SENSORS, SIGNALS

CONDITIONING AND
TELEMETRY
ASSIGNMENT 1: EIC
GROUP 1

DR.SUNIL JADAV
(Assistant professor, Department of electronics engineering, JC Bose University
of science and technology,YMCA,Faridabad
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We have taken efforts in this project.However ,it would not have been
possible without the kind support and help of all team individuals and
organisations.We would ;ike to exend thanks to all of them.

We are highly indebted DR.Sunil Jadav((Assistant professor,

Department of electronics engineering, JC Bose University of science
and technology,YMCA,Faridabadfor their guidance and constatnt
supervision as well as providing necessary information regarding the
projectand also for their support in completing the project.

I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents and member

of JC Bose University of Science and Technology,YMCA,Faridabad,for
their kind coperation and encouragementwhich help in completing
this project.we would like to express my special gratitude and thanks
to team members for giving me such attention and time.

My thanks and appreciation also goes to my colleague in developing

the project and people who have willingly helped me ou of their
abilities.
SUBMITTED BY: GROUP (1)

 17001009001 ABHISHEK SHARMA

 17001009002 AMAN TYAGI
 17001009003 ANISH
 17001009004 ANKIT
 17001009005 ANMOL AGGARWAL
 17001009007 AYUSH SHARMA
 17001009008 BHARAT PANT
 17001009010 BHUMIKA JAWA
 17001009011 BHUVNESH KUMAR
 17001009013 DAULAT RAM BHARDWAJ
 17001009014 DEEPANSHU GUPTA
 17001009015 DHRUV GOEL
 17001009016 DIVYA
 17001009017 GITIKA CHAUHAN
 17001009018 HARDIK NAGPAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIGITAL SENSORS:-

1.Position Encoders

2.Varriable frequency Sensors/Resonant

Sensors

 Quartz Digital Thermometer

 Vibrating Wire Stain Gage
 Vibrating Cylinder Sensors
 Saw Sensors Digital Flow Meters
POSITION ENCODERS:-

Position encoders are used to track the rotary position of a shaft or linear position of a load either indirectly
with a motor mounted rotary encoder or directly with linear encoders.
For linear position encoders, there are three basic approaches to tracking position:
Indirect measurement using a position encoder on a rotary motor
Indirect measurement using a linear encoder on a linear motor
Direct readout using a position encoder on the load
As always, the selection process involves trade-offs. The most effective implementation depends upon the
setup, the conditions, and the performance requirements of the application.
In general the position encoders can be classified into following two types
1. INCREMENTAL ENCODERS
2. ABSOLUTE ENCODERS

INCREMENTAL ENCODERS:-
An incremental encoder is an electromechanical device that generates pulses on A and B (aka "clock") outputs
in response to incremental mechanical movements. Two basic types of incremental encoders are available:
linear incremental encoders, which detect linear motion; and rotary incremental encoders which detect
movement of a rotating shaft. In either case, when an encoder is moving at a constant speed, the output
pulses take the form of quadrature-encoded square waves.
As an encoder moves faster, the pulse frequency increases accordingly. Since the relationship between pulse
frequency and velocity is linear, it's a simple matter to use the pulse frequency as an indication of speed. The
output pulses can be transformed into speed units by measuring their frequency, multiplying the frequency by

an appropriate scale factor.

In the case of rotary incremental encoders, most devices employ a pulse generator consisting of a light source,
a disk that rotates about the shaft, and a photodetector. The rotating disk has alternating opaque and
transparent regions which serve to block the light or pass it through to the detector. As the disk rotates, the
detector receives light pulses, thus causing it to output a stream of electrical pulses. The shaft, in turn, is
coupled to a mechanical system that is to be instrumented so that its speed and/or position can be monitored.
Linear incremental encoders often employ a similar mechanism, using a linear scale which the encoder and
mechanical system traverse together.
A single output pulse stream is useful for measuring speed, but it doesn't indicate the direction of movement
(i.e., forward/backward or clockwise/counter-clockwise). To get around this problem, an incremental encoder
uses dual pulse generators to allow it to simultaneously output two pulse streams. The two detectors are
intentionally misaligned to cause a 90 degree phase difference between the clocks, thereby making the
clocks quadrature-encoded (A will lead B for one direction of travel, and vice versa when the encoder moves in
the opposite direction). An incremental encoder's travel direction can be determined by detecting the phase
relationship between A and B, while its speed can be determined by measuring the frequency of either clock.
It's possible to obtain higher measurement resolution by "multiplying" the clock frequency. This is
accomplished by counting clock edges instead of clock pulses. Each clock has both a rising

edge and a falling edge for each pulse, so by counting all edges of both the A and B clock phases, it is possible
to get four times the resolution one would get by simply counting pulses from the A clock.
In addition to the clock outputs, some incremental encoders also produce an "index" signal. In rotary
encoders, this signal consists of a single pulse that occurs at a reference position on the encoder's shaft.
ABSOLUTE ENCODERS:-
Absolute encoders have a unique code for each shaft position. Or in other words, every position of an absolute
encoder is distinctive. The absolute encoder interprets a system of coded tracks to create position information
where no two positions are identical. Another feature is that absolute encoders do not lose position whenever
power is switched off.

Since each position is distinctive, the verification of true position is available as soon as power is switched on.
It is not important to initialize the system by going back to a home base for a reference.

Absolute encoders can be either single-turn or multi-turn. Single-turn encoders are well suited to short travel
motion control applications where position verification is needed within a single turn of the encoder shaft.
Multi-turn encoders, on the other hand, are better for applications that involve complex or lengthy positioning
requirements.
Absolute encoders have a number of advantages. First is the non-volatility of memory. An absolute encoder
works as a non-volatile position verification device. True position is not lost if power is lost or the system
moves while power is switched off. A continuous reading of position is not needed. This is specifically useful in
those applications, such as satellite-tracking antennas, where position verification is key.
Absolute encoders also provide programming flexibility. By removing the need for system homing, the
encoders can be controlled to give positioning programs based on setting up reference from point-to-point,
rather than from a home position. Additionally, a microprocessor interface module allows for programming
various operating parameters, such as resolution.
Safety is another benefit. In some applications where a loss of position could lead to operator injury or
machine damage, an absolute encoder automatically provides position verification when the power is
switched on.
Absolute encoders also have good immunity to electrical noise. The device determines position by frequently
reading a coded signal. Stray pulses from electrical noise will not build up and accurate position is presented
again on the next reading.

Incremental Encoders versus Absolute Encoders

The major difference between an absolute encoder and an incremental encoder is that the absolute
encoder keeps track of its position at all times, and provides it as soon as power is applied. This
feature is particularly useful in applications where the equipment runs infrequently and/or has power
turned off between uses. Incremental encoders, by comparison, does not provide any position
information at startup, but merely keeps track of how far it has moved. The only way to determine the
absolute position of incremental encoders is to set the equipment to a known reference position and
then zero the counters.

Advantages:
The biggest advantage of absolute and incremental encoders are that they are inherently digital,
which means they can interface easily to modern control systems. An encoder sends digital quality
signals back to the computer. There is no need for an engineer to get involved in the wiring and
integration of signal electronics. In fact, many engineers are unfamiliar with resolver electronics – it is
much easier to buy an encoder with a digital signal that is ready to go.

An encoder is also fast: some 12-bit optical encoders can provide a reading of absolute position on a
shaft rotating at 12,000 rpm, and there are 12-bit magnetic encoders that can run at 30,000 rpm. As
mentioned before, encoders are available with absolute or incremental output. Incremental encoder
units find a great deal of use as tachometers because their spot-on digital output allows for more
accurate speed control than is available from an analog tachometer. These devices are also void of
the analog tach's brushes and therefor they have a longer life.

Disadvantages:
The biggest limitations of encoders are that they can be fairly complex and contain some delicate
parts. This makes them less tolerant of mechanical abuse and restricts their allowable temperature.
One would be hard pressed to find an optical encoder that will survive beyond 120ºC.
Sensors Based on Quartz Resonators
Quartz is piezoelectric and therefore an applied voltage stresses the crystal (Section 6.2). Is
the voltage alternates at a proper rate, the crystal begins vibrating and yields a steady
signal. The equivalent circuit in Figure 8.16a then replaces that in Figure 6.146. L is
associated with the mass of the crystal, C with its elasticity or mechanical compliance, and R
with its internal friction(resulting in heat dissipation) when oscillating. Co is the electrostatic
capacitance of the crystal between the electrodes plus the holder and the leads. For a
crystal used in a 32.768 kHz oscillator, for example, L 4451 H, C 5 IF Ri 11.2 k2, and Co 1.84
pF. The presence of a resonant circuit in Figure 8.16a permits the crystal to be used in an
oscillator. At series resonance

Fs=1/2π√L1C1

the crystal's reactive elements cancel and provide an effective impedance consisting only of
R (Figure 8.16b). As the frequency increases, the crystal behaves a positive reactance in
series with a resistance. At the ant resonant-frequency S the crystal's reactance is maximal.
The range from , to is referred to The crystal's bandwidth. The series resonant circuit
operates above , where the is slightly inductive. Series capacitance is then added to tuner
circuit. Figure shows a basic oscillator based on CMOS inverters. CLI and CL are loading
capacitances (larger for low oscillating frequency than for high oscillating frequency), R 1 M,
and Ra is a damping resistor that depends on the gate type and oscillation frequency
because quartz is using a high-purity single crystal yields a mechanical resonance with large
long-term stability. Short-term stability depends on the quality factor stiffness and low
hysteresis) and equivalent inductance, which are very large. Short-term stability permits the
design of high-resolution sensors. Long-term stability implies a longer time interval between
calibrations.
Digital Quartz Thermometers
The values for the elements in the equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal depend on the
temperature, and therefore the oscillation frequency displays a thermal drift. If precision-
cut quartz crystals are used, the relationship between temperature and frequency is very
stable and repeatable. Then, from the measurement of the oscillation frequency we can
infer the temperature of the element. The general equation is

f = fo[1+a(T-To) + b(T-To)^2 + c(T-To)^3]

where To is an arbitrary reference temperature (usually 25°C), and for a, b, and e depend on
the cutting orientation. Ideally we would seek h e= 0, but this is not easy. An alternative is to
seek high sensitivity and repeatability instead of linearity and obtain T from/ - / by a look-up table. Some
temperature probes using this principle include the electronic circuitry to output.

a pulse frequency signal enabling remote sensing with low interference susceptibility as
compared to systems with analog voltage output.
Oscillator frequencies range from about 256 kHz to 28 MHz with temperature coefficients
(a) from 19 x 10-/C to 90 x 10/C. Sensitivities are up to about 1000 Hz/" in the range from -
50°C to 150°C. The resolution can be as high as 0.0001 °C, but the better the resolution, the
slower the measurement speed (see Problem 8.2). Some probes reach -40°C to 300°C, but
with reduced linearity unless corrected by a look-up table. Low-mass probes can be applied
to infrared radiation intensity measurement.

Quartz Microbalances.
The oscillation frequency of a crystal reason or decreases when the crystal mass increases.
If the initial oscillation frequency is fat deposition of small mass Am on a crystal with surface
area and density p yields an approximate frequency shift given by the Sauerbrey equation

Deltaf ~ -(fo)^2 deltam/ANp

where N is constant and it is assumed that the mass added does not experience any sheer
delamination during oscillation that is, it is good. For an AT-cut crystal, for example, A/-2.3 x
10 % Am . Disks with 10 to 15 mm diameter and 0.1 to 0.2 mm thickness yield resonant
frequencies from 5 MHz to 20 MHz and have a sensitivity of about 189 ng/MHz). Including a
resonant temperature sensor compensates temperature interference.
This sensing method is applied to humidity measurement by covering the crystal with a
hygroscopic material exposed to the environment where humidity is to be measured. Water
absorbed increases the mass and reduces the crystal oscillation frequency 19, Crystals
coated with specific organic non-volatile materials instead of a hygroscopic material can
detect specific volatile compounds in a gas phase with resolution of nanograms per square
centimetre .
Quartz crystal oscillators are widely used as thin-film thickness monitors to control
deposition mutes and in situ measurement of coating film thickness in the semiconductor
and optical industries. Equation (8,8) is not accurate enough for these monitors. They rely
instead on a sensor function that considers the indolence of the different acoustic
impedances of the deposition materials upon the resonant frequency. The mass sensitivity
of these Z-aching devices depends on the material deposited
Quart Resonators for Force and Pressure Sensing.
Quartz crystals, the same as other single-crystal materials, have highly stable elastic
properties with very low creep and hysteresis. Hence, they suit mechanical resonators
whose resonance frequency depends on the applied stress. For a string-type resonator for
example, the natural mechanical resonant frequency is
Fn=(n/2l)(root(t/p))

where is the harmonic number considered, / is the length of the string a long slender quartz
beam Tis the stress applied, and p is the density of the crystal material. Quartz has the
added advantage of being piezoelectric, so that the vibration can be excited by a driving
alternating voltage and the oscillation frequency is that of the voltage detected by
electrodes deposited on the crystal.
The high stiffness of quartz makes it suitable for force, torque, and pressure measurement A
matched crystal placed nearby but not subjected to mechanical stress yields a signal to
compensate temperature interference. There is u variety of mechanical structures obtained
by micromachining able to sense those measurands. Figure 8.19h shows a sensor for tensile
and compressive force based on a single quartz beam. Other models have two or three
beams. Load cells use a push rod to transmit the input force to the quartz sensor through
lever mechanism. Pressure sensors rely on either the force exerted by a primary sensor
(diaphragm, bellows) or the changing resonant frequency because of the pressure directly
applied to a quartz diaphragm. Using two diaphragms but exposing only one to the pressure
to measure permits differential measurements to compensate for temperature and
acceleration interference.

Quart Angular Rate Sensors.

A vibrating quartz tuning fork can sense angular velocity because of the Coriolis effect. The
sensor typically consists of a double-ended quartz tuning fork micromachined from a single
quartz crystal (Figure 8.20) rotating at the angular velocity to measure, 11. An oscillator at
precise amplitude excites the drive time so that they move toward and away from one
another at a high frequency. Because of the Coriolis effect. there is a force acting on each
time

F= 2mΩ×r

where m is the tine mass and r, is its instantaneous radial velocity. F is perpendicular to both
and hence to the plane of the fork assembly. Because the times move in opposite directions,
the resultant forces also have opposite directions. This produces a torque proportional to
Because is sinusoidal, the torque is also sinusoidal at the same frequency of the drive times.
The pick up lines respond to the oscillating torque by moving in and out of the plane,
producing a signal that can be amplified and demodulated to yield a de voltage proportional
to the rate of rotation Quartz angular rate sensors replace spinning-wheel gyroscopes
because of their lower cost, increased reliability (there are no moving mechanical parts) and
light weight. The Gyro Chip for example, weighs less than 60 g, has a sensitivity of 2.5 mVa
to 50 mV/s ), and has an operating life exceeding 5 years. It has been used to control angular
velocity in aircraft, robots, and hydraulic equipment to instrument automobile motions
during crash tests, to evaluate rider quality in high-speed trains to navigate autonomous
underwater vehicles, to stabilize infrared cameras on helicopters, and in other applications.
 VIBRATING WIRE STRAIN GAUGES

What are they?

Vibrating wire strain gauges are typically used to measure strain and
deformation in metal structures, concrete and reinforced concrete. Depending
on the type of installation and use, these instruments have some
characteristics which make them particularly well-suited, more functional and
easier to install. For strain gauges that measure strain in concrete, we offer
instruments with circular heads at both ends which allowing better functioning
once cemented in position .
For vibrating wire strain gauges to be welded on armatures of metal piles,
diaphragm, walls, tunnel linings, etc., two special removable welding heads
are mounted, this speeds installation and consolidate the instrument perfectly
with the structure
Our vibrating wire strain gauges and all variations are extremely robust
instruments due to a stainless steel body, and are extremely reliable over
time. For these reasons, they are widely used for long-term structural
monitoring and wherever reliability, high precision, speed of installation and
durability are required. The integration of a thermistor into the sensor allows
the measurement of the instrument’s operating temperature.
Vibrating wire strain gauges can be read with our portable units (DEC3000
and DEC5) or automatic unit (CUM3000).

It’s Applications:-

Vibrating wire strain gauges are used for the monitoring of deformations in concrete and are
either spot welded to metal structures or embedded in concrete.
Particularly used for the control of:

 Load tests on pile

 Piles
  Bridges
 Viaducts
 Tunnel Entrances
 Precast concrete blocks for TBM tunnels
 Tunnel linings
 Dams in conventional concrete or RCC
 Metal structures

 Features and Benefits

Our vibrating wire strain gauges are particularly robust and therefore suitable for applications
in places not reachable after installation. They have:

 Long duration
 High resistance to corrosive agents
 Negligible thermal drift
 No need for protection against overvoltage
 Easy connection and metering
 Are available in larger sizes for concrete specific applications
 IP68 protection
 Built-in temperature sensor

Mathematical Analysis:-

The lower transverse oscillation frequency for a vibrating taut string or wire of length is

given by :-
where F is the mechanical force applied to it and is the longitudinal mass
density (mass length).
If the position of one of the ends changes because it is mounted on a movable support, then
the oscillation period is directly proportional to the displacement. If a force is applied, the
resulting oscillation frequency is directly proportional, For strain measurement, so the
equation yields :-

where E is Young's modulus and A is the wire's cross section area.The oscillation frequency
is measured with a variable reluctance sensor and is in the audible range. Hence it is also
called in an acoustic gage. Usually a self-oscillating system is arranged where the detected
signal amplified and fed hack to an electron at driver. Some units use the driver alternately
as the detector . In order for the oscillation frequency to be independent of the driver
electric characteristics, the quality factor for the mechanical resonator must be at least 1000
or higher. It is convenient to use a thin wire, which is closed in a scald chamber to avoid
chemical corrosion and dust density, which would change its mass .This principle can sense
any physical quantity resulting in a change in For .A common application is strain or tension
measurement 13 In contrast with resistive strain gauge, vibrating-wire strain gauges can
detect nonplanar deformation. In addition, they are insensitive to resistance changes in
connecting wires for example, those due to temperature. Temperature interferes because it
affects the sensing wire length I. Io order to compensate for temperature, we can measure
the change in resistance of the driving coil wire, as in RTDs Other reported applications are
the measurement of mass, displacement ,pressure using a diaphragm with attached magnet
as primary sensor), force and weight (using a cantilever as primary sensor).
Vibrating strings are a variation in this same measurement principle. Their lower natural
longitudinal oscillation frequency is:-

where l is the length, E is Young's modulus, and p is the density. Vibrating

strips are used for dust deposition measurements of exhaust gases and also to
measure Viscosity.
Vibrating Cylinder Sensors
If instead of a vibrating wire or strip we use a thin (75 pm) walled
cylinder with a closed end, the oscillation frequency depends on the
on dimensions and material for the cylinder and on any mass
vibrating together with its walls. By using an electromagnetic driver
as in the previous case in order to keep the system oscillating, it is
possible to measure the difference in pressure between both
cylinder sides because it results in mechanical stresses in walls. We
can also apply this system to gas density measurement because the
gas near the wall vibrates when the walls do. For corrosive liquids it
is better to use a glass ceramic cylinder and a piezoelectric driver,
thus avoiding corrosive-prone elements in electromagnetic drivers.
The most common application for this measurement principle is the
measurement of the density of flowing liquids. It consists of two
parallel conduits through which the liquid flows; the two tubes are
clamped at their ends and coupled to the main conduit by a flexible
joint. Because the volume is known and the oscillation frequency for
both conduits, which behave as a tuning fork, depends on the mass,
the frequency depends on the density in the form

Vibrating tube method to measure liquid density

Using formula:

Where fo is the conduit oscillation frequency when there is no liquid,

and po is a constant that depends on system geometry. The output
frequency can be measured, for example, with a PLL whose voltage-
controlled oscillator (VCO) drives the vibrating tube.

Accuracy:
An air data computer increases in accuracy after temperature
correction, linearization at manufacture and digital signal processing.
The real pedigree of an air data computer comes from the stability of
its pressure transducers over time and their overall accuracy.
The vibrating cylinder pressure sensors have a high stability
specification, with minimal change over long periods of time. This
stability reduces the cost of maintenance activities and provides low
cost of ownership for air data computers.
The performance advantage of vibrating cylinders more than offsets
the weight gain as the sensors only represent a small part of the air
data system weight. Additionally there are compelling costs of
ownership benefits for using a stable sensor technology.
 SAW Sensors
A perturbation produces waves on the surface of a liquid, as we all know from our
experience on ponds. Similar waves also travel in the surface of a solid. Lord Rayleigh
analysed these waves in 1885.
Surface Acoustic Waves (SAWs) are elastic waves travelling along the surface of solid
piezoelectric materials with amplitude that decays exponentially with depth.

The piezoelectric effect -

The IDTs and propagation area of a SAW sensor is built on a piezoelectric substrate, which
uses the piezoelectric effect to respond to mechanical forces by generating a voltage, and
vice versa. This voltage is proportional to the amount of force applied to the device as well
as the type of force applied (i.e. tension and compression produce opposite polarities).
Furthermore, this effect is reciprocal, so the device will also respond to an electric field by
generating a mechanical response that is proportional to the field's strength and polarity.

Interdigital Transducer (IDT) -

An Interdigital Transducer (IDT), is a device which consists of two interlocking comb-shaped
metallic coatings which are applied to a piezoelectric substrate such as Quartz to
essentially convert electrical energy to mechanical energy and vice versa.
Such devices find many applications as delay lines, filters, resonators and sensors.

For a distance d between electrodes, a voltage of frequency f is applied to the electrodes

produces a surface deformation that propagates in both directions as a surface wave with
velocity v, depending on the material, provided that v = 2fd.
 Digital Flowmeters
A flow meter (or flow sensor) is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or
volumetric flow rate of a liquid or a gas.

(1) Vortex Shedding Flowmeters –

Vortex shedding is the process by which vortices of gas or liquid are formed around a solid
object that obstructs the path of a gas or liquid stream. These “shed” vortices are carried
downstream in the flow and are detected by vortex shedding and fluidic flow meters, which
measure the velocity of liquids and gases such as water, cryogenic liquids, boiler feed water
,hydrocarbons, chemicals, air, nitrogen, industrial gases, and steam flowing through the
pipe.
Vortex formation was first discovered by Todorvon Karman. Karman Vortices are generated
at the edge of shedder bar when fluid passes across it. This karman vortex generates a lift
force on the shedded bar.
The vortex flow meter measure the flow rate by counting these vortices.

Karman Vortex Frequency –

The Karman vortex frequency is proportional to the flow velocity.Therefore,it is possible to

obtain the flow rate by measuring the karman vortex frequency.

Sensor :- A piezoelectric sensor is used to measure the vortex frequency. Two piezo electric
sensors are embedded in the shedder barand isolated from the process fluid.
This method is fairly accurate (about 0.5%) and independent of fluid viscosity, density,
pressure, and temperature.It is particularly indicated for flow measurements at high
temperature and high pressure. It is unsuitable for dirty, abrasive, or corroding fluids.
(2) Coriolis Effect Mass Flowmeter –

A Coriolis flow meter contains a tube which is energized by a fixed vibration. When a
fluid (gas or liquid) passes through this tube the mass flow momentum will cause a
change in the tube vibration, the tube will twist resulting in a phase shift. This phase
shift can be measured and a linear output derived proportional to flow.

As this principle measures mass flow independent of what is within the tube, it can
be directly applied to any fluid flowing through it - LIQUID or GAS - whereas thermal
mass flow meters are dependent of the physical properties of the
fluid. Furthermore, in parallel with the phase shift in frequency between inlet and
outlet, it is also possible to measure the actual change in natural frequency. This
change in frequency is in direct proportion to the density of the fluid – and a further
signal output can be derived. Having measured both the mass flow rate and the
density it is possible to derive the volume flow rate.
Coriolis flowmeters measure mass directly, not through volume or velocity, and can
measure corrosive fluids and difficult fluids such as slurries, mud, and mixtures. They
are not affected by changes in fluid pressure, density, temperature, or viscosity and
can achieve an uncertainty of about 0.3%.

(3) Turbine Flowmeters –

A turbine flow meter is constructed with rotor and blades that use the mechanical
energy of the fluid to rotate the rotor in the flow stream. Blades on the rotor are angled
to transform energy from the flow stream into rotational energy. The rotor shaft spins
on bearings: when the fluid moves faster, the rotor spins proportionally faster. Shaft
rotation can be sensed mechanically or by detecting the movement of the rotor blades.
Rotor movement is often detected magnetically, where movement of the rotor
generates a pulse. When the fluid moves faster, more pulses are generated. Turbine
flow meter sensors detecting the pulse are typically located external to the flowing
stream to avoid material of construction constraints that would result if wetted sensors
were used. The RPM of the turbine wheel is directly proportional to the mean flow
velocity within the tube diameter and corresponds to the volume flow over a wide
range.
A turbine flow meter is less accurate at low flow rates due to rotor/bearing drag that
slows the rotor. Application in dirty fluids should generally be avoided so as to reduce
the possibility of flowmeter wear and bearing damage. Typically, uncertainty is about
0.5% for liquids and 1% for gases.