CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter will present the relevant theories and the review of related literature and

studies of local and foreign which will support this research.

A. Relevant Theories

John Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment Relationship as cited by McLeod (2017) explains

the relationship between parents and their children. He believed the children have different kinds

of behaviors to drag their parents near. These kinds of behavior include laughing, gurgling and

crying, these attachments can be repeated over a period of time through the tasks given by the

parents to their caregivers involved. He also believed that the mother and child’s bonding is

important. He believed that it is necessary for babies to bond with their parents especially with

their mothers during the development process, but if a mother and her child are separated during

that process there might be some negative effects to the child’s emotional development. He

called it “Attachment Bond Theory”. Although Bowlby did not rule out the possibility of other

attachment figures for a child, he did believe that there should be a primary bond which was

much more important than any other. Bowlby believes that this attachment is qualitatively

different from any subsequent attachments, Bowlby argues that the relationship with the mother

is somehow different altogether from other relationships.

This theory pointed out the bonding between a mother and her child is important especially

for the child's development. It also stated that if the mother and her child separated during that

process of growth, there might be some negative effects on their child's development.
 Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Theory of Ecological Systems (1917-2005) explains how everything

in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labeled

different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including

the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem. The microsystem is the

smallest and most immediate environment in which the child lives it comprises the daily home,

school or daycare, peer group or community environment. The mesosystem encompasses the

interaction of the different microsystems which the developing child finds himself in. The

exosystem, on the other hand, pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more

settings, one of which may not contain the developing child but affects him indirectly.

Nonetheless, the macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to

the child that still exercises significant influence on the child. Lastly, the chronosystem which is

the useful dimension of time demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in the

child’s environment. The Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory is able to demonstrate the

diversity of interrelated influences on the child’s development. Awareness of contexts can

sensitize us to variations in the way a child may act in different settings.

Bronfenbrenner’s theory claims that the environment influences the children’s growth and

development in a sense that the systems discovered by Bronfenbrenner inevitably interact with

and influence each other in every aspect of the child’s life. Those environments may affect a

child either positively or negatively.

Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development as cited by McLeod (2018) lays out a

series of stages the people go through. Erikson’s theory covers development for the entire life

span from birth until death, Erikson believed that people continue to develop and grow well into

old age.
 Erikson’s theory begins at birth, as children start out in the trust versus mistrust stage. During

this early stage of life, it is important for children to receive consistent care so that they can learn

to trust the people in the world around them. Development continues as children grow and at

each stage the face new conflicts and learn new skills that serve them well throughout life.

According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality and

the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are characteristics strengths which the ego can use

to resolve the subsequent crises. Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced

ability to complete further stages and therefore an unhealthier personality.

This theory pointed out the importance of social experiences in shaping a child’s

psychological growth. He stated that it is important for a child to receive consistent care from

their parents wherein it gives hint to the researchers that a mother needs to stay with her child for

provision on its development.

Albert Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory as cited by Vinney (2019) provides a framework

for understanding how an individual actively shape and is shaped by his environment. In this

theory, the process of learning through observation and modelling, and the influence of self-

efficacy on the production of behavior. The belief of an individual on his own self-efficacy

influences whether or not they will reproduce an observed behavior. People are also more likely

to imitate those with whom they identify. Bandura famously illustrated social learning by

showing children a video of a girl punching a doll; presented later with a doll, the children

behaved in similarly aggressive ways. He claimed that through observation learning, people

observe and imitate models which they encounter in their environment which enables them to

acquire more information quickly. Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four
processes, namely: attentional processes, retention processes, production processes, and

motivational processes.

This theory pointed out that an individual can actively change his own behavior due to the

environment. Therefore, in the development of a child, the mother is one of the adult models that

influences one's behavior due to the bond of mother-child relationship during the child's

emotional development.

Lev Vygotsky's Social Development Theory as cited by McLeod (2018) has become the

foundation of other researches and theory in cognitive development over the past several

decades. In this theory, it focuses on the fundamental role of social interaction of an individual in

the development of Cognition. He believed that community plays a central role in the process of

development. In Vygotsky's theory, it emphasizes more on culture affecting the cognitive

development of a person rather than universal across cultures. He also states that cognitive

development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the zone of proximal

development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge. The environment influenced

how children think and what they think about. According to Vygotsky, adults are one of the

social factors that have an important source of cognitive development. The culture's tools of

intellectual adaptation of adults usually transmit in children which eventually they internalize.

In Vygotsky’s theory, children observe the people around them behaving in various ways.

Children are surrounded in the society by many influential models such as parents within the

family. Parents as one of the important sources of cognitive development provide examples of

behavior that children pay attention and imitate. At a certain time, they may imitate the behavior

of their parents.
 B. Related Literature

Working Moms

According to Mills (2013) in her work entitled “The Five Pros and Cons of Being a

Working Mother”, the time spent of a mother to their child and being a good role model is one

of the advantages of having a work, because working moms know that they need to switch off

the minute they get home, and they need to dedicate 100% of their precious time to their kids.

Working Mothers treasure the time they can spend with their child rather than taking their

opportunities for granted. Working moms spend quality time with their kids to compensate for

the amount of time they do not spend together. Time spent with their children becomes a

privilege rather that a necessity. The most important factors of a child’s development and well-

being are the mother’s sense of fulfillment and quality of time spent together. Kids are more

responsible and independent for them to go somewhere they have to make themselves ready. In

their minds, their moms are working because they need money for her to contribute to family

finances. In this case, they will learn how to budget money and start saving money for her own

and for family matters.

Likewise, according to McGinn (2015) on her work entitled “Kids Benefit from Having

a Working Mom”, a woman whose moms worked outside the home is mostly like as supervisor

on their own job even though they are in low position on their work. They gain a big

responsibilities and obligations for their family. But still, working mom earn higher wager than

stay-at-home mom. There are vivid effects of gender inequality as raised by a working mom.

Men who was raised by working moms are more diligent, hardworking and tends to have more

quality time. It seems also that men can contribute more to do the household technicalities. This

article focused on the positive effects of working mom which is stated that they really give a lot
of benefits to their child. Moms who worked outside the home have big responsibilities and

obligations for her family.

Moreover, according to Locke (2005) on his work “11 Positive effects of Working

Moms (for everyone)”, working moms have been the subject of much debate in the parenting

arena. Working moms provide positive role models to their child. They need to realize from an

early age that they need to have a professional life. Their daughters will realize that they need to

choose their career rather than just being married and have a child while their sons will realize

that household chores are part and parcel of family life. However, the main advantage was they

will grow up to be independent. They will know on how to take responsibility in making sure

that they will have a better and secured future. Working moms can bring up a healthy, discipline

and a well-adjusted kid. As long as mother’s kids are happy and independent with themselves it

can lessen their pain and guilt as day passed by. A working mother knows what to do and how to

handle things when it comes to her child, that is why she is confident enough to juggle the

demands of parenting with her desire to follow a career. A working mother just needs to balance

her work between parenting commitments and responsibilities.

On the other hand, according to Dhachem (2009) in her work entitled “Disadvantages

that working Mothers give to their Children”, a working mom can affect a child's behavior. It

is better to be with their child to give their needs physically and emotionally. One of the

important things to do is to give more time with their child, this may result good deciding and

good outlook to their child. If a mother works outside of the home, it has a tendency that she

might experience stress and be aggressive when she is at home already. Stressors at work may

cause a mother to become passive in parenting, that is why their child leads to more aggressive.

Also, if a mother has a high level of job and stress at work, she may not be able to give her best
role as a mother. Most of the child that have a busy mother are more likely become rebelled. A

child's learning abilities are affected. Moreover, a relationship between mother and child is very

important as well as family relationships. The child can have an interest in learning if the mother

has more time to spend with him.

Likewise, according to Lawson (2011) on his work entitled “Working Mom vs. Stay-at-

Home Mom: What’s Best for Kids?” states that working moms are often criticized because

they are not able to accompany with their child. Working mothers are tired due to their work.

Tired is an understatement of working mothers. They might feel stressed and depressed trying to

balance their work and family. If they bring their frustration home, children could develop a

negative attitude. Children can never really benefit from having a frustrated and depressed

mother around them. They might also think that their mother is not interested in their live.

Working moms can affect their child attitude and development. Problems can arise between

parents over the mother’s employment. A parental conflict can adversely affect their child. It

could damage their self-esteem and make them insecure.

Moreover, according to Carvel (2003) in her work entitled “Working mothers 'bad for

children'”, the children of mothers who return to full time work in the years before the children

start school have slower emotional development and score less well in reading and math tests.

The disadvantages start within the primary school and persist into early adulthood, with lower

educational attainment, higher unemployment and greater likelihood of childbearing early in life.

The early return of work by the mother reduces the child's opportunities of progressing to A-

level from 60% to 50%. Mothers who return to full time work in the years have negative effects

on the children before they start to go to school. It includes poor emotional development of a

child and poor grades when it comes to reading and math tests. Therefore, the early return of
work by the mother during the development of a child in the early years has a negative effect that

needs to be reduced. The children of highly educated mothers who go back early to their full-

time work will have a lower educational attainment but the disadvantage will not be as much

more for less educated moms (Francesconi, 2003). Parents are the first teacher of a child and the

basic instinct of learning of a child is to imitate other’s action. Working mothers will easily cause

barriers for the bond between the mother and child.

Stay-at-Home Moms

According to Hamilton (2016) in her work entitled “The Benefits of Being a Stay-at-

Home Parent Through the Teenage Years” states that being a stay-at-home mom is a positive

way to take care for their child and family. Mothers have an important role in their children's

lives. A teen who has a stay at home moms will likely experience care, love and more attention.

They are free to listen when their children decide to open up their problem and they can give the

best advice to guide their children. A mother who stays home has the opportunity to be around

when their children goes to school and has friends over to socialize or study. It may be good to

stay at home because as of now many teenagers do not know the difference between good and

bad decision in serious and critical things. It can help to the behavior of the child because they

are with their mother to guide and give attention. They can focus on their studies well. The child

whose mother is at home may not feel that they are alone. Stay-at home moms stays at their

houses, so they are always there for their children. They are always with their kids; they even

know their child’s first word. You can also focus on your child 100 percent of your time and

energy because you’re not thinking about work paper’s deadlines and other working matters.

Stay-at-home mothers are master of their house.

 Likewise, according to Kalpana (2018) in her work entitled “Stay-Home-Mom: What

Are Its Benefits and How to Afford to be One” states that a stay-at-home mom (SAMH) is

someone responsible for taking care of her children and doing the household chores. Being a

stay-at-home mom is a significant choice to take, particularly in the event that you are having

prospering profession. Also, it needs colossal persistence to be with the youngsters every minute

of every day. Being at home encourages everyone to plan and sort out exercises and set up a day

by day schedule. Mother can offer sustenance to them on time, make them think about their

exercises, and deal with other essential needs. Stay-at-home moms can also intently follow their

achievements, deal with them when they are unwell, and guarantee their wellbeing at home and

outside. Kids, as well, have the affirmation that you are dependably there for them. Non-working

mom will be free of business-related pressure.

Moreover, according to Duncan (2018) in her work entitled “10 Pros and Cons of Being

a Stay-at-home Mom (SAHM)” states that moms who stay at home is indeed pays full attention

for her children which is really good to look after for their decisions and moves. But, other child

got sick for being over protective of their mom. Being a stay at home mom will never feel alone

because of their child and that would be great for them but they can't also hangout alone nor take

a long bath. Moms at home or a housewife will never be stressed about working outside. She'll

never deals with the society regarding the business things. Therefore, she can spend her full-time

and efforts to her children. There's a lot of benefit being a stay-at-home mom such as she can

control the whole family when it comes to budgeting, scheduling etc. Moms at home will receive

an employment gap to their coworkers, she can control the everyday family routine and she

maybe feel stressed from taking all the responsibilities but when she loves parenting it will easily

fade. This study stated that being a stay-at-home doesn't mean that they're not dealing with the
stress and pressure, they are just more capable to handle things involve inside the house

responsibilities.

On the other hand, according to Murray et. al. (2016) in their work entitled “Staying at

Home: Pros and Cons” states that if a mother’s career has been an important part of her life,

she might feel a loss of identity. Their self-esteem may suffer without the appreciation of a boss

and colleagues. After all, they do not get a lot of positive feedbacks taking care of their child.

Changing diapers and tackling endless loads of laundry can be boring and frustrating. It may be

hard to look for a sense of accomplishment or satisfaction. Plus, finding time for themselves

when they are home with an attention-seeking baby or toddler can be difficult or impossible.

There will also be times where in stay-at-home mothers will think on when and how can they

resume their career in life. choosing to stay home is a complicated economic decision, many

families with a stay-at-home parent find they have to budget carefully and devote more time to

bargain hunting than before. Choosing to stay at home could create new tensions between the

mother and her partner if he or she is not fully supportive to the idea of it.

Likewise, according to Valleskey (2018) in her work entitled “Stay-at-Home Moms

More Depressed Angry and Sad”, stay-at-home moms might struggle more than working

moms due to raising their kids full-time. This includes negative emotions ranging from anger to

sadness. “Stay-at-home moms” are defined as women who are not currently employed and have

a child younger than 18 living at home with them. Many adults aren’t prepared to handle the

responsibility of being a parent to their child in their new lives. Stay-at-home moms suffer from

depression due to lack of appreciation-or a missing sense of accomplishment. Another aspect that

contributes negative emotions to stay-at-home moms is due to the factor of isolation. Many stay-

at-home moms interact with people which they have nothing in common. Unlike working moms,
they interact with people with their common interests, skills, and relationships outside of their

home. But according to the result of the study, women can enjoy being a stay-at-home mom.

Some moms find it fulfilling to stay home and raise their children.

Moreover, according to Brusie (2018) in her work entitled “Stay-at-Home-Mom

Depression Is Real-and Women Are Finally Talking About It” states that the life of stay-at-

home moms’ experience fewer behavioral issues due to isolation, loss of purpose or identity, and

lack of social interaction. Being at home with a demanding child is not the ideal situation for the

mental health. Depression is still condemned as a personal failure. The pressure is particularly

fall into the role of a mother less by decision or choice and more by circumstances. Stay-at-home

moms mostly focus on taking care of her family rather than herself which cause depression. The

transition of being a stay-at-home parent may be especially hard who had careers before having

children. Depression is often overlooked among stay-at-home moms because not going to work

every day is viewed as a privileged choice. Stay-at-home mothering can make a woman prone to

behavioral issues such as depression even more susceptible. Stay-at-home moms should

acknowledge this situation.

C. Related Studies

According to McGinn et. al. (2018) in their work entitled “Kids of Working

Moms Grow into Happy Adults”, prove that the kids of working moms develop into happy

adults. Growing up with a working mom may have some benefits for both daughters and sons

later in life. This reveals that, with regard to overall life fulfillment, children of working moms

turn out to be just as happy as kids of stay-at-home moms. Indeed, they might actually become

more productive and cheerful than their stay-at-home counterparts, thereby exempt working

mothers of the hidden guilt that often ruin their professional life. The influence of mothers’
employment on their children careers is less important when kids see a lot of other women with

jobs, because these women can act as alternative role models. The mothers’ employment is

critical to how much they help out with their own children, even when they are raised around a

lot of other employed women. This study seeks to point out that kids often learn by imitating the

adults in their surroundings. The study is proving a contradiction to personal beliefs and rejoice.

Moms who are on the job, do not necessarily need to feel that “mom guilt”, worried they are

influencing their family. It is definitely shown how children and teenagers who have working

moms, turns out well and fine.

A study by Essays, U.K. (November, 2013) in their work entitled “Working Mothers

Negative Effects on Young Children Social Work”, states that working female parents cause

negative effects on their immature kids. This study was used to demonstrate why female parents

who are regularly working outside have negative effects on their young children. Both thought of

people and the studies show that working mothers have more distant negative effects on their

kid. The children of working mothers will have slower emotional progress and have a low score

in reading and math tests, if their mothers return to work full time in the years before they start

school. A working mother who does not have time for her children may face different

consequences when it comes to their children. This study seeks to analyze the following negative

effects of working mother to their children, such as psychological damage for children, mother-

child barriers, early developmental effects, and mother’s over-indulging because children lack of

self-control. Working mothers may do female parents’ over-indulging and cause their kids

deficiency of self-denial because of if the female parent work outside for long times, they will

look for their best to do their kids happy together and with less control. Hence, stay-at-home
moms are better to spend more time with their children rather than working outside for long-

term.

According to Zanarariah Noor & A.M Sultana (2012) in their work entitled “Mothers

Perception on the Impact of Employment on their Children: Working and Non-working

Mothers”, states that working moms are more responsible than non-working moms. This study

says that in general, working moms has more professional responsibility while stay-at-home

moms has a quality time, to guide and support her children academically and emotionally. But

when it comes to responsibilities and financially support the quality time is not that sufficient

than those working moms. It proves that working moms has negative effect on child's

development. It may affect their relation between mother and child. It can affect the child's

academic performances in school. While non-working moms can guide and has full time care in

their children. This study seeks to point out that every mom who are in jobs or at home has their

own responsibilities. Every children needs a support, guide, care and love coming from their

mother. It is not all about the work; it is about the responsibilities of being a mother.

According to Quaye (2011) in her work entitled “A Qualitative Study of the

Everyday Life Experiences of Working Mothers and their Children in Accra”, working

mothers have dual roles, they work at the office and help their children when it comes to their

problems and school stuffs. While stay at home mothers need to focus on their children. An

employed mother does some strategies in order to help their work and family lives. The mother

always cares to their child's health and the efforts of the mother's satisfy what society expects of

them. A significant finding was found in regards to motherhood that has a difficult work,

because they have a dual role, they work at the office and after work they have to serve in their
child to serve a food and to do the homework of their child. And the mother's participation in

their work is assumed to contribute to the needs of their family.