materials

Article
Investigation of Tool Wear and Chip Morphology in
Dry Trochoidal Milling of Titanium Alloy Ti–6Al–4V
Dongsheng Liu, Ying Zhang, Ming Luo * and Dinghua Zhang
Key Laboratory of Contemporary Design and Integrated Manufacturing Technology of Ministry of Education,
Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China; 2014200870@mail.nwpu.edu.cn (D.L.);
zhangyingcdim@nwpu.edu.cn (Y.Z.); dhzhang@nwpu.edu.cn (D.Z.)
* Correspondence: luoming@nwpu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-29-8849-3232 (ext. 409)




Received: 21 May 2019; Accepted: 14 June 2019; Published: 16 June 2019


Abstract: Titanium alloys are widely used in the manufacture of aircraft and aeroengine components.
However, tool wear is a serious concern in milling titanium alloys, which are known as hard-to-cut
materials. Trochoidal milling is a promising technology for the high-efficiency machining of
hard-to-cut materials. Aiming to realize green machining titanium alloy, this paper investigates
the effects of undeformed chip thickness on tool wear and chip morphology in the dry trochoidal
milling of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V. A tool wear model related to the radial depth of cut based on
the volume of material removed (VMR) is established for trochoidal milling, and optimized cutting
parameters in terms of cutting speed and axial depth of cut are selected to improve machining
efficiency through reduced tool wear. The investigation enables the environmentally clean rough
machining of Ti–6Al–4V.

Keywords: tool wear; trochoidal milling; titanium alloy; chip morphology

1. Introduction
The application of titanium alloys has dramatically increased in many industries over the past
half century, particularly in the aviation and aerospace industries, where about 80% of titanium
production is used [1]. Such extensive application of titanium alloys is due to their excellent properties,
such as high strength-to-weight ratio, good anticorrosion performance, and strong fracture resistance.
Ti–6Al–4V accounts for the majority of the total consumption of all kinds of titanium alloys.
For most titanium alloy parts, especially aviation parts, traditional cutting methods such as
turning, milling, drilling, and grinding are still the main means of processing and manufacturing [2,3].
However, titanium alloy is known as a kind of hard-to-cut material because of its several inherent
properties, such as high chemical reactivity, low thermal conductivity, and low modulus of elasticity [4].
High chemical reactivity makes chip easily adhere to the tool-cutting edge. Low thermal conductivity
increases the temperature at the tool cutting edge [5], which has an adverse effect on tool condition.
Hence, tool wear is severe in the machining process of titanium alloy, and it will lead to serious
machining vibration [6,7] or damage the machined surface quality [8]. In order to improve the tool life
in the machining of titanium alloy, many research efforts have been made to assist in choosing suitable
machining conditions. Effective cooling methods can significantly improve tool life by lowering the
temperature of the tool cutting edge. Sun et al. [9] adopted the cryogenic compressed air cooling
technique to cool the tool edge during the turning of Ti–6Al–4V. Pittalà [10] used CO2 cryogenic
coolant in the end milling of Ti–6Al–4V. Bermingham et al. [11] made a comparison between cryogenic
and high-pressure emulsion cooling technologies during the turning of Ti–6Al–4V, and found that
high-pressure emulsion cooling achieved a slightly better tool life. Recently, minimum quantity
lubrication (MQL) combined with cryogenic gas [12–15], such as carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and liquid

Materials 2019, 12, 1937; doi:10.3390/ma12121937 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2019, 12, 1937 2 of 13

nitrogen (LN2), has drawn great attention due to its excellent performance in improving tool life during
machining hard-to-cut materials. Machining parameters such as the cutting speed, cutting depth,
and feed rate have critical effects on tool life. Hou et al. [16] investigated the influence of cutting speed
on tool wear in the end milling of Ti–6Al–4V, and the results showed the mean flank temperature
and cutting force increased significantly as the cutting speed increased, which accelerated the tool
wear. Jaffery et al. [17] indicated that the depth of cut had a significant effect on wear performance in
machining Ti–6Al–4V alloy. To improve the machinability of Ti–6Al–4V, other approaches, such as
laser-assisted machining [18], hybrid machining [19], and ultrasonic machining [20] were adopted by
many researchers.
The improvement of tool life by the above-mentioned methods is at the expense of increased cost
and energy consumption, even environmental pollution. To achieve the goals of green machining as
well as the reduction of production cost, dry machining is considered as a promising and satisfactory
solution in the future [21]. In the case of dry machining, the cleaning process of the workpiece can
be spared, and the chips can be disposed of immediately without other treatment. Dry machining
also has some positive effects, such as a reduction in thermal shock and no intrusion introduced by
cooling equipment. However, the dry machining of titanium alloys is detrimental to the tool condition,
because there will be more friction and adhesion between the tool and the workpiece without coolant,
which will accelerate the tool wear [22]. Li et al. [23] investigated the effect of high cutting speed on
tool wear in the dry milling of Ti–6Al–4V, and found that the increase in the cutting speed and feed
rate accelerated the tool wear and drastically decreased the tool lifetime. Deng et al. [24] studied tool
wear in the dry milling of Ti–6Al–4V, and found element diffusion from the Ti–6Al–4V titanium alloy
to WC/Co carbide tools (and vice versa) at temperatures up to 400 ◦ C. Li et al. [25] indicated that the
main wear mechanisms of coated cemented carbide tools were the complicated interactions of several
kinds of wear patterns—such as abrasive wear, coating delamination, adhesive wear, oxidation wear,
and diffusion wear—at high cutting speed in the dry face milling of Ti–6Al–4V.
Trochoidal milling is a promising technology for the high-efficiency machining of hard-to-cut
materials. This method is a combination of circular milling and slicing [26], which possesses a small
engagement region between the tool and workpiece, and enables a relatively high feed rate and axial
depth of cut to increase the machining efficiency. In trochoidal milling, the small engagement angle
between the tool and workpiece generates low cutting forces, and a long period of non-engagement
between the tool and workpiece ensures the effective cooling of the tool. These advantages enable a long
tool life in trochoidal milling. Some research studies about trochoidal milling showed good practical
results. Uhlmann et al. [27] indicated that trochoidal milling enabled lower energy consumption
and process time in the machining of Ti–6Al–4V, compared with the conventional milling strategy.
Wu et al. [28] investigated trochoidal milling in nickel-based superalloy, and the results showed that
trochoidal milling significantly reduced tool flank wear. Patil et al. [29] adopted a trochoidal milling
technique in the slot machining of Ti–6Al–4V, and found that it was better for surface finish and chip
evacuation compared with the traditional slot milling method. In view of the merits of trochoidal
milling, it is an effective method to reduce tool wear, as well as improve the machining efficiency
and quality.
As mentioned above, dry trochoidal milling can be a potential high-efficiency green machining
strategy. However, on reviewing the current research for the green milling of Titanium alloys,
there appears to be limited reports on the machinability of the dry trochoidal milling of titanium alloy.
To fill this research gap, this paper investigates the tool wear as well as the chip morphology in the dry
trochoidal milling of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V based on a set of cutting experiments. Firstly, the effect
that undeformed chip thickness had on tool wear and chip morphology was investigated in the dry
milling of Ti–6Al–4V. The effects of radial cutting depth as well as cutting speed on tool wear were
studied, and a tool wear model based on the volume of material removed (VMR) was then established
based on the flank milling test. Finally, a set of optimized cutting parameters for the dry trochoidal
milling of Ti–6Al–4V was selected and validated by cutting experiments.
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12

2. Experimental Procedures
Materials 2019, 12, 1937 3 of 13
The trochoidal model enables continuity in both feed rate and acceleration due to its continuity
in tangency and curvature [30], which is considered better concerning the kinematical behavior of
2. Experimental Procedures
the machine tool. The trochoidal model is shown in Figure 1. The tool center position Ot (xc,yc)
The trochoidal
parameterized by anglemodel enables continuity
θ is expressed in both feed rate and acceleration due to its continuity
as follows:
in tangency and curvature [30], which is considered better concerning the kinematical behavior of
the machine tool. The trochoidal model θ in Figure 1. The tool center position Ot (xc ,yc )
xc is= shown
c + Rc sin θ
2π
parameterized by angle θ is expressed as follows: (1)
yc = Rcθcos θ
xc = c 2π + Rc sin θ
(1)
where c is the trochoidal stepover, and Rc is the = Rc cos θ radius. Point S is on the tool path envelope,
yc trochoidal
and can be calculated using:
where c is the trochoidal stepover, and Rc is the trochoidal radius. Point S is on the tool path envelope,

and can be calculated using:   OS
→ = OO→ t + Rt ⋅ O
t
OS 
→
(2)
tS
OS = OOt + Rt · O→t S (2)
kOt Sk

Ot S is normal to the trochoidal tool path. The tool contour
where Rt is the tool radius, and vector →
where Rt is the tool radius, and vector Ot S is normal to the trochoidal tool path. The tool contour (xt ,yt )
(xt,yt)isisdetermined
determinedby by following
following expression:
expression:
θ
( xt − c θ − Rc sin θ )22 + ( yt − Rc cos θ2) 2 = R2t 2 (3)
(xt − c 2π − Rc sin θ) + ( yt − Rc cos θ) = Rt (3)
2π
PointPoint
P is Pthe intersection
is the point
intersection ofofthe
point thetool
toolcontour andtool
contour and toolpath
pathenvelope,
envelope, andand
cancan be solved
be solved by by
equations (2) and
Equations (3). (3).
(2) and After calculating
After P,P,the
calculating theinstantaneous radialdepth
instantaneous radial depthofofcut
cut can
can be be obtained
obtained using:
using:
 
→ ⋅O
PS →S
= PS
aae = · Ott S
(4) (4)
e
O→S
kOt Sk
t

PointPoint
A and point
A and B are
point thethe
B are tool entry
tool entryand
andexit
exitpoints
pointsininone
one trochoidal cycle.Between
trochoidal cycle. BetweenAAandand B,
B, the instantaneous
the instantaneous radial radial
depthdepth
of cutofincreases
cut increases continuously
continuously untiluntil reaching
reaching its maximal
its maximal value
value when
when point P
point P reaches the cusp [31], and then decreases to zero. The trochoidal model generates a anon-
reaches the cusp [31], and then decreases to zero. The trochoidal model generates
non-symmetric
symmetric tool pathtool path
that that is smooth
is smooth toward toward its cusp,
its cusp, whichwhich is not
is not located
located onon x axis.
x axis.

Figure
Figure 1. Geometric
1. Geometric model
model of of trochoidalmilling.
trochoidal Here, O
milling. Here, Ott isisthe
thetool
toolcenter position;
center Oc the
position; current
Oc the current
revolution
revolution center
center of the
of the tooltool center;θ θisisthe
center; therevolution angle;c cisisthe
revolution angle; thetrochoidal stepover;
trochoidal Rc isRthe
stepover; c is the
trochoidal radius; R t is the tool radius; and ae is the current radial depth
trochoidal radius; Rt is the tool radius; and ae is the current radial depth of cut. of cut.

To improve machining efficiency, trochoidal milling usually adopts a large axial depth of cut
and a small radial depth of cut. In combination with suitable cutting parameters and machining
equipment, an axial depth of cut up to two times the tool diameter can be reached [27]. Compared
Materials 2019, 12, 1937 4 of 13

To improve machining efficiency, trochoidal milling usually adopts a large axial depth of cut and a
small radial depth of cut. In combination with suitable cutting parameters and machining equipment,
an axial depth of cut up to two times the tool diameter can be reached [27]. Compared with the axial
depth of cut, the radial depth of cut related to chip thickness has a greater effect on the tool wear,
since it affects the maximum undeformed chip thickness, which determines the maximum cutting
force applied on the tool cutting edge. Additionally, cutting speed also has a great effect on tool life in
milling titanium alloy [16]. Therefore, before performing the dry trochoidal milling test, the effects
of radial cutting depth and cutting speed on the dry milling of Ti–6Al–4V are investigated by4flank
Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 12
milling tests first.
with the axial depth of cut, the radial depth of cut related to chip thickness has a greater effect on the
2.1. Experimental Setup
tool wear, since it affects the maximum undeformed chip thickness, which determines the maximum
cutting
Theforce applied onused
workpieces the tool
in cutting edge.were
this study Additionally,
annealedcutting speed also
Ti–6Al–4V has with
blocks a greata effect
size onof
tool life in
230 mm × milling
230 mmtitanium
× 27 mm. alloyThe
[16]. Therefore,
nominal beforecomponents
chemical performing and
the dry trochoidal
physical milling
properties oftest,
the
the effectsalloys
titanium of radial cutting
are listed depth1.and
in Table Thecutting speed on
specifications ofthe
thedry
usedmilling
cuttingoftools
Ti–6Al–4V are investigated
are presented in Table 2.
by flank
All millingtests
the milling testswere
first.conducted on an YHV850 three-axis machine tool (Yonghua Machinery Co.,
Ltd., Yanzhou, China) shown in Figure 2. Down milling was adopted in all the tests.
2.1. Experimental Setup
Table 1. Nominal chemical components and physical properties of the titanium alloys.
The workpieces used in this study were annealed Ti–6Al–4V blocks with a size of 230 mm × 230
mm Element
× 27 mm. The nominal
Al chemical
V components
Fe and physical
O C propertiesN of the titanium
H alloys
Ti are
listed wt.%
in Table 1. The specifications
5.5–6.8 3.5–4.5 of the used cutting
<0.5 <0.2 tools<0.1
are presented
<0.05 in Table 2. All the
<0.015 milling
balance
tests were conducted on an YHV850
Elastic
three-axis machine tool (Yonghua
Thermal
Machinery Co., Ltd., Yanzhou,
Melting
Physical
China) shown in Density
Figure 2. Down millingYield
was Strength
adopted in all the tests. Hardness
3 Modulus Conductivity Point
Properties (kg/m ) (MPa) (HRC)
(GPa) (W/(m·K)) (◦ C)
value Table 1. 4430
Nominal chemical
113.8 components
880and physical properties
6.7 of the titanium36alloys. 1604–1660
Element Al V Fe O C N H Ti
wt.% 5.5–6.8 Table 2. Specifications
3.5–4.5 <0.5 of the helical
<0.2 milling cutter.
<0.1 <0.05 <0.015 balance
Elastic
Corner Yield Thermal Second Melting
Physical Number
Diameter Density Helix Radius Coating
Rake Hardness
Clearance
Clearance
Hardness
(mm) of Flutes Modulus
◦ Strength Conductivity
(◦ ) Angle (◦ ) (HRC) ◦ Point
Properties (kg/m3)Angle ( ) (mm)
Angle
Angle ( )
(HRC)
（GPa） (MPa) (W/(m·K)) (°C)
12 4 35 0.5 TiAlN (3 µm) 4 8 36 20 65
1604–1660
value 4430 113.8 880 6.7

Figure 2. Experimental
Figure 2. Experimental setup.
setup.

Table 2. Specifications of the helical milling cutter.

Helix Corner Rake Second

Diameter Number Clearance Hardness
Angle Radius Coating Angle Clearance
(mm) of Flutes Angle (°) (HRC)
(°) (mm) (°) angle (°)
TiAlN
12 4 35 0.5 4 8 20 65
(3 μm)
Materials 2019, 12, 1937 5 of 13

2.2. Experimental Design

The experimental design is focused on two main cutting parameters: the cutting speed and the
radial depth of cut. The axial depth of cut is fixed at 2 mm, and the feed rate is fixed at 0.1 mm per tooth.
Three levels of cutting speeds are selected, i.e., Vc = 60 m/min, 130 m/min, and 200 m/min. For each
cutting speed, there are three levels of radial depths of cut, i.e., ae = 0.2 mm, 0.4 mm, and 0.6 mm.
Detailed cutting parameters for all nine groups of tests are listed in Table 3.

Table 3. Cutting parameters used in the experiments (fz = 0.1 mm/tooth, ap = 2 mm).

Cutting Speed Radial Depth of Spindle Speed Feed Rate

Test No.
(m/min) Cut ae (mm) (rpm) (mm/min)
1 0.2
2 60 0.4 1592 637
3 0.6
4 0.2
5 130 0.4 3448 1379
6 0.6
7 0.2
8 200 0.4 5305 2122
9 0.6

For each test, the tool rejection or failure is judged according to the following criteria:

(1) Average flank wear VB = 0.2 mm;

(2) Maximum flank wear VB_max = 0.3 mm;
(3) Excessive chipping/flaking or catastrophic failure.

The test will be stopped when any of the above criteria is reached. For the third criterion, the test
result is invalid, and the test will be repeated until meeting one of the first two criteria. Then, the VMR
will be calculated according to the cutting length.

3. Results and Analysis

3.1. Tool Wear Model Related with Radial Depth of Cut

Tool life results in terms of VMR are shown in Table 4, where the third column “effective cutting
time” denotes the total time when the tool is engaged with the workpiece, and “MRR” represents
the material removal rate. Suppose that the relationship between the radial depth of cut and VMR
possesses a quadratic form as follows:

VMR = A2 ae 2 + A1 ae + A0 (5)

where A2 , A1 , and A0 are unknown coefficients.

According to the results in Table 4, the relationships between radial depth of cut and VMR for
three levels of cutting speeds can be obtained by quadratic fitting (see Figure 3):

VMR1 = 1.2713 × 106 ae 2 − 0.9974 × 106 ae + 0.2259 × 105

VMR2 = 5.5603 × 105 ae − 5.3556 × 105 ae + 1.2995 × 105 (6)
VMR3 = 1.4433 × 105 ae 2 − 1.4502 × 105 ae + 0.3657 × 105

where VMR1 , VMR2 , and VMR3 correspond to cutting speeds of 60 m/min, 130 m/min, and 200 m/min,
respectively. In Figure 3, it is observed that VMR decreases with the increase of cutting speed in
the cutting speed range of 60 to 200 m/min. For each cutting speed, there is a radial depth of cut
Materials 2019, 12, 1937 6 of 13

corresponding to the lowest VMR, which should be avoided in practical milling. More specifically,
VMR at 0.4-mm radial depth of cut is lower than that at 0.2 mm and 0.6 mm radial depths of cut.
This could be explained by the cutting force load increasing with the increase of radial depth of cut,
thus accelerating the tool wear. However, when the radial depth of cut increased to 0.6 mm, a thicker
chip carried away more cutting heat, which kept the tool in a better cutting condition despite a larger
Materials
force 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW
load. 6 of 12

Table 4. Test
Table4. Testresults.
results. VMR:
VMR: volume
volume of
of material
materialremoved.
removed.

Test No.
Test No. VMR (mm33)) Effective
VMR(mm Cutting
Effective CuttingTime
Time (s)
(s) MRR
MRR(mm /min)
(mm33/min)
11 77280
77,280 18198
18,198 254.8
254.8
22 30360
30,360 3575
3575 509.6
509.6
33 85,146
85146 6683
6683 764.4
764.4
44 45,080
45080 4904
4904 551.6
551.6
5 4692 255 1103.2
6
5 4692
8786
255
319
1103.2
1654.8
76 8786
13,340 319943 1654.8
848.8
87 13340
1472 94352 848.8
1697.6
98 1518
1472 5236 2546.4
1697.6
9 1518 36 2546.4

Figure 3. Relationship
Figure 3. Relationship between
between radial
radial depth
depth of
of cut
cut and
and VMR.
VMR.

3.2. Tool Wear and Chip Morphology

3.2. Tool Wear and Chip Morphology
Tool edges of worn tools were scanned using Alicona Infinitefocus G4 (Graz, Austria) with a
Tool edges of worn tools were scanned using Alicona Infinitefocus G4 (Graz, Austria) with a
magnification of 50×, as shown in Figure 4. For three groups of tests at 60 m/min cutting speed (test
magnification of 50×, as shown in Figure 4. For three groups of tests at 60 m/min cutting speed (test
no. 1, 2, and 3), the tool wear pattern is uniform flank wear. As the cutting speed increases to 130 m/min
no. 1, 2, and 3), the tool wear pattern is uniform flank wear. As the cutting speed increases to 130
and 200 m/min, the tool wear pattern changes to notch wear, and the maximum wear position locates
m/min and 200 m/min, the tool wear pattern changes to notch wear, and the maximum wear position
on the upper part of the tool edge. At the same radial depth of cut, the maximum flank wear increases
locates on the upper part of the tool edge. At the same radial depth of cut, the maximum flank wear
as the cutting speed increases. At the same cutting speed, the higher the radial depth, the more serious
increases as the cutting speed increases. At the same cutting speed, the higher the radial depth, the
the tool wear. For all the tests, tool wear on the tool tip is slight. As reported in [9], in milling titanium
more serious the tool wear. For all the tests, tool wear on the tool tip is slight. As reported in [9], in
alloy, the cutting temperature increases dramatically with the increase in the cutting speed, and the
milling titanium alloy, the cutting temperature increases dramatically with the increase in the cutting
tool wear progresses rapidly due to the high temperature and strong adhesion between the tool and
speed, and the tool wear progresses rapidly due to the high temperature and strong adhesion
workpiece material.
between the tool and workpiece material.
Chips during tests were collected and analyzed. The macro images of chips in test no. 1 are shown
Chips during tests were collected and analyzed. The macro images of chips in test no. 1 are
in Figure 5, where chip morphologies at different VMRs are presented. At the initial stage of tool life,
shown in Figure 5, where chip morphologies at different VMRs are presented. At the initial stage of
the chips are uniform, regular, curled, and separated in shape due to intermittent milling and good
tool life, the chips are uniform, regular, curled, and separated in shape due to intermittent milling
tool condition [32] (see Figure 5a). Each chip can be divided into two sections: the corner section and
and good tool condition [32] (see Figure 5a). Each chip can be divided into two sections: the corner
section and the major section (see Figure 6a). The corner section was formed by the tool nose edge,
and the major section was formed by the side cutting edge [33]. The back surface of the chip came
into contact with the rake face of the tool under high contact pressure, and the friction is smooth and
shiny, while the free surface of the chip is rough (see Figure 6a). When the VMR reaches 9200 mm3,
 Materials 2019, 12, 1937 7 of 13

the major section (see Figure 6a). The corner section was formed by the tool nose edge, and the major
section was formed by the side cutting edge [33]. The back surface of the chip came into contact with
the rake face of the tool under high contact pressure, and the friction is smooth and shiny, while the
free surface of the chip is rough (see Figure 6a). When the VMR reaches 9200 mm3 , chip separation has
failed, which results in several chips sticking to each other (see Figure 5b). With the VMR increased to
27,000
Materials 12, x3 ,FOR
2019,mm chips with
PEER tight spiral shapes appear (see Figure 5c). As the VMR increases, the spiral
REVIEW 7 of 12
radius increases (see Figure 5c,e). When the VMR is 46,000 mm3 , the chip is twisted and irregular
back insurface
shape.ofBesides,
the chipobvious
(see Figure 6b). related
scratches At the to
end stage
tool wearofare
tool life, serious
observed distortion
on the andof
back surface scratches
the
occurchip (seechip
on the Figure 6b).Figure
(see At the6c).
endItstage
can beof tool life, serious
inferred distortion
that the worse theandtool
scratches
wear,occur on the
the more chip the
severe
chip (see Figure 6c). It can be inferred that the worse the tool wear, the more severe the chip distortion.
distortion.

FigureFigure 4. Photos
4. Photos taken
taken by by Alicona
Alicona Infinitefocus
Infinitefocus G4 forG4wornfor tools
wornwith
toolscutting
with cutting parameters
parameters (a) Vc = 60
V c = a e = mm, (b) V c = 60 m/min, a e = 0.4 mm, (c) V c =
m/min, ae = 0.2 mm, (b) Vc = 60 m/min, ae = 0.4 mm, (c) Vc = 60 m/min, ae = 0.6 mm, (d) Vc = 130mm,
(a) 60 m/min, 0.2 60 m/min, a e = 0.6 m/min,
ae = 0.2 V c = (e)
(d)mm, 130Vm/min, ae = 0.2 amm,
c = 130m/min,
(e) V c = (f)
e = 0.4 mm,
130Vm/min, ae = 0.4 mm,
c = 130 m/min,
(f) V
ae = 0.6 c = 130
mm, (g) m/min, = 0.6 mm,
Vc = 200aem/min, ae = 0.2
(g) V c = 200 m/min, ae = 0.2 mm, (h) V c = 200 m/min, ae = 0.4 mm, and (i) V c = 200 m/min, ae = 0.6 mm.
mm, (h) Vc = 200 m/min, ae = 0.4 mm, and (i) Vc = 200 m/min, ae = 0.6 mm.
Chip morphologies in tests no. 5 and no. 9 are shown in Figures 7 and 8, respectively. Comparisons
Chip
of chipmorphologies
morphology betweenin tests no.
test no.5 1,and
no. no. 9 are
5, and no. shown in Figure
9 are shown 7 and
in Figure 9. TheFigure 8, respectively.
evolutions of chip
Comparisons
morphology of are
chip morphology
similar between
for each test. test no.
At the initial stage1, of
no. 5,life,
tool andtheno. 9 are
chips are shown
separated inand
Figure 9. The
regular
evolutions
in shape (see Figures 7a, 8a and 9a). At the middle stage, the chips begin to stick together (see Figures are
of chip morphology are similar for each test. At the initial stage of tool life, the chips
separated
7b, 8b and 9b).
regular inend
At the shape (see
stage, Figures 7a,
continuous 8awith
chips andlong9a). spiral
At theshapes
middle stage,
appear the
(see chips7c,
Figures begin
8c to
and 9c), while the chips in test no. 1 are broken into pieces. Such a difference of
stick together (see Figures 7b, 8b and 9b). At the end stage, continuous chips with long spiral shapes chip morphologies
between
appear test no. 7c,
(see Figures 1 and
8c test
andno.9c),5 while
or no. 9the
is caused
chips inbytest
the no.
chip1thickness.
are broken Tointo
be more specific,
pieces. Suchthe radial
a difference
depth of cut in test no. 1 is smaller than those in test no. 5 and no. 9, which causes
of chip morphologies between test no. 1 and test no. 5 or no. 9 is caused by the chip thickness. the chip in test no. To
1 be
to be thinner and easier to break. Chip morphologies in other tests were also observed, and it was
more specific, the radial depth of cut in test no. 1 is smaller than those in test no. 5 and no. 9, which
found that the evolutions of chip morphology at the same radial depth were similar. The change of
causes the chip in test no. 1 to be thinner and easier to break. Chip morphologies in other tests were
chip morphology is mainly caused by the tool wear and the formation of a built-up edge [34].
also observed, and it was found that the evolutions of chip morphology at the same radial depth were
similar. The change of chip morphology is mainly caused by the tool wear and the formation of a
built-up edge [34].
 Materials 2019, 12, 1937 8 of 13
Materials
Materials 2019,
2019, 12,
12, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 88 of
of 12
12

Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Chip
FigureChip morphology
morphology(test
morphology
5. Chip (testno.
(test no. 1:
no. 1: V
1: Vccc ==
V =60m/min,
60 m/min, aaappp===22mm,
60m/min, mm, aaeaee===0.2
2mm, 0.2mm,
mm, fzff=
0.2mm, zz = 0.1
=0.1
0.1 mm/tooth)
mm/tooth)
mm/tooth) under
under
under
VMR
VMR of
of (a)
VMR
Figure (a)
of 92
(a)
5. Chipmm
92 92
mm 3
mm3,, (b)
3
(b) 9200
9200mm
9200
, (b)
morphology mm ,,no.
mm
(test
3
33 ,(c)
(c) 27000
27000
(c)1:
27,000 mm
mm ,,,(d)
mm
3
3
Vc = 60m/min,3 (d) a46000
(d)46,000
46000 mm3 3
mm,a(e)
mm
p = 2mm,
, (e)
e, =(e)
3 64400
64400
64,400
0.2mm, mmfmm
zmm
3 3
3
= ,0.1
and,, and
and (f)
(f) 77280
77280
(f) 77,280
mm/tooth) mm mm
. 3..
3mm
under
3

VMR of (a) 92 mm3, (b) 9200 mm3, (c) 27000 mm3, (d) 46000 mm3, (e) 64400 mm3, and (f) 77280 mm3.

Figure 6.
6. Chip
Figure
Figure Chip morphology
6. Chip
morphology in
in enlarged
morphology in enlarged
enlarged view
view
view (test no.
(test
(test no. 1:
1: V
no. 1: = m/min,
== c60
Vcc V 60 60 m/min,
m/min, aapp ==ap22=mm,2 mm,
mm, = 0.2
aaee ==ae0.2
0.2 mm,
mm, ffzz == 0.1
mm, 0.1
Figure= 6. Chip morphology in enlarged view (test
3 , (b) no. 1: Vc3=, and
60 m/min, ap =mm 2 mm,
3. ae = 0.2 mm, fz = 0.1
mm/tooth)
f
mm/tooth)
z 0.1 with
with VMR
VMR of
mm/tooth) of (a)
(a) 92
with VMR mm ,3, (b)
92 mmof 3
(a)
3 (b) 46000
92 46000 mm
mm mm3,, and
3
and (c)
46,000
3 mm (c) 77280
77280 mm
(c)mm3 ..
3
77,280
3
mm/tooth) with VMR of (a) 92 mm , (b) 46000 mm , and (c) 77280 mm .

Figure
Figure 7.
Figure
Figure 7. 7.
Chips Chips
7.Chips
Chips morphology
morphology
morphology
morphology (testno.
(test
(test
(test no.5:
no.
no. 5:V
5:
5: Vcccc====130
VV 130 m/min, aaapppp====2222mm,
130 m/min,
m/min, mm,aaeaae=ee==0.4
mm,
mm, =0.4mm,
0.4
0.4mm,fz f=
mm,
mm, 0.1
z ffz=
z=
mm/tooth)
0.1
=0.1 mm/tooth)
mm/tooth)
0.1 mm/tooth)
under VMR of (a) 184 mm 3 , (b) 1472 mm3 , and (c) 2760 mm3 .
under
under VMR
under VMR
VMR of (a)
(a)(a)184
ofof 184 mm,, (b)
184mm
mm 3
3 3 (b)1472
,(b) 1472mm
1472 mm,,,and
mm 3
33 and (c)
and (c) 2760 mm ...
2760 mm 33
3
 Figure
Materials 2019,7.
12,Chips
1937 morphology (test no. 5: Vc = 130 m/min, ap = 2 mm, ae = 0.4 mm, fz = 0.1 mm/tooth)9 of 13
under VMR of (a) 184 mm3, (b) 1472 mm3, and (c) 2760 mm3.

Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12

morphology (test
Figure 8. Chips morphology (test no.
no. 9: Vcc == 200
9: V 200 m/min, app == 22 mm,
mm, ae = 0.6 mm, fzz == 0.1
= 0.6 0.1 mm/tooth)
mm/tooth)
under VMR of (a) 276 mm3, (b) 828 mm33,, and
and (c)(c) 1656 mm33. .
1656 mm

Chip morphology
Figure 9. Chip morphologyat at(a)
(a)initial
initialstage
stage(the
(theVMR
VMRvalues
valuesfor
fortest
testno.
no.1,1,no.
no.5, 5,
and and
no.no. 9 are
9 are 92
92 mm 3 , 184 mm 3 , and 276 mm 3 (b) middle stage (the VMR values at the middle stage for test no. 1,
mm 3, 184 mm3, and 276 mm3), (b)), middle stage (the VMR values at the middle stage for test no. 1, no.
no. 5, and 3 3 and 8283mm3 ) and (c) end stage (the VMR values at the
5, and no. no.
9 are9 46000
are 46,000
mm3mm , 1472, 1472
mm3mm, and, 828 mm ) and (c) end stage (the VMR values at the end
end 3 2760 3 , and 1656 3 ) of tool life.
stagestage for no.
for test test1,no.
no.1,5,no.
and5, no.
and9no.are977280
are 77,280
mm3, mm2760,mm 3, mm
and 1656 mm3) mmof tool life.

The results show

The results show that
thatthe
thecutting
cuttingspeed
speedand
andthe
the radial
radial depth
depth of of
cutcut have
have great
great influence
influence on
on the
the
VMR.VMR. To achieve
To achieve a maximum
a maximum VMR, VMR, the suggested
the suggested cutting
cutting parameters
parameters are Vcare c = 60 m/min
= 60Vm/min and ae =and
0.6
e = 0.6
amm mm when ap = 2 mm and f z = 0.1 mm/tooth in drying milling
when ap = 2 mm and fz = 0.1 mm/tooth in drying milling Ti–6Al–4V. Ti–6Al–4V.

3.3. Trochoidal Milling

3.3. Trochoidal Milling Test
Test
The
The test
test setup
setup for
fortrochoidal
trochoidalmilling
millingisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure 10a.
10a.The
Thetool
toolhas the
has same
the same specifications
specifications as
those used in the above tests. Figure 10b shows the trochoidal toolpath, where
as those used in the above tests. Figure 10b shows the trochoidal toolpath, where c denotes the c denotes the trochoidal
stepover.
trochoidalOne trochoid
stepover. Onecycle is composed
trochoid cycle isofcomposed
a toolpathof ofaretraction
toolpath denoted by the
of retraction red dotby
denoted line and
the reda
toolpath
dot line and a toolpath of engagement denoted by the black dot line (see Figure 10b). According of
of engagement denoted by the black dot line (see Figure 10b). According to the results to
the flank milling tests, a combination of a 60 m/min cutting speed and 0.6-mm
the results of the flank milling tests, a combination of a 60 m/min cutting speed and 0.6-mm radial radial depth of cut
achieved
depth of cuta maximum
achievedVMR. Thus, aVMR.
a maximum set of cutting
Thus, a parameters—i.e., Vc = 60 m/min,Vfzc == 60
set of cutting parameters—i.e., 0.1m/min,
mm/tooth,fz =
and c = 0.6 mm—was adopted in the trochoidal milling test, where the
0.1 mm/tooth, and c= 0.6 mm—was adopted in the trochoidal milling test, where the stepover stepover corresponded to the
radial depth of to
corresponded cut.
theUnlike
radialthe above
depth of tests, the axial
cut. Unlike depth
the above of tests,
cut wastheset to 10depth
axial mm in ofthis
cuttest
wastoset
achieve
to 10
ammhigh material removal rate.
in this test to achieve a high material removal rate.
This test achieved a material removal rate of 1165.9 mm3 /min and a total volume of 206,940 mm3 of
material removed. The total cutting time, including the tool engaged and retracted time, was 177.5 min.
The general view of the tool after the test is shown in Figure 11a, where lots of chip debris adhered
to the rake face of the tool are observed, and the shapes of chips are diverse along the cutting edge.
In addition, the TiAlN coating (dark color) on the engaged part of the tool had been worn away and
the substrate material (bright color) of the tool was exposed. Figure 11b,c show enlarged views of the
middle and tip position of the engaged cutting edge, respectively. In the figures, the materials removed
from the workpiece were adhered to the flank face by cold welding. Moreover, small chippings,
which perform as chip breakers, can be observed on the cutting edge [35].

Figure 10. (a) Dry trochoidal milling test; (b) Trochoidal toolpath.

3 3
dot line and a toolpath of engagement denoted by the black dot line (see Figure 10b). According to
the results of the flank milling tests, a combination of a 60 m/min cutting speed and 0.6-mm radial
depth of cut achieved a maximum VMR. Thus, a set of cutting parameters—i.e., Vc = 60 m/min, fz =
0.1 mm/tooth, and c= 0.6 mm—was adopted in the trochoidal milling test, where the stepover
corresponded
Materials 2019, 12, to the radial depth of cut. Unlike the above tests, the axial depth of cut was set10toof10
1937 13
mm in this test to achieve a high material removal rate.

Materials 2019, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12

removed from the workpiece were adhered to the flank face by cold welding. Moreover, small
chippings, which perform as chip breakers, can be observed on the cutting edge [35].
The chips at different stages of tool life were collected in the trochoidal milling tests. Chip
morphology images are shown in Figure 12. It is observed that each chip had an intact curled needle
shape with serrated boundaries at an early stage of 10 min (see Figure 12a). At 80 min, distorted and
obvious scratches could be seen on the back surface of the chip (see Figure 12b). At 177.5 min, several
chips were twisted into a lump, and intact chips had broken into small pieces (see Figure 12c). It can
Materials 2019, 12, xthat
be concluded FOR chip
PEER REVIEW 10 of 12
Figuremorphology
Figure 10. (a)
(a) Dry is closely
Dry trochoidal
trochoidal related
milling
milling to(b)
test;
test; theTrochoidal
(b) tool weartoolpath.
Trochoidal condition and provides an
important indication for tool condition monitoring.
removed from the workpiece were adhered to the flank face by cold welding. Moreover, small
This test achieved a material removal rate of 1165.9 mm3/min and a total volume of 206,940 mm3
chippings, which perform as chip breakers, can be observed on the cutting edge [35].
of material removed. The total cutting time, including the tool engaged and retracted time, was 177.5
The chips at different stages of tool life were collected in the trochoidal milling tests. Chip
min. The general view of the tool after the test is shown in Figure 11a, where lots of chip debris
morphology images are shown in Figure 12. It is observed that each chip had an intact curled needle
adhered
shape towiththeserrated
rake face of the toolatare
boundaries an observed,
early stageandof 10the shapes
min of chips
(see Figure areAt
12a). diverse along
80 min, the cutting
distorted and
edge. In addition, the TiAlN coating (dark color) on the engaged part of the tool had
obvious scratches could be seen on the back surface of the chip (see Figure 12b). At 177.5 min, several been worn away
and the substrate material (bright color) of the tool was exposed. Figure 11b,c show
chips were twisted into a lump, and intact chips had broken into small pieces (see Figure 12c). It can enlarged views
of the middle and
be concluded thattipchip
position of the engaged
morphology cutting
is closely related edge,
to therespectively. In the figures,
tool wear condition the materials
and provides an
important indication for tool condition monitoring.

Figure
Figure 11. 11.
ToolTool condition
condition afterafter dry trochoidal
dry trochoidal milling
milling test.General
test. (a) (a) General view
view of the of the(b)
tool; tool;
Top(b) Top
position;
position; (c) Middle position; (d) Bottom
(c) Middle position; (d) Bottom positon. positon.

The chips at different stages of tool life were collected in the trochoidal milling tests.
Chip morphology images are shown in Figure 12. It is observed that each chip had an intact
curled needle shape with serrated boundaries at an early stage of 10 min (see Figure 12a). At 80 min,
distorted and obvious scratches could be seen on the back surface of the chip (see Figure 12b).
At 177.5 min, several chips were twisted into a lump, and intact chips had broken into small pieces
(see Figure 12c). It can be concluded that chip morphology is closely related to the tool wear condition
Figure 11. Tool condition after dry trochoidal milling test. (a) General view of the tool; (b) Top
and provides
position;an
(c)important indication
Middle position; for tool
(d) Bottom condition monitoring.
positon.

Figure 12. Chip morphology in trochoidal milling tests at cutting stage of (a) 10 min, (b) 80 min and
(c) 177.5 min.

4. Conclusions
This paper investigated the tool wear and chip morphology in the dry milling of titanium alloy
Ti–6Al–4V for the aim of green machining titanium alloy. The effect of the radial depth of cut on tool
wear was studied considering cutting speed, and a corresponding tool wear model related with radial
cutting depth was established. According to the test results, cutting parameters in terms of radial
depth of cut were optimized to improve the machining efficiency and reduce the tool wear. Then, the
Figure
Figure 12.12. Chip
Chip morphologyinintrochoidal
morphology trochoidal milling
milling tests
tests at
at cutting
cuttingstage
stageofof(a)
(a)1010min,
min,(b)(b)
8080
min and
min and
optimized
(c) 177.5
cutting
min.
parameters were adopted by following the trochoidal milling test. Meanwhile,
(c) 177.5 min.
chips over the tool life cycle were collected and observed. Based on the results and analysis, the
4.following
Conclusionsconclusions can be drawn:

This paper investigated the tool wear and chip morphology in the dry milling of titanium alloy
Ti–6Al–4V for the aim of green machining titanium alloy. The effect of the radial depth of cut on tool
wear was studied considering cutting speed, and a corresponding tool wear model related with radial
Materials 2019, 12, 1937 11 of 13

4. Conclusions
This paper investigated the tool wear and chip morphology in the dry milling of titanium alloy
Ti–6Al–4V for the aim of green machining titanium alloy. The effect of the radial depth of cut on
tool wear was studied considering cutting speed, and a corresponding tool wear model related with
radial cutting depth was established. According to the test results, cutting parameters in terms
of radial depth of cut were optimized to improve the machining efficiency and reduce the tool
wear. Then, the optimized cutting parameters were adopted by following the trochoidal milling test.
Meanwhile, chips over the tool life cycle were collected and observed. Based on the results and analysis,
the following conclusions can be drawn:
(1) For each cutting speed, Vc = 60, 130, and 200 m/min, there is a radial depth of cut corresponding
to the lowest VMR, which should be avoided in practical milling. In this research, a 0.4-mm radial
depth of cut should be avoided.
(2) In order to improve cutting efficiency in material removal, an appropriate radial depth of cut
is necessary. In this paper, a 0.6-mm radial depth of cut combined with a 60 m/min cutting speed are
suggested when ap = 2 mm and fz = 0.1 mm/tooth in drying milling titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V.
(3) Trochoidal milling is a promising method for green machining titanium alloy. By using a
0.6-mm radial depth of cut and 60 m/min cutting speed, the material removal rate is 1165.93 mm3 /min,
and the tool life reaches 177.5 min in dry trochoidal milling.
(4) Chip morphology is closely associated with tool condition, and chip morphology can be
adopted to monitor the tool condition.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.L.; Investigation, D.L. and Y.Z.; Methodology, D.L. and M.L.;
Supervision, M.L. and D.Z.; Validation, D.L. and Y.Z.; Writing—original draft, D.L. and Y.Z.; Writing—review &
editing, M.L. and D.Z.
Funding: This work was supported by the National Science and Technology Major Project (Grant No.
2017ZX04013001).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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