The  Cunning-­‐Folk’s  Chrismon?  

Reginald  Scot’s  Eight-­‐Armed  Seals  
 
Phil  Legard  
p.p.legard@leedsbeckett.ac.uk    
 
When   the   Elizabethan   Protestant   and   witch-­‐craze   skeptic   Reginald   Scot  
published   a   number   of   magical   manuscripts   in   his   influential   The   Discoverie   of  
Witchcraft  (1584),  he  intended  to  draw  a  parallel  between  the  practices  of  magic  
and   witchcraft   and   the   ritualised   superstitions   of   the   Catholic   Church.   History  
shows,  however,  that  his  publication  in  fact  became  a  great  treasury  of  magical  
information   from   which   generations   of   magicians   and   cunning-­‐folk   in   the   British  
Isles   drew   inspiration.   Owen   Davies   records   that   Scot’s   book   appeared   in   the  
library   of   Welsh   cunning-­‐men   John   and   Henry   Harries,   while   material   drawn  
from   it   was   still   being   incorporated   into   popular   chapbooks   in   the   early   19th  
century  (Davies  1995:  189;  173-­‐4).  
 
Particularly   valuable   to   the   practical   magician   was   the   fifteenth   chapter   of   The  
Discoverie,   which   was   drawn   from   the   manuscripts   of   cunning-­‐men   ‘T.R.’   and  
John  Cokars.  This  material  proved  so  popular  that  the  editor  of  the  1665  edition  
inserted   a   large   amount   of   additional,   practical   magical   material   into   Scot’s  
chapter,   as   well   as   adding   a   ‘second   book’   to   the   original   appendix,   A  Discourse  
upon  Devils  and  Spirits.  
 
One   particular   aspect   of   Scot’s   collection   that   seems   to   have   captured   the  
imagination  of  magicians,  witches  and  cunning-­‐folk  –  both  in  Scot’s  day  and  our  
own   –   are   the   two   magical   signs   that   appear   in   the   fifteenth   chapter   of   Scot’s  
collection.   They   are   respectively   described   as   being   used   for   controlling   spirits  
and  protection  (fig.  1).  
 

 
Fig.  1.  Eight-­‐armed  seals  in  Scott’s  Discoverie  of  Witchcraft  (1584).  
 
In   the   world   of   contemporary   witchcraft,   the   left-­‐hand   seal   above   has   featured  
prominently   on   the   hardcover   of   Cecil   Williamson’s   Book   of   Witchcraft   (2014)  
and   the   seal   on   the   right   appears   in   Gemma   Gary’s   The  Black  Toad   (2013)   as   a  
protection   charm   (-­‐   and   is   also   embossed   on   the   cover   of   a   1930s   facsimile  
edition   of   Scot’s   magnum   opus).   Furthermore,   when   we   begin   to   examine  
manuscript  sources,  it  becomes  evident  that  these  signs  in  particular  have  often  

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captured   the   imagination   of   both   learned   magicians   and   cunning-­‐folk.   Having  

also  been  similarly  enchanted  by  these  signs,  I  submit  this  preliminary  research  
on   the   subject.   This   article   will   first   draw   attention   to   the   way   in   which   these  
signs  have  been  employed  both  before  and  after  the  publication  of  Scot’s  work,  
followed  by  speculation  on  a  possible  origin  of  the  seals.  Finally  I  will  conclude  
by   reflecting   on   the   general   usage   of   the   sign   and   its   particular   place   in   the  
magical  practices  of  the  British  Isles.  
 
Manuscript  Sources  for  the  Eight-­‐Armed  Seals  
 
If   we   examine   the   corpus   of   English   magical   manuscripts,   we   find   a   possible  
antecedent  to  Scot  in  the  ‘Folger  book  of  magic’    –  a  treasure  trove  of  Elizabethan  
English   magic,   which   was   recently   transcribed   by   Dan   Harms   and   Joseph  
Peterson   and   published   as   The  Book  of  Oberon   (2015).   Compiled   shortly   before  
Scot’s   book   was   published,   the   manuscript   is   dated   1577   and   1583.   The   eight-­‐
armed  seals  first  occur  on  page  48,  as  part  of  an  elaborate  charm  for  gaming.  The  
charm   is   based   around   a   large   central   circle,   containing   prayers,   magic   words,  
images   of   dice   faces   and   seals   based   on   the   Chi   Rho,   Tau   cross   and   pentagram.  
Scot’s  two  seals  are  positioned  outside  the  circles,  in  the  top  left  and  right  hand  
corners  of  the  image,  and  are  also  joined  by  another  pair  of  seals  based  on  a  four-­‐
armed  design  and  a  Tau  cross  (fig.  2).    
 

 
Fig.  2.  Seals  surrounding  the  Folger  manuscript’s  gaming  charm  (p.48).  
 
Although  the  gaming  charm  has  no  accompanying  text,  the  seals  appear  later  in  
the   Folger   book   with   attributions   that   echo   those   of   Scot,   namely   to   ‘carry   this  
seal  with  you  and  all  aerial  and  internal  powers  will  obey  you’  and  to  carry  the  
other   seal   ‘that   you   may   not   fear   an   enemy   but   only   fear   God’   (p.145;   fig.   3).   It   is  
interesting   to   note   that,   despite   the   similar   descriptions   (albeit   in   Latin),   it   is   the  
earlier   seals   on   the   gaming   charm   that   more   closely   correspond   to   the   designs  
published  by  Scot.  
 

 
Fig.  3.  Seals  from  the  Folger  manuscript’s  collection  of  charms  (p.  145).  
 

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Moving  into  the  early  17th  century,  the  charms  appear  in  a  collection  of  magical  
and  medical  procedures  held  by  the  Newberry  Library  in  Chicago  (Case  MS  5017;  
fig.  4).  The  charms  appear  amidst  receipts  for  toothache,  bloody  flux,  cankers  and  
‘the  stone’  alongside  more  explicit  rituals  of  necromancy  and  conjuration,  some  
of  which  also  occur  as  items  in  the  Folger  manuscript.  The  text  beneath  the  two  
seals   matches   Scot’s   wording   exactly,   suggesting   it   may   have   been   transcribed  
therefrom.  
 

 
Fig.  4.  Seals  from  Case  MS  5017.  
 
Toward  the  mid-­‐17th  century,  the  seals  can  be  found  in  the  corpus  of  manuscripts  
attributed   to   the   mysterious   ‘Dr.   Rudd’.   These   collections   are   rather  
idiosyncratic,   preserving   some   earlier   works,   while   elaborating   on   others,   and  
interpolating   original   material   from   time   to   time.   The   seals   appear   in   slightly  
altered  forms  in  Sloane  MS  3824,  folios  72r  and  73v,  with  the  addition  of  outer  
rings   containing   mysterious   sigils   (fig.   5).   What   is   more,   the   purpose   of   the   seals  
have   mysteriously   changed!   They   are   said   to   be   ‘made   of   beryl   glass   to   have  
knowledge   of   all   kind   of   working’   and   ‘for   agues,   to   be   made   of   lead,   coloured  
green’!  One  of  the  other  seals  from  the  Folger’s  gambling  charm  also  appears  in  
Rudd’s  collection,  on  f.84r,  to  be  ‘made  in  Red  Brass:  you  shall  not  be  hindered  in  
any  work  you  go  about’.  
 

 
Fig.  5.  Seals  from  Sloane  MS.,  ff.  72r,  73r  and  84r.  
 
Despite  appearing  in  a  number  of  English  manuscripts,  Scot’s  seals  do  not  appear  
to  have  achieved  the  same  popularity  in  mainland  Europe.  The  only  example  that  
I   was   able   to   find   were   in   extremely   corrupt   forms   in   an   18th   century   French  
manuscript  of  Le   Secret   des   Secrets   ou   le   Veritable   Grimoire   de   Tosgraec  (Arsenal  
2350   FR),   where   –   once   again   –   their   purpose   has   been   reworked   to   fit   the  

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author’s  interests,  being  designated  as  the  seals  of  two  Shemhamphoresh  angels  
Veshuel  and  Vehael  (fig.  6).  
 

 
Fig.  6.  Seals  of  Veshuel  and  Vehael,  from  Le  Secret  des  Secrets.  
 
The   seals   did   not   appear   in   print   again   until   1787   and   the   publication   of  
astrologer,   Freemason   and   ‘piss   prophet’   Ebenezer   Sibly’s   A  New  and  Complete  
Illustration   of   the   Occult   Sciences,   which   reproduces   much   material   from   the  
1665  edition  of  Scot’s  Discoverie.  Many  of  the  graphical  elements  of  Scot’s  work  
appear   on   a   plate   showing   the   ‘Signs,   Characters,   and   Magical   Knife’   –   among  
them  the  two  eight-­‐armed  seals  (fig.  7).  Along  with  Scot’s  Discoverie,  Sibly’s  work  
was  another  popular  publication  that  found  its  way  into  the  library  of  John  and  
Henry  Harris  and  doubtless  those  other  cunning-­‐folk.    
 

 
Fig.  7.  The  seals  as  reproduced  in  Sibly’s  A  New  and  Complete  Illustration.  
 
Amongst   such   rural   magicians,   Frederick   Valletta   records   an   incident   in   1654  
involving   Norfolk   cunning-­‐man   Christopher   Hall,   who   wrote   a   charm   to   cure   a  
sore   on   the   breast   of   his   client’s   wife   –   a   problem   that   Hall   attributed   to   the  
malign  influence  of  witches.  The  charm  is  still  extant  –  including  holes  by  which  
it   was   hung   from   the   aforementioned   wife’s   neck   –   and   includes   both   of   Scot’s  
seals,  alongside  a  number  of  other  sigils  and  two  further  circular  designs.  
 
The  seals  also  occur  in  a  codex  owned  by  Moses  Gaster,  written  by  one  Thomas  
Parker   between   1693   and   1695.   Most   of   the   manuscript   concerns   astrological  
elections  for  ‘physick  and  chyrurgery’,  although  the  author  also  appends  sundry  
charms  for  love  and  the  detection  of  theft  (-­‐  the  cunning-­‐man’s  stock-­‐in-­‐trade  -­‐)  
as   well   as   reproducing   the   seals   and   their   descriptions,   evidently   copied   from  
Scot’s  work  (fig.  8).  
 

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Fig.  8.  The  seals  in  Thomas  Parker’s  manuscript.  
 
In   his   Archaeology   of   Ritual   and   Magic   (1987),   Ralph   Merrifield   reproduces   a  
charm   to   protect   livestock,   which   was   found   in   the   1930s   during   the  
reconstruction   of   a   cowshed   at   a   Welsh   farm   called   Pentrenant,   near   Sarn   (:151-­‐
2).  The  charm  includes  the  formula  abracadabra,  a  series  of  planetary  sigils  and  
angelic  and  six-­‐rayed  stars  ending  in  the  repetition  of  the  magical  name  Jah,  and  
–  in  the  lower  right-­‐hand  corner  –  a  copy  of  Scot’s  ‘protection’  seal.  
 
Merrifield   mentions   a   similar   charm   in   the   National   Museum   of   Wales,   and   there  
is   also   a   charm   –   to   prevent   milk   going   rancid   when   being   churned   –   that   is  
preserved   in   the   Pitt   Rivers   collection,   which   was   apparently   ‘composed   by  
a    "wise   man",   living   on   the   slopes   of   Plinlimmon,   Cardiganshire.’   The   written  
components   are   very   similar   to   Merrifield’s   charm,   including   the   same  
abracadabra,  planetary  sigils  and  so  on,  and  –  of  course  –  incorporating  the  same  
design  from  Scot’s  work  (fig.  9).    
 

 
Fig.  9.  Seals  from  two  Welsh  charms  (Pitt  Rivers  1925.72.1  &  Merrifield).  
 
In   America,   we   find   the   seals   on   a   series   of   ‘magic   parchments’   in   the   possession  
of   the   family   of   Joseph   Smith,   founder   of   Mormonism.   These   three   sheets   of  
paper   all   incorporate   at   least   one   of   Scot’s   seals,   and   were   apparently   used   for  
protection,  and  ‘invoking  good  angels’  (Bulla  2006:  4).  By  closely  comparing  the  
Smith  seals  with  the  printed  exemplars  in  Scot  and  Sibly,  it  can  be  concluded  that  
they  were  copied  from  Sibly’s  work.  
 
Magical  Christograms:  A  Possible  Source  for  the  Eight-­‐Armed  Seals?  
 
It   is,   perhaps,   the   visual   similarity   to   certain   Icelandic   galdrastafir,   or   rune  
staves,  that  makes  these  designs  so  appealing  to  contemporary  witches,  although  
there  are  no  matches  in  any  of  the  runic  literature  with  which  I  am  familiar.  The  
seals   also   draw   parallels   with   the   various   eight-­‐rayed   designs   for   talismans  

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found   in   the   Key  of  Solomon   tradition,   although   none   of   the   Solomonic   designs  
match  those  of  Scot.  
 
We   may   note   that   both   seals   incorporate   a   hook-­‐like   ‘P’   motif   on   their   vertical  
arms,   which   prompts   parallels   with   the   Christian   Chi   Rho   symbol,   also   known   as  
the   Monogram   of   Christ,   Christogram,   Chrismon   or   Staurogram.   In   its   most  
simple  form,  the  Chrismon  is  simply  the  Chi  Rho  symbol.  However,  a  variety  of  
elaborations  and  variations  exist,  which  variously  depict  the  design  as  four,  six  or  
eight   rayed,   and   often   include   a   number   of   additional   letters   from   the   name   of  
Christ   or   from   Christian   rubric.   Instances   of   Chrismons   incorporating   an  
additional   crossbar   to   form   an   eight-­‐rayed   figure   can   be   found   in   a   variety   of  
Medieval  manuscripts  from  across  Europe  and  are  perhaps  based  on  a  merging  
of   the   Chi   Rho   symbol   and   letters   of   the   word   Icthus,   which   –   aside   from   its  
symbolic  fish-­‐shaped  form  –  can  also  be  rendered  as  a  circle  divided  into  eighths.  
Eight-­‐armed   Chrismon   designs   seem   to   have   become   a   particular   aesthetic  
concern  for  the  masons  of  Medieval  Spain  and  a  large  number  can  be  found  in  the  
castles,   cathedrals   and   monasteries   of   the   Aragon   region   (fig.   10).   Medieval  
epigrapher  Vincent  Debiais  has  suggested  that  the  presence  of  Chrismons  above  
doors  has  the  purpose  of  ‘identifying  the  church  as  God’s  house  [and]  protecting  
the  building  against  the  devil’s  assaults’  (2017:  300).  
 

 
Fig.  10.  Eight-­‐armed  Chrismon  designs  from  the  Aragon  region  of  Spain:  Monastery  
of  San  Pedro  el  Viejo;  Cathedral  of  Jaca;  Castle  of  Loarre.    
 
Moving   closer   to   the   period   of   Scot,   a   number   of   Chrismon-­‐based   designs   for  
magical  seals  can  be  found  in  the  manuscript  Dresden  M206,  which  likely  dates  
from   the   mid-­‐1500s   and   is   written   in   German   and   Latin   in   a   neat   Gothic   hand.  
This   collection   of   talismans   begins   on   f.40r   and   end   on   f.64v,   and   a   variety   of  
other   similar   motifs   can   be   discerned   between   these   and   Scot’s   designs,   and  
perhaps   indicates   that   there   are   other   talismans   constructed   on   the   Chrismon  
form  that  may  have  informed  Scot’s  seals  (fig.  11).  
 

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Fig.  11.  A  series  of  Chrismon-­‐related  talismans  from  Dresden  M206.  
 
Signed  and  Sealed:  Reflecting  on  the  Historical  and  Contemporary  Use  of  
the  Eight-­‐Armed  Seals  
 
While   the   Dresden   manuscript   indicates   that   the   seals,   or   precursors   of   them,  
may   have   originated   on   the   continent,   the   designs   reproduced   by   Scot   do   not  
appear   to   have   had   significant   distribution   outside   of   the   British   Isles   –   the  
French  Secret  of  Secrets  manuscript  being  the  only  instance  I  am  currently  aware  
of.  Perhaps  this  is  due  to  the  particular  forms  of  popular  magical  literature  that  
propagated   on   the   continent   between   Scot’s   1665   publication   and   the   19th  
century   occult   revival.   Between   these   periods,   we   find   the   influence   of   the  
grimoires  that  were  published  in  popular  ‘Bibliotheque  Bleu’  chapbook  editions  
dominating   French   magical   literature,   while   the   Faustian   grimoires   similarly  
dominated  German  magical  literature.  Britain  arguably  did  not  have  such  a  lurid  
popular  magical  publishing  industry,  hence  Scot’s  works  became  heirlooms  and  
much-­‐copied   sourcebooks,   while   the   later   contributions   of   significant   magical  
works   by   Ebenezer   Sibly   and   Francis   Barrett   were   eagerly   received   by   both  
urban  and  rural  magicians  who  hungered  for  occult  knowledge.  
 
Where   the   seals   are   used,   however,   it   is   evident   that   they   had   a   multiplicity   of  
uses,   beyond   Scot’s   associations   of   the   seals   as   talismans   for   the   command   of  
spirits  and  general  protection.  In  the  Folger  manuscript’s  gaming  charm,  as  well  
as  in  the  charms  of  the  rural  cunning-­‐men,  it  seems  that  the  seals  are  used  in  a  
more   general   manner:   Merrifield   compares   the   design   to   the   form   of   Papal   seals,  
usually   lead   ‘bullas’   affixed   to   official   documents,   and   although   I   have   been  
unable   to   find   a   Papal   seal   incorporating   a   Chrismon   design,   Merrifield’s  
observation   does   prompt   us   to   reflect   on   the   use   of   Scot’s   signs   to   effectively  
‘seal’   a   magical   document,   be   it   for   winning   at   gaming,   protecting   a   house   and  
livestock  or  averting  witchcraft.    
 
Although   I   have   not   reproduced   every   version   of   the   seals   that   I   have   mentioned  
herein,  I  hope  there  is  enough  here  to  enable  those  that  encounter  them  in  their  
own  work  to  discern  their  sources  and  the  intention  by  which  they  are  used.   It  
should  also  be  noted  that  between  Scot  and  Sibly’s  versions  of  the  seals  there  are  
some   significant   differences,   some   of   which   are   highlighted   in   fig.   12,   and   it   is   an  

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awareness  of  such  differences  that  enables  us  to  conclude  that,  for  example,  the  
primary   source   for   the   seals   was   used   by   Joseph   Smith’s   family   was   Sibly,   rather  
than  Scot.  
 

 
Fig.  12.  Key  differences  between  Scot  and  Sibly’s  seals.  
 
References  
Bulla,  Rachael.  2016.  Joseph  Smith  and  the  Occult.    Available  online  at:  
http://www.academia.edu/10967344/Joseph_Smith_and_the_Occult  
 
Davies,  Owen.  1995.  The  Decline  in  the  Popular  Belief  in  Witchcraft  and  Magic.  
PhD  thesis.  Lancaster:  University  of  Lancaster.  
 
Debiais,  Vincent.  2017.  ‘Writing  on  Medieval  Doors:  The  Surveyor  Angel  on  the  
Moissac  Capital  (ca.  1100)’  in  Writing  Matters:  Presenting  and  Perceiving  
Monumental  Inscriptions  in  Antiquity  and  the  Middle  Ages  (eds.  Berti,  Bolle,  
Opdenhoff  &  Stroth).  Berlin/Boston:  de  Gruyter.  
 
Gaster,  Moses.  1910.  ‘English  Charms  of  the  Seventeenth  Century’  in  Folklore,  Vol.  
21,  No.  3.  
 
Harms,  Daniel  &  Joseph  Peterson.  2015.  The  Book  of  Oberon.  Woodbury:  
Llewellyn.  
 
Merrifield,  Ralph.  1987.  The  Archaeology  of  Ritual  and  Magic.  Guild  Publishing.  
 
Valletta,  Frederick.  1998.  Witchcraft,  Magic  and  Superstition  in  England,  1640-­‐70.  
PhD  thesis.  London:  Kings  College,  University  of  London.  
 
Manuscripts  
Arsenal  2350  FR  
Case  MS  5017  
Dresden  M206  
Folger  MS.V.b.26  
Pitt  Rivers  object  1925.72  
Sloane  3824  

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Thank   you   to   Kristina   Wolfe   for   originally   stimulating   my   search   for   Chrismon  
talismans.     Thanks   also   to   Andrew   Mercer   for   proofreading   and   grammar  
suggestions.  All  images,  aside  from  the  seals  as  they  are  printed  in  the  works  of  
Scot  and  Sibly,  have  been  re-­‐drawn  from  the  manuscripts  by  Phil  Legard.  
 
Phil   Legard   is   a   senior   lecturer   at   Leeds   Beckett’s   School   of   Film,   Music   and  
Performing   Arts.   His   academic   research   primarily   explores   the   influence   of  
esoteric  thought  on  music.  Beyond  academia,  he  has  had  work  on  the  subject  of  
magic  published  by  Scarlet  Imprint,  Hadean  Press  and  Trident  Books.  
 

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