External Forced Convection

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 Drag and Heat Transfer in External
flow
• Fluid flow over solid bodies is responsible for numerous
physical phenomena such as
– dragg fforce
• automobiles
• power lines
– lift force
f
• airplane wings
– cooling of metal or plastic sheets.
sheets
• Free-stream velocity ─ the velocity of the fluid relative to
an immersed solid body sufficiently far from the body.
• The fluid velocity ranges from zero at the surface (the no-
slip condition) to the free
free-stream
stream value away from the
surface.
 Friction and Pressure Drag
• The force a flowingg fluid exerts on a bodyy in the flow
direction is called drag.
• Dragg is compose of:
– pressure drag,
– friction drag (skin friction drag).
• The drag force FD depends on the
– density ρ of the fluid,
– the upstream velocity V, and
– the size, shape, and orientation of the body.
• The dimensionless drag coefficient CD is defined as
FD
CD = (7-1)
1 2 ρV 2 A
• At low Reynolds numbers, most drag is due to friction
drag.
• The friction drag is also proportional to the surface area.
• The pressure drag is proportional to the frontal area and to
the difference between the pressures acting on the front
and back of the immersed body.
• The pressure drag is usually dominant for blunt bodies
and negligible for streamlined bodies.
• When a flfluid
id separates from a body,
bod
it forms a separated region between
the body and the fluid stream.
g the separated
• The larger p region,
g , the
larger the pressure drag.
 Heat Transfer
• The phenomena that affect drag force also affect heat
transfer.
• The local drag and convection coefficients vary along
the surface as a result of the changes in the velocity
boundary layers in the flow direction.
• The average friction and convection coefficients for
the entire surface can be determined by
L
1
CD = ∫ CD , x dx (7-7)
L0
L
1
h = ∫ hx dx (7-8)
(7 8)
L0
 Parallel
e Flow
ow Ove
Over Flat Plates
es
• Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate of
length L in the flow direction
direction.
• The Reynolds number at a distance
x from the leading edge of a flat
plate is expressed as
Re x = ρVx = Vx (7-10)
μ ν
• In engineering analysis,
analysis a generally accepted value for
the critical Reynolds number is
R cr =
Re
ρVxcr = 5 ×105 (7 11)
(7-11)
μ
• The actual value of the engineering critical Reynolds
number
b may vary somewhat h from
f 105 to 3X106.
 Local Friction Coefficient
• The boundary layer thickness and the local friction
coefficient at location x over a flat plate
p
4.91x ⎫
δ v, x =
Re1/x 2 ⎪⎪
– Laminar:
L i ⎬ Re x < 5 ×10
5
(7-12a b)
(7-12a,b)
0.664
C f , x = 1/ 2 ⎪
Re x ⎪⎭
0.38 x ⎫
δ v , x = 1/ 5 ⎪
– Turbulent: Re x ⎪
⎬ 5 × 10 5
≤ R
Re x ≤ 10 7

0.059 ⎪ (7-13a,b)
C f ,x =
Re1/x 5 ⎪⎭
 Average Friction Coefficient
• The average friction coefficient

1.33
– Laminar: C f = 1/ 2 Re L < 5 ×105 (7-14)
Re L
0.074 (7-15)
– Turbulent: Cf = 5 × 105 ≤ Re L ≤ 107
Re1/L 5

• When laminar and turbulent flows are significant

1 ⎛ xcr L ⎞
C f = ⎜ ∫ C f , x laminar dx + ∫ C f , x turbulent dx ⎟ (7-16)
L ⎝⎜ 0 xcr
⎟
⎠
Recr = 5 ×105
0.074
0 074 1742 (7-17)
Cf = 1/ 5
- 5 ×105 ≤ Re L ≤ 107
Re L Re L
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• The local Nusselt number at location x over a flat plate

– Laminar: Nu x = 0.332 Re1/ 2 Pr1/ 3 Pr > 0.6 (7-19)

0 6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60
0.6
– Turbulent: Nu x = 0.0296 Re Pr
0.8 1/ 3 (7-20)
x
5 ×10 ≤ Re x ≤ 10
5 7

• hx is infinite at the leading edge

(x=0)
(x 0) and decreases by a factor
of x0.5 in the flow direction.
 Average Nusset Number
• The average Nusselt number

– Laminar: Nu = 0.664 Re0.5

L Pr 1/ 3
Re < 5 ×105 (7-21)

0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60
– Turbulent: Nu = 0.037 Re Pr 0.8 1/ 3 (7-22)
L
5 ×10 ≤ Re x ≤ 10
5 7

• When laminar and turbulent flows are significant

1 ⎛ xcr L ⎞ (7-23)
h = ⎜ ∫ hx , laminar dx + ∫ hx , turbulent dx ⎟
L ⎝⎜ 0 xcr
⎟
⎠
Recr = 5 ×105

(
Nu = 0.037 Re0.8
L − 871 Pr13
) (7-24)
 Uniform Heat Flux
• When a flat plate is subjected to uniform heat flux
instead of uniform temperature, the local Nusselt
number is given by
– Laminar: Nu x = 0.453Re0.5
L Pr1/ 3 (7-31)

0.6 ≤ Pr ≤ 60
– Turbulent: Nu x = 0.0308 Re Pr
0.8 1/ 3 (7-32)
x
5 ×10 ≤ Re x ≤ 10
5 7

• These relations ggive values that are 36 ppercent higher

g
for laminar flow and 4 percent higher for turbulent
flow relative to the isothermal pplate case.
Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres
• Flow across cylinders and spheres is frequently
encountered
d in
i many heat
h transfer
f systems
– shell-and-tube heat exchanger,
– Pin
Pi fin
fi heat
h sinks
i k for
f electronic
l i cooling.
li
• The characteristic length for a circular cylinder or
sphere
h isi taken
t k tot be
b the
th external
t l diameter
di t D.
D
• The critical Reynolds number for flow across a circular
cylinder
li d or sphere
h is i about
b t
Recr=2X105.
• Cross-flow over a
cylinder exhibits complex
flow patterns depending on the Reynolds number.
• At very low upstream velocities (Re≤1), the fluid
completely wraps around the cylinder.
cylinder
• At higher velocities the boundary layer detaches from
the surface, forming a separation region behind the
cylinder.
• Flow in the wake region is characterized by periodic
vortex formation and low pressures.
• The nature of the flow across a cylinder or sphere
strongly
t l affects
ff t the
th total
t t l drag
d coefficient
ffi i t CD.
• At low Reynolds numbers (Re<10) ─ friction drag
dominate.
dominate
• At high Reynolds numbers (Re>5000) ─ pressure
dragg dominate.
• At intermediate Reynolds numbers ─ both pressure
and friction drag are significant.
 Average CD for circular cylinder and
sphere
• Re≤1 ─ creeping flow • 103<Re<105
p
• Re≈10 ─ separation starts – in the boundary
layer flow
• Re≈90 ─ vortex shedding
is laminar
starts.
– in the separated
region flow is
highly turbulent
• 105<Re<106 ─
t b l t flow
turbulent fl
 Effect of Surface Roughness
• Surface roughness, in general, increases the drag coefficient in
turbulent flow.
• This is especially the case for streamlined bodies.
• For blunt bodies such as a circular cylinder or sphere, however,
an increase in the surface roughness may actually decrease the
d
drag coefficient.
ffi i
• This is done by tripping the
b
boundary
d layer
l into
i
turbulence at a lower Reynolds
number, causing the fluid to close
in behind the body, narrowing the
wake and reducing pressure drag considerably.
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Flows across cylinders and spheres, in general, involve flow
separation, which is difficult to handle analytically.
• The local Nusselt number Nuθ around the periphery of a cylinder
subjected to cross flow varies considerably.
Small θ ─ Nuθ decreases with increasing θ as a
result of the thickening of the laminar boundary
layer.
80º<θ <90º ─ NuN θ reaches
h a minimum
i i
– low Reynolds numbers ─ due to separation in laminar flow
– high Reynolds numbers ─ transition to turbulent flow.
θ >90º laminar flow ─ Nuθ increases with increasing
θ due to intense mixing in the separation zone.
90º<θ <140º tturbulent
b l t fl
flow ─ Nu
N θ decreases
d d tto
due
the thickening of the boundary layer.
θ ≈140º
140 turbulent flow ─ Nuθ reaches a second minimum due to
flow separation point in turbulent flow.
 Average
g Heat Transfer Coefficient
• For flow over a cylinder (Churchill and Bernstein):
45
hD 0.62 Re Pr12 1/ 3 ⎡ ⎛ Re ⎞ 58
⎤
Nucyl = = 0.3 + ⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ ((7-35))
k 2/3 1 4 282, 000
⎡1 + ( 0.4 Pr ) ⎤ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
Re Pr 0.2
Re·Pr>0.2
• The fluid properties are evaluated at the film temperature
[Tf=0.5(T
=0 5(T∞+Ts)].
)]
• Flow over a sphere (Whitaker):
14
hD 0.4 ⎛ μ ∞ ⎞
Nusph = = 2 + ⎡⎣0.4 Re + 0.06 Re ⎤⎦ Pr ⎜
12 23
⎟ (7-36)
k μ
⎝ s⎠

• The two correlations are accurate within ±30%.

• A more compact correlation
for flow across cylinders
hD
Nucyl = = C Re m Pr n (7-37)
k
where n=1/3 and the
experimentally
determined constants C and
m are given in Table 7-1.
• Eq.
Eq 7–35
7 35 is more accurate
accurate,
and thus should be preferred
i calculations
in l l ti whenever
h
possible.
 Flow Across Tube Bank
• Cross-flow over tube banks is commonly encountered
in practice in heat transfer equipment such heat
exchangers.
• In such equipment, one fluid
moves through the tubes while
the other moves over the tubes
in a perpendicular direction.
• Flow
Fl through
th h the
th tubes
t b can beb analyzed
l d by b considering
id i
flow through a single tube, and multiplying the results
by the number of tubes.
tubes
• For flow over the tubes the tubes affect the flow pattern
and turbulence level downstream,
downstream and thus heat transfer
to or from them are altered.
• Typical arrangement
– in-line
in line
– staggered
• The outer tube diameter D is the characteristic length.
length
• The arrangement of the tubes are characterized by the
– transverse pitch ST,
– longitudinal pitch SL , and the
– diagonal pitch SD between tube centers.
centers

In-line Staggered
• As the fluid enters the tube bank, the flow area
decreases from A1=STL to AT (ST-D)L between the
tubes, and thus flow velocityy increases.
• In tube banks, the flow characteristics are dominated
by the maximum velocity Vmax.
• The Reynolds number is defined on the basis of
maximum velocity as
ρVmax D Vmax D
Re D = = (7-39)
(7 39)
μ ν
• For in-line arrangement, the maximum velocity
occurs at the minimum flow area between the tubes
ST
Vmax = V (7-40)
ST − D
• In staggered arrangement,
ST
Vmax = V (7-40)
– for SD>(ST+D)/2 : ST − D

– for SD<(ST+D)/2 : ST
Vmax = V (7-41)
2 ( SD − D )
• The nature of flow around a tube in the first row
resembles flow over a single
g tube.
• The nature of flow around a tube in the second and
subsequent rows is very different.
• The level of turbulence, and thus the heat transfer
coefficient, increases with row number.
• there
h is i no significant
i ifi change
h in
i turbulence
b l level
l l after
f
the first few rows, and thus the heat transfer
coefficient remains constant.
constant
• Zukauskas has proposed correlations whose general
form is
hD
= C Re D Pr ( Pr Prs )
0 25
0.25
NuD = m n
(7-42)
k
• where the values of the constants C,, m,, and n depend
p
on Reynolds number.
g Nusselt number relations in Table 7–2 are
• The average
for tube banks with 16 or more rows.
• Those relations can also be used for tube banks with NL
provided that they
are modified as

NuD , N L = F ⋅ NuD (7-43)

• The correction factor F

values are given in
Table 7–3.
 Pressure drop
• the pressure drop over tube banks is expressed as:
ρVmax
2
ΔP = N L f χ (7-48)
2
• f is the friction factor and χ is the correction factor.
• The correction factor (χ) given in the insert is used to
account for the effects of deviation from square
arrangement (in-line) and from equilateral
arrangement (staggered).