18GET11 - Introduction to Engineering

1. Principle of Site selection

The functional planning is a pre-requisite of any type of building. Good planning
imparts good environment for living, working and recreation. Good homes means the house which
are well built and well planned for efficient and comfortable living, with an environment required
for building up of happy, healthy, beautiful, cheerful and peaceful lives. Also good planning of
factory buildings or business buildings improve working environment. The working conditions
should be planned and developed in such a way the people working there should feel pleasure
rather than feel bore some. This will increase efficiency and output of the work, which in end is
beneficial to national growth and uplift.
For good planning and designing of a building, the site selection of the building is
the most important. The following general principle should be kept in mind while selecting a site
for a building
1. The purpose of the building and extend of privacy is desired.

2. The site should be located in fully developed or fast developing locality.

3. The site should be located in such way that community services like police and fire
protection, clearing of waste and street cleaning, utility services like water-supply,
electricity, drainage, etc., amenities like school, hospital, market, cinema, bank etc.,
shopping facilities and means of transport are also available within short distance.

4. Before selecting a site, one should study the bye-laws of the local authority, which before
restrictions regarding proportions of plots to be built up, open space and margins to be left
in front and sides, heights of building etc.

5. Area of plot should be such that the building constructed on it meet the requirements of the
owner, after following certain restriction of local authority.

6. Shape of the plot should be irregular or not having any sharp corners.

7. The site should be situated on an elevated place and also leveled with uniform slopes from
one end to the other to provide good and quick drainage of rain water.

8. The soil of the site should be good enough with high safe bearing capacity to provide
economical foundations.

9. The site should be situated in such a naturally beautiful environment that creates healthy
living and working conditions.

10. The site should be away from quarries, kilns, factories, industries, rivers carrying heavy
floods, water logged areas, badly maintained drain and slums, etc.

11. The legal and financial aspects should also be given due consideration.
 4.Building Materials
As a Civil Engineer, one should know about the materials used in the construction world. Civil
engineers are responsible for specifying, designing and manufacturing the materials with which
they build their structures. Studies in construction materials are anticipated to make structural,
transportation and foundation engineers aware of the fundamental properties of the materials
which they use.

The common building materials are

1. Bricks
2. Stones
3. Cement
4. Sand
5. Concrete
6. Steel sections
7. Wood
8. Smart materials
1.Bricks
Brick is one of the oldest building materials and it is extensively used because of its durability,
strength, reliability, low cost., etc.

Qualities of good bricks:

1. Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape. Standard size of brick should be
maintained.
2. They should be sound and compact.
3. They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules etc.
with sharp and square edges.
4. Bricks should not absorb more than 1⁄5 of their own weight of water when immersed in
water for 24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
5. The compressive strength of bricks should be in range of 2000 to 5000 psi (15 to 35 MPa).
 6. Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess soluble salts in brick
also causes efflorescence. The percentage of soluble salts (sulphates of calcium,
magnesium, sodium and potassium) should not exceed 2.5% in brunt bricks.
7. Brick should not change in volume when wetted.
8. Bricks should neither over-burnt nor under-brunt.
9. Generally, the weight per brick should be 6 lbs. and the unit weight should be less than 125
lbs. per cubic ft.
10. The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable that the building built
with them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.
11. Bricks should be sound proof.
12. Bricks should be non-inflammable and incombustible.
13. Bricks should be free from lime pitting.

Classification of Bricks

1. First class bricks

These are table moulded and of (19 x 9 x 9) cm in size. They are made from good earth,
free from saline deposits. They should be thoroughly burnt and suitable for all types of
construction in the exterior walls.
2. Second class bricks
Second class bricks are ground moulded and fully burnt & give a clear ringing sound when
struck together. Slightly irregularities in shape, size or color are accepted. They can be used
for exterior work when plastering is to be done. And can also be used for interior works.
3. Third class bricks
Third class bricks are ground moulded and they are not burnt so fully but are generally of
uniform reddish yellow color.
4. Over burnt bricks
These types of bricks are irregular in shape and dark in color which is due to over burning.

Constituents of a brick

 Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight.

 Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight.
 Lime – 2 to 5% by weight.
 Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight.
 Magnesia – less than 1% by weight.
 2. Stones
Building stones are obtained from natural rock beds. The process of taking out the stones from
rock beds is known as quarrying. Rocks are mainly classified into sedimentary, metamorphic
and igneous rocks.

Qualities of good stones

1. Strength
2. Durability
3. Hardness
4. Toughness
5. Specific gravity
6. Porosity and absorption
7. Dressing
8. Appearance
9. Fire resistance
10. Cost

Quarrying and Dressing of stones

A place where exposed surfaces of good quality natural rocks are abundantly available is known as
‘quarry’ and the process of taking out stones from the natural bed is known as ‘quarrying’.

The stones after being quarried are to be cut into suitable sizes and with suitable surfaces. This
process is known as the dressing of stones and it is carried out for the following purposes:

1. To make the transport from the quarry easy and economical.

2. To suit the requirements of stone masonry.
3. To get the desired appearance for the stonework.
Uses of stones

1. It can be used for laying foundation of civil engineering works, and for the construction
of walls, arches, abutments and dams.
2. In stone masonry in places where it is naturally available.
3. As coarse aggregate in cement concrete (crushed form of rock).
4. As a roofing material in the form of slates.
5. As a soling material in the construction of highways and runways.
6. As ballast for railway tracks.
7. For decorative front and interior of buildings.
8. For construction of important buildings like temples, churches and mosques.

3.Cement
Cement is a binding material and is obtained by burning a mixture of Calcareous(lime) and
argillaceous materials(clay) at a very high temperature.

Good Qualities of cement

1. The colour should be uniform
2. Cement should be uniform
3. Cement should be free from lumps
4. Cement should be cool when felt with hand. If a small quantity of cement is thrown into the
bucket of water, it should sink
5. The initial setting time of cement should not be less than 30 minutes and the final setting
time may be around 10 hours.
Types of cement
1. Ordinary Portland Cement
2. Rapid hardening cement
3. Low heat cement
4. Quick setting cement
5. Coloured cement
6. White cement
Uses of cement

1. It is used in mortar for plastering, masonry work, pointing, etc.

2. It is used for making joints for drains and pipes.
3. It is used for water tightness of structure.
4. It is used in concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, stairs, pillars
etc.
5. It is used where a hard surface is required for the protection of exposed surfaces of
structures against the destructive agents of the weather and certain organic or inorganic
chemicals.
6. It is used for precast pipes manufacturing, piles, fencing posts etc.
7. It is used in the construction of important engineering structures such as bridges,
culverts, dams, tunnels, lighthouses etc.

4.Sand

Sand is an important building material. It abundantly occurs in nature and is formed by the
decomposition of rocks. Sand particles consist of small grains of silica (SiO2). It forms a major
ingredient in concrete, lime mortar, cement mortar, etc.

Classification of sand
1. Natural sand – River sand
2. Artificial sand – M-Sand
Qualities of good sand

1. It should be clean and coarse.

2. It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter; usually 3-4 per cent clay is
permitted
3. It should be chemically inert.
4. It should contain sharp, angular, coarse and durable grains.
5. It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.
6. It should be well graded, i.e., it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable
proportions.
Uses of sand

1. It is used for making mortar and concrete

2. It is used as a binding material in bituminous roads
M-Sand
Manufactured sand (M-Sand) is a substitute of river sand for concrete construction . Manufactured
sand is produced from hard granite stone by crushing. Due to fast growing construction industry,
the demand for sand has increased tremendously, causing deficiency of suitable river sand in most
part of the word. Due to the depletion of good quality river sand for the use of construction, the use
of manufactured sand has been increased. Another reason for use of M-Sand is its availability and
transportation cost.

Advantages of M-Sand

 It is well graded in the required proportion.

 It does not contain organic and soluble compound that affects the setting time and
properties of cement, thus the required strength of concrete can be maintained.
 It does not have the presence of impurities such as clay, dust and silt coatings.
 M-Sand is obtained from specific hard rock (granite) using the state-of-the-art
International technology, thus the required property of sand is obtained.
 M-Sand is cubical in shape and is manufactured using technology like High Carbon steel
hit rock and then ROCK ON ROCK process which is synonymous to that of natural
process undergoing in river sand information.
 Modern and imported machines are used to produce M-Sand to ensure required grading
zone for the sand.

5.Concrete

+ + +
Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together
with cement and water (cement paste) that hardens over time.
Freshly prepared concrete till it has not yet set is called wet or green concrete. After it has
thoroughly set and fully hardened it is called hardened concrete.
Types of concrete
 Reinforce cement concrete
 Light weight concrete
 High strength concrete
 Fibre reinforced concrete
 Polymer concrete
 Geo polymer concrete
Uses of concrete
 Concrete is mainly used in floors, roof slabs, columns, beams, lintels and foundations.
 It is used in construction of massive structures such as dams and bridges.
 Light weight concrete can be used in multi storied buildings.
 Colored concrete is used for ornamental finishes.
 It is used in the construction of roads, runways play grounds water tanks and chimneys.
 It is used in the construction of sleepers in railways.

6.Steel sections
Steel is very ductile and has elastic properties. Mild steel having a carbon content of 0.1 – 0.25
percent is used for structural works. The market forms of steel are
 Bars
 Plates
 Flats
 Angle sections
 Channel sections
 I – Sections
 T – Sections
Types of steel
Mild steel
HYSD Bars
Steel as a good reinforcing material
 It develops good bond with concrete and hence the stresses are transferred from one
material to another.
 It has high tensile strength.
 It has high modulus of elasticity
 Its temperature co efficient of expansion is same as that of concrete and so thermal
stresses will not develop.

7.Wood
Timber is a form of wood suitable for building or engineering purposes. It is obtained fron
trees. Trees are divided into following groups based on their mode of growth.
1.Endogenous trees are those which grow by the formation of layers of new wood crossing
and penetrating the fibres of the wood previously formed.
Ex: Bamboo, coconut tree., etc.
2.Exogenous trees are those which grow by outwards by the addition of rings of young wood,
ex teak, sal.,etc. timbers obtained from exogenous trees are mainly used in engineering works.
Exogenous tress are further sub divided into
i. Conifers or evergreen trees – Pine
ii. Deciduous or broad leaf trees – teak, sal
The cross section of an Exogenous tree is shown in figure below.
Uses of timber
 It is used for doors, windows and roofing materials.
 It is used for temporary works in construction like scaffolding, centering, shoring and
packing of materials.
 It is used for railway sleepers.
 It is used for decorative works like showcases and furniture’s.
 It is used for temporary bridges nd boat construction.

8.Smart materials
 Smart metals
 Smart concrete
 Self healing coatings
 Smart ceramics
 Colour changing materials
Applications
 They are used in repair and rehabilitation of concrete structures.
 They are used in nuclear industries.
 They are used to monitor the civil engineering structures to evaluate their durability
 It is used in smart structures is capable of sensing minute structural cracks / flaws.
 5. Components of building
6. sequence of construction
There are two basic components of a building.
1. Sub Structure: The part of building that is constructed below ground level.
2. Super Structure: The part of building that is above ground level.

Fig: Components of a building with sequence of construction

SUB-STRUCTURE
Footing and plinth beam of a building are part of sub-structure. This part of building safely
transfers the load of building to the underlying soil. Therefore, footing should be of such strength
that it can easily carry the building load. Failure of footing leads to failure of building. Width and
depth of footing should be designed according to the load of a building coming with respect to the
bearing capacity of soil. Bottom part of footing is generally constructed of Plain Cement Concrete
(P.C.C) or Reinforced Cement Concrete (R.C.C). Generally, Damp Proof Course (D.P.C) is laid on
plinth level. This layer stops the penetration of moisture to the super structure part of a building
Plinth beam is constructed depending upon the type of the structure of the building and nature of
the soil. It provides additional stability in regard to settlements of the building and earthquake
damages. Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its
foundation. Plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks from the
foundation into the wall above when the foundation suffers from settlement. Plinth beams
distributes the load of the wall over the foundation evenly.

Basement is the floor of the building constructed below ground level.

Damp-Proof course is a continuous layer of an impervious material to which prevent the soil
moisture from penetrating into the building.

SUPER-STRUCTURE
Flooring is a permanent covering of a floor. Floor covering is any finish material applied over a
floor structure to provide a walking surface.

A column or pillar is a structural element that transmits the load from beams and slabs to the
foundation below. In other words, a column is a compression member. Columns are frequently
used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest.

Lintel is a structural horizontal block that spans the opening between two vertical supports, mostly
walls. It can be a decorative architectural element, or a combined ornamented structural item. It is
often found over doors and windows.

Partition wall is a usually thin wall that is used to separate or divide a room. Partition walls are
usually not load-bearing, and can be constructed out of many materials, including steel panels,
bricks, plastic, plasterboard, glass etc.

Load-bearing wall or bearing wall is a wall that is an active structural element of a building, that
is, it bears the weight of the elements above said wall, resting upon it by conducting its weight to a
foundation structure. The materials most often used to construct load-bearing walls in large
buildings are concrete, block, or brick.

Beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's axis. It
serves as support for walls and slabs and transfers the load to the column. The loads applied to the
beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points.

Roof is the cover to any building. In many cases roof of one storey will act as a floor for the above
storey. A roof can be a flat rood like RCC roofing or pitched roof like tiles and trusses.