. Explain total internaI reflection. Show that no wave is transmitted when the angle of
incidence is greater than the criticaI angle and derive the expression for the criticaI angle
in terms of the indices of refraction. Stressthat the index for the medium of incidence must
be greater than the index for the medium of the refracted light. Total internaI reflection
can be demonstrated with somepiecesof solid plastic tubing having a diameter Iarger than
that used for fiber optics. The beam inside is quite visible. If time permits, discussfiber

optics and some of its applications.
VI. The Doppler effect.
A. Write downthe equations: II = lIO(JI+ü7C)/(~) when the source is approaching
the observer or the observer is approaching the source with relative speed u along the line
joining themj II = lIO(~)/( ~) when the sourceis receding from the observer
or the observer is receding from the source. Remark that the equations are valid for any
inertial frame.
B. Explain that the frequency increasesif the source and observer are approaching each other
(visible light is shifted toward violet) and the frequency decreasesif they are receding from
each other (visible light is shifted toward red).
C. Compare with the Doppler effect equations for sound. Remind students that the speedsin
these equations are measured relative to the medium in which the sound is traveling.
D. Remark that a Doppler shift occurs even if the source and observer are moving perpendic-
ularly to the line joining them and write the equation: II = lIoV1- u2/c2. Remark that
the frequency always decreases.
E. If you covered Chapter 20, use the Lorentz transformation to derive the Doppler effect
equations for light. Here's an alternate derivation. The expression for the frequency
transformation can be derived easily by considering the measurement of the period in two
frames. Suppose an observer in S obtains T for the interval between successivemaxima
at the same place. This a proper time interval and the interval in another frame S' is "YT.
If S' is moving parallel to the wave, however, the two events do not occur at the same
place in S' and "YT is not the period in that frame. An observer in S' must wait for a
time IAx' 1/c longer before the next maxima is reached at the place of the first. Thus T' =
"YT+ IAx'l/c or since Ax' = -"YTv/c, T' = "YT(l + v/c) = T ( JI+ü7C) / ( ~).
Thus lI' = II ( ~) / ( JI+ü7C) .If S' is moving perpendicularly to the wave the
two events occur at the same place in both frames and T' = "YT, so lI' = II/"Y.
F .Discuss some applications:
1. measuring the speedsof stars and galaxies
2. measuring the temperatures of stars
3. measuring the speedsof cars and pitched baseballs
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. The electromagnetic spectrum: question 4; exercise3.
b. Visible light: multiple-choice questions; exercise6.
c. The speed of light: multiple-choice question 2j question 16; exercise 8; problem 1.
d. Reflection and refraction: multiple-choice questions 6, 8, 9, and 10; questions 19, 23, and
26; exercises11, 13, 14, 19, 23, 25, and 29j problems 5 and 10.
e. Total internal reflection: multiple-choice question 11; exercises32, 35, and 38; problem 11.
f. Doppler effect for light: multiple-choice question 15; exercises41, 46, and 51; problem 15.
2. Demonstrations
a. Refraction at a plane surface: Freier and Anderson Odl -7
b. Prisms: Freier and Anderson Of1 -4.
c. Total internal reflection: Freier and Anderson Oel -7.
letters on light.

b. Connecting Time and Space;edited by Harry E. Bates; available from AAPT (see above
for address).Reprints dealing with measurementsof the speedof light aJld the redefinition
of the meter .
4. Audio/Visual
a. The DeteT"minationofthe Velocity ofRadio Waves;Films for the Humanities and Sciences,
Inc., Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543. Experimental setup is explained and data taken. The
analysis is left for the student. Reviewed TPT 27, 541 (November 1989).
b. Reftection, Refraction, aJld Dispersion; Side C: Waves (I) of Cinema Classics; video disk;
available from Ztek Co., P.O. Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
c. Reftection; Demonstrations of Physics: Light; VHS video tape (6:34); Media Design Asso-
ciates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
d. Refraction; Demonstrations of Physics: Light; VHS video tape (8:07); Media Design As-
sociates, Inc. (see above for address).
e. Reftection of Light; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
f. Refraction of Light; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
g. Propagation of Light; Visible and Infrared Spectrum; Physics Demonstrations in Light,
Part I; VHS video tape; ~3 min each; Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585 Woodhill
Drive, Lakeville MN 55044.
Physics Simulation Progmms; Robert H. Good; Windows, Apple; requires GW-BASIC;
available from Physics Academic Software, North Carolina State University, P.O. Box
8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739. Contains simulations of traveling and standing waves.
6. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 13-3: Prism Spectrometer. Helium lines are used to determine the
index of refraction as a function of wavelength for a glass prism. A goód example of dis-
persion aJld excellent practice in carrying out a rather complicated derivation involving
Snell's law. Also see Bernard Experiment 43: Index of Refraction with the Prism Spec-
trometer aJld Bernard Experiment 44: The Wavelength of Light. In the second of these
experiments, students use a prism spectrometer to determine the wavelength of lines from
a sodium source.
Chapter 40 MIRRORS AND LENSES
BASIC TOPICS
I. Plane mirrors
A. Remind students of the law of refiection. Note that the angles of incidence and refiection
are measuredwith respect to the normal to the surface.
B. Consider a point source in front a plane mirror and draw a few rays. Draw both incident
and refiected rays and show that the refiected rays appear to come from a point behind
the mirror. Show that the object and image lie on the same normal to the mirror and that
they are the same distance from the mirror. Remark that no light comesfrom the image
and that the image is said to be virtual.
C. Define the object distance o and image distance i and explain that the latter is taken to
be negative for virtual images. The law of equal distance is written o = -i.
D. Explain how to find the image of an extended object by drawing rays from its ends. Show
that the image of an upright object is upright. Optional: explain "left-right reversal."

To show there is nothing inherently different about a right-left axis and an up-down axis,
have a student hold a ball in one hand (to represent a head) and a shoe in the other (to
represent feet). Note that "down" (from "head" to "foot") is in the same for the image as
for the object.
E. Give the condition for being able to see an image. Draw a mirror, an eye, a source, and
its image. Draw the line from the image to the eye and state that the image can be seenif
this line intersects the mirror. Show that length of a wall mirror with its top edge at eye
level need reach only halfway to the floor for a person to seehis feet. Demonstrate with a
mirror standing on the floor and ha1f-coveredwith a cloth. Have a student stand in front
of the mirror and start with the cloth about shoulder height and lower it until the student
can seehis feet.
II. Spherical mirrors.
A. Consider a point source in front of a concavespherical mirror. Draw a diagram that shows
the optic axis, the center of curvature, and the source on the axis, outside the focal point.
Define the term "paraxial ray" and show that such rays form an image and that object
and image distances are related by 1/0 + l/i = 2/r. See Section 40-3 of the text for a
derivation. To emphasizethe paraxial approximation, consider the case 0 = 2r and use a
full hemispherical concavesurface. The paraxial formula predicts all rays cross the axis at
i = (2/3)r, but the ray that strikes the edge of the mirror crossesat the vertex.
B. Explain that the mirror equation is also valid for convex mirrors and for any position of
the object, even virtual objects for which incoming rays converge toward a point behind
the mirror. Give the sign convention: 0 and i are positive for real objects and images (in
front of the mirror) and are negative for virtual objects and images (behind the mirror); r
is positive for concavemirrors (center of curvature in front of the mirror) and negative for
convex mirrors (center of curvature behind mirror). Rem,ark that a surface is concaveor
convex according to its shape as seenfrom a point on the incident ray.
C. Define the focal point as the image point when the incident light is parallel to the axis.
By considering a source far away, show that f = r /2. Consider a concavemirror and show
that for 0 > f the image is real, for 0 < f the image is virtual. Also show that for 0 = f
parallel rays emerge after reflection.
D. Describe a geometric construction for finding the image of an extended source. Trace rays
from an off-axis point: one through the center of curvature, one through the focal point,
and one parallel to the axis. Use both concave and convex mirrors as examples. Explain
that the geometric construction gives the same result as the paraxial ray approximation if
reflection is assumedto take place at a plane through the mirror vertex and perpendicular
to the optic axis. The law of reflection cannot be applied at this plane, of course.
E. Define lateral magnification and show that m = -i/o. Explain the sign: m is positive for
erect images and negative for inverted images. Virtual images of real objects are erect and
real images of real objects are inverted.
F. Take the limit r -+ 00 and show that the mirror equation makes sensefor a plane mirror .
III. Spherical refracting surfaces.
A. Draw a convex spherical boundary between two media, use the law of refraction to trace a
paraxial ray from a source on the axis, and show that nl/0+n2/i = (n2 -nl)/r, where nl
is the index of refraction for the region of incident light and n2 is the index of refraction
for the region of refracted light. See Section 44-2. You can demonstrate the bending of
the light using a laser and a round bottom flask. Use a little smoke or chalk dust to make
the beam visible in air and just a pinch of powdered milk in the water to make it visible
inside the flask.
B. Explain the sign convention. Point out that real images are on the opposite side of the
Lecture notes: ChaDter 40 133

boundary from the incident light and virtual images are on the same side. Explain that o
and i are positive for real objects and images, negative for virtual objects and images. r is
positive for convex surfaces,negative for concave. With this sign convention the equation
holds for concaveor convex surfacesand for n2 > nl oI' nl > n2.
C. Consider the limit r --+ 00, which yields i = -on2/nl. This is the solution to the apparent
depth problem. For water 4 inches deep, a ball on the bottom appears to be at a depth
of about 3 inches. Use an aquarium filled with water and a golf ball to make a hallway
display.
IV. Thin lenses.
A. By considering two refracting surfacesclosetogether in vacuum, derive the thin lens equa-
tion: 1/0+1/i = (n-1)(1/rl-1/r2), where n is the index ofrefraction for the lens material.
SeeSection 40-5. Stress that the equation holds for paraxial rays. State that it also holds
to a good approximation for a lens in air. rl is the radius of the first surface struck by
the light and r2 is the radius of the second. They are positive or negative according to
whether the surfacesare convex or concavewhen viewed from a point on the incident ray.
You may wish to generalize the equation by retaining the indices of refraction. The result
is 1/0+ l/i = (n2/nl -1)(1/rl-1/r2). This allows you to consider a thin glass or air lens
in water .
B. By considering o--+ 00 show that the focallength is given by 1/ f = (n -1)(1/rl-1/r2) or
more generally by 1/ f = (n2/nl-1)(1/rl-1/r2). Show that the samevalue, including sign,
is obtained no matter which surfaceis struck first by light. Then show that 1/0+1/i = 1/ f .
Point out that there are two focal points, the same distance from the lens but on opposite
sides. For a converging lens rays from a point source at f on one side are parallel on the
other side; incident parallel rays convergeto f on the other side. For a diverging lens rays
that convergetoward f on the other side emergeparallel; rays that are parallel emergeas
diverging from f on the incident side.
C. Show how to locate the image of an extended object by tracing a ray parallel to the axis,
a ray through the lens center, and a ray along a line through the first focal point (on the
incident side for a converging lens and on the other side for a diverging lens) .
D. Define lateral magnification and show that m = -i/o. Explain that the sign tells whether
the image is erect or inverted.
E. Consider all possible situations: converging lens with 0 > f, 0 < f, and 0 = f; diverging
lens with 0 > f, 0 < f, and 0 = f. In each caseshow whether the image is real or virtual,
erect or inverted, and find its position relative to the focal point.
v. Optical systems.
A. Note that most optical instruments are constructed from a combination of two or more
lenses. Point out that to analyze them, one considers one lens at a time, with the image
of the previous lens as the object of the lens being considered. This sometimes leads to
virtual objects, with the object distance for the secondlens being negative. Note that the
overall magnification is given by m = ml m2m3 ...and that the sign of m tells whether the
image is erect or inverted. If the image lies on the opposite side of the system from the
object and is outside the system then it is real, otherwise it is virtual.
B. Define the angular size of an object as the angle it subtends at the eye. Show that for a
linear object perpendicular to the line of sight this is given by tan () = h/ d, where h is its
length and d is its distance from the eye. Remark that for small angles () ~ h/d, in radians.
Remark that the angular size (), of an image is the angle subtended by the image at the
eye. Define angular magnification by m(J= (),/(). Explain that for telescopes() and (), are
measured with the eye in the same position. For magnifying glassesand microscopesthe
angular size of the image with the eye at the eyepieceis compared with the angular size of

the object when it is at the near point of the unaided eye. Explain what the near point is
and state that at the near point an object has the largest angular size possible and still be
in focus. In this text the near point is taken to be 25 cm from the eye.
C. Draw a diagram of a converging lens used as a magnifying glass. The object is just inside
the front focal point so the image is large, virtual, and erect. Show that the angular
magnification is given by m8 = 25/ f , where f is the focallength in centimeters.
D. Draw a diagram of a two-lens microscope. Both the objective lens and eyepieceare con-
verging lenses. Point out that the object is positioned just outside the front focal point
of the objective lens and that this lens forms a magnified, real, and inverted image. The
eyepieceis positioned so its front focal point is just in front of the position of the first im-
age. The final image is large, far away, and virtual. Tell students to think of the eyepiece
as a simple magnifier for viewing the image formed by the objective lens and show that
the overall angular magnification is given by 25s/ fobfey, where fob is the focallength of
the objective, fey is the focallength of the eyepiece,and s is the tube length, the distance
between the back focal point of the objective lens and the front focal point of the eyepiece.
E. Draw a diagram of a two-lens refracting telescope. Point out that it is used to view objects
that are far away and that the first image is formed at or near the back focal point of
the objective lens. The eyepieceis positioned so its front focal point coincides with this
point. Because the object is far away its distance from the eye is essentially the same
as its distance from the objective lens. Its angular size is h/o and this is the same as
h' /i = h' / fob. The angular size of the final image at the eye (which is at the eyepiece)is
given by (), = h' / fey so the angular magnification of the microscope is m8 = fob/ fey.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Plane mirrors: multiple-cl1oice questions 2 and 3; question 5; exercises 1, 3, 4, 7, and 9;
problem 1.
b. Spherical mirrors: multiple-cl1oice questions 4, 5, and 7; questions 10, 13, and 14; exercises
c. Spherical refracting surfaces: multiple-cl1oice question 9; exercises17 and 18.
d. Thin lenses: multiple-cl1oicequestions 11, 12, and 14; questions 15, 16, 18, and 23; exercises
21, 22, 24, 28, and 31; problems 5 and 7.
e. Optical instruments: multiple-cl1oice questions 15 and 16; exercises35 and 38.
2. Demonstrations
Plane mirrors: Freier and Anderson Obl -6, Ob8.
Physics Teacl1ers,One Physics Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contain resource
letters on optics.
b. The Camem; by Bill G. Aldridge, Gary S. Waldman, and John Yoder III.; available from
AAPT (seeabove for address).Concepts important for understanding cameras.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Optics; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
b. The Image; VHS video tape (8 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above for
address).
c. Lenses; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see above for
address).

d. Convexand ConcaveLensesj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences
e. Mi1Tor and Image; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
a. Rayj Miky Ronen; Apple; available from Physics Academic Software, North Carolina State
University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739. A ray-tracing program. The user can
place reflecting surfaces,refracting surfaces,mirrors, lenses,and prisms on the screenand
control their orientation. Rays are traced using either the paraxial approximation or the
actual path.
b. Opticsj Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue, PO
Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on refractions, mirrors, and lenses.
6. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 13-1: Laser Ray Tracing. A laser beam is used to investigate the
laws of reflection and refraction and to observetotal internal reflection and the formation
of images by spherical mirrors. Measurementsare used to calculate the index of refraction
of several materials, including liquids, and the focallength of mirrors. Tracing is done by
arranging the apparatus so the laser beam grazesa piece of white paper on the lab table.
Much the same set of activities are described in Bernard Experiment 38: Reftection and
Refraction of Light, but pins are used as objects rather than a laser source and rays are
traced by positioning other pins along them. The technique can be used if you do not have
suflicient lasers for the class.
b. Bernard Experiment 39: The Focal Length of a Concave Mi1Tor. Several methods are
described, including a technique that involves finding the radius of curvature. Others
involve finding the image when the object distance is extremely long, when it is somewhat
greater than 2f, and when it is somewhat less than 2f. Then, the mirror equation is used
to.solve for f.
c. Meiners Experiment 13-2: Lenses. A light source and screen on an optical bench are used
to find the focallengths and magnifications of both convex and concavelenses. Chromatic
and spherical aberrations are also studied. Also seeBernard Experiment 40: Properties of
Converging and Diverging Lenses,a compendium of techniques for finding focallengths.
d. Bernard Experiment 41: Optical Instruments Employing Two Lenses. Students construct
simple two-lens telescopesand microscopeson optical benches,then investigate their mag-
nifying powers. By trying various lens combinations, they learn the purposes of the objec-
tive and eyepiecelenses.
Chapter 41 INTERFERENCE
BASIC TOPICS
I. Two-slit interference
A. Shinemonocbxomatic light through a double slit and project the pattern on the wall. Either
use a laser or place a single slit between the source and the double slit. Use a diagram
to explain the setup. Point out the appearanceof light in the geometric shadow and the
occurrence of dark and bright bands. You can make acceptable double slits by coating a
microscope slide with lamp black or even black paint. Tape a pair of razor blades together
and draw them across the slide. By inserting various thicknessesof paper or shim stock
between the blades you can obtain various slit spacings.

B. Explain that Huygen's principIe will be used to understand the pattern, then remind
students of the principIe. Describe plane wave propagation in terms of Huygen wavelets:
draw a plane wave front, construct spherical wave fronts of the same radius centered at
several points along the plane wave front, then draw the plane tangent to these.
C. Go back to the double slit pattern and explain that those parts of an incident wave front
that are within the slit produce spherical wavelets that travel to the screenwhile wavelets
from other parts are blocked. Somewavelets reach the geometric shadow. The spreadingof
the pattern beyond the shadow is called diffraction and will be studied in the next chapter.
Wavelets from different slits arrive at the samepoint on the screenand interfere to produce
the bands. This phenomenawill be studied in this chapter.
D. Draw a diagram of a plane wave incident normally on a two-slit system and draw a ray
from each slit to a screen far away. Remark that the waves are in phase at the slits but
they travel different distancesto get to the samepoint on the screenand may have different
phasesthere. The electric fields sum to the total electric field. At somepoints the two fields
cancel, at other points they reenforce each other. Remind students that the intensity is
proportional to the square of the total field, not to the sum of the squaresof the individual
fields.
E. Point out that if the screenis far away the two rays are nearly parallel, then show that the
differencein distance traveled is dsin(}, where d is the slit separation and (} is the angle the
rays make with the forward direction. Explain the condition d sin (} = m), for a maximum
of intensity and the condition dsin(} = (m + ~), for a minimum.
F. Show that a lens can be used to obtain the samepattern, even if the screenis not far away.
II. The intensity.
A. TakethetwofieldstobeE1 = Eosin(l.1)t)and~ = Eosin(l.1)t+</»,where</>=(27r/),)dsin(}.
This is easily shown by remarking that </> = k~d, where k = 27r/ ), and ~d = d sin (} (derived
earlier) .
B. Explain how the fields can be represented on a phasor diagram. If you did not cover
Chapter 39 explain that a phasor has a length proportional to the amplitude and makesthe
angle l.l)tor l.l)t+</>
with the horizontal axis. Its projection on the vertical axis is proportional
to the field. Sum the phasors to obtain the total field. Show that the amplitude E9 of the
total field is 2Eo cos«/>/2). Plot the intensity 4E5 cos2«/>/2)as a function of </>.Point out
that </>= O produces a maximum, that maxima occur at regular intervals, and that the
minima are halfway between adjacent maxima.
C. Show that the intensity at a maximum is 4 times the intensity due to one source alone.
Remark that no energy is gained or lost. All energy through the slits arrives at the screen.
The presenceof the slited barrier, however, redistributes the energy.
D. Note the width of each maximum, at half the peak, is given by sin(} = ),/4d. The smaller
),/ d the sharper the maximum. N ear the central maximum, where sin (} ~ tan (} ~ (}, the
linear spread on the screen is y ~ (),/4d)D, where D is the distance from the slits to the
screen.
E. It is also worth noting that since sin(} = m),/d ::;:1 for a maximum, the smaller ),/d, the
more maxima occur.
F. Another point to mention in the discussionof the double slit pattern: the amplitude of the
wavelets fall off as l/r and are not quite the same at the screen. Show this is a negligible
effect for the patterns consideredhere.
III. Coherence
A. Explain that two waves are coherent if their relative phase does not changewith time.
B. Explain that the two interfering wavesmust be coherent to obtain an interference pattern.
The phase difference at the observation point must be constant over the observation time.
Lecture notes: Cha.pter 41 137

Explain why two incandescent lamps, for example, do not produce a stable interference
pattern. The light is from many atoms and the emission time for a single atom is about
10-8 s. The phase difference changesin a random way over times that are short compared
to the observation time. Point out that in this casethe intensities add.
C. Explain that an extended source can be used to obtain an interference pattern. Light from
each atom goesthrough both slits and forms a pattern, but the patterns of different atoms
are displaced from each other, according to the separation of the atoms in the source. No
pattern is seen un1essthe incident light is restricted to that from a sma1l region of the
source. If you did not use a laser in the demonstration, explain the role of the single slit
in front of the double slit.
D. Explain that a laser produces coherent light even though many atoms are emitting simul-
taneously. Their light is not independent. A laser can be used to form an interference
pattern without restricting the incident beam.
Thin film interference.
A. Cut a 1 to 2 mm slit in a 2" square piece of aluminum and insert it in the film gate of a
35 mm projector. Let the beam impinge on a soap bubble to show the effect.
B. Consider normal incidence on a thin film of index nl in a medium of index n2 and suppose
the medium behind the film has index n3. Explain that a wave reflected at the interface
with a medium of higher index undergoes a phase change of 7r.If nl < n2 < n3, waves
reflected at both surfacesundergo phase changesof 7r.Consider a11other possibilities and
then specializeto a thin film of index n in air .Give the conditions for maxima and minima
for both the reflected light and the transmitted light, assuming near normal incidence.
Note that the wavelength in the medium must be used to calculate the phase change on
trave1ingthrough the medium. Define optical path length and point out its importance for
thin film interference.
C. Broaden the discussion qualitatively by including non-normal incidence. Note that for
some angles conditions are right for destructive interference of a particular color while at
other angles conditions are right for constructive interference of the same color. A1sonote
that these angles depend on .>...Hence the soap bubble colors.
D. If time permits, discussNewton's rings. Use a plano-convex lens and a plane sheet of glass
together with a laser. Use a diverging lens to spread the beam.
SUPPLEMENTARY TOPIC
The Michelson interferometer. This is an excellent example of an application of interference
effects. Set up a hallway demonstration and give a brief explanation.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Doub1e-slit interference: multip1e-cl1oice questions 2, 3, 4, and 9; question 3; exercises 2, 5,
6, 7, 10, and 14; prob1ems 2, 5, and 7.
b. Coherence: multip1e-cl1oice question 12; questions 2, 11, and 13; exercise 14.
c. Intensity in doub1e-s1it interference: multip1e-cl1oice question 12; exercises 15 and 19.
d. Thin-film interference: multip1e-cl1oice question 13; questions 19, 23, 27, and 30; exercises
21, 23, 27, 29, 32, and 36; prob1em 10.
e. Micl1elson interferometer: question 34.
2. Demonstrations
a. Doub1e slit interference: Freier and Anderson 014, 5, 9.
b. Thin film interference: Freier and Anderson Oll5 -18.
c. Micl1elson interferometer: Freier and Anderson Oll9.
Lecture notes: Chapter 41

3. Audio/Visual
a. Míchelson Interferometerj from AAPT Miller collection of single-conceptfihns; video tape;
b. Interference; Side D: Waves (II) & Electricity and Magnetism of Cinema Classics; video
diskj available from Ztek Co. (seeabove for address).
c. Double Aperture Interference; VHS video tape (9 min); Films for the Humanities & Sci-
ences,PO Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
d. Interference/lnterferometer; Thín Fílm Interferencej Physics Demonstrations in Light,
Part IIj VHS video tape; ~3 min eachj Physics Curriculum & Instruction, 22585Woodhill
a. Optícsj Apple, Windowsj Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue1PO
Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on interference.
b. WaveInterference; Mike Moloneyj DOSj Physics Academic Software, North Carolina State
University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739. Uses phasors to obtain intensity pat-
terns.
5. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 13-4: Interference and Díffractíon. Students observe double-slit pat-
terns of water waves in a ripple tank, sound waves, microwaves, and visible light. In each
caseexcept water waves, they measure and plot the intensity as a function of angle, then
use the data to calculate the wavelength. A microcomputer can be used to take data and
plot the intensity of a visible light pattern.
b. Meiners Experiment 13-6: The Míchelson Interferometer. An interferometer is used to
measurethe wavelengthsof light from mercury and a laser and to find the index of refraction
of a glass pane and air. Good practical applications.
Chapter 42 DIFFRACTION
BASIC TOPICS
I. Qualitative discussionof single-slit diffraction.
A. Shine coherent monochromatic light on a single slit and project the pattern on the wall.
Point out the broad central bright region and the narrower, less bright regions on either
side, with dark regions between. Also point out that light is diffracted into the geometric
shadow.
B. Remark that diffraction can be discussedin terms of Huygen wavelets emanating from
points in the slit. Explain that they not only spread into the shadow region but that
they arrive at any selectedpoint with a distribution of phasesand interfere to produce the
pattern. Explain that for quantitative work this cl1apterdeals with Fraunhofer diffraction,
with the screenfar from the slit.
C. Draw a single slit with a plane wave incident normal to it. Also draw parallel rays from
equally spacedpoints within the slit, all making the sameangle () with the forward direction.
Point out that all wavelets are in phase at the slit. The first minimum can be located by
selecting () so that, at the observation point, the ray from the top of the slit is 180° out of
phasewith the ray from midslit. All wavelets then cancel in pairs. Show that this leads to
a sin () = )., where a is the slit width. Point out that this value of () determines the width
of the central bright region and that this region gets wider as the slit width narrows. Use
sin () ~ tan () ~ () (in radians) to show that the linear width of the central region on a screen

a distance D away is 2D)../a. Use a variable width slit or a series of slits to demonstrate
the effect.
D. By dividing the slit into fourths, eighths, etc. and showing that in each casethe wavelets
cancel in pairs if () is properly selected, find the locations of other minima. Show that
a sin () = m).. for a minimum.
E. Explain that for a < )..the central maximum coversthe whole forward direction. No point
of zero intensity can be observed. AIso remark that the intensity becomesmore uniform as
a decreasesfrom )... This was the assumption made in the last chapter when the interference
of only one wavelet from each slit was considered.
F. Qualitatively discuss the intensity. Draw a phasor diagram showing 10 or so phasors
representing wavelets from equally spaced points in the slit. Show that each wavelet at
the observation point is out of phase with its neighbor by the same amount. First show
the phasors with zero phase difference (() = 0), then show them for a larger value of ().
Show that they approximate a circle at the first minimum and then, as () increases,they
wrap around to form another maximum, with less intensity than the central maximum.
Point out that as () increasesthe pattern has successivemaxima and minima and that the
maxima become successivelyless intense.
II. The intensity.
A. Draw a diagram showing 10 or so phasors along the arc of a circle and let <Pbe the phase
difference between the first and last. SeeFig. 42-11. Explain that you will take the limit
as the number of wavelets increaseswithout bound and draw the phasor addition diagram
as an arc. Use geometry to show that E8 = Em(sina)/a, where a = <P/2. Point out that
the intensity can be written 18 = Im(sin2 a)/a2. By examining the path difference for the
rays from the top and bottom of the slit, show that a = (1ra/).) sinO. Explain that these
expressionsgive the intensity as a function of the angle (}.
B. Sketch the intensity as a function of (} (seeFig. 42-12) and show mathematical1y that the
expressionjust derived predicts the positions of the minima as found earlier.
C. ( Optional ) Set the derivative of (sin a )/ a equal to 0 and show that tan a = a at an intensity
maximum. State that the first two solutions are a = 4.493rad and 7.725rad. Use these
results to show that the intensity at the first two secondary maxima are 4.72 x 10-2 and
1.65 x 10-2, relative to the intensity for (} = 0. You might also want to pick a wavelength
and slit width, then find the angular positions of the first two secondary maxima. Remark
that they are not precisely at midpoints between zeros of intensity. Seeproblem 3.
III. Diffraction by a circular aperture.
A. This topic is important for its application to diffraction patterns oflenses and the diffraction
1imit to the resolution of objects by a lens system. Show a diagram or picture (like Fig. 42-
13) and point out the bright central disk and the secondary rings. Tel1 students that the
angular position of the smal1estring of zero intensity occurs for O = 1.22)./d, where d is
the diametcr of the aperture.
B. If you intend to discuss the resolving power of a grating, the Rayleigh criterion for a
circular aperture should be coveredfirst since it is easier to present and understand. You
can demonstrate the Rayleigh criterion by dril1ing two smal1holes, closely spaced, in the
bottom of a tin can. Place the can over a light bulb and let students view it from various
distances. Also use red and blue fi1ters to show the dependenceon wavelength.
Double-slit diffraction.
A. Consider the double slit arrangement discussedin the previous chapter. Point out that
the electric field for the light from each of the slits obeys the equation developed for sin-
gle slit diffraction and these two fields are superposed. They have the same amplitude,

Em(sina)/a and differ in phase by (27rd/A)sin(J, where d is the center-to-center slit sepa-
ration. The result is IB = Im(cos2{3)(sin2a)/a2, the product of the single slit diffraction
equation and the double slit interference equation. Here {3= (7rd/A) sin (J.
B. Sketch IB vs. (Jfor a double slit and point out that the single slit pattern forms an envelope
for the double slit interference pattern. Remark that this is so becaused must be greater
thana.
C. Show how to calculate the number of interference fringes within the central diffraction
maximum and remark that the result dependson the ratio d/ a but not on the wavelength.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Diffraction and wave theory: question 2.
b. Single-slit diffraction: multiple-choice questions 2, 4, and 5; questions 15, 17, and 21;
exercises3, 5,and 9; problem 1 and 3.
c. Intensity in single-slit diffraction: multiple-choice questions 7, 8, and 9; exercises11 and
13.
d. Diffraction by a circular aperture: exercises14 and 17; problems 2, 4, and 5.
e. Double-slit interference and diffraction combined: multiple-choice question 12; question
29; exercises25, 27, and 29; problem 7.
2. Demonstrations
a. Single slit diffraction: Freier and Anderson 012, 3, 6, 7.
b. Multiple slit diffraction: Freier and Anderson 0110, 13.
c. Diffraction by circular and other objects: Freier and Anderson 0121 -23.
3. Audio/Visual
The Diffraction of Light; VHS video tape; Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
4. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 13-4: 1nterference and Diffraction. See Chapter 41 notes.
Chapter 43 GRATINGS AND SPECTRA
BASIC TOPICS
I. Multiple-slit patterns.
A. Make or purchase a set of multiple-slit barriers with 3, 4, and 5 slits, all with the sameslit
width and spacing. Multiple slits can be made using razor blades and a lamp blackened
microscope slide. Use a laser to show the patterns in order of increasing number of slits.
Finish with a commercial grating.
B. Qualitatively describe the pattern produced as the number of slits is increased. Point out
the principIe maxima and, if possible, the secondary maxima. Remark that the principIe
maxirna narrow and that the number of secondarymaxima increasesas the number of slits
increases. For each barrier sketch a graph of the intensity as a f1mction of angle. Explain
that the single-slit difIraction pattern forms an envelopefor the pattern.
C. Remark that you will assumethe slits are so narrow that the patterns you will consider
lie well within the central maximum of the single-slit difIraction pattern and you need to
consider only one wave from each slit. Explain that principIe maxima occur whenever the
path difIerence for rays from two adjacent slits is an integer multiple of the wavelength:
d sin (} = mA. Remark that m is called the order of the maximum. AIso remark that the

angular positions of the principal maxima depend only on the ratio d/ >. and not on the
number of slits or their width.
D. Consider N phasors of equal magnitude that form a regular polygon and remark this is the
configuration for an interference minimum adjacent to a principal maximum. Show that for
one of these minima the phase difference for wavesfrom adjacent slits is 27r(m + 1/ N) and
the path difference is dsin() = >.(m + l/N). Replace () with () + <5(), where dsin() = m>., to
derive the expression<5() = >./N d cos() for the angular half-width of the principal maximum
at angle ().Explain that this predicts narrowing of the principal maxima as the number of
slits is increases. Also explain that principal maxima at large angles are wider than those
at small angles.
E. Remind students that if N is sufficiently large the principal maxima are flanked by sec-
ondary maxima. Show that when adjacent waves have a phase difference of 27r(m+ n/N),
where n = 1,2, ..., N -1, the phasors fonn a closed figure and the intensity is zero. Re-
mark that there are N- 1 minima between each pair of adjacent principal maxima. The
intensity is a maximum for phase differencesbetween these values so there are N- 2 sec-
ondary maxima between each pair of adjacent principal maxima. Explain that these are
considerably less intense than the principal maxima and decreasein relative intensity as
the number of slits increases.
II. Diffraction gratings.
A. Show a commercial transmission grating and tell students a typical grating consistsof tens
of thousands of lines ruled over a few centimeters. Explain that light is transmitted through
both the rulings and the regions between but since these represent different thickness of
material the phase of the waves leaving the rulings is different from that of wavesleaving
the regions between. As a result the diffraction pattern is the same as that of a multiple-
slit barrier. Say that a diffraction pattern is also produced by lines ruled on a reflecting
surface.
B. Put a grating in front of a white-light source and point out the spectrum. Put a grating in
front ofa dischargetube to display the emission spectrum ofhydrogen or mercury. Note the
separation of the lines correspondingto the sameprincipal maximum produced by different
frequency light. Explain that atoms produce light with certain discrete frequencies and
that these are separated by the grating. Remark that measurementsof the angles can be
used to compute the wavelengths present if the ruling separation is known. Point out the
colors of a compact disk.
C. Define the dispersion of a grating as D = A()/ A>., where A() is the angular separation of
lines associatedwith two wavelengthsdiffering by A>.. Show this is m/ d cos() for a principle
maximum of order m, occurring at angle (). Note that dispersion can be increased by
decreasingthe ruling separation but dispersion does not depend on the number of rulings.
If you have gratings with different ruling separations use them to show the hydrogen
spectrum and point out the difference.
-.Remind
D students of the Raleigh criterion for the resolution of two images and define the
resolving power of a grating as R = >./A>., where >. and >.+ A>. are two wavelengths such
that the principal maximum for one falls on an adjacent minimum for the other .Show
that for the line of order m, R = N m. Remark that the resolving power does depend on
the number of rulings and that the greater this number, the greater the resolving power.
Show the sodium spectrum with a grating for which the two D lines cannot be resolved,
then show it with one for which they can.
-.Explain
R that dispersion and resolving power measure different aspects of the pattem pro-
duced by a grating. The lines produced by two different wavelengths may be fairly well
separatedin angle (large dispersion) but cannot be resolved becausethe principal maxima

are so wide (small resolving power).
III. X-ray diffraction.
A. Explain that x rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelength on the order of 10-10m
(1 A). Point out that crystals are regular arrays of atoms with spacingson that order and
so can be used to diffract x rays.
B. Consider a set of parallel crystalline planes and explain that reflection of the incident beam
occurs at each plane, with the angle of reflection equal to the angle of incidence. Draw a
diagram like Fig. 18 and state that x-ray diffraction is conventionally described in terms of
the angle between the ray and the plane, rather than the normal to the plane. Show that
waves reflected from the planes interfere constructively if 2d sin (J= m>..
C. Explain that for a given set of planes intense diffracted waves are produced only if waves
are incident at an angle (J that satisfies the Bragg condition, given above. Measurements
of these angles can be used to investigate the crystal structure. Show how to calculate the
distance between planes, given the wavelength and the scattering angle.
D. Explain that a crystal with a known structure can be used to obtain x rays of a given
wavelength from a source with a broad range of wavelengths.
SUGGESTIONS
1.
a. Multiple slits: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; exercises1, 4, and 5; problems 1 and 3.
b. Diffraction gratings: question 7; exercises7, 12, and 14.
c. Dispersion and resolving power: multiple-choice questions 6 and 8; questions 11, 12, and
15; exercises17,21, and 23; problem 6.
d. .X-ray diffraction: multiple-choice question 9; question 19; exercises 26, 31, 32, and 33;
problem 7.
2. Demonstrations
a. Multiple-slit diffraction: Freier and Anderson 0110, 13
b. .Diffraction by crystals: Freier and Anderson 0114.
3. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 13-5; Diffraction Gratings. Wavelengths of the helium spectrum are
found using a grating spectrometer and the influence of the number of grating rulings is
investigated.
b. Bernard Experiment 44; The Wavelength of Light. Wavelengths of the sodium spectrum
are found using a grating spectrometer. The wavelength of a laser is also found.
c. Bernard Experiment 45; A Study of Spectra with the Gmting Spectrometer. Sourcesused
are a sodium lamp, an incandescent bulb, a mercury lamp, and a lamp containing an
unknown element. The limits of the visible spectrum are determined and the unknown
element is identified.
Chapter 44 POLARIZATION
BASIC TOPICS
I. Polarization.
A. Remind students that a linearly polarized electromagnetic wave is one for which the electric
field is everywhere parallel to the same line. As the wave passesby any point the field
oscillates along the line of polarization.
B. Explain that a linearly polarized wave can be resolved into two other linearly polarized
waves with mutually orthogonal polarization directions. Take the original polarization

direction to be at the angle (} to one of the new directions and show that the amplitudes
are given by El = Em COS (} and E2 = Em sin (}, where Em is the original amplitude-
C- Explain that the electric field associated with unpolarized light does not remain in the
same direction for more than about 10-8 s and the new direction is unrelated to the old-
II. Polarizing sheets-
A. Shine unpolarized light through crossedPolaroid sheets and note the change in intensity
as the second sheet is rotated- Show that the intensity does not changeif the first sheet is
rotated-
B- Derive the law of Malus- Explain that the light emerging from the first Polaroid sheet is
linearly polarized in a direction determined by the orientation of the sheet- Remark that
this direction is called the polarizing direction of the sheet- Draw a diagram of the electric
field amplitude as the light enters the secondsheet, at an angle (} to the polarizing direction
of the second sheet- Resolvethe amplitude into components along the polarizing direction
and perpendicular to it- Explain that the first component is transmitted through the sheet
while the second is absorbed- The amplitude of the transmitted wave is proportional to
cos(} and the intensity is proportional to cos2(}.
C- Assign Problem 5 and carry out the demonstration- Shine unpolarized light onto two
crossedPolaroid sheets and remark that no light is transmitted- Then slide another sheet
between the two and point out the changein transmitted intensity as you rotate the sheet
in the middle- The sheets can be taped to ringstands to hold them-
III- Polarization by reflection-
A- Reflect a well collimated beam of unpolarized light from a plane glass surface. A slide
projector beam does nicely- Darken the room and obtain a reflection spot on the ceiling-
Place a Polaroid sheet in the reflected beam and note the change in intensity of the spot
as you rotate it- Remark that the reflected light is partially polarized.
B. Orient the incident beam so the angle ofincidence is Brewster's angle and use the Polaroid
sheet to show the reflected light is now entirely polarized-
C- Discuss Brewster's law- Explain that unpolarized light incident on a boundary is partially
or completely polarized on reflection. When the angle of incidence and the angle of refrac-
--
tion sum to 90° the reflected light is completely polarized, with E perpendicular to the
plane of the incident and reflected rays- Show that the angle of incidence (}pfor completely
polarized reflected light is given by tan(}p = n2/nl, where medium 1 is the medium of the
reflected ray-
IV .Double refraction-
A- Pass around several piecesof calcite crystal, cut to produce double images, and invite the
class to view their notes through the crystals-
B- Explain that the incident beam splits into two on entering the calcite- Show Fig- 44-14
and state that ordinary waves have the same speed in all directions while the speed of
extraordinary waves varies with direction- The index of refraction for ordinary waves is
denoted by no- State that for propagation in a certain direction, called the optic axis
of the crystal, the two type waves have the same speed and the index of refraction for
extraordinary waves is also no- For extraordinary waves traveling perpendicular to the
optic axis the index of refraction is denoted by ne- For some birefringent crystals ne > noj
for others ne < no- For extraordinary waves traveling in another direction the index of
refraction is between no and ne. Point out the elliptical wave front in the figure-
C. Consider an unpolarized beam incident normally on the surface of a calcite crystal cut
so the optic axis is parallel to the surface- Explain that both type waves travel straight
through the crystal but the extraordinary wave is faster. Explain that the ordinary wave

is polarized in the direction normal to the optic axis ( and to the propagation direction)
and the extraordinary wave is polarized parallel to the optic axis.
D. Consider an unpolarized beam incident normally on the surface of a calcite crystal cut so
the optic axis makes an angle of about 40° with the surface. Use a Huygen's construction
to show that the extraordinary beam is deflected sideways. This accounts for the double
image.
V. Quarter-wave plates.
A. Return to the calcite crystal with its optic axis parallel to the surface and consider linearly
polarized light incident normally on the surface. Take the polarization direction to be 45°
from the optic axis as in Fig. 44-16. Then the e- and o-waves have the same amplitude.
If x is the thickness of the crystal the o-wave crossesit in time To = xno/c and the e-
wave crossesit intime Te = xne/C. A quarter-wave plate is one with thickness such that
ITe -Tol = T/4, where T (= ,\/c) is the period. Show that x = '\/4Jne -no1.
B. Explain that the two waves that emerge from the crystal differ in phase by 90°. Write
Ex = Em sin(l.1)t)and Ey = Em sin(l.1)t+1r /2) = Em COS(l.1)t)for the electric field components
at a point on the far side of the crystal. Show that this represents an electric field that
rotates.
C. Show that the intensity of circularly polarized light transmitted through a polarizing sheet
is given by ~10, where lo is the incident intensity. Remark that a polarizing sheet alone
cannot be used to distinguish circularly polarized light from unpolarized light.
D. Show that circularly polarized light incident on a quarter-wave plate emergesas linearly
polarized light. Remark that light can be shown to be circularly polarized by passing it
through a quarter-wave plate, then a polarizing sheet. If the final intensity varies with the
orientation of the sheet the incident light is circularly polarized.
VI. Polarization by scattering.
A. State that light passing through a gas, such as sunlight passing through the atmosphere,is
scattered and that light scattered at 90° to the incident beam is linearly polarized. Light
scattered at other angles is partially polarized.
B. Use Fig. 44-20 to explain the mechanism. The incident wave causeselectrons to oscillate
along the direction of the electric field and the electrons radiate in directions that are
perpendicular to these motions. The radiation is polarized along the line of motion of the
electrons.
C. If possible, have students view various parts of the daytime sky (away from the sun and
clouds) through polarizing sheets. Have them rotate the sheets and observethe changein
intensity.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Polarization of electromagnetic waves: question 4; exercise 1.
b. Polarizing sheets: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, 3, and 4; question 8j exercises 3, 8, and
9j problems 2 and 4.
c. Polarization by reflection: multiple-choice question 7j exercise 12j problem 1.
d. Double refraction: questions 19 and 21j exercise 14j problem 6.
e. Circular polarization: multiple-choice question 9j questions 24 and 27j exercises 15 and 16.
2. Audio/Visual
a. Color, Scattering, Polarizationj Side D: Waves (II) & Electricity and Magnetism of Cinema
Classics; video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
b. Polarized Lightj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences, PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.

Optics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky Avenue, PO
Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on polarization.
4. Laboratory
a. Meiners Experiment 13-7; Polarization of Light. Polaroid sheets are first investigated and
the law of Malus is verified. Then, a polaroid sheet is used to investigate polarization
by reflection, by refraction, and by scattering. Brewster's angle is found. Rotation of
the direction of polarization by a sugar solution is also studied and crossedpolarizers are
used to check various objects for stresses. This is essentially a series of demonstrations
performed by students.
b. Bernard Experiment 46; Polarized Light. Similar to Meiners Experiment 13-7 except light
transmitted by a calcite crystal is also investigated. A photodetector is used to obtain
quantitative data.
Chapter 45 THE NATURE OF LIGHT
BASIC TOPICS
I. Introduction.
A. Explain that this cl1apterdealswith someof the fundamental results of quantum mecl1anics,
as applied to electromagnetic radiation. Thefirst few sections describe experimental results
that can be understood only if light is regarded as made up of particles. Remark that
interference and diffraction phenomenarequire wavesfor their explanation. Reconciliation
of these opposing views is discussedlater in the cl1apter.
B. Explain that the energy of a photon is related to the frequency of the wave through E = hf
and the momentum of a photon is related to the wavelength of the wave through p = h/ )..
Show these equations predict p = E / c, the classical relationship. Also explain that the
energy density is nhf, where n is the photon concentration, and that the intensity is Rhf ,
where R is the rate per unit area with whicl1 photons cross a plane perpendicular to their
direction of motion. Recall the discussion of the Poynting vector in Chapter 38. Explain
that the Planck constant is a constant of nature and pervades quantum mecl1anics. Give
its value (6.63 x 10-34 J.s) and calculate the photon energy and momentum for visible light,
radio waves, and x-rays.
II. Cavity radiation and the quantization of energy.
A. Describe a radiation cavity as a hollow block of material with a small hole to the outside.
The material is kept at a uniform constant temperature and the electromagnetic radiation
in the cavity is studied by observing some that leaks out of the hole. Explain that the
interior walls absorb and emit radiation and that the distribution of energy among the
various wavelengths depends on the temperature but is independent of the material, the
size of the cavity, and the shape of the cavity. Write down the Stefan-Boltzmann law for
the radiant intensity: I(T) = uT4 and give the value of the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
(5.670 x 10-8W /m2 .K4). Remind students of the absolute temperature scale.
B. The quantity of interest is the spectral radiancy R().), defined so that R().) d). is the
radiation rate per unit area for electromagnetic energy in the wavelength range from ). to
). + d).. Remark that I(T) = JoooR().) d).. Explain that the electromagnetic energy in the
cavity is in thermal equilibrium with the material and the spectral distribution should be
predicted when thermodynamics is applied to the radiation. Show Fig. 45-1, whicl1 shows
some experimental results. Point out that the experimental curve reaches a peak in the
infrared or red and falls off on either side. As the temperature increasesthe peak becomes

sharper and moves toward the blue end of the spectrum. Classical theory does not predict
a peak. Write down the Wien displacement law: >..maxT= 2898JLm.K.
C. Give the Planck law and explain that it fits the data at all wavelengths. Describe the
assumptions used by Planck to derive the law: radiation is emitted and absorbed by atoms
in the walls and the energy absorbed or emitted is quantized. Thus the radiation energy
in the cavity is also quantized, in units of hf, where f is the frequency of the radiation.
The law is derived by assuming the quanta of radiation are in thermodynamic equilibrium
with the cavity walls.
D. Point out that classically monochromatic electromagnetic radiation can have any value of
energy. Quantum mechanically this is not true but since h is so small the discretenessof
the energy values is important only at the atomic level.
E. Briefly discussthe correspondenceprinciple: quantum mechanical results reduce to classical
results when the situation is such that classical results are valid. Show that the Planck
expressionfor R(>..)reduces to the classical expressionif hc/>..kT « 1.
F. Briefly discuss the heat capacity of solids as an example of energy quantization.
III. The photoelectric efIect.
A. Sketch a schematic of the experimental setup. Explain that monochromatic light is incident
on a sample. It is absorbed and part of the energy goes to electrons, some of which are
emitted. The energy of the most energetic electron is found by measuring the stopping
potential Vo.
B. Point out that the stopping potential is independent of the light intensity. As the intensity
is increased,more electrons are emitted but they are not more energetic. Show a plot of the
stopping potential as a function of frequency and point out that the relationship is linear
and that as the frequency is increasedthe electrons emitted are more energetic. Also state
that electrons are emitted promptly when the light is turned on. If the radiation energy
were distributed throughout the region of a wave it would take a noticeable amount of time
for an electron to accumulate sufficient energy to be emitted, since an electron has a small
.surface area. This argument can be made quantitative.
C. Give the Einstein theory. Electromagnetic radiation is concentrated in photons, with each
photon having energy hf. The most energetic electrons after emission are those with the
greatest energy while in the material and, in the interaction with a photon, receive energy
hf. If the light intensity is increased without changing the frequency, there are more
photons and hence more electrons emitted, but no single electron can receive more energy.
FUrthermore, the electron receives energy immediately and need not wait to absorb the
proper amount.
D. Show that this analysis leads to hf = <P+ Kmax, where <Pis the work function, the energy
needed to remove the most energetic electron from the material. It is characteristic of
the material. Remark that Kmax = eVo and that the Einstein theory predicts a linear
relationship between Vo and f and predicts a minimum frequency for emission: hf = <p.
Remark that the rmitted electrons have a distribution of speedsif hf > <Pbecausethey
come from states with difIerent energies.
IV. The Compton efIect.
A. Note that in the explanation of the photoelectric efIect a photon is assumedto give up all its
energy to an individual electron. The photon then ceasesto exist. Explain that a photon
might transfer only part of its original energy in an interaction with an electron. Since
a lower energy means a lower frequency, the scattered light has a longer wavelength than
the incident light. Show Fig. 45-7. Stress that the experimental data can be explained
by considering the interaction to be a collision between two particles, with energy and
momentum conserved. Relativistic expressions must be used, however, for energy and

momentum.
B. Discuss the experiment. Light is scattered from electrons in matter and the intensity of
the scattered light is measured as a function of wavelength for various scattering angles.
C. Remark that the situation is exactly like a two-dimensional collision between 2 particles.
Write down the relativistic expressionsfor the momentum and energy of a particle with
mass (the electron) and remind students of the rest energy. Assume the electron is initially
at rest and that the photon is scattered through the angle <p. The electron leaves the
interaction at an angle (Jto the direction of the incident photon. Write down the equations
for the conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum in two dimensions. Write
down the momentum and energy of the photon in terms of the wavelength and solve for
the change on scattering of the wavelength.
D. Note that the change in wavelength is independent of wavelength and that the change
is significant only for short wavelength light, in the x-ray and gamma ray regions. Also
state that the theoretical results successfullypredict experimental data. The widths of the
curves are due chiefly to moving electrons, for which ~).. is slightly different, and the peak
near ~).. = O is due to scattering from more massive particles (atoms as a whole). Stress
that the particle picture of light accounts for experimental data.
v. Anticoincidence experiments
A. Say that the experimental results discussedso far can be explained without recourse to
the idea of a photon, although the explanations are much more straightforward in terms
of photons. The real test for the existence of photons involves anticoincidence detection.
Explain that if a radiation source emitted waves then detectors at to separated points
would register at the same time but if the source emitted photons then only one detector
would register at any incidence.
B. Show a diagram of the basic experimental setup (Fig. 45-9) and explain how it works.
C. Give some of the practical difficulties: the presenceof many photons in the apparatus and
the resolution limitations of the detectors. Show the modifications that are made to the
apparatus (Fig. 45-11) and explain how they overcomethe difficulties.
VI. Particle or wave?
A. State that sometimes radiation reveals itself as a wave and sometimes as a collection of
particles, depending on what observations are made. Remind students of interference and
diffraction phenomena,which reveal wave properties, and the experiments of this chapter,
which reveal particle properties. Recall for them that the two sets of properties are related
(E = hf andp = h/)..).
B. Explain that it is possible to design experiments in which it is not decided what observation
to make until after the radiation is emitted, showing that while in transit the radiation has
the potential to be either a particle or a wave. Such an experiment is discussedat the end
of Section 45-6.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignm.ents
a. Properties of photons: multiple-choice questions; questions; exercises 1, 3, and 6. The
result of exercise 1 is useful for other exercises.
b. Cavity radiation: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 4 and 7; exercises11 and
c. Photoelectric effect: multiple-choice questions 4, 5, and 6; questions 15, 18, and 22; exer-
cises 17, 20, 22, and 24; problem 9.
d. Compton effect: multiple-choice questions 7, 9, and 10; questions 31, 32, and 34; exercises
30 and 32; problems 8 an 11.

e. Anticoincidence experiments: multiple-choice questions 11 and 12; exercise 40.
f. Paxticle or wave?: multiple-choice question 13.
2. Demonstrations
Photoelectric effect: Freier and Anderson MPbl
3. Audio/Visual
a. Photons and X-rays; Side F: Angulax Momentum and Modern Physics of Cinema Classics;
b. The Dual Nature of Light; Demonstrations ofPhysics: Light; VHS video tape (8:16); Media
c. Photons; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box 2053,
4. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 14-2: The Photoelectric Effect. Students investigate the characteris-
tics of vaxious photocells, then use a plot of stopping potential vs. frequency to determine
the Planck constant. A mercury source and optical filters axe used to obtain monochro-
matic light of vaxious frequencies.
Chapter 46 THE N ATURE OF MATTER
BASIC TOPICS
I. Matter waves.
A. Explain that electrons and all other particles have waves associated with them, just as
photons have electromagnetic waves associated with them. State that the waves exhibit
interference and diffraction effects. Draw a diagram of a single-slit barrier with a beam
of monoenergetic electrons incident on it and a fluorescent screen or other mechanism for
detecting electrons behind it. Explain that an intense central maximum is obtained and
that many electrons arrive in this region. Secondarymaxima are also obtained.
B. State that the width of the central maximum depends on the speed of the electrons and
narrows if the speedis increased. The maximum also narrows if more massiveparticles are
used, at the samespeed. Remind students that when they studied the single-slit diffraction
of electromagnetic waves they found the width of the central maximum narrowed as the
wavelength decreased. Conclude that the momentum of the particle is related to the
wavelength of the wave and that one is proportional to the reciprocal of the other .
C. State that the particle energy and the wave frequency are related by E = hf and that the
particle momentum and the wavelength are related by p = h/ ).. Calculate the wavelengths
of a 1-eV electron and a 35-m/s baseball. By way of example, state that crystals diffract
electrons of appropriate wavelength (~ 10-10 m) and the angular positions ofthe scattering
maxima can be found using Bragg's law, just as for x rays.
II. The wave function and the Schrodinger equation.
A. State that a matter wave is denoted by \If(r, t) and that 1\If12gives the probability density
for finding the particle near r at time t. In the limit of a large number of particles 1\If12is
proportional to the particle concentration. Explain that, at the atomic and particle level,
physics deals with probabilities. What can be analyzed is the probability for finding a
particle, not its certain position.
B. Say that a matter wave is often complex. As an example give the function for a free particle
in one dimension: \If(x, t) = 'l/Joei(kx-ú)t)
, where i is the unit imaginary number yCI. Show
how to compute the magnitude squared.

c. State that if a particle has a definite energy E the wave function can be written as the
product of two factors, one of which is a function of position and the other of which is a
function oftime: psi(r,t) = 'I/J(r)e-iwt. Say that (.¡)= 27rf = 27rE/h. Demonstrate using
the free-particle wave function.
D. State that the forces on a particle determine its wave function, not its motion in the
classical senseand that the forces enter through the potential energy function. Give the
Schr5dinger equation in one dimension for a particle with energy E:
E'I/J(x)
m. The uncertainty principle.

A. Becausea different answer might result each time the position of the electron is measured,
there is an uncertainty in the position. It can be defined similarly to the standard devi-
ation of a large collection of experimental results. Similar statements can be made about
momentum measurements. Explain that the uncertainties in position and momentum are
both determined by the particle wave function. If the electron is placed in a state for
which the uncertainty in position is small then the uncertainty in momentum is large and
vice versa. Show examples of localized and unlocalized wave packets (seeFigs. 46-11 and
46-12).
B. State the uncertainty principle: (~x)(~Px) 2 h/21r and give similar expressionsfor the
other cartesian components. Explain that ~x and ~Px can be changed by changing the
state (wave function) of the particle, but that their product is always greater than h/21r.
C. If you coveredFourier seriesearlier, draw the graph of a fairly localized wave function and
remark that it can be written as a sum of sinusoidal waves with different wavelengths.
Give the interpretation: different momentum measurementsmay yield different values; the
probability of obtaining any particular value is proportional to the square of the amplitude
of the corresponding sinusoidal wave in the sum. Sketch a graph of the Fourier amplitudes
and remark that if the wave is localized even more, the spread in wave number is greater.
D. Give the energy-time uncertainty relationship: ~E. ~t 2 h/21r and give an interpretation.
IV. Barrier tunneling.
A. Show Fig. 16 and explain that a wave function penetrates a finite barrier. It is oscillatory
(in position) outside the barrier, where E > V, and exponential inside, where E < V.
B. Explain that the particle has a probability of being found on either side of the barrier.
Contrast to the behavior of a classical particle.
C. Write down Eq. 46-25 for the transmission coefficient and explain that this measuresthe
probability of transmission through the barrier. Remark that transmission is small for
high, wide barriers and becomes larger as the barrier height decreasesand the barrier
width narrows. Also define the reflection coefficient R by R = 1 -T .
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Matter waves: multiple-choice questions 1 or 2,3,4, and 5j exercises 2,5,8,15, and 17.
b. Uncertainty principle: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9j exercises 21,23, and 25j problem
1.
c. Barrier tunneling: multiple-choice questions 11 and 12j exercises 29 and 30j problem 4.
2. Audio/Visual
a. Electrons and Particles and Waves; Side F: Angular Momentum and Modern Physics
of Cinema Classicsj video disk; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY
40577-1768.

b. Matter Waves; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
c. Electron Diffractionj Physics Experimentsj VHS video tape (15 min)j Films for the Hu-
manities & Sciences(see above for address).
a. Atomic Physics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc" 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Apple. Contains sections on experimental
foundations of quantum physics and photons.
4. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 14-5: Electron Diffraction. The Sargent-Welch electron diffraction appa-
ratus is used to investigate the diffraction of electrons by aluminum and graphite. Sincepowder
patterns (rings) are obtained you will need to explain their origin.
Chapter 47 ELECTRONS IN POTENTIAL WELLS
BASIC TOPICS
I. One-dimensional potential wells.
A. Explain that if a particle is bound ( and t4erefore localized) its energy is quantized. That
is, it can have any one of a set of discrete values and no other value. Use an energy level
diagram to illustrate.
B. Explain that, for a particle confined by infuúte potential energy barriers to the region
between -L/2 and L/2 on the x axis, possible wave functions are given by 'l/Jn(x) =
'l/JoddCOS(n7rx/L),where n is a positive odd integer, and by 'l/Jn(x) = 'l/Jevemsin(n7rx/L),
where n is a positive even integer. Show that these satisfy the Schrodinger equation
~dx2 + ~E.I.=O
h2 'f"
inside the trap and that they go to zero goes at the boundaries. Explain that a condition
for the given function to be a solution is that the energy of the particle must be En =
n2h2/8mL2. You might want to include the time dependenceby writing 'l' = 'I/J(x)fn(t)
and explaining that fn(t) is a function of time with magnitude 1.
C. Explain that confinement of the particle leads to energy quantization and that energy is
quantized for any bound particle. Plot the allowed values of the energy, as in Fig. 47-3:
Point out that the particle has kinetic energy even in the ground state and mention that
this energy is called its zero-point energy.
D. Tell students that 1'1/J(x)12dx gives the probability the particle is between x and x + dx
when the particle is in the state with the given wave function. Plot the probability density
Pn = l'I/JI2for a few low values of n and for at least one large value. See Figs. 47-4 and
47-5. Note that the probability density is zero at the boundaries and, for n/neO, at places
in the interior. State the correspondanceprinciple: as n gets larger quantum predictions
become closer to classical predictions. Remark that this is true quite generally.
E. Expl~ that the particle can certainly be found between x = -L/2 and x = L/2, so
J~f~21'I/JnI2dx = 1. The wave function is said to be normalized if it obeys this condition.
Show that the normalization condition leads to A = ..¡2TL.
F. Explain that experimentally the probability can be found, in principle, by performing a
large number of position measurementsand calculating the fraction for which the particle
is found in the designated segment of the x axis. Since a position measurement changes
the state of the particle, it must be restarted in the same state each time.

G. Draw a diagram of a one-dimensional trap with finite potential energy barriers at the
ends and state that the particle wave function now extends into the barriers, although it
decreasesexponentially there. Show Fig. 47-7. Mention that the allowed values of the
energy are different from those for infinite barriers, but that the energy is still quantized.
Table 47-1 gives some values for particular wells.
II. The hydrogen spectrum.
A. It is very difficult to project a spectrum. You can, however, put a hydrogen gas discharge
tube in a darkened room and have students view it through inexpensive diffraction grating
replicas. As an alternative, post a large colored picture of the spectrum, similar to Fig. 47-
10. Point out the red and blue lines and give their wavelengths.
B. Explain that the discrete lines they seehavewavelengthsdescribedby the empirical Balmer-
Rydbergformula l/A = R[(1/m)2-(1/n)2], where R = 1.lx107m-l was anexperimentally
determined constant. For the Balmer series m = 2. The red line is given by the formula
with n = 3 and the bluest visible line corresponds to n = 6. Lines with n > 6 can be
detected with instruments but cannot be seen by the eye. Mention that other series of
lines are known and that they are described by a similar formula with the another value
for m. The Lyman series, with m = 1, is in the ultraviolet and the Paschen series,with
m = 3, is in the infrared.
C. Demonstrate that radiation from hydrogen can be explained if the electron can have only
discrete energies, given by -hRc/n2, where n = 1, 2, 3, Point out Fig. 47-11. The
electron makes a transition from a state of higher energy En to a state of lower energy Em
and a photon of energy hf = Em -En is emitted. Thus the frequency of the radiation is
predicted to be fnm = Rc[(1/n2) -(1/m2)]. Use of A = c/ f leads to the Balmer-Rydberg
formula for the wavelength.
D. Explain the significance of negative energy. Point out that the potential energy is taken
to be zero for infinite separation of the electron and proton. The total mechanical energy
is negative when the electron is bound; its kinetic energy is not sufficient to remove the
el~ctron infinitely far from the proton. Positive energiescorrespond to an electron that is
not bound.
III. The Bohr model of hydrogen.
A. Point out that classical physics predicts a continuous spectrum. Since the electron is
accelerating as it goes around the nucleus, it should radiate continuously and fall into the
nucleus. Stress that it does not, the atom is stable, and the spectrum is discrete.
B. Discuss the postulate of stationary states. Explain that Bohr assumedthat certain states,
each with a discrete, well-defined energy, are available to the electron and that it can
exist in any of these states without radiating. The atom radiates when and only when an
electron changesstates.
C. Discuss the correspondenceprinciple as applied to the emission of radiation by hydrogen.
In the limit of large quantum number n the frequency of the radiation associatedwith a
transition from one energy level to the next lowest should match the classical result, which
is the same as the frequency of the electron's rotation about the proton. Explain that
Bohr used the correspondenceprinciple, Newton's second law, and the Balmer-Rydberg
formula to find an expressionfor the Rydberg constant in terms of fundamental constants:
R = me4/8E~h3c.Remark that this result agreeswith the experimental value.
D. Optional. Use classical mechanicsto derive an expression for the frequency of rotation of
the electron as a function of its energy. Substitute E = -hcR/n2 and compare the result
with the quantum formula v = 2cR/n3 for the frequency emitted for the transition from
one level to the next lowest, in the limit of large n.

IV Orbital and spin angular momentum.
A. State that the mag1lÍtude of the orbital angular momentum is given by L = ,¡l(l+I'jñ,
where ñ = h/27r.Note that L is quantized. The orbital quantum number .e can take on
the values O, 1,2, ..., n -1 for a given n. These are said to label the subshells,which are
named s, p, d, f, g, h, ..., in order of increasing .e. Go over the allowed values of.e for
n = 1, 2, and 3. Emphasize that n = 2, .e= 0 and n = 2, .e= 1 states, for example, have
the same energy but different angular momenta.
B. State that the z component of the angular momentum is given by Lz = mlñ, where
ml = 0, ::1:::1,
::1:::2,
..., ::I:::.e.
ml is called the magnetic quantum number. The z axis can be
in any direction, perhaps defined by an external magnetic field. Point out that the angle
(} between the angular momentum vector and the z axis is given by cos(} = ml / ,¡l(l+I'j .
The smallest value of (} occurs when ml = .e but it is not zero. Explain that the angles L
--
--
makes with the x and y axes cannot be known if the angle between L and the z axis is
--
known. Discuss this in terms of the precessionof L about the z axis.
C. Explain that the electron and some other particles have intrinsic angular momentum, as
if they were spinning on axes. The mag1lÍtude of the electron spin angular momentum is
J374ñ and the z component is either -~ñ or +~ñ (there are two possible states).
v. Hydrogen wave functions.
A. Explain that wave functions and energiesfor the electron in a hydrogen atom can be found
by solving the Schrodinger equation. The important point is that wave functions and
energy levels are determined by the potential energy function, through the Schrodinger
equation. It is not necessaryto write down the equation. State that the potential energy
function for hydrogen is U = -e2 /47rEOrand the condition 1/J-+ 0 as r -+ 00 is applied.
Drawa graph of U(r) and draw lines across the graph to indicate the values of the first
few energy levels.
B. Explain that states for hydrogen are classified using four quantum numbers:
1. The principal quantum number n, which determines the energy.
2. The orbital quantum number .e,which determines the mag1lÍtudeof the orbital angular
momentum.
3. The magnetic quantum number ml, which the determines the z component of the
angular momentum.
4. The spin quantum number m8' which determines the z component of the spin angular
momentum. .
c .Explain that traditionally each value of n is said to label a shell and the shells are named
K, L, M, N, ..., in order of increasing n. Remark that a shell may consist of many states,
but each is associatedwith the samevalue of the energy.
D Remind students that for a given shell .emay take on the values 0, 1, 2, ..., n- 1. There
are n different values in all. Explain that all the states with given values of n and .eare said
to form a subshell and that subshells are named s, p, d, f, g, ..., in order of increasing
.e. Remind students that for a given value of .e,ml may take on any integer value from -.e
to +.e, 2.e+ 1 values in all. Since m8 can have either of two values, a subshell consists of
2(2.e+ 1) states. Either state or prove that the shell with principal quantum number n has
2n2 states.
E List all the states for n = 1, 2, and 3. Group them according to n and remark that all
states with the same n have the same energy, all states with the same .ehave the same
mag1lÍtude of orbital angular momentum, and all states with the same ml have the same
z component of orbital angular momentum. Remark that states with different values of n,
.e,and ml have different wave functions.
F Give the ground state wave function and obtain the expressionfor the probability density.

Remark that 'l/Jis spherically symmetric and explain that this is true of all i = O wave
functions. Show that the volume of a spherical shell with thickness dr is 41rr2dr and
define the radial probability density as Pr = 41rr21'l/J(r)12.
Sketch Pr for the ground state
and point out there is a range of radial distances at which the electron might be found.
Contrast this with the Bohr model. Locate the most probable radius and the average
radius.
G. Show a graph of Pr for n = 2, i = O (Fig. 47-14). Write down the expression for Pr and
point out that it is spherically symmetric. Note that the averageradius and most probable
radius both increasewith n. If you wish to broaden the discussion a little, write down the
expression for the radial probability density associatedwith the n = 2, i = 1 subshell, a
weighted average of the mf. = -1, O, and +1 states (Fig. 47-18). Note that the average
radius and most probable radius decreasewith increasing i for the same n.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Particlesin infinite potential wells: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 4, 6, and
7; exercises3, 6, and 7j problems 2 and 3.
b. Particles in finite potential wells: multiple-choice question 4.
c. The Schrodinger equation: problem 5.
d. Bohr atom: multiple-choice questions 5 and 17; exercises20 and 28; problem 7.
e. Optical transitions: questions 9, 11, and 12; exercises12, 15, 18, 22, 24, 26, and 27.
.f. Angular momentum of electrons in atoms: multiple-choice questions 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10;
question 21; exercises37 and 38.
g. States of hydrogen: multiple-choice questions 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16; questions 27 and
28; exercises33, 34, 35,41,42,43,45,46, and 50; problems 10, 12, and 13.
2. Demonstrations
Thompson and Bohr models of the atom.
3. Audio/Visual
a. The Bohr Modelj VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & SciencesInc., Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543.
b. Spectra; Demonstrations of Physics: Light; VHS video tape (6:02); Media Design Asso-
ciates, Inc., Box 3189, Boulder, CO 80307-3190.
c. Absorption Spectra; from AAPT Miller collection of single-concept films; video tapej avail-
able from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768,Lexington, KY 40577-1768.
d. Spectra; Demonstrations of Physics: Light; VHS video tape (6:02); Media Design Asso-
ciates (see above for address).
e. The Quantum Idea; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
f. The Wave-MechanicalModelj VHS video tape (10 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sci-
ences( seeabove for address).
g. Electron Distribution in the Hydrogen Atom; A.F. Burr and Robert Fisher; American
Association of Physics Teachersslide set; Publications Sales,AAPT Executive Office, 5112
Berwyn Road, College Park, MD 20740-4100.Probability distributions for n =1 to n = 6.
h. Atoms, Molecules, and Models; Side F: Angular Momentum and Modern Physics ofCinema
Classicsjvideo disk; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
a. Atomic Physics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Apple. Contains sections on particles and
waves, on the Schrodinger equation, and on the hydrogen atom.

b. Quantum Numbers; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc. (see above for
address).
5. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 14-3: Analysis of Spectra. A spectroscope is used to obtain the
wavelengths of hydrogen and helium lines. Hydrogen lines are compared with predictions
of the Balmer equation.
Chapter 48 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
BASIC TOPICS
I. X rays and the numbering of the elements.
A. Explain that x. rays are produced by firing energetic electrons into a solid target. Show
Fig. 48-1 and point out the continuous part of the spectrum and the peaks. Also point
out that there is a sharply defined minimum wavelength to the x-ray spectrum. Explain
that the continuous spectrum results becausethe electrons lose some or all of their kinetic
energy in close ( decelerating) encounterswith nuclei. This energy appears as photons and
t1K = hv. Explain that a photon of minimum wavelength is produced when an electron
loses all its kinetic energy in a single emission. Derive the expression for the minimum
wavelength in terms of the original accelerating potential and point out it is independent
of the target material.
B. Explain that the line spectrum in Fig. 48-1 appearsbecauseincident electrons interact with
atomic electrons and knock some of the deep-lying electrons out of the atoms. Electrons
in higher levels drop to fill the holes, emitting photons with energy equal to the difference
in energy of the initial and final atomic levels. The Ka line is produced when electroDS
drop from the L (n = 2) shell to the K (n = 1) shell and the KfJ line is produced when
electrons drop from the M (n = 3) shell to the K shell. Show Fig. 48-3.
C. Show Fig. 48-4 and state that when the square root of the frequency for any given line
is plotted as a function of the atomic number of the target atom, the result is nearly a
straight line. Argue that the innermost electrons have an energy level schemecloseto that
of hydrogen but with an effective nuclear cl1argeof ( Z -b )e, where b accounts for screening
by electrons close to the nucleus. Z is the number of protons in the nucleus, the atomic
number. Use the expressionfor hydrogen energy levels and for Ka put n = 2 for the initial
state and n = 1 for the final state, then show that ~ is proportional to (Z- b).
D. Remark that this relationship was used to position the chemical elements in the periodic
table independently of their chemicalproperties. This technique was particularly important
for positioning elementsin the long rows of the periodic table; they contain many elements
with similar chemical properties. Today the technique is used to identify trace amounts of
impurities in materials.
II. Atom building and the periodic table.
A. Give the "rules" for atom building.
1. The foui quantum numbers n, .e,mi, m8 can be used to label states. They have the
same restrictions on their values as for hydrogen. Remark that wave functions and
energiesare different for electrons with the same quantum numbers in different atoms.
Also remark that the energy depends on .e.
2. No more than one electron can have any given set of values of the 4 quantum numbers.
This is a general principIe of quantum mechanics, called the Pauli exclusion principIe.
State that this principIe holds for electrons, protons, neutrons, and many other parti-
cles but not for all particles and give the photon as an example of a particle for whicl1

it does not hold.
3. As another proton is added to the nucleus and another electron is added to the region
outside, the electron goes into the vacant state with the lowest energy. This produces
the ground state of the atom.
B. Explain that for a given n, the subshells are filled in order of increasing t'. Point out that
electrons with low t' have a greater chance of being near the nucleus, where the potential
energy is lower, than electrons with higher t'. Electrons that are not near the nucleus
experience a force that is reduced by the screening of inner electrons. Define the term
shell as a collection of states with closely lying levels, separated from other states by wider
energy gaps.
C. Explain that as more protons are added to the nucleus the electron wave functions pull in
toward regions of low potential energy. This and the dependenceof the energy on t' means
that states associatedwith one principal quantum number may not be filled before states
associatedwith the next principal quantum number are started. For example, a 5s state
is lower in energy than a 4d state, in different atoms. It also accounts for the fact that all
atoms have nearly the same size.
D. Show Fig. 48-5 or a periodic table of the chemical elements. Point out the inert gas atoms
and explain they all have filled shells. Point out the alkali metal and alkaline earth atoms
and state they have one and two electrons, respectively, outside closed shells. Remark that
electrons in partially filled shells are chiefly responsible for chemical activity. Point out the
atoms in which d and f states are being filled and finally those in which p states are being
filled.
III. Magnetic dipole moments.
A. Explain that the electron has a magnetic dipole moment becauseof its orbital motion and
write -orb = -(e/2m)L and JLorb,z= -(e/2m)Lz = -(eñ/2m)mt. Give the value of the
Bohr magneton (JLB= eñ/2m = 9.28 x 10-24J/T). Remind students that becauseof its
motion, the electron experiencesa torque in an external magnetic field and produces its
oWn magnetic field (provided ::forb~ O).
B. State that the spin magnetic moment is JL8z= -gm8JLB, where 9 is very nearly 2. Stress
the appearance of the factor g. The electron produces a magnetic field and experiencesa
torque in a magnetic field becauseof this moment.
...
C. Remark that the energy of an electron is changed by-JLzB when an external field B is
applied in the positive z direction. Thus, states with the same n but different mt have
different energiesin a magnetic field. This is called the Zeeman effect. Photons with an
energy equal to the energy difference of the two spin states cause the spin to flip. The
phenomenon can be detected by measuring the absorption of the beam.
D. Briefly describe the Stern-Gerlach experiment. Explain that a magnetic dipole in a non-
uniform magnetic field experiences a force and that Fz = JLzdB/dz for a field in the
z direction that varies along the z axis. Atoms with different values of mt experience
different forces and arrive at different places on a screen. That discrete regions of the
screenreceive atoms is experimental evidence for the quantization of the z component of
angular momentum.
E. To emphasizethe practical, qualitatively explain NMR and its use in diagnostic medicine.
You might also explain how local magnetic fields in solids, for example, can be measured
using magnetic resonancetechniques.
IV The laser.
A. List the characteristics of laser light: monochromatic, coherent, directional, can be sharply
focused. Seethe text for quantitative comparisonswith light from other sources.

B. Explain the mechanism of light absorption: an incident photon is absorbed if hll corre-
sponds to the energy diff.erenceof two electron states of the material and the upper state
is initially empty. An electron makes the jump from the lower to the upper state. Explain
spontaneous emission: an electron spontaneously (without the aid of external radiation)
makes the transition from one state to a lower state (if that state is empty) and a photon
with hll equal to the energy differenceis emitted. Emphasizethat in most casesthe electron
remains in the upper state for a time on the order of 10-9 s but that there are metastable
states in which the electron remains for a longer time (~ 10-3 s). Explain stimulated emis-
sion: with the electron in an upper state an incident photon with the proper energy can
causeit to make the jump to a lower state. The result is two photons of the same energy,
moving in the samedirection, with waveshaving the samephase and polarization. Remark
that laser light is prQduced by a large number of such events, each triggered by a photon
from a previous event. Hence alllaser photons are identical. Explain that metastable
states are important since the electron must remain in the upper state until its transition
is induced. Compare with light produced by random spontaneoustransitions.
C. Explain that, in thermodynamic equilibrium, upper levels are extremely sparsely populated
compared to the ground state. To obtain laser light the population of an upper level
must be increased. A laser must be pumped. If you covered Section 22-5, write down
n(E) = Ce-E/kT and show the connection with the Maxwell distribution law.
D Use Fig. 48-21 to describe the three levellaser. First describe the equilibrium distribution
of electrons among the states, then describe pumping from the ground state to the highest
level and the fast decay to the metastable state. Describe the distribution when the
population has been inverted. Finally describethe stimulation of emission and the build-up
of the number of photons with the same energy and phase.
E Discussthe helium-neon laser. First give the energy level schemeand describe the pumping
and stimulation processes.Discuss the role of the walls and mirror ends. Go over the four
characteristics of laser light discussedearlier and tell how each is achieved.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. X-ray spectra: multiple-choice question lj exercises4, 5, 9, 10, and 14.
b. Moseley plots: multiple-choice questions 2 and 3; questions 8 and 11; exercise 14; problems
1 and 5.
c. Atomic structure: multiple-choice questions 5 and 6.
d. Periodic table: multiple-choice questions 7 and 9j questions 15 and 18; exercises15 and 20.
e. Atomic magnetism: multiple-choice question 10; questions 33, 34, and 38.
f. Stern-Gerlach experiment: multiple-choice question 11; exercises22 and 24.
g. Magnetism and radiation: multiple-choice question 12; exercise 26.
h. Lasers: questions 47 and 48; exercises27, 31, 32, and 33; problem 8.
2. Demonstrations
Zeemaneffect: Freier and Anderson MPcl.
ResourceLetters, Book Fivej American Association of Physics Teachers, One Physics El-
lipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contains a resource letter on atomic physics.
4. Audio/Visual
a. The Atom revealed; VHS video tape (50 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO
b. Applications of Lasers; VHS video tape (58 min)j Films for the Humanities & Sciences

c. Constructing a Laser; VHS video tape (58 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
d. Viewing a Hologmm; Demonstrations of Physics: Light; VHS video tape (3:36); Media
Quantum Numbers; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Apple.
Chapter 49 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION IN SOLIDS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Metallic conduction.
A. Write down Eq. 49-1 for the resistivity and remark that n is the concentration of conduction
electrons and T is the mean time between collisions of electrons with atoms. Ask students
to review Sections 29-4 and 29-5. Remark that a low resistivity results if the electron
concentration is large or the mean free time is long. In a rough way, if there are few
collisions per unit time then the mean free time is long and the electrons are accelerated
by the electric field for a long time before colliding, so the drift velocity is large. Remark
that quantum mecl1anicsmust be used to determine n and T.
B. Write down the Fermi-Dirac probability function p(E), given by Eq. 49-6, and state that
it gives the thermodynamic probability that a state with energy E is occupied. Show that
for T = OK, p(E) = 1 for E < EF andp(E) = O for E > EF. Remark that it is consistent
with the Pauli exclusion principle. To give a numerical example, calculate the probabilities
of occupation for states 0.1 and 1eV above the Fermi energy, then 0.1 and 1 eV below,
at room temperature. Graph E vs. p(E) for T = ,0 and for T > 0. See Fig. 49-2. A1so
show the graph for a still higher temperature and point out that the central region (from
p.= 0.9 to p = 0.1, say) widens. This quantitatively describes the thermal excitation of
electrons to higher energy states. Remark that the Fermi-Dirac probability function is
valid for any large collection of electrons, including the collections in metals, insulators,
and semiconductors.
C. Define the density of available states function n(E) and the density of occupied states
function no(E). Explain that no(E) = n(E)p(E) and that the total electron concentration
in a metal is given by n = Jn(E)p(E) dE. In principle, this equation can be solved for
the Fermi energy as a function of temperature. State that for nearly free electrons in a
metal n(E) is given by Eq. 49-2 and that the Fermi level is given by Eq. 49-5. Evaluate
the expression for copper and show that EF is about 7eV above the lowest free electron
energy.
D. Explain that the electric current is zero when no electric field is present becausestates for
whicl1 the velocities are +v and -v, for example, have the same energy. If one is occupied
the;n so is the other. Thus the averagevelocity of the electrons vanishes. A current arises
in an electric field becausethe electrons accelerate: they tend to make transitions within
their band to other states sucl1that the changesin their velocities are opposite to the field.
E. Explain that the acceleration caused by an electric field does not continue indefinitely
becausethe electrons are scattered by atoms of the solid. As a result, the electron distri-
bution distorts only slightly. Somestates with energy slightly greater than EF and velocity
opposite the field becomeoccupied while somestates with energy slightly lessthan EF and
velocity in the direction of the field becomevacant. Electrons with energy EF have speeds
VF given by EF = ~mv~ but the average speed (the drift speed) is considerably less be-

causemost electrons can be pajred with others moving with the samespeedin the opposite
direction.
F. Explain that a steady state is reached and that the drift velocity is then proportional to
the applied electric field. Only electrons near the Fermi energy suffer collisions and the
additional velocities they obtain from the field between collisions are insignificant compared
to their velocities in the absence of the field. Thus the mean free time is essentially
independent of the field and Ohm's law is valid. Remark that steady state is approached
exponentially with a characteristic time equal to the mean free time.
G. State that electrons in a perfectly periodic lattice do not suffer collisions, a result that
is predicted by quantum mechanics. Collisions with the atoms occur because they are
vibrating. Collisions also occur if the solid contajns impurities or other imperfections. As
the temperature increasesvibrational amplitudes of the atoms increases and so does the
number of collisions per unit time. As a result, the mean free time becomessmaller. This
explains the increasewith temperature in the resistivity of a metal.
II. Electron energy bands.
A. Explain that energy levels for electrons in solids are grouped into bands with the levels in
any band being nearly continuous and with gaps of unallowed energiesbetween. Remark
that bands are produced when atoms are brought close together. Wave functions then
overlap and extend throughout the solid. Show Fig. 49-6 and remark that low energy
bands are narrow since the wave functions are highly localized around nuclei and overlap
is small. High energy bands are wide becauseoverlap is large.
B. Remind students tha.t since the Pauli exclusion principle holds the lowest total energy is
achieved when electrons fill the lowest states with one electron in each state. Thus at
T = OK all states are filled up to a maximum energy.
C. Remark that the free electron model works for electrons in a metal because the kinetic
energies of the conduction electrons, particularly those near the Fermi energy, are much
larger than the variations in potential energy from place to place.
III. Insulators and semiconductors.
A. Explain that a filled band cannot contribute to an electric current because the average
electron velocity is always zero, even in an electric field. State that insulators and semi-
conductors have just the right number of electrons to completely fill an integer number of
bands and that, in the lowest energy state, all bands are either completely filled or com-
pletelyempty. For metals, on the other hand, the highest occupied state is in the middle
of a band. Metals always have partially filled bands. Compare Figs. 49-7(a), (b), and (c).
Identify the valence and conduction bands for an insulator .
B. Explain that as the temperature is rajsed from T = OK a small fraction. of the electrons
in the valence band of an insulator or semiconductor are thermally excited acrossthe gap
into the conduction band. For a semiconductor the gap is small (about 1 eV) and at room
temperature both bands can contribute to the current. The conductivity, however, is still
small compared to that of a metal. For an insulator the gap is large (more than 5eV), so
the number of promoted electrons is extremely small and the current is insignificant for
laboratory fields. Explajn that silicon and germanium are the only elemental semiconduc-
tors although there are many semiconducting compounds. Carbon is a prototype insulator ,
with a gap of5.5eV. Comparewith silicon, which has a gap of 1.1eV. Resistivities ofmetals
and semiconductors are compared in Table 49-1.
C. When electrons are promoted across the gap they contribute to the current in an electric
field. The valence band becomes partially filled and electrons there also contribute. It
is usually convenient to think about the few empty states in this band rather than the
large number of electrons there. These are called holes and behave as if they were positive

charges. In contrast to electrons, holes drift in the direction of E. Compare the carrier
concentrations of metals and semiconductors at room temperature. SeeTable 49-1.
D. Explain the different signs for the temperature coefficients of resistivity, also given in Ta-
ble 49-1. Explain that for both metals and semiconductors near room temperature the
mean free time decreaseswith increasing temperature. For metals the electron concentra-
tion is essentially constant but for semiconductors n increasesdramatically with temper-
ature as electrons are thermal1y promoted across the gap. This effect dominates and the
resistivity of an intrinsic semiconductor decreaseswith increasing temperature.
E. Explain that the proper kind ofimpurities (donors) can increasethe number ofelectrons in
the conduction band and another kind (acceptors) can increase the number ofholes in the
valenceband. They produce n and p type semiconductors,respectively. By considering the
number of electrons in their outer shells explain why phosphorus is a donor and aluminum
is an acceptor. Point out that wave functions for impurity states are highly localized around
the impurity and so do not contribute to the conductivity. Go over Sample Problem 49-
7, which shows that only a relatively small dopant concentration can increase the carrier
concentration enormously. Doped semiconductors are used in nearly all semiconducting
devices.
IV. Semiconducting devices.
A. Show a commercial junction diode and draw a graph of current vs. potential difference
(Fig. 49-12). Include both forward and reverse bias. Explain that it is a rectifier, with
high resistance for current in one direction and low resistance for current in the other
direction. Demonstrate the I- V characteristics by placing the diode across a variable
power supply and measuring the current for various values of the potential. Reversethe
potential to show the rectification.
B. Describe a pn junction and explain the origin of the electric field in the transition region
and the origin of the contact potential. Stress that the field is due to uncovered impurity
at.oms,positive donors on the n side and negative acceptors on the p side. Remark that
diffusion of carriers leaves a small depletion zone, nearly devoid of carriers, straddling the
metallurgical junction.
C. Describe a diffusion current as one that arisesbecauseparticles diffuse from regions of high
concentration toward regions of low concentration. Explain that this motion results from
the random motion of the particles. More particles leave a high concentration region simply
becausethere are more particles there, not becausethey are driven by any applied force.
State that the diffusion current for both electrons and holes in an unbiased pn junction is
from the p to the n side, against the contact electric field. Point out that the drift current
is from the n toward the p side and that the diffusion and drift currents cancel when no
external field is applied. Point out the depletion zone and the currents on Fig. 49-10.
D. Draw a circuit with a battery acrossa pn junction, the positive terminal attached to the n
side. Explain that this is reversebias. The internal electric field is now larger, the barrier
to diffusion is higher, and the reverse current is extremely sma1l. See Fig. 49-14. Also
explain that the width of the depletion zone is increasedby application of a reversebias.
E. Draw the circuit for forward bias. The internal electric field is now smal1er,the barrier to
diffusion is lower, and the current increasesdramatically. The depletion zone narrows.
F. Explain how diodes are used for rectification and how light emitting diodes work.
G. Optional. Explain how ajunction transistor works. Explain the mechanism by which the
gate voltage of a MOSFET controls current through the channel. Remove the coversfrom
a few chips and pass them around with magnifying glassesfor student inspection.

SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Conduction electrons in a metal: exercise 3.
b. Distribution of electrons among states: multiple-choice questions 1, 2, and 3; questions 2,
8, and 9; exercises7, 9, 14, 16, 19, and 20; problem 2.
c. Electrical conduction in metals: multiple-choice question 4; question 15; exercises23 and
25.
d. Energy bands: multiple-choice question 5.
e. Conductors, insulators, and semiconductors: multiple-choice questions 6 and 7j questions
13, 20, and 21; exercise 27; problem 4.
f. Doped semiconductors: multiple-choice questions 8 and 9; questions 27 and 28; exercise
29; problem 5.
g. pn junctions: multiple-choice question 10; questions 34, 37, and 42; exercise 35j problem
7.
h. Optical electronics: question 45j exercises37 and 38.
i. Superconductors: multiple-choice question 12.
2. Audio/Visual
CondensedMatter; Side F: Chapter 70 of Cinema Classics;video disk. Ztek Co., PO Box
1055, Louisville, KY 40201.
Chapter 50 NUCLEAR PHYSICS
BASIC TOPICS
I. Nuclear properties.
A. Explain that the nucleusof an atom consistsof a collection of tightly bound neutrons, which
are neutral, and protons, which are positively charged. A proton has the same magnitude
Chargeas an electron. Define the term nucleon and state that the number of nucleons is
called the mass number and is denoted by A, the number of protons is called the atomic
number and is denoted by Z, and the number of neutrons is denoted by N. Point out
that A = Z + N. Remark that nuclei with the same Z but different N are called isotopes.
The atoms have the same chemical properties and the same chemical symbol. Show a wall
chart of the nuclides. Refer to Table 50-1 when discussingproperties of nuclides.
B. Explain that one nucleon attracts another by meansofthe strong nuclear force and that this
force is different from the electromagnetic force. It doesnot depend on electrical chargeand
is apparently the samefor all pairs of nucleons. It is basically attractive; at short distances
(a few fm) it is much stronger than the electrostatic force between protons, but it becomes
very weak at larger distances. Two protons exert attractive strong forces on each other
only at small separationsbut they exert repulsive electric forces at all separations. Because
of the short range, a nucleon interacts only with its nearest neighbors via the strong force.
Becausethe nucleus is small, the much stronger nuclear force dominates and both protons
and neutrons can be bound in stable nuclei.
C. Show Fig. 50-4 and point out the Z = N line and the stability zone. Explain why heavy
nuclei have more neutrons than protons. Also explain that unstable nuclei are said to be
radioactive and convert to more stable ones with the emission of one or more particles.
Show Fig. 12 and point out the stable and unstable nuclei.
D. Explain that the surface of a nucleus is not sharply defined but nuclei can be characterized
by their mean radii and these are given by R = RoA1/3, where Ro = 1.2fm (lfm =
10-15m). Stress how small this is compared to atomic radii. Show that this relationship

between R and A leads to the conclusion that the mass densities of all nuclei are nearly
the same. Show that the density ofnuclear matter is about 2 x 1017kg/m3.
E. Explain that the mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of the massesof its constituent
nucleons, well separated. The difIerence in mass is accounted for by the binding energy
through EB = ~mc2, where ~m is the magnitude of the mass difference. The binding
energy is the energy which must be supplied to separate the nucleus into well separated
particles, at rest. Generalize this equation to the case of a nucleus with Z protons and
N neutrons: EB = Zmpc2 + NmnC2 -mc2 .This expression is used implicitly in Sample
Problem 50-3. Show Fig. 50-6 and point out that there is a region of greatest stability,
near iron. For heavier nuclei the binding energy per nucleon falls slowly but nevertheless
does fall. For lighter nuclei the binding energy per nucleon rises rapidly with increasing
massnumber. Explain that the high massnumber region is important for fission processes,
the low mass number region is important for fusion processes.
F. State that nuclear massesare difficult to measure with precision so binding energiesare
usually expressedin unified atomic mass units: 1 u = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg. Also state that
tables usually give atomic rather than nuclear massesand so include the massof the atomic
electrons. Show that the electron massescancel in the expression for the binding energy.
G. Explain that nuclei have discrete energy levels, with separations on the order of MeV.
An excited nucleus can make a transition to a lower energy state with the emission of a
photon, typically in the gamma ray region of the spectrum. Explain that a nucleus may
have intrinsic angular momentum and a magnetic moment. Spins are on the order of ñ"
like atomic electrons, but moments are much less than electron moments becausethe mass
of a nucleon is much greater than the mass of an electron. Define the nuclear magneton.
II. Radioactive decay.
A. Explain that nuclei may be either stable or unstable and those which are unstable ultimately
decay to stable nuclei. Decay occurs by spontaneousemission of an electron (e- ) , a helium
nucleus (a), a positron (e+), or larger fragments. The resulting nucleus has a different
cómplement of neutrons and protons than the original nucleus.
B. Explain that decayis energetically favorable if the total massof the products is lessthan the
original mass. Define a decay symbolically as X-+ y +b, where X is the original nucleus, y
is the daughter nucleus, and b is everything else. Point out that charge, number of nucleons,
and energy are all conserved. Define the disintegration energy by Q = (mx -my -mb)c2.
Note that an appropriate number of electron rest energiesmust be added or subtracted so
that atomic massesmay be used. Note also that Q must be positive for spontaneousdecays
and Q appears as the kinetic energy of the decay products or as an excitation energy if the
daughter nucleus is left in an excited state.
C. Explain that each radioactive nucleusin a sample has the same chanceof decaying and that
the decay rate (R = -dN/dt) is proportional to the number of undecayed nuclei present
at time t: -dN/dt = ).N. This has the solution N = No exp( -).t), so the decay rate is
given by R = Ro exp( -).t). Define the term half-life and show that T = (ln2)/ ).. Go over
Sample Problems 50-4 and 50-5, show Fig. 50-7, and point out the half-life. Remark that
R decreasesby a factor of 2 in every half-life interval.
D. Discuss a decay. Write down Eq. 50-10 and explain that the daughter nucleus has 2 fewer
neutrons and 2 fewer protons than the parent. Go over Sample Problem 50-6 to show
that a decay is energetically favorable for 238U. Show Fig. 50-8 and explain that the deep
potential well is due to the strong attraction of the residual nucleus for the nucleonsin the
a particle, while the positive potential is due to Coulomb repulsion. The two forces form
a barrier to decay. Explain that the a particle can ttUU1elthrough the barrier. Its wave
function doesnot go to zero at the inside edgebut has a finite amplitude in the barrier and

on the outside. There is a non-zero probability of finding the a particle on the outside.
High, wide barriers produce a small probability of tunneling and a long half-life while low,
narrow barriers produce the opposite effect. Note the wide range of half-lives that occur
in nature.
E. Discuss f:Jdecay. Explain that a neutron can transform into a proton with the emission
of an electron and a neutrino (strictly, an antineutrino) and that a proton can transform
into a neutron with the emission of a positron and a neutrino. Mention the properties
of a neutrino: massless,neutral, weakly interacting. Only protons bound in nuclei can
undergo f:Jdecay but both free and bound neutrons can decay. These transformations lead
to decayssuch as the onesgiven in Eqs. 50-16 and 50-17. Explain that the energy is shared
by the decay products and that the electrons or positrons show a continuous spectrum of
energy up to some maximum amount (seeFig. 50-10). Explain that neutron rich nuclides
generally undergo f:J- decay while proton rich nuclides generally undergo f:J+ decay. This
is a mechanism for bringing the nucleus closer to stability. Carefully discuss the inclusion
of electron rest energies in the equation for Q so that atomic masses can be used. In
particular, show that in f:J- decay there is no excesselectron mass but in f:J+ decay there
is an excessof 2 electron rest masses.
F. Define the units used to describe radioactivity and radiation dosage: curie, roentgen, rad,
and rem.
III. Nuclear reactions.
A. Qualitatively describe an experiment in which a projectile particle (proton, deuteron, a)
is incident on a target nucleus X. Remark that resulting nucleus might be different from
the target nucleus and the light particle that emergesmay be different from the projectile
particle. Explain the notation X ( a, b)Y, where X is the target nucleus, y is the residual
nucleus, a is the projectile, and b is the emerging light particle. In some casesb might
represent more than one particle.
B. Define the reaction energy by Q = (mx +ma)C2 -(my +mb)c2. Define the term "exother-
1nic" (Q > 0) and explain that for these reactions the excessenergy appears as an increase
in the total kinetic energy or as an excitation energy of the residual nucleus. Remark that
an excited nucleus eventually decaysby the emission of photons in the gamma-ray region
ofthe electromagnetic spectrum. Define the term "endothermic" (Q < 0) and explain that
kinetic energy is converted to rest energy in these reactions. The projectile particle must
have a certain threshold kinetic energy for the reaction to occur.
C. Explain that if y is the sameas X (which means b is the sameas a) then the event is called
a scattering event. It is said to be elastic if the total kinetic energy does not change and
inelastic if the total kinetic energy does change. Remark that inelastic scattering occurs if
the residual nucleus is left in an excited state.
D. Remark that for a given reaction with a given initial energy, the kinetic energy of the final
particle b may have one of a discrete set of values. Show Fig. 50-14 as an example of
a spectrum and state that in each case the residual nucleus is left in a different excited
state. Also state that gamma-ray photons are emitted as the excited nucleus decaysto its
ground state. Tell students that an energy level diagram for a nucleus can be constructed
by analyzing the energy spectrum of the reaction products.
a. Radioactive dating.
b. Nuclear models.

SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Rutherford experiment: multiple-choice question 1; exercise 1; problem 1.
b. Nuclear properties: multiple-choice question 2; questions 3, 5, 8, and 13; exercises5, 9, 12,
c. Radioactive decay: multiple-choice question 5; questions 17, 20, and 27; exercises20, 23,
26, and 30; problem 6.
d. Alpha decay: multiple-choice question 6; question 22; exercise 33; problem 9.
e. Beta decay: multiple-choice questions 7 and 8; exercises35 and 38; problem 11.
f. Ionizing radiation: multiple-choice question 9; exercises41, 44, and 46; problem 14.
g. Natural radioactivity: multiple-choice question 10; exercise49.
h. Nuclear reactions: multiple-choice question 11; question 30; exercises52 and 56.
i. Nuclear models: multiple-choice question 12; exercise60; problem 18.
2. Demonstration
Geiger counter: Freier and Anderson MPa2.
Resource Letters, Book Four; American Association of Physics Teachers, One Physics
Ellipse, College Park, MD 20740-3845. Contains a resource letter on nuclear physics.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Radioactive Decay; Scintillation Spectrometry; from AAPT Miller collection of single-
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co., PO Box 11768, Lexington, KY 40577-
1768.
b. Nuclear Physics; Side F: Angular Momentum and Modern Physics of Cinema Classics;
video disk; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
c. Rutherford Scattering, Thomson Model of the Atom; from AAPT collection 1 of single-
concept films; video tape; available from Ztek Co. (see above for address).
d. The Determination of a Radioactive Half-Life; VHS video tape (25 min); Films for the
Humanities and Sciences,Inc., Box 2053, Princeton, NJ 08543.
e. The Rutherford Scattering of Alpha Particles; VHS video tape (15 min); Films for the
Humanities & Sciences(seeabove for address).
f. Radioactivity; VHS video tape (23 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove
for address).
g. The determination of a Radioactive Half-Life; VHS video tape (15 min); Films for the
Humanities & Sciences(seeabove for add:tess).
h. The Rutherford Model; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
i. Natuml Transmutations; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
a. Conservation Laws; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Apple, Windows. Includes a section on nuclear
conservation laws.
b. Atomic Physics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc. (see above for ad-
dress).Contains sections on Rutherford scattering, nuclear structure, and radioactive
decay.
c. Chart of the Nuclides: A Tutorial; Philip DiLavore; Physics Academic Software, North
Carolina State University, PO Box 8202, Raleigh, NC 27690-0739. The chart is shown and
a click on any nuclide produces information about that nuclide.

6. Laboratory
Many of the following experiments make use of a Geiger tube and scalar.
a. Bernard Experlment 48: The Characteristics of a Geiger Tubedescribeshow students can
systematically investigate the plateau and resolving time of a Geiger tube. They also
learn how to operate a scalar. Consider prefacing the other experiments either with this
experiment or with a demonstration of the same material.
b. Meiners Experiment 14-7: Half-Life of Radioactive Sources. A Geiger counter and scalar
are used to measure the decay rate as a function of time for indium, cesium 137, and
barium 137. For the fust and last, the data is used to compute the ha1f-life. Other sections
explain how to use a microcomputer to collect data and make the calculation and how
to use a emanation electroscopeto collect data. A neutron howitzer or minigenerator is
required to produce radioactive sources.
c. Bernard Experiment 52: Measurement of Radioactive Half-Life. Nearly the sameas Mein-
ers 14-7. The generation of sourceswith short ha1f-livesis discussed.
d. Meiners Experiment 14-6: Absorption of Gamma and Beta Rays. The particles are incident
on sheetsof aluminum and the number that pass through per unit time is counted. Students
make a logarithmic plot of the counting rate as a function of the thickness of the aluminum
and determine the range of the particles.
Chapter 51 ENERGY FROM THE NUCLEUS
BASIC TOPICS
I. The fission process.
A. Refer back to the binding energy per nucleon vs. A curve (Fig. 50-6) .It suggeststhat a
massive nucleus might split into two or more fragments nearer to iron, thereby increasing
the total binding energy. Each fragment is more stable than the original nucleus. This is
the fission process.
B. Remark that many massivenuclei can be rendered fissionable by the absorption of a thermal
neutron. Such nuclei are called fissile. Give the example 235U+ n-+ 236U*-+ X + y + bn.
Explain that a thermal neutron ( ~ 0.04eV) is absorbed by a 235Unucleus and together
they form the intermediate fissionable 236U*nucleus. This nucleus splits into 2 fragments
(X and Y) and several neutrons. The sequenceof events is illustrated in Fig. 51-3. Point
out 236Uon Fig. 50-6. The disintegration energy for one possible fission event is calculated
in Sample Problem 51-1.
C. Explain that different fission events,starting with the samenucleus, might produce different
fragments. The fraction of events that produce a fragment of a given mass number A is
graphed in Fig. 51-2. Point out that fragments of equal mass occur only rarely. Explain
that the parent nucleus is neutron rich, the original fragments are neutron rich, and that
the original fragments expel neutrons to produce the fragments X and Y. These generally
decay further by ,B emission and some may emit delayed neutrons following ,B decay.
D. Show Fig. 51-4 and explain that the parent nucleus starts in the energy well near r = 0.
The incoming neutron must supply energy to start the fission process. The required energy
is slightly less than Eb since tunneling can occur.Point out the energy Q releasedby the
process. Point out Table 51-2 and explain that En is the actual energy supplied by an
incoming thermal neutron. It is the binding energy of the neutron in the compound nucleus.
Point out nuclides in the table for which fission does not occur.
E. Write out several fission modes for 235Uand note that on averagemore than one neutron is
emitted. Explain that some neutrons come promptly while others come from later decays
(the delayed neutrons) .Point out that the average mode yields Q ~ 200 MeV, of which
Lecture Notes: Cha.Dter 51 165

190MeV or so appea;rsas the kinetic energy of the fission fragments and 10MeV goes to
the neutrons.
II. Fission reactors.
A. Note that to have a practical reactor the fission process must be self sustaining, once
sta;rted. A1so, there must be a way to control the rate of the process and to stop it, if
desired.
B. To be self sustaining, a chain reaction must occur: neutrons from one fission event a;re
used to trigger another. The neutrons emitted from a typical fission event sha;reabout 5
to 10MeV energy and they must be slowed to thermal speedsto be useful. Some sort of
moderator, often water, is used.
C. Explain that on average about 2.5 neutrons a;reproduced per fission event. Describe in
detail what happens to them. Some leak out of the system, some of the slowed neutrons
a;recaptured by 238U,SOmeare captured by fission fragments, and the rest sta;rt fission in
235U.Fig. 5 gives some typical numbers.
D. Explain the terms critical, subcritical, and supercritical. Note that the control rods, which
absorb slow neutrons, a;reused to achieve criticality. Point out that without the delayed
neutrons, control would not be possible since time is needed to move the rods into or out
of the reactor .
E. Use Fig. 51-6 to describe the essential features of a nuclear power plant. Apart from the
fact that the fission process, rather than the burning of fossil fuel, is used to heat water
or generate steam, this schematic could apply to any power plant. Remark on the special
problems attendallt on nuclea;rplants.
III. Fusion.
A. Return to Fig. 5~ and remark that if two low massnuclei are combined to form a higher
mass nucleus the binding energy is increased considerably. The energy is transformed to
the kinetic energy of the resulting nucleus and any particles emitted. In order to carry out
the fusion process,the nuclei must be given suflicient energy to overcome the electrostatic
repulsion of their protons. They can then approach each other closely enough for the
attraction of the strong force to bind them. For 3He the height of the ba;rrier is about
1 MeV. Since tunneling is possible, fusion can occur at somewhat smaller energies.
B. To achieve a large number of fusion events, hydrogen or helium gasesmust be raised to
high temperatures. Even at the temperature of the sun only a small fraction of the nuclei
have suflicient energy to overcomethe Coulomb ba;rrier. Go over Fig. 51-9.
C. Discuss fusion in the sun. Rema;rkthat the core of sun is 35% hydrogen and 65% helium
by mass. Outline the principal proton-proton cycle: two protons fuse to form a deuteron,
a positron, and a neutrino. A deuteron fuseswith a proton to form 3He and two 3He nuclei
fuse to form 4He and two protons. Rema;rk that six protons a;re consumed and two are
produced for a net loss offour. The two positrons are annihilated with electrons to produce
photons. Note that the process can be simplified to 4p -+ a + 2{3+ + 2v and the Q value
is computed from the mass difference between the alpha particle and the four protons.
D. Calculate the energy released. Show that Q = 26.7MeV and note that the neutrinos take
about 0.5 MeV with them when they leave the sun. Point out that the fusion process
produces about 20 million times as much energy per kg of fuel as the burning of coal.
E. If time permits, discuss helium burning. Use the solar constant to calculate the rate at
which the sun converts mass to energy. Speculate on the future of the sun. Also mention
the ca;rboncycle, which is essentially the same as the proton-proton cycle. Carbon acts as
a catalyst.
F. Discuss controlled thermonuclea;r fusion. Explain that deuteron-deuteron and deuteron-
triton fusion events are being studied. Point out that high pa;rticle concentrations at high

temperatures must be maintained for sufficiently long times in order to make the process
work. Discusssomemeans for doing this: the tokamak for plasma confinement by magnetic
fields, inertial confinement, and laser fusion. State that the right combination has not yet
been achieved but work continues.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. BackgroUIld: question 3.
b. Nuclear fission: multiple-choice questions 1 and 2; questions 5, 7, and 10; exercises3, 4, 9,
10, 13, 14, and 16; problem 1.
c. Nuclear reactors: multiple-choice question 4; questions 18, 19, and 20; exercises21, 22, 23,
and 25; problem 4.
d. Thermonuclear fusion: multiple-choice question 5; exercises30, 31, and 32; problem 9.
e. Fusion in stars: multiple-choice question 6; questions 27 and 32; exercises35, 38, and 40;
problems 6 and 8.
f. Controlled fusion: multiple-choice question 7, 8, and 9; exercise44.
2. Demonstrations
Chain reaction: Freier and Anderson MPal.
a. Fission Reactors; edited by Melvin M. Levine.; available from AAPT, One Physics Ellipse,
College Park MD 20740-3845. Covers both physics and engin~ring aspects.
b. Introduction to Nuclear Ji1usionPower and the Design of Ji1usionReactors; edited by J .A.
Fillo and P. Lindenfeld; available from AAPT (seeabove for ad.dress).Covers both physics
and engineering aspects.
4. Audio/Visual
a. Nuclear Energy; VHS video tape (23 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,PO Box
2053, Princeton, NJ 08543-2053.
b. .Energy Alternatives: Ji1usion;VHS video tape (26 min); Films for the Humanities & Sci-
ences( seeabove for address).
c. Energy from the Nucleus; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
d. Electrical Energy from Fission; VHS video tape (10 min); Films for the Humanities &
Atomic Physics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains a section on nuclear reactors.
Chapter 52 PARTICLE PHYSICS AND COSMOLOGY
BASIC TOPICS
I. The particle "zoo" .
A. Show¡¡.list of particles already familiar to students. Include the electron, proton, neutron,
and neutrino, then add the muon and pion. Explain that many other particles have been
discoveredin cosmic ray and accelerator experiments. To impress students with the vast
array of particles and the enormous collection of data, make available to them a Review of
Particle Properties paper, published roughly every 2 years in Reviews of Modem Physics.
B. Explain that many new particles are discoveredby bombarding protons or neutrons with
electrons or protons and show a picture ofa detector, such as Fig. 52-1 or a bubble chamber

picture. State that the picture showstracks of cl1argedparticles in a strong magnetic field,
hence the curvature. Remind students that the radius of curvature can be used to find the
momentum of a particle if the cl1argeis known. Indicate the collision point and emphasize
that the new particles were not present before the collision: the original particles disappear
and new particles appear. In most casesthe total rest energy after the collision is mucl1
greater than the total rest energy before. Kinetic energy was converted to mass.
C. Mention that a few particles seemto be stable (electron, proton, neutrino) but most decay
spontaneously to other particles. Point out decayson a bubble cl1amberpicture. Explain
the statistical nature of decaysand remind students of the meaning of half-life. Examples:
n 4 p + e- + l/, 7r+ 4 J.L++ l/.
D. Explain that for eacl1particle there is an antiparticle with the same mass. A cl1arged
particle and its antiparticle have cl1argeof the same magnitude but opposite sign. Their
magnetic moments are also opposite. A particle and its antiparticle can annihilate eacl1
other, the energy (including rest energy) being carried by photons or other particles pro-
duced in the annihilation. Example: e+ +e- 4,+,. Antiparticles (except the positron)
are denoted by a bar over the particle symbol. Someuncl1argedparticles (sucl1as the pho-
ton and 7r°) are their own antiparticles. The universe seemsto be made chiefly of particles,
not antiparticles.
II. Particle properties.
A. Spin angular momentum. Remind students that many particles have intrinsic angular mo-
mentum. Explain that the magnitude is always an integer or half integer times ñ. Remark
that particles with half integer spins are called fermions while particles with integer spins
are called bosons. Remind students of the Pauli exclusion principle and its significance,
then state that fermions obey the principle while bosons do not. Give examples: electrons,
protons, neutrons, and neutrinos are fermions, photons, pions, and muons are bosons. Re-
mark that spin angular momentum is conservedin particle decays and interactions. An
odd number of fermions, for example, cannot interact to yield bosons only.
B. Charge. Remind students of cl1argequantization and cl1argeconservation. Even if the
cl1aracter and number of particles cl1angein an interaction, the total cl1argebefore is the
same as the total cl1argeafter. Example: n 4 p + e- + v;-.
C. Momentum and energy. Explain that energy and momentum are conservedin decaysand
interactions. Give massesand rest energiesfor the particles in the list of part I. Give the
expressionsfor relativistic energy and momentum in terms of particle velocity.
D. Forces. Remark that all particles interact via the force of gravity and all cl1argedparticles
interact via the electromagnetic force. The force of gravity is too weak to have observable
influence at energies presently of interest. Remark that there are two additional forces,
called strong and weak, respectively. Remind students of the role played by the strong
force in holding a nucleus together and the role played by the weak force in beta decay.
These topics were covered in Chapter 50. Note that lifetimes for strong decaysare about
10-23 s, lifetimes for electromagnetic decays are about 10-14 to 10-20 s, and lifetimes for
weak decaysare about 10-8 to 10-13s.
E. Leptons. State that particles whicl1 interact via the weak force but not the strong are
called leptons. List the leptons (electron, muon, tauon, and their neutrinos) and explain
that a different neutrino is associatedwith eacl1of the leptons. Remark that the neutrino
that appears following muon decay is not the same as the neutrino that appears following
beta decay. Neutrinos are labelled with subscripts giving the associatedlepton: l/e, l/p.,and
l/T. An electron lepton number of +1 is assignedto e- and l/e, an electron lepton number
of -1 is assignedto e+ and Ve, and an electron lepton number of 0 is assignedto all other
particles. In an reaction or decay the sum of the electron lepton numbers for particles

before the event equals the sum of the electron numbers for particles after the event. fu a
similar manner muon and tauon lepton numbers are assignedand obey conservation laws.
F. Baryons and mesons. Remark that some strongly interacting particles (proton, neutron)
are fermions and are called baryons while others (pion) are bosons and are called mesons.
Explain that a baryon number of + 1 is assignedto each baryon particle, a baryon number
of -1 is assignedto each baryon antiparticle, and a baryon number of Ois assignedto each
meson. Then baryon number is conserved in exactly the same way charge is conserved:
the total baryon number before a collision or decay is the same as the total baryon number
after. This conservation law (and conservation of energy) accounts for the stability of the
proton, the baryon with the smallest mass. There is some speculation that baryon number
is not strictly conserved and that protons may decay to other particles, but the half-life
is much longer than the age of the universe. Somephysicists are trying to observe proton
decay.
G. Strangeness. Explain that another quantity, called strangeness, is conserved in strong
interactions. Neutrons and protons have S = O, K- and }:::+have S = -1. A particle
and its antiparticle have strangenessof opposite sign. Conservation of strangenessallows
7r+ + p -+ K+ + }:::+but prohibits 7r+ + p -+ 7r+ + }:::+, for example.
III. Modern theories.
A. Quarks and the eight-fold way. Remark that the properties of strongly interacting particles
can be explained if we assumethey are made up of particles ( called quarks) .List the u, d,
and s quarks and their properties (Table 52-7) .Particularly note the fractional charge and
baryon number. Baryons are constructed of three quarks, antibaryons of three antiquarks,
and mesons of a quark and antiquark. Show that uud has the charge, spin, and baryon
number of a proton and udd has the charge, spin, and baryon number of a neutron. Give
the quark content of the spin Omesons(Fig. 52-4a and Table 52-8) and the quark content
of the spin 1/2 baryons (Figs. 52-4b and Table 52-9). Point out that the strange quark
accountsfor the strangenessquantum number. Mention the charm, bottom, and top quarks
and point out they lead to other particles.
B. Explain that the existence of internal structure allows for excited states: there are other
particles with exactly the same quark content as those in the figure but they are different
particles becausethe quarks have different motions. The additional energy results in greater
mass. Contrast this with the leptons, which have no internal structure. Quarks and leptons
are believed to be truly fundamental.
C. Field particles. Explain that particles interact by exchanging other particles. Electromag-
netic interactions proceed by exchangeof photons, for example. Also explain that energy
may not be conservedover short periods of time but this is consistent with the uncertainty
principle. State that the strong interaction proceeds by the exchangeof gluons by quarks
and the weak interaction proceeds by the exchange of Z and W particles by quarks and
leptons. The interaction that binds nucleons in a nucleus is the same as the interaction
that binds quarks in a baryon or meson. fu the former casegluons are exchangedbetween
quarks of different nucleons, in the latter they are exchangedbetween quarks of the same
baryon or meson.
D. Explain that quarks are conserved in strong interactions. Either the original quarks are
rearranged to form new particles or quark-antiquark pairs are created, then both the orig-
inal and the new quarks are rearranged. This accounts for conservation of strangeness.
Example: K+ -+ Ko + 7r+ (us-+ dS+ ud). A dd pair is formed. The d quark couples to
the s quark to form a Ko and the d quark couples to the u quark to form a 7r+.Contrast
this with the weak interaction, which can changeone type quark into another. mustrate
with beta decay,in which a d quark is converted to a u quark.

E. Explain that quarks have another property, called color. Color produces the gluon field,
mucl1 as cl1argeproduces the electromagnetic field: baryons interact via the strong in-
teraction because quarks have color. Be sure students understand that "color" in this
context has nothing to do with the frequency of light. Mention that gluons carry color.
The emission or absorption of a gluon cl1angesthe color of a quark. Contrast this with the
electromagnetic interaction: a photon does not carry cl1arge.
The big bang and cosmology.
A. Evidence. Remind students of the doppler shift for light and state that spectroscopic
evidence convincesus that on a large scale matter in the universe is receding ñom us and
we are led to conclude that the universe is expanding. Write down Hubble's law and give
the Hubble parameter: 67(km/s)/Mpc. Define a megaparsec. Show that this implies a
minimum age for the universe of about 15 x 109y. ,
B. Discuss the microwave background radiation and state that physicists believe it was gen-
erated about 700000 years after the big bang, when the universe became tenuous enough
to allow photons to exist without being quickly absorbed.
C. Remark that in the early universe the temperature was sufficiently high that the exotic
particles now being discovered (and others) existed naturally. We need the results of high
energy physics to understand the early universe.
D. Go over the chronological record given at the end of Section 52-5. Point out that in the very
early universe the forces we know today evolved from a single unified force. Then baryons
and mesonswere formed, followed by the light nuclides, then atoms. Heavy nuclides are
created chiefly in supernova explosions.
E. Show how to calculate the maximum temperature and minimum time for whicl1 pair pro-
duction no longer occurs. Consider 2'"Y--+ e+ + e- and take the energy of eacl1photon to
be the rest energy of an electron. Equate this to kT and calculate T. Write down Eq. 52-3
and use it to calculate the time.
SUGGESTIONS
1. Assignments
a. Particle interactions: multiple-choice question lj exercise 2.
b. Families of particles: multiple-choice question 2j questions 4 and 22j exercises5, 7, and 8.
c. Conservation laws: multiple-choice questions 3 and 4j questions 8, 12, 13, and 14j exercises
9, 10, and llj problem 2.
d. Quark model: multiple-choice question 5j question 32j exercises16, 17, and 20.
e. Big bang: multiple-choice question 6j question 36j exercises24,25, and 27j problems 4,6,
and 7.
a. ResourceLetters, Book Four and ResourceLetters, Book Fivej American Association of
letters on high energy and particle physics and on cosmology.
b. Quarksj edited by O.W .Greenbergj available from AAPT (seeabovefor address). Reprints
covering important aspects of the quark model.
c. Quarks, Quasars, and Quandariesj edited by Gordon Aubrechtj available from AAPT (see
above for address). Summaries of particle physics and cosmology.
d. Cosmologyand Particle Physicsj edited by David Lindley, Edward W. Kolb, and David N.
Schramm. Reprint collection dealing the evolution of the universe from the big bang.
e. Black Holesj edited by Steven Detweilerj available from AAPT (see above for address).
Reprints dealing with structure and dynamics of black holes.
Lecture Notes: Chapter 52

3. Audio/Visual
a. Matter and the Universe; VHS video tape (26 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences,
b. Particle Physics; VHS video tape (26 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove
for address).
c. The Unification Theory; VHS video tape (26 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
d. Quarks and the Universe: Murray Gell-Mann; VHS video tape (30 min); Films for the
Humanities & Sciences( seeabove for address).
e. The Grand Design; VHS video tape (58 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences(see
above for address).
f. The Birth of the Stars and the Great Cosmic Cycle; VHS video tape (60 min); Films for
the Humanities & Sciences(seeabove for address).
g. The Origin of Quasars; VHS video tape (59 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
h. The Origin of Gala.ries; VHS video tape (58 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
i. The Origin ofthe Universe; VHS video tape (59 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
j. Black Holes, Dark Matter; VHS video tape (11 min); Films for the Humanities & Sciences
k. The Expanding Universe: From Big Bang to Big Crunch?; VHS video tape (20 min); Films
for the Humanities & Sciences(see above for address).
a. Atomic Physics; Apple, Windows; Cross Educational Software, Inc., 508 E. Kentucky
Avenue, PO Box 1536, Ruston, LA 71270. Contains sections on elementary particles.
b. Chamber Works by Robert Estes; OnScreen Science, Inc., 46 Wallace Street, Suite 205,
Sommerville, MA 02144-1807; Apple. Shows particle decaysin a magnetic field. Student
controls the field and can measure the radii of orbits. Can be used as a demonstration or
as a source of problems. Reviewed TPT 33, 408 (September 1995).
5. Laboratory
Meiners Experiment 14-8: Nuclear and High Energy Particles. A dry ice and alcohol cloud
chamber is used to observethe tracks of alpha and beta particles as well as the tracks produced
by cosmic rays. A magnet is used to make circular tracks.

SECTION THREE
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
The íollowing are the answersto the multiple-choice questions that appear at the ends oí chapters.
Chapter 1 Chapter 4
1. D 1. (a) D; (b) D; (c) D

2. B 2. B
3. C 3. D
4. C
5. E
Chapter 2
6. C
7. (a) D; (b) D
1. (a) Dj (b) B 8. (a) B; (b) B
2. C 9. (a) E; (b) B
3. (a) Cj (b) A 10. B
4. A 11. B
5. C 12. B
6. D 13. A
7. (a) Bj (b) Dj (c) Ej (d) C 14. C
8. C 15. (a) D; (b) C
9. B 16. D
10. D 17. (a) C; (b) A, D
11. D
12. B
Chapter 5
1. C
Chapter 3
2. D
3. C
1. D
4. B
2. c
5. D
3. B
6. C
4. A
7. D
5. C
8. (a) B; (b) A
6. D
9. B
7. B
10. A
8. D
11. (a) D; (b) A
9. B
12. (a) D; (b) C
10. C
13. (a) C; (b) D
11. C
12. A
13. B
Chapter 6
14. (a) c; (b) B
15. D 1. B
16. (a) c; (b) C 2. D
3. C
172 Answers to Multiple-Cboice Questions: Cbapter 6

4. A 9. (a) B; (b) D; (c) E; (d) E; (e) E
5. B 10. (a) D; (b) E; (c) A; (d) A; (e) A
6. C
7. C
8. D Chapter 10
9. B 1. (a) Bj (b) Bj (c) Cj (d) B
10. A 2. C
11. A 3. (a) Bj (b) D
12. (a) B; (b) C; (c) B; (d) D 4. B
5. C
6. A
Chapter 7 7. D
8. C
1. C 9. A
2. D 10. (a) Aj (b) B
3. D 11. (a) Bj (b) C
4. C
5. D
6. D Chapter 11
7. B
1. C
8. B
2. (a) A; (b) A
9. A
3. B, C
10. C
4. C
11. (a) B; (b) c
5. A
12. (a) C; (b) b
6. B
13. (a) A; (b) B
7. E
8. (a) D; (b) E
9. B
Chapter 8
10. (a) C; (b) B
1. B
11. (a) D; (b) C
12. A
2. D
3. (a) B; (b) B; (c) D 13. B
14. A
4. A
15. E
5. C
16. D
6. (a) Dj (b) B
7. ( a) A; (b) b; ( c) C
8. (a) E; (b) C; (c) D
Chapter 12
1. C
2. C
Chapter 9
3. C
1. B 4. A,E
2. D 5. (a) B; (b) C; (c) B
3. A 6. (a) C; (b) C
4. D 7. (a) D; (b) D
5. (a) Di (b) B 8. (a) B; (b) B; (c) B
6. (a) Bi (b) C 9. (a) A; (b) D
7. D 10. (a) A; (b) C
8. C
Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions: Chapter 12 173

Chapter 13 5. C
6. D
1. A, D
7. B
2. C
8. C
3. A
4. C
5. C
Chapter 17
6. (a) B; (b) B
7. C 1. B
8. (a) A; (b) A 2. C
9. (a) B; (b) B 3. (a) Dj (b) Dj (c) E
10. E 4. (a) Ej (b) Cj (c) C
11. C 5. B
12. A 6. (a) Ej (b) Dj (c) D
13. C 7. B
8. B
9. (a) Aj (b) D
Chapter 14 10. C
11. A
1. A
12. C
2. C
3. ( a) Cj (b) D 13. (a) Cj (b) B
4. B
5. C
6. C Chapter 18
7. C 1. D
8. D 2. (a) C; (b) C
9. (a) Cj (b) Aj (c) A
3. D
10. (a) Aj (b) Aj (c) B 4. (a) A; (b) B; (c) B
5. C
6. A,D
Chapter 15 7. C
1. (a) A, B, Cj (b) A, B 8. E
2. A 9. (a) A; (b) D
3. C 10. (a) D; (b) A
4. C 11. D
5. (a) Aj (b) Aj (c) A 12. B
6. B 13. C
7. ( a) Bj (b) Bj ( c) B 14. D
8. (a) Bj (b) Bj (c) Bj (d) Bj (e) A 15. B
9. (a) Cj (b) Bj (c) Bj (d) B 16. (a) D; (b) E; (c) C
10. (a) Bj (b) A 17. A
Chapter 16 Chapter 19
1. C 1. C
2. (a) C; (b) E 2. C
3. B 3. D
4. (a) C; (b) D 4. C
174 Answers to Multiple-Choice Questions: Chapter 19

5. A 8. c
6. B 9. D
7. A 10. c
8. C 11. c
9. D 12. D
10. (a) D; (b) D; (c) C 13. B
11. (a) A; (b) A; (c) A
12. (a) A; (b) A
Chapter 23
1. B
Chapter 20
2. E
1. (a) B; (b) B 3. E
2. (a) C; (b) A; (c) B; (d) Aj (e) C 4. A,C
3. C 5. B
4. (a) C; (b) C; (c) C 6. A
5. C 7. C
6. E 8. D
7. E 9. A,B,D
8. (a) B; (b) B; (c) C 10. (a) Aj (b) Dj (c) Cj (d) Aj (e) D
9. C 11. D
10. (a) B; (b) A 12. D
11. C 13. C
1. C 1. C
2. C 2. E
3. A 3. (a) Cj (b) Aj (c) A
4. C 4. C
5. A 5. (a) Bj (b) B
6. D 6. B
7. C 7. (a) Dj (b) Cj (c) C
8. B 8. D
9. (a) Bj (b) D 9. (a) A, Bj (b) B, C
10. A 10. (a) Aj (b) bj (c) Dj (d) D
11. B 11. B
12. C
Chapter 25
Chapter 22
1. A
1. B, C 2. B
2. D 3. B
3. C 4. C
4. (a) C; (b) D 5. D
5. B 6. A
6. (a) C; (b) B; (c) C 7. A
7. B 8. B

9. C 8. (a) E; (b) D
10. C 9. (a) A; (b) A, E
11. A 10. (a) A; (b) C
12. E 11. (a) A; (b) C
13. C
12. E
14. (a) A; (b) A
13. D
14. D
15. (a) C, D; (b) D
Chapter 26
16. (a) C; (b ) E
1. A
2. (a) C; (b) B
3. (a) D; (b) A
Chapter 29
4. (a) B; (b) D
5. (a) A; (b) C 1. (a) Bj (b) D
6. B 2. D
7. (a) A, C; (b) C; (c) A
3. A
8. (a) C; (b) D
4. B
9. D
5. (a) Ej (b) Ej (c) C
10. B
11. (a) B; (b) C 6. B
7. (a) Cj (b) Bj (c) B
8. D
Chapter 27 9. D
10. (a) Cj (b) A
1. (a) D; (b) D; (c) D 11. C
2. B 12. C
3. C
13. (a) Aj (b) C
4. C
5. C
6. B
7. B Chapter 30
8. C
9. C 1. A
10. C 2. (a) Cj (b) B
11. D 3. (a) Aj (b) B
12. (a) C; (b) B 4. C
13. (a) C; (b) A 5. B
14. (a) C; (b) C 6. B
7. B
8. D
Chapter 28 9. (a) Aj (b) Aj (c) D
1. B 10. D
2. A 11. B
3. D 12. C
4. D 13. (a) Bj (b) A
5. (a) A; (b) C 14. (a) Bj (b) Aj (c) A
6. (a) B; (b) E 15. (a) A, B, D, Ej (b) Bj (c) B
7. (a) B; (b) C

Chapter 31 11. c
12. A
1. D
13. B
2. C
14. D
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. C Chapter 34
7. ( a) A; (b) B 1. A
8. D 2. A
9. B 3. D
10. C 4. c
11. B 5. A
12. (a) A; (b) B 6. A
13. (a) B; (b) B; (c) D 7. c
14. (a) B; (b) A
8. A
15. C 9. B
10. C
11. (a) B; (b) B; ( c) C
Chapter 32 12. E
1. A, C 13. C
2. (a) A, C; (b) D 14. A
3. B 15. B
4. B, C, D. E 16. D
5. C, D 17. (a) A; (b) B
6. C, D 18. B
7. D
8. (a} B; (b) C
9. (a) B; (b) C Chapter 35
10. B
11. (a) B; (b) B 1. B
12. D 2. E
13. D 3. C
14. D 4. B
15. (a) E; (b) D 5. C
16. (a) E; (b) D 6. C
7. D
8. A
Chapter 33 9. D
10. a) Bj ( )A
1. (a) D; (b) C 11. C
2. (a) A; (b) C 12. B
3. A
4. D
5. (a) E; (b) A Chapter 36
6. E
7. D 1. (a) D; (b) D
8. A 2. (a) A; (b) D
9. C 3. A
10. D 4. A

5. A 7. B
6. B 8. D
7. ( a) A; (b) B 9. A
8. B 10. (a) B; (b) c
9. (a) A; (b) C 11. D
10. C 12. C
11. B 13. C
12. D 14. B
13. B 15. B
14. (a) Ej (b) D; (c) D
15. B
Chapter 40
Chapter 37 1. D
2. B
1. D 3. C
2. B 4. B
3. D 5. D
4. D 6. A
5. A 7. B
6. (a) Di (b) C 8. B
7. {a) Bi (b) A
9. (a) Aj (b) A
8. A
10. C
9. D
11. A
10. B
12. (a) Aj (b) A
13. C
14. C
Chapter 38 15. E
1. c 16. C
2. (a) Di (b) A
3. D
4. D Chapter 41
5. B
1. C
6. C
2. A
7. E
3. C
8. A
9. E 4. (a) B; (b) A; (c) B
10. B 5. A
11. A 6. D
7. A
8. A
9. D
Chapter 39
10. A, B, C
1. C 11. D
2. B 12. C
3. E 13. (a) C; (b) E; (c) C; (d) E
4. D 14. D
5. C 15. D
6. D
178 Answers to Multiple-Cboice Questions: Cbapter 41

Chapter 42 6. (a) A; (b) B
1. B
7. C
2. (a) A; (b) C; (c) C 8. C
3. A 9. A
4. D 10. B
5. A 11. D
6. C 12. C
7. C 13. (a) A; (b) B
8. A 14. A, C
9. C
10. C
11. A
12. B, E Chapter 46
1. B
2. A
Chapter 43
3. C
1. D 4. (a) B; (b) B
2. B 5. D
3. B 6. C
4. A
7. B
5. A
8. D
6. C
9. D
7. (a) Cj (b) B
10. (a) O; (b) B
8. E
9. E 11. A
12. B
Chapter 44
Chapter 47
1. B
2. D
1. (a) D; (b) D
3. (a) Dj (b) Ej (c) B
2. A
4. B
3. C
5. ( a) Cj (b) C
6. D 4. (a) B; (b) B
7. ( a) Aj (b) B 5. B
8. B 6. B
9. B 7. (a) A; (b) B
10. C 8. D
11. B 9. B
10. A, B, C
11. (a) A; (b) C
Chapter 45 12. C
1. D 13. E
2. (a) C; (b) C 14. (a) C; (b) D
3. A 15. (a) A; (b) C
4. C 16. (a) A; (b) C
5. E

1. B 1. (a) B; (b) D
2. (a) Di (b) E 2. B
3. A 3. A
4. C
4. E
5. D
5. ( a) C; (b) C
6. C
6. C
7. B
7. (a) C; (b) A 8. C
8. B 9. B
9. (a) Bi (b) A
10. A
11. C Chapter 52
12. (a) Di (b) B
1. (a) Aj (b) Cj (c) B
2. (a) Aj (b) Bj (c) Cj (d) D
3. (a) Aj (b) Bj (c) C
Chapter 49 4. (a) Bj (b) B, Cj (c) A
5. B, D
1. C
6. B
2. B
3. D
4. A
5. D
6. (a) Bj (b) C; (c) A
7. B
8. E
9. A
10. D
11. (a) E; (b) Bj (c) C
12. A
Chapter 50
1. B
2. C
3. C
4. B
5. D
6. B
7. D
8. C
9. A, D
10. D
11. D
12. A

SECTION FOUR
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
The íollowing are the answersto the exercisesthat appear at the ends oí the chapters.
Chapter 1 Chapter 2
2. (a) $692.31; (b) $41667; (c) 3.75 x 109 1. (a) parallel displacements; (b) antiparallel
3. 52.6 min; (b) 5.20% displacements; ( c) perpendicular displace-
4. 24000 mi ments
5. -0.4% 2. (b) 3.2km, 41° south ofwest
3. (a) 4.5,52° north ofeast; (b) 8.4,25° south
6. (a) Yes; (b) 8.6s
of east
7. 3.3ft
4. (a) -2.27, -6.98; (b) 50, 120°
8. 720 d
5. 4.76km
9. 55s
6. 60.2 km, 31.4° west of north
10. 2.0 h 7. (a) 2i+5j; (b) 5.4,68° from positive x axis
11. 2.2 d 8. (a) 3i-2j+5k; (b) 5i-4j-3k;
12. 6ft, 3in.
(c) -5i+4j+3k
i3. (a) 100m, 8.56m, 28.1ft; (b) lmi, 109m, 9. 5.0, 323°; (b) 10.0, 53.1°; (c) 11.2, 26.6°;
358 ft (d) 11.2, 79.7°, 11.2, 260°
14. 440nm 10. (a) 2.5, 15.3; (b) 15.5; (c) 80.7°
15. 1.88 x 1022cm3 11. (a) 370m, 57° east of north;
16. 2.0 x 10-2 km3 (b) displacement = 370 m,
17. (a) 4.00 x 104km; (b) 5.10 x 108km2; distance = 420 m
(c) 1.08 x 1012km3 12. 87km, 40° north of east
18. snail: 0.013m/s, spider: 0.55m/s, sqllirrel: 13. (a) 16.0cm, 45.0° clockwise from down;
5.3m/s, human: 10m/s, rabbit: 15m/s, (b) 22.6 cm, vertically up; ( c) zero
fox: 18m/s, lion: 22m/s, cheetah: 32m/s 14. -2.92, -2.92, 5.26, 0, 2.60, 5.34; (b) 4.94,
19. 2.86 x 10-31y/century 2.42; ( c) 5.50, 26.1° north of east; ( d) 5.50,
20. 0.0784L/km 26.1° south of west
21. (a) 4.85 x 10-6 pc, 1.58 x 10-51y; 15. 33900ft, 0.288° below the horizontal
(b) 9.48 x 1012km, 3.08 x 1013km 16. (a) 920mi, 63° south of east; (b) 410mi/h,
63° south of east; (c) 550mi/h
22. 450km
17. (a) (6m) i -(106m)j;
23. 5.98 x 1026
24. (a) 3.0 x 10-26kg; (b) 4.7 x 1046 (b) (19m/s) i -(224m/s)j;
2 A 2 A
25. New York (c) (24m/s ) i -(336m/s )j
18. (a) 3.9km/h; (b) 13°
26. 110 kg
27. 840km 19. (a) -(18m/s2)i; (b) 0.75s; (c) never;
(d) 2.2 s
28. 0.38mg/s
21. (a) 11.5h; (b) 5.5h;
29. 605.780211 nm
(c) North Atlantic Ocean
30. (a) 37.89; (b) 0.001
22. 3h 31 min after takeoff
31. meters per second 23. 31 km
32. JGh7C3 ( = 4.05 x 10-35 m)
24. 0.414 s
33. JCh7G ( = 5.46 x 10-8 kg) 25. 2 cm/y
26. (a) 10.2m/s, 5.41m/s; (b) lh 9min
Answers to Exercises: Chapter 2 181

27. lh 13min 6. 6500N
28. 1.3 s 7. 1.9mm
29. 48km/h 8. (a) 0.031m/s2j (b) 1.2x108mj (c) 2700m/s
30. (a) 5.7ft/s; (b) 7.0ft/s 9. (a) 4.55m/s2j (b) 2.59m/s2
31. 100m 10. 1.4 x 108N, 6.9 x 106Nj (b) 4.11y, 4.19y
32. -2 m/s2 11. (a) 9.9Nj (b) 2.1 m/s2
33. -20m/s2 12. (a) 22.2N, 2.27kgj (b) 1.07kN, 109kgj
35. (a) OA: +,o; AB: +, -j BC: 0, Oj (c) 16.0kN, 1630kg
CD: -, +; (b) no 13. (a) 646kg, 6320Nj (b) 412kg, 4040N
36. (a) OA: +, -j AB: 0, 0; BC: +, +; 14. (a) 735Nj (b) 279Nj (c) zeroj (d) 75.0kg
CD: +,o; (b) no 15. (a) 12.2N, 2.65kgj (b) 0, 2.65kg
38. (b) -0.030, -0.020, -0.010, 0.0 m/s; 16. 1.18 x 105 N
(c) -0.040, -0.020, 0.0, 0.020, 0.040, 17. 16001b
0.06 m/sj (e) 0.02,0.02,0.02 m/s2 18. 1.29 x 105 N
39. (a) m/s2, m/s3; (b) 2sj (c) 24m; (d) -16m; 19. 1.19 x 106 N
(e) 3.0, 0.0, -9.0, -24 m/s; (f) Q.O, -6.0, 20. (a) 101bj (b) 101b
-12, -18m/s2; (g) -10 m/s 21. (a) 5400Nj (b) 5.5sj (c) 15mj (d) 2.7s
40. 2.8 m/s2 22. 0.15 N
41. (a) 3.1 x 106sj (b) 4.7 x 1013m 23. (a) 210m/s2j (b) 1.8 x 104 N
42. 0.56 s 24. 671b
43. 10.4cm 25. lower it with an acceleration that is greater
44. 1.4 x 1015m/s2 than 1.3m/s2
45. 202 m/s2 (= 21g) 26. (a) 65Nj (b) 49N
46. 2.6 s 27. 33m/s
47. 5.00s 28. 1.87 x 1051b
48. (a) 4.5 x 104ft/s2; (b) 5.8ms 29. (a) 5.0 x 105 Nj (b) 1.4 x 106 N
49. (a) 34.7ft; (b) 41.6s 30. (a) 600Nj (b) 560N
50. (a) 3.5m/s2; (b) 1.44m/s (= 5.2 km/h) 31. (a) 2.2 x 105 Nj (b) 5.0 x 104 N
51. 183m/s
52. (a) 48.5m/s; (b) 4.95s; (c) 34.3m/s;
(d) 3.50s Chapter 4
53. (a) 29.4mj (b) 2.45s

54. (a) 32.4m; (b) 6.62s 1. (a) 2.4ns; (b) 2.7mm; (c) 9600km/s,
55. (a) 3.19s; (b) 1.32s 2300km/s 2 A 2 A
2. (-2.10m/s )i+(2.81m/s )j
56. Mercury
57. (a) 27.4m/s; (b) 5.33s; (c) 1.45m 3. (a) (2Bt)j + ck
2 A A A
58. 130m/s2, up = (8.0m/s )tj + (1.0m/s) k; (b) 2Bj =
2 A
59. 1.52 s (8.0m/s )j; (c) a parabola
60. (a) 41.8m/sj (b) 5.53s 4. (a) 3.0s; (b) -(4.2m/s)j; (c) (5.4m)i -
61. 0.39m (6.3m)j 2 A 2 A
5. (0.83m/s )i+(0.71m/s )j
6. (a) (42m/s)i + (34m/s)j; (b) (630m)i +
Chapter 3
(250m)j
1. 6.3y 7. (a) 2.2m/s2; (b) 120N; (c) 21m/s2
2. (a) 0.69m/82; (b) 7.58; (c) 20m 8. (a) 2.39m/s2; (b) 23.4m/s2
3. 1.0 x 10-15 N 9. llm
4.16N 10. 730 N
5. 0.080m/82 11. 6800 N at 21° from the line of motion
182 Answers to Exercises: Chapter 4

12. (a) 57.2kNj (b) 70.7kN 10. (a) JL8g/2; (b) 2.7m/s2
13. (a) 0.514s; (b) 9.94ft/s 11. 9.3m/s2
14. 5.4 fm 12. 0.61
15. (a) 0.18m; (b) 1.9m 13.900N
16. (a) 32mj (b) -38m 14. (a) 221b (98N); (b) 171b (77N);
18. the third step
(c) 2.9ft/s2 (0.88m/s2)
19. (a) 11m; (b) 23m; (c) 17m/s, 63° below 15. (a) 9.1kN; (b) 9.0kN
the horizontal 16. 13°
20. yes 17. (b) 219N; (c) 81N;
21. 1 cm longer 18. JL8= 0.532, JLk= 0.494
22.23ft/s 19. 0.040, 0.026
23. 78ft/s, 65° 20. (a) v5/(4gsin(}); (b) no
24. (a) 9.8s; (b) 2700ft 21. 0.487
25. (a) 0.20m; (b) no 22. (a) 10kg; (b) 2.7m/s2
26. yes, by about 4ft 23. (a) 3.2m/s2 dOwn the plane; (b) 2.9mj
27. 115ft/s (c) it stays there
28. 30.8 m 24. (a) 61N; (b) 66N; (c) 5.9kN
29. 1.47N 25. (a) 701b; (b) 4.6ft/s2
3o. ,jm¡¡Tb 26. 3.69 kN
31. (m/b) ln2 27. 155N
32. 2.0 X 10-5N .s/m 28. (a) 1.24m/s2; (b) 13.4N
33. (a) 257kN; (b) 1.06° 29. (a) zero; (b) 13.4ft/s2, downj (c) 4.27ft/s2,
34. (a) 8.98 X 1022m/s2; (b) 8.18 x 10-8N, to- up
ward the proton 30. g(sin(} -J2JLk cos(})
35. (a) 19m/s; (b) 35rev/min 31. (a) 7.6m/s2;(b) 0.87m/s2, leftward
36. (a) 4.11 m/s2, down; (b) 4.11 m/s2, Upj 32. (a) 310ft/s2; (b) 9.6g
(c) 427N, downj 1040N, up 33. (a) 7301b (3200N); (b) 0.3
37. (a) 130km/sj (b) 790km/s2 34. (a) 11°; (b) 0.19
38. (a) 0.034m/s2; (b) 247N 35. (a) 0.67m/s; (b) 1.8m/s2j (c) 0.53N
39. 36s, no 36. 870N, 17°
40. 48s 37. (a) 2.2 x 106 m/s; (b) 9.1 x 1022m/s2j
41. wind blows due east at 55 mi/h (c) 8.3 x 10-8N
42. 31m/s 38. (a) 0.032
43. (a) 0.71 s; (b) 2.3ft 39. JMgr7;ñ
44. (-172m/s)¡+(-22m/s)j 40. (a) 0.43; (b) 42m
45. (a) 46.8° east ofnorth; (b) 6min 35s 41. (a) 0.23; (b) 128km/h
42. (a) 1751b; (b) 501b
43. 0.162, 0.295
Chapter 5 44. 2.32 km
45. (a) 9.5m/s; (b) 20m
1. (a) O.OO18N; (b) O.OO33N
46. (a) 5.9m/s2; (b) 5.3N; (c) 10N
2. (a) 69401b; (b) 54601b
47. (a) 0.0337N; (b) 9.77N
3. (a) 7.3kg; (b) 89N
48. (a) 235m/s; (b) 107m/s2; (c) 232N
4. 1.84 x 104N
5. (a) 6.8m/s; (b) climb the rope
6. (a) 3.6m/s2; (b) 1.5m/s2; (c) 120N
Chapter 6
7. 18 kN
8. 2311b 1. (a) 52.0kmih; (b) 178kmih
9.2° 2. 3.56 x 104 kg .mis, 38.7° south oí east

3. 205kg .m/s, up perpendicular to the plate along the axis of symmetry
4. 64 kN 12. V:z:= -1.3m/s, Vy = -2.5m/s
5. (a) 2mv/~t; (b) 560N 13. L/5 down from the heavy rod, along the
6. (a) 2.40N .s; (b) 2.40N .s; (c) 2.00kN symmetry axis
7. 3.29kN 14. in the iron, at midheight and midwidth,
8. 49.5m/s 2.68cm from the iron-aluminum boundary
9. 930N 15. Xcm= Ycm= 20 cm, Zcm= 16cm
10. 0.417m/s 16. 23.4m/s, 63.4°
11. 8.8m/s 17. 27
12. (a) 5.9ms; (b) 870N 184
13. 1.95 x 105 kg.m/s for any direction ofthrust 19. (a) 3.2m/s; (b) 3.2m/s
14. (a) 1.03kg .m/s; (b) 10.3N; (c) 827N 20. (a) 1.57MN; (b) 1.35 x 105kg;
15. 2.0 s (c) 2.08km/s
16. 0.0103ft/s, backward 21. (a) 2.72; (b) 7.39
17. increases by 4.54m/s 22.0.0182
18. WVrel/(W + W) 23. 1.33km/s
19. 3960 km/h 24. 6.6 s
20. 1.9m/s to the right 25. 1.29m/s
21. 5.6 m/s to the left
22. 2 mm/y
23. 1.77m/s Chapter 8
24. 415 km/s
1. n(n + 1)/2
25. (4.0m/s)i+(5.0m/s)j
3. (a) a + 3bt2 -4ct3; (b) 6t(b -2ct)
26. 1.4 X 10-22 kg .m/s, 152° from the electron
4. (a) 5.5 x 1015Sj (b) 26
and 118° from the neutrino
5. (a) i.l)o+ at4 -bt3; (b) i.l)ot+ at5/5 -bt4/4
27. 3.43 m/ s, deflected 17.3° to the left
6. (a) 0.105rad/s; (b) 1.75 x 10-3rad/sj
28. 4.2 m/s
(c) 1.45 x 10-4 rad/s
29. 100 9
7. 14
30. (a) 110g; (b) 1.88m/s
8. 11 rad/s
31. 1.2 kg
9. (a) 4.8m/s: (b) no
32. (a) 4.21ft/s; (b) 3.21ft/s, 5.51ft/s
11. 1/T8 = l/Tp -1/TE
33.120°
12. (a) -150rev/min2; (b) 21 rev
34. 26° from the direction of the incoming pro-
13. (a) 8140rev/min2j (b) 425rev
ton
14. 11 250 rev
35. 2.44m/s, to the left
15. (a) -1.28rad/s2; (b) 248rad; (c) 29.5rev
16. (a) -0.157rad/s2; (b) 2.50min; (c) 281rev
17. (a) 2.0rev/s; (b) 3.8s
Chapter 7
18. (a) 138rad; (b) 13.7s
1. (a) 4640km (1730km beneath Ea;rth's sur- 19. (a) 369s; (b) -3.90 x 10-3rad/s2; (c) 108s
face 20.1690rad
3. 75.2 km/h 21. 0.132 rad/s
4.5.9m 22. 5.6rad/s2
5. (a) center ofmass does not move; (b) 1.23m 23. (a) 2.48 x 10-3 rad/sj (b) 19.7m/s2j (c) 0
6. 30.2 km 24. 4.56s
7. 14.5ft 25. (a) 7.27 x 10-5 rad/s; (b) 355m/s;
8. 55.2 kg (c) 7.27 x 10-5rad/s, 463m/s
9. 33.4m 26. (a) 40.2 cm/s2; (b) 2.36 x 103 m/s2;
10. (a) Xcm = 1.07m, Ycm = 1.33m (C) 83.2m
11. 6.75 x 10-12 m from the nitrogen atom, 27. (a) 310m/s; (b) 340m/s

28. 2.06 s 34. (a) 154kg.m2; (b) 65.4kg
29. (a) ra2t2; (b) ra; (c) 44.1° 35. (a) 28.2rad/s2; (b) 338N.m
30. (a) 71rad/s; (b) -13rad/s2; (c) 72m 36. 127 N
31. yes, +0.16 37. 690rad/s
32. X2 + y2 = R2, a circle of radius R; Vx = 38. (a) 2()/t2; (b) 2RfJ/t2;
-(¡)y, Vy = (¡)X; v = (¡)R, v is tangent to the (c) T1 = M(g -2R()/t2),
circle; a = (¡)2R, radially in T2 = Mg- (2()/t2)(MR+I/R)
33. (a) ( -26.2 m/s) i; 39. 1.73 x 103 9 .cm2
2 A 2 A
(b) (4.87m/s ) i -(375m/s )j; (c) 1.83m 40. 0.272
34. (a) 4.3 x 10-2 N, west; (b) east; (c) no, to 41. (a) 56.5rad/s; (b) -8.88rad/s2; (c) 69.2m
the west 42. (a) 12.5cm/s2; (b) 4.63s; (c) 28.8rev/s;
(d) 70.8rev/s
43. (a) 1.13s; (b) 13.6m
Chapter 9
1. (a) 15N.mj (b) 10N.m; (c) 15N.m Chapter 10

2. 3.66N, into the page
4. 12 N .m, out of the page 1. 0.62kg. m2/s
5. 27 units, positive z direction 4. (a) 3.15 x 1043kg.m2/s; (b) 0.616
6.1.5i+2.7j-l.4k 5. 2.49 x 1011kg.m2/s
7. a2bsin<t>,1r/2 -<t> 9. (a) 0.521 kg.m2/s; (b) 4080rev/min
8. (a) lli+10j+8kj (b) 57° 10. (a) -4.17m/s2; (b) -16.9rad/s2;
9. (-4.8N.m)i+(-0.85N.m)j+(3.4N.m)k (c) -2.62N. m
13. (a) vf = 2.90m/s, in the direction of the
10. (a) (2.2N. m)j + (0.94N .m) kj
impulse; (b) INf = 10.7rad/s about the cen-
(b) (0.94N. m) i + (l.4N .m)j
ter of mass
11. (a) 0.14kg.m2j (b) 91rad/s2
15. R1R2I1INO/(R~I2 + ~I1)
12. (a) 2.1 x 10-2kg.m2j (b) 2.4 x 10-3kg.m2
16. (a) -6.9 x 10-8; (b) +6.9 x 10-8
13. (a) 2.6 x 10-2 kg .m2j (b) no change
17. 3.0min
14. -50rad/s2 (clockwise)
18. ~(~)
15. (a)482kN;(b)11.2kN.m
16. 6490 kg.m2 19. 354rev
17. kM(a2+b2) 20. 3.80rev/s
18. 0.097 kg.m2 21. 171 rev/min
19. (a) 5mL2 + iML2 23. 9.66rad/s, clockwise as seen from above;
22. 9.2 N (b) same as (a)
23. (a) 2.5mj (b) 7.3° 24. (a) 5.12mrad/s; (b) 1.90cm/s
24. slides 25. 0.739 rad/s
25. 10m 26. 0.324rev/s, clockwise when viewed from
26. (a) 2.78kNj (b) 3.890kN above
27. (a) 3401b, 4201b 27. 1.90min
28. left pedestal: 1170N (tension),
right pedestal: 1890N (compression)
Chapter 11
29.W~
r-h 1. (a) 580 J; (b) 0; (c) 0
30. (a) 416N; (b) 238N, 172N 2. (a) 209 N, 668 m, -140kJ; (b) 511N, 273 m,
31. (a) 47.01b; (b) 21.31b, 10.91b -140kJ
32. 0.407 3. (a) 430J; (b) -400J; (c) 0
33. 7.63 rad/82 , out oí the page 4. 444ft .lb (601 J)

5. (a) 2160J; (b) -1430J 3. U(x) = -(a/2{3)e-.8x2 with U(oo) = O
6. (a) 215N; (b) -348 J; (c) 417J 4. 673MW
7. 22.2° 5. 110MN/m
8. 39.9 6.8900ft.lb
9. -19 7. 2.15m/s
10. (a) 11i+5j-7k; (b) 120°; (c) 124° 8. (a) 27.0kJj (b) 2.94kJj (c) 158m/s, a, b
11. 720W 9. (a) Voj (b) (v5 + gh)1/2j (c) (v5 + 2gh)1/2
12. 184 kW 10. (a) 2.82m/sj (b) 2.71m/s
13. 24 W 11. (a) 763N/mj (b) 57.4Jj (c) 73.8cm
14. 90kN 12. 3.1 x 1011W
15. 25hp 13. (a) K = (1/2)mg2t2,
16.120ft U = mg [h- (1/2)gt2] j
17. (a) 0.77mi; (b) 71kW (b) K=mg(h-y), U=mgy
18. 190 W 14. 6.67m
19. 2.66 hp 15. 4.24m
20. (a) 23.4kN (52601b); 16. (a) 5.54m/sj (b) 83.1°j (c) 43.8 J
(b) 4.31 MW (5780hp) 18. 11.1cm
21. 800 J 19. 1.25cm
22. 25 J 20. no (but it comes close)
23. (a) 23mm; (b) 45N 21. d [m~/(m1 + m2)2]
24. (a) 0.0433J; (b) 0.130J 22. 145cm/s
26. (a) 135N; (b) 60.0J
23. v2gh/(1+2M/3m+I/mr2)
27. 1.2 x 106 m/s
24. (a) 47.9km/hj (b) 3.65rad/s2j (c) 8.68kW
28. (a) 3.6kJ; (b) 1.9kJ; (c) 1.1 x 1010J
25. (a) 3.43mj (b) 2.65sj (c) 23.1
29. ( a) 2.88 x 107 m/s; (b) 1.32 Me V
26. a solid circu1ar cy1inder
30. AB: +, BC: 0, CD: -, DE: +
27. vo.J577
31. 493 J
29. (a) 4.7Nj (b) between x = 1.2m and x =
32. 2.66 x 1033J
33. (a) 2.5x 105ft.lb (340kJ); 14mj (c) 3.7m/s --
31. (a) Fx = -kx, Fy = -ky, F points toward
(b) 14hp (10kW); (c) 28hp (20kW) the originj (b) Fr = -kr, Fo = 0
34. (a) 2.32 x 10-47kg .m2; (b) 1.35meV
35. 6.75 x 1012rad/s 32. (a) Fx = -kx/Vx2 + y2 + z2,
36. (a) 47.5MJ; (b) 97.4min Fy = -ky/Vx2 +y2 + z2,
37. 1.36kW Fz = -kz/VX2 +y2 +z2j (b) Fr = -k/r2
38. (a) 1/3; (b) 1/9
39. (a) 2.57 x 1029J; (b) 1.32 Gy
40. (a) rocket case: 7290m/s, payload: Chapter 13
8200m/s; (b) before: 1.271 x 1010J, after:
1.275 x 1010J 1. 740m
41. 12.9 tons 2. (a) 36kW; (b) 6.40%
42. one chunk stops, the other moves ahead 3. 0.41 m/s
with a speed of 4.0m/s 4. -1.84 x 105 J
5. (a) 3.86m/s; (b) 0.1431rmJ
44. (a) ( -1.04i + 0.655j) x 10-19 kg.m/s;
6. (a) 3.02kJ; (b) 391J; (c) 2.63kJ
(b) 7.66MeV
7. (a) 2.56 x 1012J; (b) 3.82 x 108 J
8. 39kW
9. 54%
Chapter 12
10. 472 kJ
1. (a) U(x) = -Gmlm2/X; 11. 4.19m
(b) Gmlm2d/xl(Xl + d) 12. (a) 48.7m/s; (b) 64.5kJ

13. 6.55m/s Chapter 15
14.7
1. 429kPa
15. (a) 1.34m/s, O.981m/s
2. 18N
16. 2.66m/s
3. 27.5kN
17. (a) 862N; (b) 2.42m/s
4. 2.44 GPa
18. (a) 1790N; (b) 609J
5. 6.0 lb/in.2
19. (a) 22.4kN; (b) 12.5kJ
6. 0.52 m
21. V2E(M + m)/Mm 7. 19.0kPa
8. 1.25 MPa
9. 55.2 kPa
Chapter 14 10. (a) 0.557atm; (b) 5.93km
11. 0.412 cm
1. 2.16 12. 600 tons, 30 tons, 80 tons
2. 2.6 x 108m 13. (a) 8.52km; (b) 17km
3. 2.9 x 10-11 N 14. 809kN
4. (a) 7.15 x 10-1ON; (b) 3.75 x 10-10N .m 16. ipgA(h2 -h1)2
5. 0.016lb
18. (a) 97.8Nj (b) 314m
6. 997km
19. (a) 35.6kN; (b) decreases by 0.0851m3
7. (a) 1.33 x 1012m/s2; (b) 1.79 x 106m/s
20. (a) 646kg/m3; (b) 704kg/m3
8. (a) 1.62 m/s2; (b) 16.5N; (c) 1.46 21. 1070g
9. (a) 0.05%; (b) 7 x 10-4s 22. 1.47g/cm3
10. (a) G(M1 + M2)m/a2j (b) GM1m/b2; (C) 0 23. 2.0 x 10-4
12. (2.12 x 10-6)R8 24. 0.141 m3
13. 2.2 x 105 m/s 25. (a) 38.4kNj (b) 40.5kN; (c) 2.35kN;
16.5.1 x 1010 ( d) 2.08 kN
17. 1.55 x 107m 26.0.0519
18. (a) 2.02km/s; (b) 523km; (c) 1.26km/sj 27. 4.74MN
( d) 4.8 x 1022kg 28. 395kg
19. (a~ x 107m/s; (b) 5.49 x 107m/s 29. four
21. vGm/d 30. 44.2 m2
22. 1.87y 31. 0.031
23. 6.5 x 1023kg 32. 740kg/m3
24. 5.93 x 1024kg 33. 78 m
25. 0.354 lunar months 34. 5.0 x 10-4 J
26.81.3° 35. 54.3 mN
27. (a) 1.68km/s; (b) 108min 36. 6.16 x 10-5 J
29. 58.3km/s
30. (a) (47r2AU3)/(M8Y2); (b) T2 = a3
32. (b) 1 + 6 x 10-6; (c) 1.0248 Chapter 16
33. (a) 27rd3/2/ VG(4M + m)j (b) 2j (c) 2 1. 1 h 49min
34. (a) noj (b) sarne; (c) yes 2. 33 ft/s
35. (a) yes; (b) yes 3.3.9m
36. (a) 1.78 x 1032J; (b) -1.78 x 1032Jj 4. 66.5 W
(c) zero; (d) 1.0km/s 5. 1.1 m/s
37. south, at 35.4° above the horizon 6. 170kJ
38. (a) 7964m/s; (b) 7820m/s 7. (a) 2411b/in.2; (b) O.326ft2
39. (a) 5389s; (b) 4.3J/s 8. (a) 2.66m/s; (b) 271 Pa
9. (a) O.81mm2; (b) 440L/d

10. (a) 2.86m/s; (b) 256kPa 30. 0.2%,2.9ms
11. (a) 560Pa; (b) 52kN 31. 8.35 s
12. 10.8 kN 33. (a) 0.436Hzj (b) 1.31m
13. 30.4L/s 34. 0.0770 kg.m2
14. (b) h 35. 12.1 s
15. 63m/s 36. 5.57cm
16. 41.0m/s 37. 1.22fo
18. 1.38 cm 38. (a) 1.13s
19. (a) 87.5N; (b) 172m3 41. (a) straight line, y = :l::Xj (b) ellipse, y2 -
20. 63.3m/s J3xy+X2 = A2/4j (c) circle, X2 +y2 = A2
21. (1/2)pv2 A 42. (b) -1n<.J2Al(coswt)i+(9COS3Wt)j]j
22. 30.9m/s
24. 1520kg (c) (1/2)mA W2(COS2wt+9coS23wt)j
25. 71.6L/s (d) 51n<.J2A2j(e) yes, 27r/w
28. 2.0m/s 43. 5.22 x 1011N/m
29. (b) 0.0355 Pa 44. (a) 14.7 Sj (b) 5.41
46. (a) 0.112kg/sj (b) 0.189J
51. 1.9in.
53. 0.362 s
Chapter 17
54. (a) 8.00u, 0.95u, 6.86uj (b) 470N/m
1. 0.289 s
2. (a) 0.484s; (b) 2.07Hz; (c) 13.0rad/sj
(d) 86.5N/m; (e) 4.51 m/s; (f) 30.0N Chapter 18
3. > 455Hz
4. (a) 495N/mj (b) 1.57cm; (c) 1.55Hz 1. (a) 7.43kHzj (b) 135p,s
5. (a) 1.00mm; (b) 75.4cm/s; (c) 568m/s2 2. (a) 0.40Hzj (b) 3.0m/sj (c) 7.5m
6. (a) 124kN/mj (b) 2.63Hz 3. (a) 0.712sj (b) 1.40Hzj (c) 1.93m/s
7. (a) 3.27m; (b) 4.33m/s; (c) -2.30m/s2; 4. y = (0.0213m) sin[(55.1rad/m)x
(d) 1;33Hz; (e) 0.750s -(2420rad/s)t]
8. 30.41b 6. (a) 2.3mmj (b) 93.6Hz; (c) 32.3m/s, posi-
9. 7.73m/s tive x directionj (d) 34.5cmj (e) 1.35m/s
10. 0.691 s 7. (a) 6.0 cmj (b) 1.0mj (c) 2.0Hzj (d) 2.0m/sj
11. 2.08h (e) negative x directionj (f) 0.75m/s
12. (a) 34.6 cmj (b) 2.20Hz 8. 129m/s
13. (a) 5.27Hz; (b) 415g; (c) 42.5cm 9. 135N
14.1200 10. 91.9g/m
15. (a) 1.07Hz; (b) 4.73cm 11. (a) 5.0cm j (b) 40cmj (c) 12m/s; (d) 33ms;
17. (b) 3.21s (e) 9.4m/sj (f) y =
18. (a) 244N/mj (b) 1.59kg; (c) 1.97Hz (5.0cm)sin[(15.7rad/m)x + (190rad/s)t +
19. (a) 6.97MN/mj (b) 48500 0.93rad]
20. (a) 3/4, 1/4j (b) xm/V2 12. (a) 27.5m/s, 22.7m/s;(b) 207g, 304g
21. (a) 3.04m/sj (b) 3.84m/sj (c) 90.7J 13. 7.54m from the end of the wire from which
22. (a) 2.21Hz; (b) 141J; (c) 322J; (d) 0.968m the earlier pu1se originates
23. (a) 0.319m; (b) 34.4° 14. (c) (length)2
24. (a) 0.167m; (b) 1.24% 15. 198 Hz
25. 0.249 m 16. (a) proportional to l/r; (b) proportional to
26. 9.66m/s2 1/~
27. (a) 33°; (b) 9 x 10-4 17. 4.0kW
28. 0.997 s 19. 68.8°, 1.25rad
29. 9.78m/s2 20. 5.27 cm

25. (a) 81.4m/sj (b) 16.7mj (c) 4.87Hz 26. :!:0.286m, 0.857m, 1.43m, 2.00m from the
26. (a) 146m/sj (b) 0.596mj (c) 245Hz midpoint
27. (a) -3.9cmj (b) y = 27. (a) L(l-l/r); (b) 13.3,16.0,20.0,26.7 cm
(0.15m) sin [(0.79rad/m)x + (13rad/s)t]j 28. 19.8 kHz
(c) -14cm 29. 11.9m
28. (a) 2.6mm, 1.20m/sj (b) 2.75cmj 30. (a) 1130, 1500, 1880Hz
(c) -20.6cm/s 31. 188Hz
29. (a) 1.25mj 32. 57.2m
(b) y = (3.80mm) sin(10.1x) cos(3910t), 33. (a) 405m/s; (b) 611N
where x is in meters and t is in seconds 34.4
30. (a) 833Hzj (b) 0.418m 35. (a) 5.0cm from one end
31. 7.47Hz, 14.9Hz, 22.4Hz 36. open pipe: 58.9 cm; closed pipe: 44.2 cm
32. (a) 145m/sj (b) 2.96m, 1.48mj (c) 49.0Hz, 37. 387Hz
98.0Hz 38. 225ms
33. 480 cm, 160 cm, 96 cm 39. 505, 507, 508 Hz or 501, 503, 508 Hz
34. (a) 105Hzj (b) 159m/s 40. 3.8 Hz
41. 17.4kHz
42. 5.24m/s
43. (a) 522Hz; (b) 554Hz
Chapter 19
44. 3.1 m/s
1. (a) 6.0m/s; 45. 570m/s
(b) s = (0.30 cm) sin[(0.26 rad/cm)x+ 46. 192kHz
160 rad/s)t] 47. 160Hz
2. (a) 1.48Pa; (b) 167Hz; (c) 1.87m; 48. (a) 971Hz; (b) 1030Hz; (c) 59Hz
(d) 312m/s 49. (a) 464Hz; (b) 490Hz
3. (a) 76.2 JLm; (b) 333JLm 50. 1500m/s
4. 340 MHz 51. 41.2 kHz
5. (a) 57nm; (b) 35
6. (a) 3%; (b) count seconds and divide by
three Chapter 20
7. 170 m
1. (a) 710ps; (b) 2.5 x 10-18 m
8. the radio listener by about 0.86 s 2. 1.46 cm
9. 1800 km
3. 1.30m
11. 4.47W 4. 2.97 x 108 m/s
12. 37.5nm 5. 0.445 ps
13. 0.0271 J 6. 0.805c
14. 1.26 7. (a) 87.4m; (b) 394ns
16. yes 8.55m
17. 51.9nJ/m2 9. (a) 15.8km/s; (b) 6.95 x 10-10
18. 176m 10. (a) 0.140; (b) 0.955; (c) 0.99995;
19. 190 dB (d) 0.9999995
20. 32 11. 0.75
21. 63dB 12. x' = 138km, t' = -374J.Ls
22. 3.64 km 13. (a) x' = 3.78 x 107m, t' = 2.26s;
23. 18.4 cm (b) 6.54 x 108 m, 3.14s
24. (a) 307nHz, with n being an odd integer 15. (a) v~ = -u, v~ = cVl- U2/C2
from 1 to 65; (b) 615nHz, with n being an 16. 0.944c
integer from 1 to 32 17. (a) 0.347c; (b) 0.619c
25. 64.4 Hz, 129 Hz 18. 0.556c, recessing

19. (a) 0.933c, 31.0° east of southj (b) 0.933c, 16. 32 cm2
59.0° west of north 17. (a) 13.9cm2j (b) 115cm3
20. (a) 0.133cj (b) 4.58keVj (c) -1.31% 18. 522 cm3
21. 6.29 cm 19. (a) 1.6 x 10-4/COj (b) zero
22. (a) 1.51 x 10-12j (b) 7.67d 20. 180km
23. 1.23JLs 21. 2.3 x 10-5/CO
24. (a) 1.28j (b) 770ns 24. (a) 0.36%j (b) 0.18%j (c) O.54%j (d) Oj
25. (a) 26.3yj (b) 52.3yj (c) 4.06y (e) 1.8 x 10-5/CO
26. 0.999999 50c 26. (a) -0.28 %j (b) aluminum
28. c/V2 27. 360° C
29. (a) 0.999165j (b) 0.0133 28. use 39.3 cm of steel and 13.1 cm of brass
30. (a) 0.0625, 1.00196j (b) 0.941, 2.96j 29. 909g
( c) 0.99999987 , 1960 30. (b) -1.5rev/s
31. (a) 0.9988, 20.6j (b) 0.145, 1.01j (c) 0.073, 31. (a) zeroj (b) -0.36%j (c) -0.36%
1.0027 32. (b) 9.07sj the clock running slow
32. (a) 5.71 GeV, 6.65 GeV, 6.58 GeV /Cj 33. +0.68s/h
(b) 3.11MeV, 3.62MeV, 3.58MeV/c 34. 0.29 cm3
33. 2.12 smu/y 35. 0.17mm
34. (a) 0.943cj (b) 0.866c 36. (b) kelvinsj ( c) 3.4 x 10-3 K
35. (b) v/c < 0.115 37. (a) 22.5L
36.2.0 x 105J, 2.0 x 105J, 6.7 x 10-1OJ 38.25
37. V8mc 39. (a) 113moljj (b) 900L
40. (a) the photonj (b) the protonj (c) the pro- 40. (a) 0.0436molj (b) 175°C
tonj (d) the photon 41. 26.91b/in.2
41. (a) 996eVj (b) 1.05MeV 42. 5.3 x 1018kg
42. 3.19mg 43. 104 cm3
43.0.796c 44. 22.8 m
44. (a) 2:37MeVj (b) 20.9°
Chapter 22
Chapter 21
1. (a) 0.0130mol; (b) 7.23 x 1021
1. (a) Ts = (9/5)TG + 491.69; (b) 671.69°S; 2. (a) 2.5 x 1025; (b) 1.20kg
491.69°S 3. (a) 39.9L; (b) 74.4g
2. -459.67° F 4. (a) 11.3; (b) 1.03
3. (a) TQ = TG + 273.13; (b) 373.1°Q, 5. 4.34 x 10-5
273.15°Q; (c) Kelvin scale 6. 3.0 kPa
4. (a) 10000° F; (b) 37.0° C; (c) -57° C; 7. (a) 531m/s; (b) 0.472mol/m3;
(d) -297° F; (e) 25° C = 77° F, for example (c) 28g/mol, N2
5. no, 310K = 98.6° F 8. 659m/s
6. (a) 320° F; (b) -12.3° F 9. (a) 2.69 x 1025; (b) 0.171nm
7. 291.1K 10. (a) 5.6 x 109 km
8. 186°C 11. 3.86 GHz
9. 31.2 12. (a) 3.59 x 1016; (b) 130m
10.1.3660 13. -12° C
11. 0.073cm Hg, nitrogen 14. (a) 6.5km/s; (b) 7.1km/s
12. 1.1cm 15. (a) 420m/s, 458m/s, yes
13. 0.038in. 16. 694m/s
14. 2.733cm 17. 180m/s
15. 6.2 mm 21. 1.5 cm/s

22. 325° C 35. 11.3kJ
23. (a) 10000K, 160000K; (b) 440K, 7000K 36. (a) 0.429mol; (b) 8.92kJ
24. (a) 3.18km/s; (b) 3.37km/s; (c) 4.00km/s 37. (a) 7880J; (b) 5630J; (c) 3380J
25. 13.9rev /s 38. 3120J/kg .K
26.3/2 39. (nlC1 + n2C2 + n3C3)/(nl + n2 + n3)
28. (a) 1.20km/s; (b) 273pm; 40. 5.0J
(c) 1.16x101Os-1 41. nRTln(Vf/~)
29. 3.09 x 10-3 42. a, c; c, a; a, c
30. 9.68 x 10-3 43. (a) 1090°C; (b) 460° C
31. 3.8 x 10-5 m3/mol 44. path 1: 5280J, -3300 J, 2520J;
32. 290pm path 2: 5040J, -2520J, 2520J;
path 3: 4180J, -1660J, 2520J
45. (a) -1.5nRT1; (b) 4.5nRT1; (C) 6nRT1;
Chapter 23 (d) 2R
46. -35.3 kJ
1. 720° C 47. (a) 15.9J; (b) 34.4J/mol.K;
2. 2.4 kW (c) 26.1 J/mol. K
3. (a) 546 Co /m; (b) 394kW; (c) 63.9° C 48. constant volume: 4.08kJ, 0, 4.08kJ ,
4. (a) 190Wj (b) heat flows out 15 times faster 204kJ; constant pressure: 5.45kJ ,
5. b -1.36kJ, 4.09kJ, 2.04kJ; adiabatic: 0,
7. 1.15 m 4.08kJ, 4.08kJ, 2.04kJ
8. 1.5 min
9. (a) 1.8W; (b) 0.025 Co
10. (a) +214Jj (b) -293J; (c) -79.0J
Chapter 24
11. (a) -6.0J; (b) -43Jj (c) 40Jj (d) 18J, 18J
12. 7.0TJ 1. 18.7kJ
13. 44.5 m3 2. (a) 0.60J/K; (b) -0.60J/K
14. 198 s 3. (a) 200 J; (b) -75 J
15. 107g 4. (a) -16.9kJ; (b) 41.2 J/K; (c) zero
16. (a) 0.12 Co 5. (a) 37.7kJ; (b) 112J/K
17. (a) 75.4kJ; (b) 4.46kJ; (c) 757° C 6. 0.71mJ/K
18. 42.7kJ 7. 3.0mol
19. (a) 117s; (b) 718s 8. (a) 1.95J/K; (b) 0.650J/K; (c) 0.217 J/K;
20. 33g ( d) 0.072 J /K
21. 4.81 9 9. (a) 1.06J/K; (b) no
22. (a) 0° C; (b) 2.5° C 10. (a) 320K; (b) zero; (c) 1.71J/K
23. (a) 542 J/kg .K; (b) 0.722 mol; 11. (a) -926J/K; (b) 926J/K
(c) 27.9J/mol. K 12. (a) 58.0° C; (b) -24.4J/K; (c) 27.8J/K;
24. W1 = 120J, W2 = 75J; W3 = 30J (d) 3.4J/K
25. W1 = 45kJ, W2 = -45kJ 13. (a) 30.9%; (b) 16.2kJ
26. -5.74kJ 14. 32.7kJ, 24.5kJ; (b) 26.4kJ, 18.2kJ
27. 1.14kJ 15.25.4%
28. (a) 2.50atm, 341K; (b) 400mL; (c) 104J 16. eA = 33.3%, eB = 55.6%
29. (a) 8.39atm; (b) 544K; (c) 966J 17. (a) 2090J; (b) 1510J; (c) 1510J
30. (a) 96.0° C; (b) 187L 18. -7.0° C, 68° C
31. 2480 J 20. (b) 58.1%
32. 3710 J 21. (a) 1.62atm; (b) 43.7%
33. (a) 1.20; (b) 105° C; (c) 628mol; 22. (a) 2.27kJ; (b) 14.8kJ; (c) 15.3%;
(d) 1.96MJ, 2; (e) 0.813 (d) 75.0%
34. 1.43 x 10-7 K 23. (a) 217kJ; (b) 32.5kJ

24. (a)3.71j(b)721J Chapter 26
25. (a) 0.714Jj (b) 5.00Jj (c) 20.0Jj (d) 50.0J
1. 10.5mN/C, westward
26. 11 J
2. (a) 0.48pN; (b) 0.48pN
27. 21 J
3. 203nN/C, up
28. false 4. (a) 1500N/C; (b) 2.4 x 10-16 N, up;
29. (a) 113Jj (b) 305J (C) 1.6 x 10-26 N; (d) 1.5 x 1010
30. 440W 5. 144 pC
31. 6.8 6. 6.88 x 10-28 C .m
32. 2.1 MJ 7. 19.5kN/c
33. (1- T2/T1)/(1 -T4/T3) 8. (111 kN/C)j
34. (b) 91,752, about 615000 9. 9:30
35. (a) 1j (b) N!/[(N/2)!]2 13. R/V3
14. R/ ..f2
15. (a) 104nC; (b) 1.31 x 1017; (c) 4.96 x 10-6
16. q/7r2Eor2, vertically down
Chapter 25
17. (a) 6.50cm; (b) 4.80J1,C
1. 0.50 C 18. (a) -q/ L; (b) q/47rEoa(L + a)
2. 1.40m 20. (a) 6.4x 10-18 N, to the right; (b) ~ 20N/C
3. 2.74N 23. to the right
24. (a) 1.72a to the right of the +2q charge
4. (a) 4.97 x 10-7 kgj (b) 72.0pC
26. (a) q/87rEo~ , to the left; 3q/7rEod2, to the
5. (a) 1.77Nj (b) 3.07N
right; 7q/167rEo~ , to the left
6. 0.033 N
27. (a) 6.53cm; (b) 26.9ns; (c) 0.121
7. q1 = -4~
28. (a) 2.07 x 1012m/s2; (b) 225km/s
8. (a) 2.34Nj (b) -0.642 N
29. (a) 585kN/C, toward the negative charge;
9. 24.5N, along the angle bisector (b) 93.6 fN , toward the positive charge
10. 40.2J.tCj (b) 12.4J.tC 30. (a) 2650km/s; (b) 1.03kN/C
11. 82.3 cm from the positive charge and 144 cm 31.5e
from the negative charge 32. (a) 1.42MN/C, 56.0kN/C; (b) 121mN
12. Iql = 122nC 33. 1.64 x 10-19 C (~ 2.5% high)
-+ A
15. (a) F = Fzk L ' 1/2
17. Along the y axis a distance (y4+y2 L2 /4)1/4 34. (a) 27r
19- qE/ml
(a) to the right of q1 or (b) to the left of qo
[1
19. Fz = -~ qo>. y -(y2
1
+ L2/4)1/2 ] (b) 27r(-;---
L
)
1/2
g+qE/m
35. 1.2rnm
21. (a) boronj (b) nitrogenj (c) carbon 36. (a) 9.22fC .mj (b) 10.1pJ
22. (a) 290Nj (b) 4.4 x 1028m/s2 37. (a) zeroj (b) 8.50 x 10-22N.mj (c) zero
23. 2.89nN 38. (a) opposite to Pj (b) parallel to Pj
24. (a) 3.2 x 10-19 Cj (b) two (c) 0.522fNj (d) 4.25 X 10-22 C .m
25. 3.8 N 40. R
26. (a) 7.19 x 1011j (b) 8.40 x 10-13
27. 5.08 m below the electron
28. -13.2 TC Chapter 27
29. 13.4 MC 1. -7.8mN.m2/C
30. 1.6 x 1018N 2. (a) zero; (b) -3.92N. m2/C; (C) zero;
31. (a) 57.1TC, noj (b) 598metrictons ( d) zero for each field
3. (a) -7rR2 E; (b) 7rR2E

4. 1= q/EO, 2= -q/EO, 3= q/EO, 4= O, 16. 2.88 kV
5= q/EO 17. (a) 32MeV
5. 208kN. m2/C 18. 21.3km/s
6. 26.6 nC 19. (a) -3.85kVj (b) -3.85kV
7. q/6EO 20. 2.8 x 105
8. -7ra2 E 21. -1.1 nC
9. 4.6 J.LC 22. 193MV
10. (a) 8.23N.m2/C; (b) 8.23N.m2/C; 23. 637MV
(c) 72.8pC for eacl1 24. 16.3 p,V
12. 4.93 J.LC/m 25. (a) qd/27rt:oa(a + d)
13. (a) 322nC; (b) 143nC 26. (a) no finite pointsj (b) 0.414d to the right
14. (a) o"/EO, to the left; (b) zero; (c) o"/EO, to of+q
the right 27. (a) 2.76MVj (b) 5.27Jj (c) 7.35J
15. (a) zero; (b) o"/EO, to the left; (c) zero 29. 186 pJ
16. 4.94 x 10-22 C /m2 30. (a) dej (b) ef
17. 5.09 J.LC/m3 31.746V/m
18. (a) 3.38 MN/C; (b) zero 32. -qZ/47rt:O(z2 + R2)3/2
19. -1.13nC 33. -2.3 x 1021V /m
20. (a) 25.3kN/C; (b) 11.lkN/C; (c) zero 35. -39.2 V /m
21. (a) 2.19MN/C, radiallyoutward; 37. (a) 2.46Vj (b) 2.46Vj (c) zero
(b) 436 kN / C , radially inward 38. (a) 4.5mj (b) no
22.0.557R 42. (a) V1 = V2j (b) q1 = q/3, ~ = 2q/3
23. 97.9cm 43. (a) -115mVj (b) 18.1nV/m
25. (b) pR2/2EOr 44. 850 V
26. (a) 152J.LC; (b) 17.2MN.m2/C; 45. (a) 3.64nCj (b) 12.5nC/m2
47. (a) large sphere: 38.6nC,
(c) 919kN/C
27. (a) 452nC/m2; (b) 51.1kN/C small sphere: 18.6nCj (b) 2.84kV each
29. (a) 53MN/C; (b) 60N/C 48. (a) 1.75kVj (b) 7.40 cm
49. (a) 110p,C, 1.1p,Cj (b) 8.75p,C/m2,
8.75p,C/m2
Chapter 28 50. 9.65 kW
1. (a) 484keV; (b) zero

2. -0.206q2/toa Chapter 29
3. (a) 27.2fJ; (b) 3.02 x 10-31 kg, in error by
a factor of about 3 1. (a) 1.33kCj (b) 8.31 x 1021
4. 20.5 cm 2. 7.50 x 1016
5. (a) 3.0kN; (b) 240MeV 3. (a) 9.41 A/m2, north
6. 6.0 x 107m/s 4. (a) 25.9J.1;A/m2j (b) 1.91 fm/s
7. (a) 30GJ; (b) 7.1km/s; (c) 9.0 x 104kg 5. 0.400 mm
8. (a) 197pJ; (b) 1.23 GeV 6. gauge 14
9. 2.6km/s 7. 0.67 A, toward the negative terminal
10. 1.42 nm 8. (a) 920J.1;Aj(b) 10.8kA/m2
11. (a) 27.2V; (b) -27.2eV; (c) 13.6eV; 9. (a) 654nA/m2j (b) 83.4MA
(d) 13.6eV 10. 6.52J.1;C/m2
12. (a) -780kV, 60kV; (b) 2.5 J 11. 52.5min
13. (a) 24.4kV /m; (b) 2.93kV 12. 90 V
14. 7.1 mm 13. 0.59 n
15. (a) 132 MV /m; (b) 8.43kV /m 14. 4.1 x 10-3 /CO

15. (a) 1.5kA; (b) 53MA/m2; (c) 110nn .m, 26. (a) ql = 237 JlC, ~ = 110JlC, q3 = 34JlC;
(b) AV1 = AV2 = 23.0V, AV3 = 89.0V;
platinum
16. 57° C (c) U1 = 2.72mJ, U2 = 1.27mJ, U3 =
18. 384 mn 15.4 mJ
19. 3 28. (a) 6.04cm; (b) 287pF
20. 2.85mm 29. 3.89
21. (a) 6.00mA; (b) 15.9nV; (c) 21.2nn 30. transformer oil
22. (a) 2.39. iron being larger; (b) no 31. the mica sheet
32. 0.626 m2
23. 1190 (n. m)-l
33. 86.3 nF
24. (a) 1.73cm/s; (b) 3.24pA/m2
34. (a) 0.41 m3; (b) 25
25. (a) Cu: 55.3A/cm2, Al: 34.0A/cm2; 35. (a) 730pF; (b) 28kV
(b) Cu: 1.01 kg, Al: 495 9 36. (a) 13.4pF; (b) 1.15nC; (c) 11.3kV /mj (d)
27. (a) 8.52 kn; (b) 4.51,uA 4.33kV /m
28. 7.16fs 37. (a) EoA/(d- b); (b) d/(d- b); (c) q2b/2AEo,
29. (a) 7.65 x 105 N/C; (b) 3.60 x 106 N/C; pulled in
(c) 2.51 x 10-5 C/m2 38. (a) EoA/(d- b); (b) 1- b/d;
31. (a) (3 x 106 V /m)R (c ) EoAb(A V)2 /2d( d -b) , pulled in
39. (a) 13.4kV /m; (b) 6.16nC; (c) 5.02nC
40. (a) 6.53; (b) 754nC
Chapter 30
1. 7.5pC Chapter 31
2. (a) 3.80pFj (b) 3.80pFj (c) 55.3V
1. 10.6 kJ
3. 3.25 mC
2. 13h 38min
4. (a) 143pFj (b) 16.6nC
3. 13h 38min
5. 0.546 pF 4. (a) $320; (b) 9.6cents
6. (a) 13.2 cm2j (b) 10.6pFj (c) -1.1 V
5. -10V
7. (a) 84.5pFj (b) 191 cm2 6. (a) 80mA; (b) 130mA; (c) 4O0mA
9.9090 7. (a) 14n; (b) 35mW
10. 3.10 J.LF 8.8.0n
11. 7.17 J.LF 9. (a) 44.2V; (b) 21.4V; (c) left
12.315mC 10. (a) 48.8mn; (b) 1.03V
13. (a) 2.4J.LFj (b) q4 = q6 = 480J.LCj (c) ~V4 = 11. &/7R
120V, ~V6 = 80V
14. ( a) 10 J.LFj (b) q4 = 800 J.LC,q6 = 1200 J.LCj 12. (a) -; el + &2 (b) - E2Tl + ElT2
rl + r2 + R Rrl + Rr2 + rl r2
(c) ~~ = ~~ = 200V 13. (a) i1 = 668mA, down; i2 = 85.7mA, up;
15. (a) d/3j (b) 3d i3 = 582 mA, up; (b) -3.60 V
16. (a) five in seriesj (b) three arrays as in (a) 15. (a) 3.4A; (b) 0.29V;
in parallel (there are other possibilities ) and: (a) 0.59A; (b) 1.7V
17. (a) 942J.LCj (b) 91.4V 16. 6.0 A
18. 50.1pF 17. 4.0n, 12n
20. (a) 45.4Vj (b) 52.7J.LCj (c) 146J.LC 18. (a) R/3; (b) R/3; (c) zero
21. 13.2 cents 19. 7.5 V
22. (a) 3.05 MJj (b) 0.847kW .h 20.3
23. (a) 28.6pFj (b) 17.9nCj (c) 5.59J.LJj 21. 262 n or 38.2 n
(d) 482kV/m 22. nine
24. 73.7mJ 23. (a) 131n; (b) i1 = 47.5mA, i2 = 21.2mA,
25. 74.1mJ/m3 i3 = 14.4mA, i4 = 11.9mA

24. RlR2/(Rl + R2) 17. (a) v'2rpj (b) rp
25. (a) R/2; (b) 5R/8 18. neutron moves tangent to original path;
29. 18 kC proton moves in a circle of radius 25 cm
30. 0.190 hp 19. (a) 0.999928c
31. (a) 1.03kW; (b) 34.5 cents 20. (a) 4.85 j (b) 16.0mm; (c) 0.355ns, no
x 21. an alpha particle
32. (50kW) with x in cm 22. (a) 0.99999825; (b) 2.23T
2000 + 10x -X2
23. ~ 240m
33. (a) R2; (b) R1 24. x = Rsin(wt), y = Rcos(wt)
34. (a) 4.93 MA/m2; (b) 83.3mV /m;
25. 37 cm/s
(c) 25.4V; (d) 635W
26. (a) 2.4mm/s; (b) 7.4 x 1028m-3, silver
35. (a) $4.46; (b) 144n; (c) 833mA
28. (b) 0.0028
36. 660W 29. 467mA, left to right
37. (a) 2.88 x 1011; (b) 24.0JLA; (c) 1.14kW,
30. 27.9N, horizontally west
23.1 mW 31. (a) 330MAj (b) 1.1 x 1017W
38. (a) 166kA/m2; (b) 114mV
32. iBtd/m, away from the generator
39. (a) 6.1m; (b) 13m
33. ( -0.414 N) k
40. (a) 37.0min; (b) 122min
34. 112mT at 30.1° from the vertical
42. (a) 2.56 s; (b) 19.8JLC; {c) 3.91 s
35. (a) zero, 0.138N, 0.138N
43. 4.61
36. 5.0 x 10-3 N. m
44. (a) 2.64JLs; (b) 174pF
37. (a)20min;(b)0.059N.m
45. (a) 2.20s; (b) 44mV
46. 24.8n to 14.9kn
47. 2.35Mn
48. (a) 1.0JLC; (b) 1.0mA; (c) l1Vc = I.e,-t kV. , Chapter 33
(d) p = e-2t, W 1. (a) 3 x 108 m/s
49. (a) 955nA; (b) 1.08JLW; (c) 2.74JLW; 2. yes
(d) ~.82JLW 3. 7.7mT
4. (a) 15.9A; (b) due east
5. 12 nT
Chapter 32 6. zero
1. 1: +, 2: -, 3: O, 4: - 7. (a) 0.324fN, parallel to current;
(b) 0.324fN, radially outward; (c) zero
2. (a) 96fN; (b) 28°
8. 4.4 A, out of page
3. (a) 3.4km/s
9. 30.0 A, antiparallel
4. (a) 394km/s; (b) 810eV
10. (a) 1.14mT, out ofpage; (b) 0.885mT, out
5. 8.2 x 109
of page
6. 0.27 mT
11. (a) 2.43A.m2; (b) 46cm
8. 718kV/m
12. 2 rad
9. (a) 0.34mm; (b) 2.6keV
13. (JLoi()/47r)(1/b -l/a), out of page
10. (a) 2.07x107m/s; (b) 477 J.LT;(c) 13.3MHz;
15. (JLoi/27rw) ln(l + w/d), up
( d) 75.0 ns
16. (a) 377JLT, to the left; (b) 377 JLT, up
11. (a) 1.11 x 107m/s; (b) 0.316mm
18. (b) to the right
12. 127 u
19. (a) 68JLT; (b) 9.3 x 10-7N .m
13. (a) 2600km/s; (b) 110ns; (c) 140keV;
(d) 70kV ( )
JLoi 1 + ;1 , out ofpage;
20. (a) 2R
14. (a) 22.4cm; (b) 21.3MHz
15. (a) Kp; (b) Kp/2
16. (a) Kp = e~V, Kd = e~V, KQ = 2e~V; (b) ~(1
27rR + 7r2)1/2, 18° out of page
(b) V2rp; (c) V2rp 21. 606JLN,toward center of square

22. (52.0¡.tN)j, (20.8¡.tN)j, zero, -20.8J.LN)j, 29. a: -1.20mV, b: -2.79mV, c: 1.59mV
(-52.0¡.tN)j 30. (a) n71.6.uV /m; (b) 158.uV /m
23. (b) 2.3km/s 31. (a) 4.53 x 107m/s2, to the rightj (b) zero;
24. 3.27mN, toward the wire (c) 4.53 x 107 m/s2, to the left
26. 5.79mT 32. 0.150V/m
27. 109m 33. (a) 0.15°
28. ( a) 5.36 cm; (b) 36.6 ¡.tT
30. 5¡.toio
31. (a) -2.5¡.tT.m; (b) zero Chapter 35
32. R/2, 2R
33. (a) ¡.toir/21rc2; (b) ¡.toi/21rr; 1. 2.1A
2. (a) 12.4Aj (b) 0.0806N.m
¡.toi [ a2 -r2
(C) 2;;: a2 -b2 ] ; (d) zero 3. (a) (-2.86A.m2)k; (b) (1.10A.m2)k
4. (a) 0.207 A. m2; (b) 0.163A .m2
35. 3io/8, into page 5. (b) ia2
36. (a) 537 ¡.tT; (b) 407 ¡.tT 6. (a) ( -9.65 x 10-4 N .m) i+( -7.24x 10-4N .
37. (a) negative; (b) 9.7cm
m)j + (8.04 x 10-4N .m) kj (b) -0.603mJ
7. (1/2)7ri(a2 + b2)
9. (a) 514GV/mj (b) 19.9mT
Chapter 34 10. 934 rr
1. 57 JLWb 12. (a) 11.lA.m2j (b) 17.0N.m
2. 1.55mV 13. 24 mJ /T
3. (a) 31 mVj (b) right to left 14. (a) 0.86JLTj (b) 0.68A/m
4. (a) -20mVj (b) zeroj (c) 10mV 15. 0.58 K
5. (a) 1.12 mnj (b) 1.27T/s 16. 25 km
6. A2 B2 / RLlt 17. (a) 150Tj (b) 450T
7. (b) 58mA 18. (a) 3.6K; (b) 0.9K
8. (a) 4.1mA 19. yes
9. 4.97 JLW 20. 0.604JLo
10. 4.3V 21. (a) 3.0JLTj (b) 9.0 x 10-29 J
11. (b) no 22. 13MWb, outward
12. 36.0 mC 23. (a) 180kmj (b) 2.3 x 10-5
13. 600nV 24. (a) 31JLT, O°j (b) 56JLT, 74°j (c) 62JLT, 90°
14. 1.5mV 25. 1660 km
15. zero 26. 380 JLT
27. 61 JLT, 84°
16. (a) 0.619Vj (b) 1.49Aj (c) 0.921 Wj
28. 60JLWb, inward
(d) 0.190Nj (e) same as (c)
17. iLBt/m, away from G 29. +3Wb
18. (a) e/BL, to the leftj (b) zero 30. (a) stable; (b) unstablej (c) stablej (d) un-
stable
20. 3.7 x 104m/s2
31. (JLoiL/7r) ln3
21. 25 JLC
22. (a) 0.253mVj (b) 0.610mAj (c) 0.154JLWj
(d) 0.0317JLW
Chapter 36
23. (a) (JLoia/27r) 1n(1 + b/ D)j
(b) JLoiabv/27rRD(D + b) 1. 100nWb
24. (a) 2Btv2 tan(O /2)j (b) 2.08 s 2. (a) 2.97mWb; (b) 0.788mH
25. 6.3 rev /s 3. 0.261 mH/m
26. (a) fj (b) 7r2a2f B 4. (a) decreasing; (b) 0.68mH
27. 5.5kV 5. (a) 0.60mH; (b) 120

6. 1.32J.tWb 53. (L/R)ln2
7. 7.87H 54. 8.7mn
8. (a) 16kV; (b) 43.1kV 55. 2.96 n
11. 29.8 n
12. (a) &; (b) 0.135&; (c) 0.693
13. (a) 4.78mH; (b) 2.42ms Chapter 37
15.42V+(20V/s)t
16. 12.9 s 1.377rad/s
17. 12A/s 2. (a) 3750rad/s; (b) 23.4n
18. (a) 24 V; (b) 43.6ms 3. (a) 3750rad/s; (b) 23.4n
19. (a) i1 = i2 = 3.33A; (b) i1 = 4.55A, i2 = 4. (a) 5.22mA; (b) zero; (c) 4.35mA;
2.73A; (c) i1 = 0, i2 = 1.82A; (d) i1 = (d) taking energy
i2 = 0 5. (a) 39.1 mA; (b) zero; (c) 32.6mA;
20. ( a) 0.31 mH; (b) 0.28 ms (d) supplying energy
21. I: (a) 2.0A; (b) zero; (c) 2.0A; (d) zero; 6. 91.5n
(e) 10V; (f) 2.0A/s; II: (a) 2.0A; (b) 1.0A; 8. (a) Xc = 37.9n, XL = 86.7n, Z = 167n,
(c) 3.0A; (d) 10V; (e) zero; (f) zero i7n = 0.216A, 4>= 17.0°
22. 5.8 A 11. 1.0kV (> E7n)
23. (a) 13.2 H; (b) 0.124A 13. (a) 36.0V; (b) 27.4V; (c) 17.0V; (d) 8.4V
24. (a) 33.6J/m3; (b) 49.3mJ 15. (a) 39.1 n; (b) 21.7n; (c) capacitive
25. 63.2 MJ /m3 17. 177n
26. (a) 0.025eV /cm3; (b) 3.4 x 1036J 19. (a) 1.82W; (b) 3.13W
27. 150MV/m 20. (a) 12.4n; (b) 1.14kW; (c) 9.67 A
28. 26.0 ms 21. 100V
29. (a) 117H; (b) 0.225mJ 22. (a) 107MHzj (b) 122nA; (c) 672JlV
30. (a) 26.4J; (b) 6.57J; (c) 19.8J 24. (a) 120JlF; (b) zeroj (c) 90W, zero; (d) 0°,
31. 12 x 1015J 90°; (e) 1, zero
32. (a) 1.0J/m3; (b) 4.8fJ/m3 25. (a) 2.49A; (b) 37.4, 153, 218,65.0, 75.0Vj
33. 0.123 A (c) Pc = PL = Oj PR = 93.0W
34. 9.36nF 27. 1.8kV
35. 0.038 mH 28. (a) 2.4V; (b) 3.2mA, 160mA
36. 44.4mA 29. step-up: 5, 4, 1.25; step-down: 0.8, 0.25,
38. 602, 712, 1130, 1330Hz 0.2
39. (a) 89.3rad/s; (b) 70.3ms; (c) 24.1J.tF 30. 220W
40. 0.736ms 31. 40V
41. (a) 6.08J.ts; (b) 164kHz; (c) 3.04J.ts 32. 10
42. (a) 3.24nC; (b) 1.71 mA; (c) 4.65nJ
43. (a) no; (b) 6.1 kHz; (c) 16nF
44. (a) 275Hz; (b) 0.364A Chapter 38
45. (a) 5800rad/s; (b) 1.lms
47. (a) qm/V3; (b) t/T = 0.152 1. r = 2.5cm, 10cm
48. (a) 1.99J.tJ; (b) 5.55J.tC; (c) 12.7mA; 3. changethe potential acrossthe plate at the
(d) -46.4°; (e) 46.4° rate 1.0kV /s
49. (a) 6.0: 1; (b) 36pF, 220J.tH 5. (a) 1.84A; (b) 140GV/m. s; (c) 460mA;
50. let T9 = 596ms and T1 = 199ms; close S2; (d) 578nT .m
wait (1/4)T9; quickly close Sl, then open 7. (a) 0.84A; (b) zero; (c) 1.3A
S2; wait (1/4)T1 and then open Sl 8. (a) 623nT; (b) 2.11TV /m. s
51. (a) 180J.tC; (b) T/8; (c) 67W 9. 2.27pT
52. 5.96, 5.62, 1.99 J.tlrmC 15. 5.0 x 10-21 H

16. (a) Bx = O, By = I -0.78pT} sink(c -ct}, 26. (a) 35.6°; (b) 53.1°
Bz = 0; (b) 646nm 27. 43mm
17. 1.07pT 28. (a) 1.62m; (b) 1.28m
21. 100kJ 29. (a) 405nm; (b) 2.37p,m; (c) 42.5°
22. 8.4V/m, +x direction 30. (a) 509THz; (b) 385nm; (c) 1.96 x 108m/s
23. 4.62 x 10-29 W /m2 32. (a) 48.9°; (b) 29.0°
24. (b) 120W /cm2 33. (a) 72.a7°; (b) from A to B
25. 78 cm 34.41°
27. (a) 883m; (b) no 35. 187 cm
28. (a) 1.02kV/m; (b) 3.40~T 36. 1.18
29. (a) 6.53nT; (b) 5.10mW /m2; (C) 8.04 W 37. (a) yes; (b) no; (c) 43°
30. (a) 1.4 x 10-22W; (b) 1.2 x 1015W 38. (a) cover the center of each face vvith an
31. (a) 76.8mV /m; (b) 256pT; (c) 12.6kW opaque disk of radius 5.50 mm; (b) 0.599
41. yellow-orange
32. (a) 1.70 x 10-17W/m2; (b) 113nV/m;
42. 23.9 MHz
(c) 0.266fI'
43. (b) 0.80c
33. 0.043kg .m/s
44. (a) 1.9 x 107m/s; (b) receding
34. (b) 4.60~Pa;; (c) ratio is 4.55 x 10-11
45. :i:0.0036 nm
35. 7.7MPa
46. 0.137c
36. 58.9 nPa
47. (a) 1.66 x 10-5; (b) 0.83 x 10-5
37. (a) 586MN; (b) 1.66 x 10-14
48. (a) 6min; (b) 12min; (c) 6min
39. I(2 -f)/c
50. 4.43 nm
42. 1.92mm/s
51. 78.9°
43. 490 nm
52.0.805c
Chapter 39
Chapter 40
1. (a) 4.5 x 1024Hzj (b) 10000km 1. (a) 2v; (b) v
2. (a) 4.7mHz; (b) 3.5min 2. 40 cm
3. (a) 515nm, 610nm, approximately; 4.1.5m
(b) 555nm, 541THz, 1.85fs 7. 390 cm beneath the mirror surface
4. 7.5GHz 8. three
5. (a) 515nm, 610nm, approximatelyj 9. 1.7mm2
(b) 555nm, 541 THz, 1.85fs 10. (a) 7; (b) 5; (c) 2
6.2.48 x 105 11. six
7. (a) 8.68yj 4.4My 12. no
8. 67ps 13. 11.0cm
9. 67 ps 15. (a) +, +40, -20, +2, no, yes; (b) plane, 00,
13. (a) 38.0°j (b) 52.9° 00, -10, yes; (c) concave, +40, +60, -2,
14. 1.50 yes, no; (d) concave, +20, +40, +30, yes,
15. 1.56 noj (e) convex, -20, +20, +0.50, no, yes;
16. 2.05 x 108 m/s (f) convex, -, -40, -18, +180, no, yes;
17. 1.95 x 108m/s (g) -20, -, -, +5.0, +0.80, no, yesj
18. air, 1.56ns (h) concave, +8.0, +16, +12, -, yes
19. 1.25 18. (a) -18, no; (b) -32.5, no; (c) +71, yesj
20. 1.5 (d) any n2 possible, no; (e) +30, no;
22. 3.07ns (f) +10, no; (g) -26, no; (h) 1.1, yes
23. 74m 19. (b) 2.0; (c) none
24. 110cm 21. 12 cm to the left of the lens

22. 45mm, 90mm 21. 124nm
23. 2.5mm 22. 492nm
24. (a) 40 cm; (b) image to the right at infinity 23. (a) 552nmj (b) 442nm
25. (a) 40cm; (b) 80cm; (c) 240cm; 24. 70 nm
(d) -40cm; (e) -80cm; (f) -240cm 25. 215nm
26. (a) r/(2n -1); (b) virtual, m = 1/(2n -1) 26. bright
28. (a) +, X, X, +20, X, -1, yes, no; (b) con- 27. 840nm
verging, X, X, -10, X, 2.0, no, yes; 28. 338nm
(c) converging, +, X, X, -10, X, no, yes; 29. 141
( d) diverging, -, X, X, -3.3, X, no, yes; 30. (a) brightj (b) 594nm
(e) converging, +30, -15, +1.5, no, yes; 31. 1.89J.Lm
(f) diverging, -30, -7.5, +0.75, no, yes; 32. 1.00025
(g) diverging, -120, -9.2, +0.92, no, yes; 33. (a) 34; (b) 45
(h) diverging, -10, X, X, -5.0, X, +, no; 34. 1.25
(i) converging, +3.3, X, X, +5.0, X, -, no 35. 1.00 m
29. 22 cm 36. 2.14km
30. (a) converging; (b) 26.7cm; (c) 8.89cm 37. (a) 88%j (b) 95%
31. 30 cm to the left of the diverging lens, vir- 38. 4.9 J.Lm
tual, upright, m = 1.0 39. 588nm
32. (b) no; (c) light passes undeviated through 40. 1.0003
the system
33. (a) 73.6 cm on the side ofthe lens away from
the mirror; (b) real; (c) upright; (d) 0.289 Chapter 42
34. (a) at the object, enlarged 5.00 times;
( c) virtual and inverted 1. 690nm
2. 1.7 Jlm
35. 2.0 mm
37. (a) 2.34cm; (b) smaller 3. (a) 0.4300; (b) 118Jlm
4. 36.8 Jlm
38. (a) 13cm; (b) 1.4cm; (c) -3.1; (d) 3.2;
5. (a) >..a = 2>..b; (b) minima coincide when
(e) -10
mb = 2ma
6. 2.02 mm
7. 173Jlm
Chapter 41
8. (a) 0.0121°; (b) 2.59mm
1. (a) 0.22 rad; (b) 12° 9. 1.49mm
3. 2.3 rnm 11. (a) 0.186°; (b) 0.478rad; (c) 0.926
4. 33.9 J.lm 12. 13°
5. 650nm 13. 5.07°
6. 0.15° 14. (a) 0.134mrad: (b) 21.8m
7. 0.103rnm 15. (a) 0.137mrad; (b) 10.4km
8. 23Hz 16. 36.2 m
9. 600 nm 17. 51.8m
10.16 18. 51.4m
12. 3.70 rnm 19. 1400km
13. 3.2 x 10-4 20. 36 cm
14. (a) 3m; (b) no 21. 15m
15.0° 22. 4.73cm
16. (2m+ l)7rrad 23. (a) 6.8°; (b) there is no minimum
18. (a), (b) 17.4sin(wt + 13.3°) 24. (a) 0.35°; (b) 0.94°
19. (a) 1.21, 3.22, 8.13m 25. >..D/d
20. 26.3sin(wt + 6.67°) 26. (a) d=, taj (b) every fourth fringe

27. (a) three 8. 8.50W /m2
28. five 9. 15.8W /m2
29. (a) nine; (b) 0.255 10.49.0°
11. (a) 53.1°; (b) yes, slightly
12. (a) 1.61; (b) 58.2°
Chapter 43 13. 55°31' to 55°46'
1. (a) 3.50J.Lm; (b) 9.69°, 19.7°, 30.3°, 42.3°,
14. 12JLm
15. (a) turns plane of polarization by 90°;
57.3°
2. 12800 (b) reverses handness of circular polariza-
3. 523 nm tion; (c) light remains unpolarized
4. 586 nm
16.371
5. (a) 6.0J.Lm; (b) 1.5J.Lm; (c) m = 0, 1, 2, 3,
5,6,7,9
6. (a) three: m = -1,0, +1; (b) 0.0451° Chapter 45
7. 400nm < ).. < 635nm 1. (b) 2.11 eV
8. (a) 590nm, 470nmj (b) yellow-orange, blue 2. 2.1 JLm, infrared
9. three 3. 1.17eV
14. 1090mm-l 4. 0.03671rmfW
15. 470nm < ).. < 560nm 5. ultraviolet
16. (a) 0.0512nm; (b) none 7. (a) the infrared bulbj (b) 1.97 x 1020
17. 491 8.5.45 x 1026
18. (a) 23100j (b) 27.5° 9.91K
19.3650 10. 1.45m, radio region
21. (a) 9.98J.Lm; (b) 3.27nm 11. (a) 1.06mm, microwavej (b) 9.4JLm,
22. (a) 2400nm; (b) 800nmj (c) m = 0, 1,2 infraredj ( c) 1.6 JLm, infraredj (d) 500 nm,
23. (a) 0.032° /nm, 0.077° /nm, 0.25° /nm; visible; (e) 0.29nm, x rayj (f) 2.9x 10-41 m,
(b) 40000, 80000, 120000 hard gamma ray
24. 0.259 nm 12. (a) 500nm, blue-greenj (b) 5220K
25. 2.68° 13. 580mW
26. 6.81° 14. 192mW
27. 26pm, 39pm 15. (a) 7650Kj (b) 17200K
28. (a) 171 pm; (b) 135pm 16. 1.28 x 1015Hz
29. 49.8 pm 17. cesium, lithium, barium
32. yes, 136pm, 102pm 18. 10.geV
33. 0.206 nm 19. (a) noj (b) 544nm, green
34. clockwise: 33.4°, 12.5°; counterclockwise: 20. (a) 2.0eVj (b) zeroj (c) 2.0eVj (d) 295nm
0.30°,34.9° 21. 172nm
22. (a) 382 nmj (b) 1.82 eV
23. (a) 1.17Vj (b) 641 km/s
Chapter 44 24. 0.13 V
26. (a) 62pmj (b) x-ray region
1. (a) -y; (b) Ex = O, Ey = 0, 27. (a) 29.8keVj (b) 7.19 x 1018Hzj
Ez = -cB sin(ky + i.A)t);linearly polarized, (c) 1.59 x 10-23 kg .m/s = 29.8keV /c
z direction 28. (a) 1.23 x 1020Hzj (b) 2.43pmj
3. (a) 2.14V /m; (b) 20.3 x 10-12 Pa (c) 2.73 x 10-22kg .m/s = 511keV/c
4. 35.3° 29. 2.95 cm/s
5.1/8 30. (a) 2.43pm, 1.32fm; (b) 511keV, 938MeV
6. 19.6° or 70.4° 31. (a) 2.87pm; (b) 5.89pm
7.27/128 32. (a) 2.43pmj (b) 4.11pmj (c) 302keV

34. 3.00 5. (a) 6.2 x 10-41 J; (b) 1.0 x 10-20;
35. 2.64fm (c) 3.0 x 10-18K
36. (a) 7.4°; (b) 620meV 6. (a) (2n + 1)/n2
37. (a) 4.86pmj (b) -42.1keVj (c) 42.1keV 7. (a) 8.74keV; (b) 1.01 x 10-22kg.m/s;
38. (a) 8.10x10-11j (b) 4.86x10-6; (c) 0.0237j (c) 98.5pm
( d) 0.651 8. 0.196
39.42.6° 9. (a) x = Nf/2n, N = 1, 3, 5, ..., (n- 1);
41. (a) 588.9944nmj (b) 299.97m/sj (b) x = Nf/n, N = 0, 1,2, ..., n
(c) 299.94m/s 10. (a) 121.6nm; (b) 91.2nm
12. (a) 102.6nm; (b) 6.46 x 10-27 kg .m/s =
12.1eV/c; (c) 12.1eV
Chapter 46 13. 656.3 nm, 486.1 nm, 434.1 nm, 410.2 nm
15. 3.40 eV
1. (a)1.7x10-35m
3. (a) 38.8pmj (b) 1.24nm; (c) 907fm 16.4
17. (a) n = 5 -4 3; (b) Paschen
4. 4.33 JLeV
5. (a) 3510km/s; (b) 64.4kV 18. (a) 12.8eV; (b) 12.8eV, 12.1eV, 10.2eV,
6. (a) 1.99 x 10-21 kg .m/s; (b) 333fm 2.55eV, 1.8geV, 0.66eV
19. 66neV, ~ = 3.4eV
7. (a) 5.3fm
8. (a) 15keVj (b) 124keV 20. (a) 2190km/s; (b) 332pm; (c) A = 27rao
9. 0.025fm 22. (a) 2.55eV; (b) n = 4 -+ 2
10. (a) 0.074nm; (b) 3.4nm 24. 4.07m/s
11. a neutron 26. (a) 54.4eV; (b) 13.6eV
12. (a) 830nm, 1.0nm; (b) 0.83fm, 0.83fm 27. (b) 1013nm, 364.6nmj (c) ultraviolet, visi-
13. (a) 7.77pm; (b) 7.68pm ble, infrared
14. 17.8kV 28. (a) lj (b) 0.0529nm; (c) }:::;
15. 5.5° (d) 1.99 x 10-24kg .m/s;
16. 5.78°,11.6°, 17.6° (e) 4.14 x 1016rad/s; (f) 2190km/s;
17. ( a) the beams are not present; (b) 47° (g) 82.6nN; (h) 9.07 x 1022m/s; (i) 13.6eV;
18. 11.6°, 23.6°, 36.9°, 53.2° (j) -27.2eV; (k) -13.6eV
19. 0.69Hz 29. (b) n2j (C) n; (d) l/n; (e) 1/n3j (f) l/n;
20. no (g) 1/n4; (h) 1/n4; (i) 1/n2; (j) 1/n2;
21. 76p,eV (k) 1/n2
22. 84neV 30. (a) 124keV; (b) 40.5keV
23. 8.8 x 10-24kg .m/s 31. (a) 30.4nm, 292nm, 1055nm; (b) 823THz,
24. 16 cm 366 THz, 206 THz
25. A/27r 33. (a) 2150nm-3, zero; (b) 291 nm-3,
26. (a) 1.1 x 10-24 kg .m/s; (b) 4eV 10.2 nm-1
27. (a) 1.1 x 10-20kg.m/s; (b) 19MeV 34. 2.26 x 10-5
28. 0.45 nm
35. 1.85
29. (a) 3.0 x 10-5; (b) 2.5 x 10-7
36. 0.00541
30. 1.1 x 10104y
37. (a) 3,2,1,0, -1, -2, -3ñj (b) -3, -2, -1,
0, 1,2, 3JLB; (c) 30.0°, 54.7°, 73.2°, 90.0°,
106.8°, 125.3°, 150.0°; ( d) .ffiñ;
Chapter 47
(e) .ffiJLB
1. (a) 1900MeV; (b) 1.0 MeV, no 38. 24.1°
2. 850pm 41. (a) 0.764ao, 5.236ao; (b) 0.981 nm-1,
3. 88.3eV 3.61 nm-1
4. O.65eV 42.0.00190

43. n = 4, f = 3, mi = 3, 2, 1, O, -1, -2, -3, 36. (a) noj (b) O.110.umj (c) 112km
m8 = :1::1/2
44. n ~ 4, mi = 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, m8 =
:1::2 Chapter 49
45. n ~ 5, f = 4, m8 = :J:1/2
46.50 2. 1.93 x 1028m-3 .eV-3/2
47. 1, 0,0, 1/2; 1, 0, 0, -1/2 3. 5.90 x 1028m-3
48. 54.7° , 125.3° 4. 348 MPa
49. all statements are true 5. (a) 0.90; (b) 0.69; (c) sodium
6. (a) zero; (b) 0.0662
7. (a) 1.00,0.986,0.500, 0.014, zero; (b) 700K
Chapter 48 9. 5.53eV
10. 1.36 x 1028,1.72 x 1028,9.02 x 1027,
2. 6.63 x 10-34 J .s 1.82 x 1027,3.43 x 1018m-3 .eV-1
3. 9.84kV
11. 65.4keV
4. (a) 35.4pm; (b) 49.6pm; (c) 56.5pm
12. T » 82000K
5. (a) 24.8pm; (b) unchanged; (c) unchanged
14. (a) 6.85eV; (b) 1.78 x 1028m-3 .eV-1;
6. (a) 64.2keV; (b) 10.2eV
(c) 1.62 x 1028m-3 .eV-1
7. 2.1keV
17. 234keV
8. 511 kV
18. 137MeV
9. 49.6 pm, 99.2 pm, 99.2 pm
20. (a) zero; (b) 0.00549; (c) 0.0183
10. {a) 69.5kV; (b) 17.8pm; (c) 18.5pm,
21. 201° C
21.3 pm
11. (a) 19.7keV, 17.5keV; (b) Zr or Nb 22.0.029
23. (a) 5.86 x 1028m-3; (b) 5.51eV;
12. 282 pm
(c) 1390km/s; (d) 524pm
14.9/16
15. (a) 2,0,0, +1/2; (b) n = 2, f = 1, ml = 1, 24. (a) 1.31 x 1029m-3; (b) 9.41eV;
0, -1, ms = :!:1/2 (c) 1820km/s; (d) 400pm
16. 0.575 pm 25. (a) 52.1 nm; (b) 202
17. only argon would remain an inert gas 26. (a) diamond: 1.40 x 10-14,
18. Z = 118 silicon: 1.7 x 10-3;
19. (a) 1.84,2.26; (b) 0.167,0.119 (b) zero for both
20. (a) 21; (b) 6 27. (a) 1.5 x 10-6; (b) 1.5 x 10-6
22. (a) 1.5 x 10-25 N; (b) 32Jl.m 28. (a) 1.4 x 10-6; (b) 40° C
23. 72km/s2 29. (a) 5.0 x 1021m-3; (b) 1.7 x 105
24. (a) 60.2Jl.eV; (b) 14.5GHz; (c) 2.06cm, mi- 30. 0.22 JLg
crowave region 31. 46 nm
25. 5.64 cm 32. 310nm
26. 51 mT 33. insulator, none, -; extrinsic semiconductor ,
27. 2.0 x 1016S-l donor, n; intrinsic semiconductor, none, -;
28. (a) 3.60mm; (b) 5.25 x 1017 conductor, none, -; conductor, none,
29. 3.2 x 107 extrinsic semiconductor, acceptor, p
30. 4.4 x 1017 34. 6.0 x 105
31. 9.0 x 10-7 35. 20 Gn
32. -275000K 36. (b) 2K,f;OA/d
33. (a) none; (b) 240J 37. ( a) 230 nm; (b) ultraviolet
34. 1.7pm 38. 4.20eV
35. (b) 7.33Jl.m; (c) 73.7W /cm2; 39. opaque
(d) 2.6MW /cm2

Chapter 50 50. 132 J1,g
51. 1.78mg
1. 15.7fm 52. (a) d; (b) 43Ti; (c) 7Hi
2. (a) 1.4.uN; (b) 1900diameters 53. -1.855MeV
3. 26 MeV 56 64 Zn 66 Zn 64C U 66Cu 61Ni 63Ni 65Zn
., , , , , , ,
5. 27 67
Zn ,.stable. ., 64Zn 66Zn , 61Ni , 67Zn
7. 13 km 58. 192Ir, 194pt(d, a); 194Ir, 196pt(d, a); 196Ir,
9. 8.79MeV
198pt(d, a)
10. (a) 1.000000u, 11.906829u, 236.202500u 60. (a) 180, 60Ni, 92Mo, 144Sm, 207pb; (b) 40K,
12. 25Mg: 10.01%, 26Mg: 11.00% 91 Zr 121 Sb 143Nd. ( c ) 13C 40K 49Ti
, , , , , ,
13. 670keV 2o5Tl , 207pb

14. (a) 19.81 MeV, 6.258MeV, 2.224MeV; 61. (a) 7.19MeV; (b) 12.0MeV; (c) 8.69MeV
(b) 28.30MeV; (c) 7.075MeV
15. (a) 7.289MeV; (b) 8.071meV;
(c) -91.10MeV
Chapter 51
16. (b) 7.92meV
17. 2.53TJ 1. (a) 34kgj (b) 12 mg
18. (a) 2.59fm; (b) yes 2. (a) 2.9 GJj (b) 25 GJ
19. 380 d 3. (a) 2.56 x 1024j (b) 81.9TJj (c) 25000y
20.3.0 x 1019 4. 6.25 x 1010S-l
21. (a) 64.2 h; (b) 0.125; (c) 0.0749 6. 72.7TJ
22. (a) 4.8 x 10-18 S-l; (b) 4.6Gy 9. (a) 13.9d-1j (b) 4.97 x 108
23. (a) 7.57 x 1016S-l; (b) 4.95 x 1016S-l 10. 95Sr, 95y, 134Te, 3
25. 3.84 x 1021 11. -23.0MeV
26. 265 mg 12. 4.99MeV
27. (a) 59.5d; (b) 1.18 13. 174MeV
28. 110 Gy 14. yes
29. 87.8mg 15. 231 Me V
30. 209d 16. (a) 153Ndj (b) 110MeV to 83Ge, 60MeV
32. (a) 3.0 x 10-17; (b) zero to 153Ndj (C) VGe = 1.60 x 107 m/s, VNd =
33. Q3 = -9.460MeV, Q4 = 4.679MeV, Q5 = 8.69 x 106 m/s
-1.326MeV 17. 238U+n -+ 239U -+ 239Np+e,
34. (a) 31.85MeV, 5.979MeV; (b) 73MeV 239Np -+ 239pU + e
35. 1.17MeV 18. 438 kg
36. 782keV 19. 548kg
37. (a) 874fm; (b) 6.4fm; (c) no 20. (a) 2.8MeVj (b) 1.3kg
38. 78.4eV 22.0.99938
39. 1.02mg 23. 1.6 x 1016
40. 3.93 nCi 24. 8030 MW
41. 13mJ 25. 566W
42. (a) 18mJ; (b) 290mrem 26. 24 9
43. 39.4.uCi 27. 1.72Gy
44. (a) 5.04 x 1018j (b) 4.59 x 106 S-l; 28. (a) 75kWj (b) 5800kg
( C) 124.uCi 30. 24800y
45. 5.33 x 1022 31. 450keV
46. 1250rem 32.0.15
47. (a) 2.03 x 1020; (b) 2.78 x 109 Bqj 33. (a) 170kV
(c) 75.1mCi 36. (a) 3.1 x 1031m-1j (b) 1.2 x 106
48. 659mg 37. (a) 4.0 x 1027MeVj (b) 5.1 x 1026MeV
49. 2.83 Gy 38. (a) 4.3 x 109 kg/sj (b) 3.1 x 10-4

39. 4.5 Gy
41. (a) 4.1eV/atom; (b) 9.0MJ/kg; (c) 1500y
42. 160 M y
44. 14kW
45. KQ = 3.52 MeV. Kn = 14.07MeV
46. 15.4kg
47. (a) 1000km/sj (b) 2.0J.Lrn
Chapter 52
1. (a) 2.4 x 10-43; (b) 8.1 x 10-37
2. (a) 937.76MeV, 803Mev
3. 2.84 x 1028m
4. 18.4 fm
5. 769MeV
6. 2.7cm/s
7. 31nm
8. (a) electromagnetic; (b) weak; (c) strongj
(d) weak
9. (a) K+; (b) n; (c) 7r°
10. Q = 0, B = -1, S = 0
11. b, d
12. e++lIe, 7r++7r°, 7r++7r++7r-, 7r++7r°+7r°
13. (a) AO -+ p + 7r+;
(b) n-+ p + e+lIe;
(C) T+ -+ JL+ + lIJL+V;j
(d) K- -+ JL- + V;
16. (a) not possible; (b) uuu
18. (a) iIiIdj (b) udd
20. (a) s-+ d+u+u; (b) s-+ d+u+u;
(c) d+d -+ s+Sj (d) 'Y -+ u+u
22. 4500 Mpc
23. 690nm
24. 91 Mpc
25. (a) 1.6TK; (b) 88JLs
26. (a) 0.13 cmj (b) 2.3 x 1011Hz, 0.95meV
27. (a) 285000y, era ofnuclear formation;
(b) 0.43eV; (c) 0.5

SECTION FIVE
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
The íollowing are the answersto the problems that appear at the ends oí the cllapters.
Chapter 1 24. (a) 5.44s; (b) 53.3m/s; (c) 5.80m

25. 3072ft/s2 (=96g)
1. 7h 44min 50s, pm
26. 0.20 m
2. (a) 390; (b) 5.9 x 107; (c) 3500km
27. 0.3 s
3. (a) 31m; (b) 22m; (c) Lake Ontario
4. (a) 1.2s/d; (b) 0.007s/d 28. (a) 17.1 s; (b) 293m
5. about 11b 29. 20.4m
6. 132 kg/s 30. 115
31. ~ 3.6Jh, with h in meters
7. 0.260kg
9. (a) 282pm; (b) 416pm 32. (a) 3m; (b) 0.0003s
10. (a) 43.2cm2; (b) 43cm2
Chapter 3
Chapter 2 1. (a) 0.28JLm; (b) 37 JLm
1. (a) 28m; (b) 13m 2. (a) 0.62m/s2; (b) 0.13m/s2; (c) 2.6m
2. 170 cm, 32° above the floor 3. (a) 1.8m/s2; (b) 3.8m/s2; (c) 4.0m
3. (a) (10ft) i + (12ft)j + (14ft) k; (b) 21ft; 4. (a) 4.6 x 103N; (b) 5.8 x 103N
(c) equal or greater than, not less than; 5. (a) 3260N; (b) 2720N; (c) 1.20m/s2
(d) 26ft 6. 2Ma/(g + a)
5. (a) 45.0mi/h; (b) 42.8mi/h; (c) 43.9mi/h 7. (a) 0.97m/s2; (b) 1.2N; (c) 3.5N
6. (a) 0, 0, -2, 0, 12 m; (b) -2, 12 m; 8. (a) 135N; (b) 45.3N; (c) 75.4N
(c) 7.0m 9. (a) 1.23N, 2.46N, 3.69N, 4.92N;
7. (a) in:finite number; (b) 87km (b) 6.15N; (c) 0.250N
8. (b) Vl =V2 10. 1.1 N
9. (a) 28.5cm/s; (b) 18.0cm/s; (c) 4O.5cm/s; 11. (a) P/(m + M); (b) PM/(m + M)
(d) 28.1 cm/s; (e) 30.3 cm/s
10. (e) a, b, d
11. (a) 14m/s, 18m/s2; (b) 6m/s, 12m/s2,
Chapter 4
24m/s2, 24m/s2
12. (b) 18.8m/s; (c) 31.3m 1.60°
13. no, his speed was less than 24mi/h 2. (a) 4.78m, 83.0°; (b) 2.82s; (c) 27.8m/s
14. (a) 5.71m/s2; (b) 3.68s; (c) 5.78s; 3. (a) 8.44km; (b) 59.0km
(d) 95.4m 4. (a) 0.222s, 0.222s; (b) 0.789ft; (c) 2.37ft
15. (a) 0.75s; (b) 50m 5. (a) 1.16s; (b) 13.0m; (c) 18.8m/s,
16. (a) 82m; (b) 19m/s 5.56m/sj (d) no
17. (a) 3.40 s; (b) 16.2m 6. (b) 27°
18. t = 5.1 s, 7" = 2E/9 7. (a) 99ftj (b) 90ft/s; (c) 180ft
19. 1.23, 4.90, 11.0, 19.6, 30.6 cm 8. (b) 6.3°, 83.7°
20. 3.0 m 9. 31° to 63° above the horizontal
21. (a) 110km; (b) 330s 10. D = V(v/2g) sin(} -L cos(}, pass over if
22. (a) 350ms; (b) 82ms D > 0, fall short if D < 0
23. 8.85m/s; (b) 0.999m 12. 70.5°
Answers to Problems: Chapter 4 205

13. 1.30m/s 20. (a) 0.632FoT/m; (b) 0.368FoT2/m
14. 0.902m/s
15. (a) g; (b) .¡;:ñiTb; (c) 0.75g
16. (a) (m/b)1n(vi/vf); (b) 19s Chapter 6
17. (a) ge-bt/m, g, 0;

(b) (mg/b) [t + (m/b)e-bt/m -1] 1. (a) 2,uu
18. (b) 370m 2. (a) 1.06x104kg.m/s; (b) 7.50x103kg.m/s;
19. (a) 15km; (b) 77km/h (c) 2.30kN; (d) 21.4kN
20. 4.24m, 45°; 5.54m, 67.5°; 6.00m, 90°; 3. (a) 2.20N. s; (b) 212N
(b) 4.24m, 135°; (c) 0.849m/s, 135°; 4.5.0N
5. (a) 0.480g; (b) 7.2kN
(d) 0.942m/s, 90°; 0.942m/s, 180°;
(e) 0.296m/s2, 180°; 0.296m/s2, 270° 6. three times the weight of the chain already
on the table
21. 220m/s2
7. mgR(,j'ihrg+t), 41.0N
22. (a) 6.46m; (b) 5.44nm/s2
23. (b) max: Vx = 2i.A)R,Vy = 0, ax = 0, ay = 8. (a) 0.516m/sj (b) 0.489m/s
9. (a) 130tons; (b) 0.88in.; (c) elastic
-i.A)2R; min: Vx = Vy = 0, ax = 0, ay = i.A)2
R
10. 0.908m/s, 0.783m/s
24. (a) 63°; (b) 17m/s
11. 37.1mi/h, 63.6° south ofwest
25. between 2.976 x 108 m/s and 2.991 x 108m/s
12. (a) 117° from final direction of B; (b) no
27. 98.1 km/h, 15.1°
13. (a) 28.0°; (b) 7.44m/s
28. (a) from 75° east of south; (b) 30° east of
14. 38 km/s
north; substituting west for east yields a
15. (a) 74.4m/s; (b) 81.5m/s, 84.1m/s
second solution
16. Vml = 0, Vm2 = vo(m-M)/(m+M), VM =
2vom/(m+M); (b) Vml = vo(M -m)/(M +
m), vm2 = 0, VM = 2vom/(M + m)
Chapter 5
17. V2 and V3 will be at 30.0° to Vo and have
1. (b) -1.73m/s2, 23.4N; (b) m2 < 2.60kg, magnitude 6.93m/s, Vl is opposite to vo
m2 > 2.60kg, m2 = 2.60kg with magnitude 2.00m/s
2. (a) 37N; (b) 55N; (c) 36m/s2, upward 19. (a) 746m/s; (b) 963m/s
4. ( a) no; (b) 12lb to the left , 5.0 lb, upward 20. 0.15
5. (a) 11.lN; (b) 47.3N; (c) 40.1N 21. (a) 4.57m/s, 3.94m/s; (b) 7.53m/s
7. J.l.kmg/(sin(J-J.l.kcos(J)tan-1J.1.8
8. (b) 3.0 x 107N
9. 490N Chapter 7
10. (a) 3.46m/s2; (b) 0.910N; (c) 3.46m/s2,
0.910 N in compression 1. (a) down, mv/(m+M); (b) balloon is again
12. (a) 27.0N; (b) 2.73m/s2; (c) 0.278 stationary
2. (a) midway between them; (b) it moves
13. (a) 0.46; (b) 0.92
14. (a) 24kN; (b) 180km/h; (c) 32kN 1.12mm toward the heavier bodyj
(c) 0.00160g, down
15. (a) 30cm/s; (b) 1.7m/s2, radially inward;
3. g(l -2x/ L)
(c) 2.9mN; (d) 0.4
4. (a) L; (b) zero
16. (a) at the bottom of the circle; (b) 31 ft/s
17. (a) 8.74N; (b) 37.9N; (c) 6.45m/s 5. (HM/m)[~-l]
18. (a) ..::.-- I g(tan(J + J.l.8); 6. 4R/37r from the flat base, along the sym-
27ry r(l -J.l.8 tan (J) metry axis
7. (a) 540 m/s; (b) 40.4°
b 1 I g(tan(J -J.l.8) 8. 191 m/s
( ) 2:;;:y r(l + J.l.8
tan (J)
9.60N
19. (b) 45°, 1.72mrad; (c) zero, zero 10. (a) 49.1 kgj (b) 141 kg
206 Answers to Problems: Chapter 7

11. (a) fast barge: 49.5N more, slow barge: no 17. 1.73m/s2,6.92m/s2
change 18. (a) (¡)Ok2/J1.kga;(b) ((¡)Ok)2/47rJ1.kga
19. (a) (2/3)J1.MgR; (b) (3/4)(¡)oR/4J1.g
21. (a) 10.7°; (b) 0.186g
Chapter 8 22. (a) W/6; (b) (2/3)g
24. (a) a = 2F/MR; (b) a = F/M
1. (a) 4.0rad/s; (b) 12rad/s2; (c) 6.0rad/s2, 25. (a) the sphere; (b) no
18 rad/ s2
2. 95 rev /min
3. (b) 23h 56min Chapter 10
4. (b) -2.30x10-9rad/s2; (c) inabout 2600y;
1. (a) 14.1 kg .m/s2, out of the page;
(d) 24ms
(b) 1.76 N. m, out of the page
5. (a) 0.92rev; (b) 6.0rad/s
2. mvd
6. (a) 3.65rad/s; (b) 38.0m/s; (c) 6.78m/s2;
4. vl/(l + I/MR2)
(d) 139m/s2 7. (a) 1.18s; (b) 8.6m; (c) 5.18rev;
7. (a) 1.99 x 10-7rad/s; (b) 29.9km/s;
(d) 6.07m/s
(c) 5.94mm/s2 8. (a) MR2w5/4; MR2wO/2; (b) R2w5/2g;
8. (a) -1.18rev/min2; (b) 10300; (c) Wo
(c) -1.08 x 10-3 m/s2 9. longer by 0.4 s
9. (a) 3800rad/s; (b) 190m/s 10. -0.127
10. 16.4s 11. (a) (Iw -mRv)/(I + mR2);
11. (a) 22.4rad/s; (b) 5.38km; (c) 1.15h (b) (1/2)m(v + &)2/(1 +mR2/I)
12. (a) vb/(b2+v2t2), up; (b) 2bv3t/(b2+v2t2)2, 12. each revolves in a circle ofradius 1.46m at
down 0.945rad/s; (b) 9.12rad/s
13. wb/ cos2(wt) in any direction in the plane
perpendicular to w; (b) 7r/2w
Chapter 11
1. 2.1 x 10-10 N
Chapter 9
2. (a) -(3/4)Mgd; (b) Mgd
1. (a) slides, 31°; (b) tips, 34° 3. (a) 215lbj (b) 10100ft.lbj (c) 48.0ft;
2. (a) W/2sinO; (b) W/2tanO (d) 10 300ft .lb
3. (a) WV(1+r2/L2); (b) Wr/L 4. 25.7°
4. three-fourths the length of the beam from 5. (a) 2.45 x 105ft.lbj (b) 0.619hp
the worker at the end 6. 16.6 kW
5. (a) 269N; (b) 874N, 10.7° above the floor 8. (b) 1.95
6. (a) 2W; (b) W/tanO; (c) W/sinO 9. 10.0kWj (b) 2.97kW
10. Vb73)
F -W sin020 ) ' Ji1
2 -W Sin01 -~:;::
7. 1- . (O - sin(ij;~ (}1) , nor- 11. 3FoXo/2
sm 2- 1
13. 15Wo
mal to the planes
14. (a) kx2 -2kfo [~-lo]j
8. (a) Wx/LsinO; (b) Wx/LtanO,
W(l- x/L); (c) 2.41m (b) kX4/4f~
9. (a) L/2, L/4, L/6j (c) N = n 16. (a) 30km/hj (b) 39kJ
10. (b) Mr2/4 17. man: 2.41m/s, boy: 4.82m/s
12. (ML2/6) -(4Ma2/3) -(3Ma4/2L2) 18. (a) 53.8m/sj (b) 52.4m/sj (c) 75.7m, below
15. (a) dm/M = 2rdr/R2; 19. (a) 9.0 x 104 megatons of TNT; (b) 45km
(b) dI = 2Mr3 dr/ R2; (c) I = (1/2)MR2 20. (a) 0.304J; (b) -1.75 J; (c) 3.32 m/s;
16. (a) dm/M = 3(R2 -z2)dz/4R2j (b) dI = (d) 22.5 cm
3M(R2 -z2)2dz/8R3; (c) I = (2/5)MR2 21. (b) mtv~/t~

22. (a) -7.67rad/s2j (b) 11.7N.mj (c) 45.8kJj
(d) 624revj (e) only the kinetic energy lost
to friction, 45.8 kJ
23. 0.0217
24. (a) 3.80rev/sj (b) 3.11
25. 0.792
26. (1/2)m( v + & )2/ (1 + mR2 / I)
27. Ka = 97.5J, Kb = 941 J
28. 66.1 MJ
30. 124kW Chapter 14
31. (a) mVi/(m + M)j (b) M/(m + M)
4.3.2m
32. 35.9cm
7. (a) 2.63 x 106m; (b) 5.3 x 109J
33. 700 J gained
8. (b) 1.9h
35. (a) mlV~i/2j (b) m~v~i/2(ml + m2)j
9. (b) 250m, 50m; (c) 293m, 7.0m
(C) m2/(ml + ml)j (d) mlm2V~i/2(ml + [ 1 .
GMm
m2), zero, one, yes 11. ~ 1- 8(1- R/2d)2.
12. (a) 21min; (b) 21min, 84min

Chapter 12 13. (a) 9.83m/s2; (b) 9.84m/s2; (c) 9.79m/s2
14. (a) 10.6m/s2; (b) 4930km, 9.29m/s2
1. (a) k/(z + 1) -k/(z -1)
15. (b) 200MN/m2; (c) 180km
2 .v'"2iiL
19. 98.4pJ
3. (a) 105cmj (b) 322cm 21. (a) 1.02y; (b) 87.6km/s
4. mgL/32
GMmx
5. ( a) 8.06mg, at 82.9° left of verticalj 22. (a) (X2 + R2)3/2 ;
(b) 5R/2 1 1
(b) V2 = 2G M I
6. mcosa v 2gh R -.¡w-+-;;;'1 ,I
( ) (M+m)(M+msin2a)
23. (a) 3.32GM2/R2j (b) 211'VR3/3.32GM
7. (a) 26.9J; (b) 19.7 25. (a) -GMm/rj (b) -2GMm/rj
8. (a) 4.85m/s; (b) 2.42m/s (c) it falls radially to earth
10.6mg 26. 7.20 solar radii
12. (a) .j5gR; (b) sin-1(1/3) 28. 411'r3/2/ VG(4M + m)
13.,j9!iTfi 29. (a) 7.54km/sj (b) 97.3minj (c) 405km,
14. (a) 2.7Rj (b) (50/7)mg 7.~, 92.3minj (d) 3.18mNj
31. VGM/ L
15. v'2gr sec ()o
32. 0.300 y
16. (c) -1.2 x 10-19 J; (d) 2.2 x 10-19 J;
(e) ~ 1 x 10-9, toward M
18. (a) -Uo(ror-2 +r-1)e-r/ro; Chapter 15
(b) 0.14; 0.0078, 6.8 x 10-6
1. (b) 26.6kN (= 60001b)
2. 130km
3. (a) pgWD2/2; (b) pgWD3/6; (c) D/3, up
Chapter 13
from the base
2. in the center of the flat part 4. 2.0
3. (a) 3.02m/s; (b) 1.60km/s 5. 43.5 km
4. 0.651mis 6.0.019
7. (b) a
9. (b) p = pgh

10. p = (4/3)7rGp2(R2 -r2) r~lI;$d;:: 23. (b) (l/27r).;GMR'; (c) lO-16Hz
13. 56.1 cm 25. 490N/cm, llOOkg/s
14. (a) 1.79kg; (b) 1.96kg
15. 0.190
16. (a) 1.82m3; (b) 4.61m3 Chapter 18
17. 2.79g/cm3
1 (a) 10.9cm; (b) 199°
18. (a) 7.8 x 1018atoms/m2; (b) 7.0 x 10-5 eV
2. y = (1.12 cm) sin[(10.6rad/m)x+
20. 90Pa
21. 3.71mm (3440 rad/s)t]
3. (b) 304m/s
22. (a) 3.25Pa; (b) 1.79Pa; (c) 68.9Jj
4. (a) 0.649Hz; (b) 1.27m;
(d) 7.65 x 10-4 J
(c) y = (5.12 cm) sin[(4.95 rad/m)x-
(4.08rad/s)t + 0.685rad]j
(d) 0.263 N
Chapter 16
6. 27rym/ ).
1. 3.4 m/s 7. Vk(~L)(L + ~L)/m
2. (a) 2; (b) 2; (c) h/4, below 10. Vo
3. (b) H- h; (c) H/2, H 11. 8.5%
4. (a) V2g(h2 + d)j (b) Patm -pg(h2+d+h1); 12. (a) 4.22m/s; (b) 13.8Nj (c) zeroj
(C) 10.3m (d) 58.3W; (e) zero; (f) zero; (g) 5.60mm
5. (c) (1/2)p(Vl -V2)2 14. ).=2 [V4(H+h)2+d2-~]
6. 5min 42s
7. 410m/s, Vsound= 340m/s 15. 1.18m/s
9. (a) Vl = 4.46m/s; V2 = 21.2m/s; 18. (a) 2.2j (b) 14%
21. 36.8N
(b) 9.47 X 10-3 m3/s
22. (a) 323Hz; (b) six
12. 320kPa
16. 3630 s
Chapter 19
Chapter 17 1. (a) L(V -v)/VVj (b) 43.5m

2. 40.7m
1. 708N/m
3. (a) 44.2JLW /m2j (b) 164nmj (c) 0.894Pa
2. (b) 12.47kgj (c) 54.43kg
4. (a) 59.8j (b) 2.80 x 10-4
3. 0.119m
5. (a) proportional to l/rj (b) proportional to
4 .( c) 27r.¡;i;¡j3Tii4
7. (a) 7.20N/cmj (b) 4.43kg l/JT
6. (a) 5.20kHzj (b) B/A = 1/2
11. mv/Vk(m+M) 7. (a) 66.8JLW /m2j (b) 5.02 nWj (c) 7.53JLJ
13. (a) 5.560Jj (b) 2.80J
8. 3.8s
15. 0.906 s 9. 346m
16. (a) 0.219kg.m2j (b) 49.6 cmj (c) 1.53 s 10. (c) 22 s
12. 72.7Hz
( )2 I L2 + 12d2
17. a 7rV 13. 45.4 N
, 12gd 14. (a) 10j (b) 4
18. (r/ R)Jk?m 15. 2.65 x 108 m/s
19. (b) R 16. (a) 81.4Hzj (b) 80.6Hz
21. (a) 2.00 si (b) 18.5N.m/rad 17. 7.16km
.1/2 19. (a) 1050Hzj (b) 1070Hz
22.~ ( ¡;-- ~g2 +v4/R2
) 20. 997Hz
21. (a) 2000Hzj (b) 2000Hz
~
22. (a) 641Hz; (b) 647Hz; (c) 636Hz Chapter 22
1. 0.76
3. 1/5
Chapter 20 4. 6.4 cm
5. (a) 1.67j (b) 49.5 x 10-6 cmj
1. (a) 2.60 x 108 m/s; (b) two
(c) 7.87 x 10-6 cm
2. (a) 0.844c, classical: 1.09c; (b) 0.212c, clas-
6. c=l/)., A=N/).
sical: 0.150c
7. 4.71
3. ( a) 25.8 J.LS;(b) red fiash (Doppler shifted)
9. (a) 3N/v3j (b) 0.750voj (c) 0.775vo
4. t~ = 0, t~ = -2.5J.Ls
10. (a) 2N/3voj (b) N/3j (c) 1.22voj (d) 1.31vo
6. (a) 0.859c, along the x axis; (b) 0.794c, 12. 9500km/s
17.6° forward from the y axis; ( c) 0.794c, 13. (a) (Na + Nb)kT/Vj (b) 1/2
17.6° backward from the y' axis 14. B1 = b- a/ RT , Bj = bi for j > 1
7. seven 15. 89° C
8. (a) 0.491c, in the negative x direction; 16. (a) 35 cm/Sj (b) 4.4 x 106 rev /s
(b) red fiash, 4.32 J.LS 17. (a) V/n = (a :l: va2 -4abRT) /2RTj
9. 2.43 J.LS (c) 131K
10. (b) 0.99999915c
11. (a) 4.00J.Ls;(b) 2.50J.Ls
13. (b) K = p2/2m; (c) 206me Chapter 23
14. 110km
1. (a) 24kW; (b) 24 W
15. (a) cv'('Y -1)/('Y + 1); (b) m~ 2. (a) 17.4W; (b) 188g/h
17. (b) 202 GeV; (c) 49.1 GeV 4. (a) 28 TW; (b) 70000° C
18. (b) 13.8 GeV; (c) 5330 GeV 6. 0.40 cm/h
19. 1 + ..¡2'Yi + 1, where 'Yi = (1- v; /C2)-1/2 7. (a) 5.26° C, no ice left; (b) 00 C, 62.0g of
ice left
8. 2400J/kg .K
9. (a) 6.75 x 10-20 J; (b) 10.7
Chapter 21 10. 45.4° C
11. 1.2 kJ
2. 53min
12. 1.89 kJ
4. 198K or 348K
13. 265K
6. 0.23 Co/s
14. -nRTln
Vf -nb
-an
(
2 1
---
1)
7. (b) steel: 71 cm, brass: 41 cm Vi-nb Vi Vf
8. 7.52cm 15.2.95cm;(b)2.11cm
9. 998.4kg/m3 17. diatomic
11. 66.4° C 18. 40.6 kJ
12. 27.4cm 19. AB: 3740J, 3740J, 0;
13. 0.27 mm BC: 0, -181pB = 2.00atm,
14. (b) 0.7 VB = 0.0246m3, Po = 1.00atm, Va =
15. (a) 2.25ftj (b) 3.99ft 0.0373 m3
16. 5.59 m3 20. (a) 360ug/s; (b) 814mW; (c) -694mW
17. 1.74atm 21. 12.0kW
18. 2.0 x 105 Pa
20. 8.99 cm
21. 152 kPa
22. 8.3 L

1. 44mJ/K 1. (b) parallel to p

3. ( a) -3po Vo; (b) 6poVo, (3R/2) ln 2j (c) both 3. (a) qZ/47rEO(R2+ Z2)3/2j
are zero (b) (ql -q2)R/27r2EO(R2 + Z2)3/2
4. (a) pl/3, 0.215pl, 0.644T1j 4. 26
(b) 1 --+ 2: -1.10RT1, 1.10RT1,O, 1.10Rj 5. +qat z = +2a andz = -2a, -4q at z +a
2 --+ 3: 0, -0.889RT1, -0.889RT1, and z = -a, +6q at z = O
6.35
-1.10Rj
3 --+ 1: 0.889RT1, 0, 0.990RT1, 0 8. q/87rEORo
5. (a) path I: QT =PoVoln2, 10. 27.3 J.Lm
Qv = (9/2)po Voj 11. the upper plate, 4.06 cm
pathII: QT = -poVoln2, Qp = (15/2)poVoj 13. 2pEcos()o
(b) path I: WT = -poVoln2, Wv = 0; 14. (27r)-1 (pE / I)1/2
path II: WT = poVoln2, Wp = 3poVoj 15. (a) 8q/7rEOa3
(c) (9/2)poVo for each processj
(d) 4Rln2 for each process
Chapter 27
6. 0.95J/K
7. (a) T2 = mlClT1i + ~~~c2~T2i-mlClT1 ; 2. (a) 22.3N .m2/C; (b) 197pC
-m2c2 3. 5.11nC/m2
(b) ~S
mlclln 'Ti 4. (a) qr/47rEOa3; (b) q/47rEOr2; (C) zero;
Tli (d) zero; (e) inner: -q, outer: zero
mlclTli + m2C2T2i -mlclTl 5. (a) q/27rEOLr, radially inward;
+m2c2ln 'T' ~!II:
m2C2.L 2i : ':" (b) -q on both inner and outer surfaces;
8. (a) 1.86MJ; (b) 725kJ; (c) 1.13MJ; ,
(c) q/27rEOLr, radially outward
(d) 60.9% 6. 0"/EO(Z2+ R2)1/2
9. (a) 7200J; (b) 960J; (c) 13% 7. (a) )../27rEOr;(b) zero
10. (a) Tb = 3Ta, Tc = 1.27Ta, Td = 0.547Ta, 9. 270eV
Pb = 3pa, Pc = 0.431pa, Pd = 0.144pa; 10. 3.6 nC
(b) 42.6% 11. (a) q/47rEOr2; (b) q/47rEOr2; (C) only within
11. ( c) 1.15 kJ the shell itself; ( d) yes, charges are induced
on the surfaces; (e) yes; ( f) no; (g) no
12. 1.86 x 10-9 kg
13. q/27ra2
Chapter 25 16. (a) pX/EO; (b) pd/2EO
1. 1.00 JLC and 3.00 JLC, but of opposite sign 18. (a) -3.0J.tC; (b) 13J.tC
2. (a) Q = -2J2q; (b) no 19. (a) -Q; (b) -Q; (c) -(Q + q); (d) yes
3. (a) a cha;rge -4q/9 must be located on the
line segment joining the two positive
charges, a distance L/3 from the +q charge Chapter 28
4. (b) 22.8nC 1. (a) 256 kV; (b) 0.745c
5. (b) 2.96cm 3. (qQ/87rto)(1/rl -1/r2)
6. 1.65mm/s 4. (a) -qr2/87rtoR3; (b) q/87rtoR
7. q=Q/2 5. 2.17d
9. (7r3mEOd3/2qQ)1/2 6. (a) qQ/47rtoK; (b) .¡K¡¡;¡;
10. (a) zero; (b) 1.92nN 7. (a) 562 J.l;m;(b) 813V
11. a/J2 8. (a) qoO"z/2to
9. (a) -5.40nm; (b) 9.00nm; (c) no

12. (a) ()./47rEO)ln(l + L/y); 17. 1.63kV
(b) ).L/47rEOy(L + y); (c) zero 20. (EoA/4d) [l'-el + 2I'-e2I'-e3/(l'-e2
+ l'-e3)]
13. (a) (k/47rEO) [(L2 + y2)1/2 -Y] ; 21. (a) 2~V; (b) Ui = EoA(~V)2/2d, Uf =
(b) (k/47rEO) [1- y/(L2 + y2)1/2] ; EoA(~V)2/d; (c) EoA(~V)2/2d
(C) 0.75L 22. (a) 0.606; (b) 0.394
14. :f:25.4 nC 23. (a) 85.6pF; (b) 119pF; (c) 10.3nC;
15. 2.0 x 10-8 (d) 9.86kV /m; (e) 2.05kV /m; (f) 86.6V;
16. 40.6 s (g) 170nJ
17. (a) zero; (b) zero; (c) zero; (d) zero; (e) no
18. (a) r > 9.15cm; (b) 2.93kW;
( c) 20.0 JlC /m2 Chapter 31
1. the cable
2. (a) rl -r2j (b) rl
Chapter 29 3. (a) 1.5knj (b) 400mVj (c) 0.26%
1. 7.1 ms 4. (a) 12.5Vj (b) 50.0A
2. 100 kA/m2 5. (a) PA = 16.3nn .m, rhoB = 7.48nn .m:
3. (a) 380J1,V; (b) negative; (c) 4.3min (b) jA = jB = 62.3kA/cm2; (c) EA =
4. (a) 2.27 x 1012; (b) 4280; (c) 11.2 MV 10.2V/m, EB = 4.66V/m;
5. (a) 95.0J1,C; (b) 158 Co (d) ~VA = 435V, ~VB = 195V
6. (a) joA/3; (b) 2joA/3 6. R
7. (a) 150° C 7. (a) 3R/4j (b) 5R/6
8. 1650° C 8. (a) i=50mA, i2 = 60mAj (b) ~ -Va =
9. 54n -9.0V
10. (a) 38.3mA; (b) 109A/m2; (c) 1.28cm/s; 9. (a) in parallelj (b) 72.0n, 144n
(d) 227V /m 10. (a) 13.5kn; (b) 1.50knj (c) 167nj
11. (a) silver; (b) 60.8nn (d) 1.48 kn
12. (a) 4.3 x 10-3, 1.7 x 10-5,3.4 x 10-5 11. 0.45A
13.0.036 14. 3.0MJ/kg
14. (a) pL/7rab 15. 27.4cm/s
16. (a) 240JLC; (b) 64JLAj (c) 480JLW
17. (a) 1.37L; (b) 0.730A
19. RCln2
Chapter 32
1. (0.75 T)k
2. (-11.4V/m)i+ (-6.00V/m)j
+(4.80V /m) k
3. (a) to the eastj (b) 6.27 x 1014m/s2;
7. (a) 50Vj (b) zero (c) 2.98mm
9. (a) ql = 9.0JLC, q2 = 16JLC,q3 = 9.0JLC, 4. (b) out of the page
q4 = 16JLCj(b) ql = 8.40JLC,~ = 16.8JLC, 7. (a) BLlx(qm/2LlV)1/2j (b) 7.91mm
q3 = 10.8JLC,q4 = 14.4JLC 8. (a) 523mT; (b) 20.2mAj (c) 7.65MJ
10. 4.0 JLF 9. (a) -q; (b) 7rm/qB
11. (a) 2.0J 11. (a) 78.6ns; (b) 9.16cmj (c) 3.20cm
12. 0.756n 15. 4.2 C
13. (a) e2/321r2EOr4j 18. 27raiB sin(},normal to the plane ofthe ring,
(b) e2/81rEORj(c) 1.40fm up

19. 1.63A Chapter 37
1. (a) 6.73m/sj (b) 11.2msj (c) inductorj
(d) 144mH
Chapter 33
2. (a) 6.73msj (b) 2.24msj (c) capacitorj
1. 8NJLoi!5yf5R ( d) 56.6 JLF
4. {b) 2vf'iJLoi/7ra 3. (a) 45°j (b) 76.0n
5. {c) {1/2)nia2sin{27r/n) 4. 166 n, 315 mH, 14.8 JLF
7. {a) 2JLoi/37rL){2vf'i + VW); {b) greater 6. (a) 0.74j (b) jleadsj (c) capacitivej (d) noj
9. 0.272A (e) yes, no, yesj (f) 33W
10. 46.0JLT .m 7. (a) 229.0rad/sj (b) 6.11 Aj
13. JLoir2/27ra3 (c) 233.5, 224.5rad/sj (d) 0.039
9. (a) 41.2Wj (b) -16.9Wj (c) 43.7Wj
(d) 14.3W
Chapter 34 11. (a) 76.4mHj (b) 17.8n
2. 49mV
3. (a) 28.2.uV; (b) from c to b Chapter 38
4. N=l
5. 80.uV, clockwise 2. (a) 5.47mA
6. (a) .uo7riiR2r2/2x3; (b) 3.uo7rivR2r2/2x4; 3. (a) 7.63p,Aj (b) 862kV .m/sj (c) 3.48mmj
( c) in the same direction as the current in ( d) 5.07 pT
the large loop 4. (a) at2/2j (b) at2/27rEOR2j
7. 0.455V (d) p,oart/27rR2j (e) same as (d)
8. (b) iBR2/2 5. (a) ::I:Eba2/ P'o for faces parallel to the xy
10. (a) (3.4mn))(2 + (}), with (} in radians; plane, zero through each of the other four
(b) (4.32mWb)(}; (c) 2.0rad; (d) 2.2A facesj (b) zero
11. (Bar)2i.A)ut 6. (a) 200 x 1012V.m.sj (b) 13p,T
15. (a) 34 V /m; (b) 6.0 x 1012m/s2 8. 43.4mW /m2
9. (a) l.I)/k = c, Em = cBmj
(b) S = (E~/4p,oc) sin(2I.1)t)sin(2kx)
10. (a) 83.3mV /mj (b) 4.03mTj (c) 267W /m2
Chapter 35
11. (a) E = (t:/r) ln(b/a), B = p,ot:/27rRrj
3. (b) Kí/ E, opposite to the field; (b) S = (t:2/27rRr2) ln(b/a)
(b) 312 A/m 13. (a) 94.3 MHzj (b) +z, 960nTj (c) 1.98m-l,
8. (a) 630MA; (b) yes; (c) no 593Mrad/sj (d) 110W /m2j
(e) 678nN, 367nPa
15. (a) 3.60GW /m2j (b) 12.0Paj (c) 16.7pNj
Chapter 36 ( d) 2.78 km/S2
16. 1.06km2
2. (a) JLoi/W; (b) JLO7rR2/W
4. (a) 15.0JLWb; (b) 0.160; (c) zero
6. (a) t = 1.5s
Chapter 39
8. (a) 78kJ; (b) 3.7kg
9. (a) JLOi2N2 /87r2r2; 2. 2.5 x 108 mis
(b) (JLoN2hi2/47r) ln(b/a) 3.22°
12. i.l.)o 5. (b) 0.60mm
13. (a) zero; (b) 2i 6. (b) 0.020°
14. (b) 2.1 x 10-3 7. 750 m
8. 1,24 < n < 1.37

9. (a) nliquid < nglass Chapter 43
10. (a) (1 + sin2 ()1)1/2; (b) V2
3. (b) half-way between principal maxima;
11. (b) 0.170
12. (b) 23.2° (c) Im/9
4. narrower by a factor of 0.80
13. (b) 60.2Jls
7. (a) ao/V2, ao/V5, ao/yf[{), ao/JI3,
14. (a) 1.42 GHz; (b) 2.01 GHz
ao/ ..jI7
15. 59.4m/s
Chapter 44
Chapter 40
1. (a) 0.16; (b) 0.84
1. Inew = (10/9)Iold
2. 2/3 polarized, 1/3 unpolarized
2. (b) 0.062 cm/s; (c) 70m/s; (d) 5.2 cm/s
3. (1/2) [cos2«(}/N)]N 4 0.5 as N 4 00
4. (1/2)R(2 -n)/(n -1)
4. (b) 49
9. (b) separate the lenses by f2 -lfll;
5. (a) polarizing sheet; (b) 45°
( c) (fl/ f2)2 6. (a) 0.495mm; (b) x is the e-ray, y is the 0-
10. 21.9 cm ...
ray; ( c) E in ray y lies in the plane of the
12. (a) coincides with the position ofthe object, ...
real, inverted, m = -1.0 figure, E in ray x lies at a right angle to
the plane of the figure; (d) every 90° one or
13. (a) 5.3cm; (b) 3.0mm
the other beam, alternately, will be extin-
15. 25 ms
16. (b) 8.47mm; (c) 2.5 cm g1lÍshed
Chapter 45
Chapter 41
1. 1.44W
1. (a) 0.253mmj (b) maxima replace minima
2. (a) 2980°C; (b) 20.2ms
and minima replace maxima
3. 1300K
2. 6640 nm
5. (b) 6°C
4. 8.0 ¡.tm
7. (a) 2.97x1020s-1; (b) 48000kmj (c) 281m;
6. I = (Im/9) [1 + 8cos2(1rdsinO/.>.)], Im =
(d) 5.91 x 1018(m2 .S)-l, 1.97 x 1010m-3
intensity of central maximum
9. (a) 3.10keV; (b) 14.4keV
7. 643nm
11. (b) 1.12 keV
8. (a) 169nmj (b) blue-violet
9. 2.4 ¡.tm
10. (a) 1800nmj (b) 8
12. I = Im cos2(21rx/ .>.) Chapter 46
3. 5.07eV
4. (a) -21%; (b) -7.2%; (c) 18%
Chapter 42
1. 24.4mm
Chapter 47
3. (b) 0,4.493, 7.725rad, etc.; (c) -0.50,0.93,
1.96, etc. 1. 18.1, 36.2,54.3, 66.3, 72.4J.LeV
4. 6.8 x 10-12 2. (b) 0.196; (c) 0.402; (d) 0.333; (e) 0.333
5. (b) 70JLm; (c) three times the lunar diame- 3. (b) 0.0006j (c) 0.0003
ter 4. (b) (2miAJ/h)1/4j (C) X = 0
7. (a) 5.0JLm; (b) 20JLm 5. (1/2)miAJ2X2
7. (a) 0.284pm; (b) 2.53keV; (c) 0.490nm

8. (a) Apos = 2AH for corresponding transi- 11. (b) 960.2keV
tions; (b) 52.92pm 13. 730 cm2
10. 1.2 x 10-14 14. (a) 6.3 x 1018; (b) 2.5 x 1011; (c) 200mJ;
11. 1.5 x 10-15 (d) 230mrad
12.0.323 15. (b) 27TW
13. 0.439 16. (c) 3.9 x 107m/s, 8.5 x 105m/s, 15.6MeV
14. 1.34ao 18. (a) 3.80MeV, 8.01MeV; (b) 3.94MeV,
15. 0.0527 7.37MeV
1. (a) 5.72keV; (b) 86.8pm; 14.3keV, 217pm, 1. (a) 253 MeV

5.72keV 2. (a) +26%j (b) zeroj (c) -36%
3. (a) 44kiloton
2.2.71x108m/s
4. (a) k = 27/32 4. (b) 1.0, 0.89, 0.28, 0.019j (c) 8
5. (a) 2.1meV; (b) 2.2nm 5. 1.4MeV
7. (b) -83.3eV; (c) 28.geV 7. (b) 2.28 x 1042 Jj (C) 185 My
8. 10000K 8. (a) 1.83 x 1038 S-lj (b) 8.25 x 1028 S-l
9. 4.74km 9. (a) B: 5.19NMeVj (b) A: (1/2)N3H, nj
10. (a) 3.03x105j (b) 1430MHz; (c) 3.30x10-6 B: (1/3)N1H. 4He, n
10. (a) 230 Jj (b) 50mgj (c) 23kW
Chapter 49
Chapter 52
1. 3
3. (a) 20kJ; (b) 200s 1. 31 cm
5. (a) pure: 2.8x10-1O, doped: 0.034j (b) 0.93 2. (a) 1.90 x 10-18 kg .m/s; (b) 9.9m
6. (a) Ü.74eV above it; (b) 5.6 x 10-7 3. (b) 2.39 GK
4. (b) 0.934; (c) 4200 Mpc
7. (b) 4.9 x 108
5. (a) 280p,eV; (b) 4.4mm
8. 4.20eV
6. (b) 5.1m-3
7. (b) 27rr3/2(GM)-1/2
Chapter 50
1. (a) 0.390MeV; (b) 4.61 MeV

2. 1.0087u
3. (a) 4; (b) 148neV; (c) 8.38m; (d) radio re-
gion
4. (b) 1150MeV; (c) 12.2 MeV /proton
6. (a) 8.88 x 1010s-l; .
(b) (8.88x 1010s-l )(1-e-0.269t), t in hours;
(c) 1.19 x 1015
7. (a) 3.65 x 107s-1; (b) 3.65 x 107s-1;
( c) 6.41 ng
8. 6200 y
9. 4.268 Me V
10. (a) 4.275MeV; (b) -6.153MeV,
-7.443MeV, -4.848M~V, -5.578MeV;
(c) 28.30MeV

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INSTRUCTOR'S MANUAL t.

Volumes One and Two

Oregon State University

With the assistance of

JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

Copyright @ 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Excerpts from this work may be reproduced by instructors

Printed in the United States of America.

Printed and bound by Victor Graphics, Inc.

10 Lecture notes: Chapter 1

Lecture notes: Chapter 1 11

Chapter 2 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION

12 Lecture notes: Chapter 2

sum. See the diagram to the right. Show how to -+ I

versetangent and show how to determine the correct

Lecture notes: Chapter 2 13

14 Lecture notes: Chapter 2

Lecture notes: Chapter 2 15

16 Lecture notes: Chapter 2

Chapter 3 FORCE AND NEWTON'S LAWS

Lecture notes: Chapter 3 17

18 Lecture notes: Chapter 3

Lecture notes: Chapter 3 19

20 Lecture notes: Chavter 3

Lecture notes: Chapter 4 21

22 Lecture notes: Chapter 4

Lecture notes: Chapter 4 23

Chapter 5 APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S LAWS

24 Lecture notes: Chapter 5

Lecture notes: Chapter 5 25

26 Lecture notes: Chapter 5

Lecture notes: Chapter 5 27

28 Lecture notes: Cbapter 6

Lecture notes: Chapter 6 29

30 Lecture notes: Chapter 6

Lecture notes: Chapter 6 31

Chapter 7 SYSTEMS OF PARTICLES

32 Lecture notes: Chapter 7

Lecture notes: Chapter 7 33

Chapter 8 ROTATION AL KINEMATICS

34 Lecture notes: Chapter 8

Lecture notes: Chapter 8 35

Chapter 9 ROTATION AL DYN AMICS

36 Lecture notes: Chapter 9

Lecture notes: Chapter 9 37

38 Lecture notes: Chapter 9

Lecture notes: Cbapter 9 39

Chapter lO ANGULAR MOMENTUM

40 Lecture notes: Chapter 10

Lecture notes: Cha.pter 10 41

42 Lecture notes: Chapter 10

Lecture notes: Cbapter 11 43

44 Lecture notes: Chapter 11

Lecture notes: Chapter 11 45

Chapter 12 ENERGY 2: POTENTIAL ENERGY

46 Lecture notes: Chapter 12

Lecture notes: Chapter 12 47

48 Lecture notes: Chapter 12

Chapter 13 ENERGY 3: CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Lecture notes: Chapter 13 49

50 Lecture notes: Chavter 13

Lecture notes: Chapter 13 51

52 Lect'ure notes: Chapter 13