27-Jan-18

UNIT-2
Foundation (10%)

Learning Objective

• Able to know the types and dimensions and method

of construction of various building components.

• Able to design strip footing type of shallow

foundation.

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Content …
• Introduction
• Necessity and Functions
• Essential requirement of good foundation
• Classification/types of foundation
• Methods of site exploration
• Causes of failure of foundation
• Remedial measures to failure of foundation
• Bearing capacity of soil
• Shallow foundation: Depth of footing, types and construction
• Design of strip footing

Introduction:
Every building consists of
two basic components
namely…
Sub Structure
It is that part of a building
which is below the ground
surface or level.

Super Structure
It is that part of a building
which is above the ground
surface or level.

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Sub Structure
• It is also known as foundation.

• Foundation is the lower portion of a building

which is below the ground level which
transmits the load of superstructure to the sub-
soil.

• Soil immediately below the base of the

foundation is called sub-soil or foundation
soil.

• The lower most portion of the foundation

which is in direct contact with the sub-soil is
known as footing. GL

Function / Necessity of Foundation:

The basic function of sub- structure is to transmit the dead
loads, super-imposed loads (L.L),Wind Load from building to
the soil on which building rests, in such a way these do not
stress the soil beyond its safe allowable bearing capacity.
Foundation serves following purposes….
1. REDUCTION OF LOAD INTENSITY
Foundation distributes the loads of the
super structure, to a larger area so that
the intensity of the load at its base (i.e.
total load divided by the total area)
does not exceed the safe bearing
capacity of the sub-soil.

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2. EVEN DISTRIBUTION OF LOAD

Foundations distribute the non-uniform load of the super structure evenly to the
sub soil. For example, two columns carrying unequal loads can have a combined
footing which may transmit the load to sub soil evenly with uniform soil pressure.
Due to this, unequal or differential settlements are minimized.

3. PROVISION OF LEVEL SURFACE

Foundation provide leveled and hard surface over which the super structure can be
built.

4. LATERAL STABILITY
It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting
lateral stability to the super structure. The stability of the
building, against sliding and overturning, due to horizontal
forces (such as wind, earthquake etc.) is increased due to
foundations.

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5. SAFETY AGAINST UNDERMINING

It provides the structural safety against undermining or scouring due
to burrowing animals and flood water.

6. PROTECTION AGAINST SOIL MOVEMENTS

Special foundation measures prevents or minimizes the distress (or
cracks) in the super structure, due to expansion or contraction of
the sub soil because of moisture movement in some problematic
soils.

Essential Requirements of Good Foundation:

1. The foundations shall be constructed to sustain the dead and imposed
loads and to transmit these to the sub-soil in such a way that pressure on
it will not cause settlement which would impair the stability of the
building or adjoining structures.

2. Foundation base should be rigid so that differential settlements are

minimized, specially for the case when super-imposed loads are not
evenly distributed.

3. Foundations should be taken sufficiently deep to guard the building

against damage or distress caused by swelling or shrinkage of the sub-soil.

4. Foundations should be so located that its performance may not be

affected due to any unexpected future influence.

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Types of foundation:
According to Terzaghi, If the depth
of foundation (D) is equal to or less Foundation
than its width (B) is called Shallow
foundation.

Shallow/open
•Spread footing D≤B
•Combined footing
•Strap footing
•Mat footing

Deep
•Pile foundation
•Pier foundation or drilled D>B
caisson
•Well foundation

Types of Shallow/Open Foundation

Shallow
Foundation

Combined Strap/cantilever
Spread Footing Mat Footing
Footing Footing

Strip Footing Pad/Isolated Grillage

Footing Rectangular
(wall) Foundation
(Column)

Simple Footing Steel Trapezoidal

Single Footing

Combined
Stepped Footing Timber
Stepped Footing column & wall

Slopped Footing

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Spread Footing:
• The spread footings are those which spread the superimposed load of
wall or column over a large area. Its support either a column or a wall.
1. Strip footing for wall
2. Isolated footing for column
3. Grillage Foundation for Steel frame
1. Strip footing: Strip footings are those whose base is more wider than a
typical load bearing wall. The wider base of this footing type spreads
the weight from the building structure over more area and provides
better stability.
This type of foundation runs continuous along the direction of the wall
and helps to transmit the load of the wall into the ground.

I. Simple footing
II. Stepped footing

Simple footing: Stepped footing:

consist of concrete base Usually, masonry walls have stepped footings
without any offset or step. as shown in Fig, with a plain or reinforced
cement concrete base.

An offset is the projection of lower step from the vertical face of upper step.
The width of footing is found on the basis of safe bearing pressure for the soil, by
expression
B= W/ qs

Where,
W = superimposed load on the base of footing
qs = Safe bearing pressure.

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• When the wall carries light loads or when

the safe bearing pressure is very high, the
width of the footing found from the above
expression would be very small. In that
case, a simple strip footing.
• The wall directly rests on the concrete base,
and no masonry offsets are provided since
spread is not required. However, the
concrete base should project out by value a
on either side of the wall face, where the
value of offset a may vary from 1O to 2O cm.
• As a thumb rule, the width of concrete base
should not be less than twice the width of
the wall.
• The thickness of concrete block should at
least be equal to offset a in the case of
cement concrete and 3/2 a in the case of
lime concrete base.

2. Isolated footing / Pad footing: Pad foundations are used to

support an individual point load such as that due to a structural
column.
• They may be circular, square or rectangular.
• They usually consist of a block or slab of uniform thickness, but
they may be stepped or sloped if they are required to spread the
load from a heavy column.

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Fig. (a) shows a single footing for a

column, in which the loaded area (b x b)
of the column has been spread to the
size B x B through a single spread. The
base is generally made of concrete.
Fig. (b) shows the stepped footing for a
heavily loaded column, which requires
greater spread. The base of the column
is made of concrete.
Fig. (c) shows the case in which the
concrete base does not have uniform
thickness, but is made sloped, with
greater thickness at its junction with the
column and smaller thickness at the
ends.

3. Grillage Foundation:
• It is a special type of isolated footing generally provided for
heavily loaded steel stanchions.
• It is used in those locations where bearing capacity of soil is poor.
• The depth of such a foundation is limited to 1 to 1.5 m.

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Other than spread footing…

• When a column is near or right next to a property limit, a square or
rectangular footing concentrically loaded under the column would
extend into the adjoining property.
• when the adjoining property is privately owned, the footings must
be constructed within the property. In such cases, there are three
alternatives which are ….
1. Combined footing. A combined footing is a long footing
supporting two or more columns in one row.
2. Cantilever footing. A cantilever or strap footing normally
comprises two footings connected by a beam called a strap. A strap
footing is a special case of a combined footing.
3. Mat or raft foundations. A mat or raft foundation is a large
footing, usually supporting several columns in two or more rows.

Combined Footing:
• A spread footings which supports
two or more columns is termed as
combined footing.

• Combined footings may be of the

following kinds:
a. Rectangular combined
footing
b. Trapezoidal combined footing

• These footing are constructed of

reinforced concrete.

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Strap Footing:
• A strap footing consists of two or
more footings of individual
columns, connected by a beam,
called a strap.

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Mat or Raft Footing:

• A raft or mat is a combined footing, which covers the entire area below
the whole building & supports all the walls and columns.

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DESIGN OF
SHALLOW
FOUNDATION
(Strip Footing-Step footing)

Basic Design Procedure

Assessment of site conditions in the
context of the site & soil investigation
report

Calculation of anticipated structural

loading

Choosing the foundation type, should

consider:

•Soil condition Sizing the chosen

•Type of structure foundation in the context of
•Structural loading loading, ground bearing
•Economic factors capacity & any likely future
•Time factors relative to the proposed movement of the building /
contract period structure
•Construction problem

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DEPTH OF FOOTINGS
• The footings should be carried below the top (organic) soli, miscellaneous
fill, abandoned foundation, debris or muck.
• If the top loose soil or fill is too deep, two alternatives may be used
depending upon the relative economy and the time available :
(i) Removing the top soil directly below the footing and replacing it with lean
concrete [Fig (a)]

(ii) Removing the top soil in an area larger than the footing and replacing
it with compacted sand and gravel fill. The area of the compacted sand
and gravel fill should be sufficiently large to distribute the footing
load. [Fig (b)]
Note: In either case, it is essential to
reach the level of the strata which has
the required bearing capacity adopted
for the design of footing.

Where Ø is the angle of repose, the values of which may be taken from Table 3.1.

• Sometimes, the top soil may be good and compact, and may have
adequate bearing capacity. In that case it is desirable to keep the
minimum depth of foundation given by Rankines formula:

Where ,
Ø is the angle of repose,

• Note: It is to be noted that q is the actual load intensity and not the
safe bearing capacity of soil. Some times, the actual load intensity
may be less than the safe bearing capacity of soil, requiring lesser
minimum depth.

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DEEP FOUNDATION
• If the depth of foundation (D) is greater than its width (B) is called
Deep foundation.
• D>B

 Types of deep foundation:

1) Deep strip, rectangular or square footing

2) Pile foundation
3) Pier foundation or drilled caissons foundation
4) Well foundation

Pile foundation
 The deep foundation in which the loads are taken to a low level
by means of vertical member.
 It may be used-
1) Instead of a raft where no firm bearing strata exists at any
reasonable depth and loading is uneven.
2) Where the strip or spread footing becomes uneconomical.
3) When pumping of sub-soil water is too costly.

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Pile foundation
 Types of piles:

1) End-bearing piles
2) Friction pile
3) Combined end-bearing and
friction pile
4) Compaction pile

Pile foundation
1) End-bearing piles
 It is used to transfer the load
through soft soil or water.
 Mostly used in multi-storeyed
building to minimize the
settlement.

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Pile foundation
2) Friction pile
• Generally used in granular
soil.
• It transfer the load to a
desired depth by skin friction
along the length.

Pile foundation
3) Combined end-bearing and
friction pile
 Mostly used when the end-
bearing piles are passing
through granular soil.
 It transfer the load by both skin
friction and end-bearing.

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Pile foundation
4) Compaction pile
• Used to compact loose
granular soil and increasing
S.B.C.
• They may be weaker material
like bamboo, timber etc.
• Pile tube is gradually taken
out and sand is filled in its
place.

Pier foundation
• It consist of a large dia. cylindrical column to transfer large loads.
• Pier foundation transfer the load only through bearing.
• Pier foundation is shallower in depth compare to pile foundation.
• It is used in stiff clay.
• The size and spacing of pier depend upon hard bed , nature of
overlying soil and loads.

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Pier Foundation
 Types of pier foundation:

1) Masonry or concrete pier

2) Drilled caissons

Pier Foundation
• Masonry or concrete pier
• When good bearing strata
exists up to 5 mt below G.L.
brick , masonry or concrete
pier are used.

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Pier Foundation
 Drilled caissons
 It is a compressed member
subjected to an axial load at top
and reaction at bottom.
 There are three types:
1) Concrete caisson with enlarged
bottom

Pier Foundation
2) Caisson of steel pipe with
concrete filled in the pipe.

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Pier Foundation
3) Caisson of concrete and steel
core in the steel pipe.

Well Foundation or Caissons

 These are box like structure in rectangular or circular shape
which are sunk from the surface either of water or of land.
 Diameter is large compare to pier foundation.
 They are used for major foundation works like:
1) Bridge piers and abutments in river
2) Break waters and other structures for shore protection
3) Large water front structures such as pump houses.
 Well foundations are not used for building.

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Well Foundation or Caissons

• They are hollow from inside
and filled with sand and are
plugged at the bottom.
• The load is transferred
through steining.

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Site investigation & Soil Exploration

Site investigation or soil explorations are done for obtaining the
information about subsurface conditions at the site of proposed
construction.
Soil exploration consists of determining the profile of the natural
soil deposits at the site, taking the soil samples and determining
the engineering properties of soils. It also includes in-situ testing
of soils.

Purpose/ necessity of soil exploration:

• Subsurface investigations is done for following
purpose:
a) Foundation investigations to investigate sites for
new structures.
1. To selection of type and depth of foundation
2. To determine bearing capacity of the selected foundation
3. The prediction of settlement of the selected foundation
4. To determine ground water level
5. The evaluation of the earth pressure for basement, wall
6. To provision against constructional difficulties
7. to check suitability of soil and degree of compaction.

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Purpose/ necessity of soil exploration:

b) Stability or failure investigations to

investigate causes of distress or failure of
existing structures.
1. The investigation of the safety of structure
2. The prediction of settlement
3. The determination of remedial measures if the structure
is unsafe.

PROCEDURE OF EXPLORATIONS:
The procedure of exploration can be divided into the following
steps:
1) RECONNAISSANCE:
i) Collection of data about the project.
ii) Geologic study of the site.
iii) Site inspection.
2) PRELIMINARY EXPLORATION:
i) Depth, extent, and composition of critical soil strata,
ii) Ground-water level and its fluctuations,
iii) Depth of bed rock, when necessary,
iv) Estimate of engineering properties of soil,
v) Initial selection of foundation possibilities.

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PROCEDURE OF EXPLORATIONS:
3) DETAILED EXPLORATION:
i) Additional test borings.
ii) Undisturbed sampling if compressible soils are encountered at critical
depth.
iii) Laboratory/Field tests if data on soil strength and deformation
characteristics are needed.
4) ANALYSIS OF RESULTS OF EXPLORATION:
i) Evaluation of settlement characteristics of various soil layers.
ii) Evaluation of bearing capacity of various soil
iii) Foundation design.

• RECONNAISSANCE.
• It involves the preliminary feasibility study that is undertaken
before any detailed planning is done.
• The main objective of this phase of exploration is to obtain rough
idea about the soil type in the area.
• This study is aimed to get a rough soil profile and representative
sampling of the major soil strata and groundwater condition which
will be helpful in deciding the future programme of explorations.
• This study is to be done at minimum cost and no large scale
exploratory work is usually undertaken at this stage.

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DEPTH OF EXPLORATION
• Significant depth – The depth upto which the increase in
pressure is likely to cause settlement or shear failure of
foundation.

• It is depend upon the type , weight, size & shape of structure

and the soil profile & its properties.

• Significant depth may be assumed equal to one-and-a-half to two

times the width of loaded area.

DEPTH OF EXPLORATION
 Depth is decided by using following guidelines:
a) Isolated spread footing or Raft- One and a half times the
width.
b) Adjacent footing with clear spacing < 2B – One and a half
times the length
c) Pile foundation – 10 to 30 mt or at least one and half times
the width of structure
d) Base of the retaining wall- One and half times the base width
or one and half times the exposed height of face of wall.

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Methods of exploration

Methods of
exploration

Open Sub Surface Geo physical

Boring
Excavation soundings Methods

Open excavations
• The cheapest method of exploration in shallow deposits.
• Used in all types of soil.
• Pits are excavated and samples are collected at various levels.
• Main advantage is that the soil strata can be inspected in their
natural condition and samples can be easily taken.
• Suitable up to 3 mt.

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Open excavations
• For excavation below G.W.T.
measures for lateral support
and G.W. lowering becomes
necessary.

BORING METHODS:
 DIFFERENT BORING METHODS-
1) Auger boring
2) Auger and shell boring
3) Wash boring
4) Percussion boring
5) Rotary boring

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AUGER BORING
 Augers are used in cohesive soil and in soft soils above W.T.
 Hand augers are used for depth up to 6 mt. and for greater
depth mechanically operated augers are used.
 Two types of auger-
1) Spiral Auger
2) Post-hole Auger

AUGER BORING

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AUGER BORING
• Disturbed samples are collected and used only for identification.

• It gives satisfactory results for explorations at shallow depths

and for borrow pits.

AUGER AND SHELL BORING

 Cylindrical auger and shells with cutting edge are used for deep
explorations.
 Hand operated rigs – 25 mt
 Mechanised rigs – 50 mt
 Suitability
1) Augers – soft to stiff clay
2) Shells – very stiff and hard clay
3) Shells or Sand Pump – Sandy soil

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Wash boring
 It is a fast and simple method.
 Used in all types of soils.
 First driving a casing through which a hollow drilled rod with a
sharp chisel at lower end is inserted.
 Water is forced under pressure through the drilled rod which is
raised and dropped.
 Thus by this continuous process the soil disintegrates.
 The soil water slurry comes out through the space between
drill rod and casing and used to guess the change in soil
stratification.

WASH BORING

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Percussion boring
• Soil and rocks are broken by repeated blows of heavy chiesel
which is suspended by a drill rod.
• Water is added through hole and the slurry is bailed out at
intervals.
• This method is suitable in all types of soils , boulders and rock.
• In this method the formations get disturbed by the impact.

Rotary Boring
 It is a very fast method for advancing a hole in soil and rock.
 A drill bit is rotated by a suitable chuck and it remains always in
contact with the bottom of the hole.
 A water soluble bentonite is continuously forced down to the
hollow drill rods.
 The mud returning upwards bring the cuttings to the surface.
 The hole requires no casing.
 This method is also known as Mud rotary drilling.

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3. SUB-SURFACE SOUNDINGS
• It consist of measuring the resistance of the soil with the depth
by means of penetrometer under static and dynamic loading.
• The penetrometer having a sampling spoon, a cone and other
shaped tool.
• These tests are useful for general exploration of erratic soil
profiles, for finding depth to bed rock or hard strata.
• These are also used to find approximate strength and other
properties of soil.

SUB-SURFACE SOUNDINGS
 The advantage is that it is used for knowing the soil properties
of cohesionless soil, for which it is difficult to get undisturbed
sample.

 Two common tests are-

1) Standard penetration test
2) The cone penetration test.

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GEO-PHYSICAL METHOD
 This methods are used when speedy investigation is needed
and when depth of exploration is very large.
 Method involve the detection of difference in physical
properties of formations.
 Geo-physical methods are-
1) Gravitational methods
2) Magnetic methods
3) Seismic refraction methods
4) Electrical resistivity methods

Seismic refraction methods

• Shocks waves are created in to the soil at G.L. or at certain depth

by exploding small charge in the soil or by striking a plate on the
soil by hammer.
• The shock waves are picked up by vibration detector or
seismometer where the travel time of shocks gets recorded.
• No. of seismometer are arranged along a line.
• Direct waves travel directly from shock pt. along the ground
surface and are picked first by geophones.

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Seismic refraction methods

 The waves which travel through the soil get refracted at the
interface of two soil strata and picked up by geophone.
 If the under lying layer is denser, the refracted waves travel
much faster.
 As the distance between shock pt. and geophone increases,
the refracted waves reach earlier than direct waves.
 By the time of travel of both the waves at various geophones,
the depth of various strata can be evaluated.

Seismic refraction methods

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Seismic refraction methods

• This method is very fast and reliable in establishing the profile of
strata.
• Different types of materials such as gravel, clay or rock have
characteristic seismic velocities and identified by distance-time
graphs.
• The exact material can not be identified.

CHOICE OF EXPLORARTION METHOD

1) Nature of ground
 Clayey soil – boring for deep exploration and pits for shallow
exploration
 Sandy soil – Sand pump or boring
 Soft soil- Sounding methods
 Hard rocks – boring
 Soft rock – Trial pits
2) Topography
 Steeply inclined strata- headings
 Horizontal strata – Trial pits or boring

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3) Cost
 For large area – Geophysical methods or sounding methods
are economical with boring
 Deep exploration – borings are economical while deep shafts
are costly
 Shallow exploration in soil – Based on nature of ground pits
or boring can be used
 Shallow exploration in rock – Trial pits are more economical
if area is less otherwise boring is preferred.

SETTLEMENT OF FOUNDATIONS
• The vertical movement of base or footing is known as
settlement of foundation.

• The adverse effect of settlement on super structure is

depends on its magnitude, uniformity, the duration over
which settlement takes place and the nature of structure.

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CAUSES OF SETTLEMENT
 Elastic compression of the foundation and the underlying soil.
 Inelastic compression of underlying soils and can be predicted
by theory of consolidation.
 Ground water lowering.
 Vibrations due to blasting, pile driving etc..
 Ground movement on earth slopes such as landslides, surface
erosion.
 Seasonal swelling and shrinkage of expansive clays.
 Some other causes like underground erosion, adjacent
excavation.

CAUSES OF FAILURES OF FOUNDATIONS AND

REMEDIAL MEASURES

1) Unequal settlement of sub-soil.

2) Unequal settlement of masonry
3) Sub-soil moisture movement
4) Lateral pressure on the walls
5) Lateral movement of sub-soil
6) Atmospheric action
7) Weathering of sub-soil due to trees and shrubs.

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SYMPTOMS OF
FOUNDATION
FAILURE

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