Building Construction 3

Study of Vernacular Materials

Muskaan Rampal
2B

MUD

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According to Wikipedia, mud is defined as a liquid or semiliquid mixture of water and

any combination of different kinds of soil (loam, silt, and clay). It usually forms after
rainfall or near water sources.

PERFORMANCE SUMMARY

APPEARANCE

The appearance of mud bricks reflects the materials they are made from. They are thus
earthy, with their colour determined by the colour of clays and sands in the mix. Finished
walls can range from a strong expression of the brick patterns to a smoothly continuous
surface.

STRUCTURAL ABILITY
With thick enough walls, mud brick can create loadbearing structures up to several
storeys high. Vaults and domes in mud brick prove that it can be used for many situations
other than vertical walls.

THERMAL MASS

Mud brick walls can provide moderate to high thermal mass.

INSULATION

Contrary to popular belief mud bricks are not good insulators. Since they are extremely
dense they lack the ability to trap air within their structure, the attribute of bulk insulation
that allows it to resist the transfer of heat.

SOUND INSULATION

A well-built mud brick wall has very good sound insulation properties. In fact, it can be
almost equivalent to a monolithic masonry structure in its capacity for sound attenuation.

ENVIROMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

Mud bricks could have the lowest impact of all construction materials. Mud brick should
not contain any organic matter — the bricks should be made from clays and sands and not
include living soil. They require very little generated energy to manufacture, but large
amounts of water. Their embodied energy content is potentially the lowest of all building
materials but the use of additives such as cement, excessive transport and other
mechanical energy use can increase the ‘delivered’ embodied energy of all earth
construction.

In a similar way, the greenhouse gas emissions associated with unfired mud bricks can
(and should) be very low.
USAGE IN BUILDING

Mud can be used in construction through various techniques which are as follows:
1 COB
2 PISE OR RAMMED EARTH
3 PRESSED BRICKS
4ADOBE OR SUN-DRIED BRICKS
5 WATTLE AND DAUB

COB

COB is basically formed by mixing soil with very little water to form stiff mud out of
which a large lump is roughly moulded in shape of an egg which varies in size from 30 –
40 cm in length and 15cm in diameter.

A row of these cobs of mud are placed neatly sideways and slightly pressed together. then
next layer is similarly placed until 3-4 layers are laid.

When three or four courses have been laid, one above the other, the sides are smoothed
over so that the holes and cracks disappear.

Rammed Earth

This method was developed from the cob wall to regularize the width of the wall and
increase its strength by ramming, thus the name rammed earth wall
For this construction technique, two parallel planks are held firmly apart by metals rods
and clips/bolts. Then stiff mud is thrown between these planks and rammed with wooden
or metal ramrod.

When one section is complete and solid, the boards are moved and process is repeated.
The two planks are then raised up and a second course of rammed earth is repeated over
the first.

ADOBE OR SUN-DRIED BRICKS

Adobe is really nothing more than simple bricks made of sun-dried mud. The mud for the
bricks might include sand, small gravel or clay -- whatever makes up the soil in an area.
Water, and often straw or grass, are mixed with the dirt. The resulting mud dries naturally
in the sun and air. Because fire isn't used to cure them, adobe bricks aren't hard. In fact,
they shrink and swell with the weather.

WATTLE AND DAUB`

Wattle and daub method is an old and common method of building mud structures.
There bamboo and cane frame structure that supports the roof.
Mud is plastered over this mesh of bamboo cane and straws
Due to excessive rainfall the Wattle and Daub structures gets washed off.
However, the mesh of cane or split bamboo remains intact and after the heavy rain is
over the mud is plastered on again.

TESTS
There are two kinds of tests:
Field tests
Colour tests
Touch and smell test
Biscuit test
Hand wash test
Cigar test
Adhesion test
Lab tests
Sieve test
Sedimentation test
 Bamboo

Fig1: Bamboo

Bamboo is primarily a type of giant grass with woody stems. The stems are called
“shoots” when the plant is young and “culms” when the plant is mature. Each bamboo
plant consists of two parts – the “Culm”/stem that grows above the ground and the
underground “rhizome” that bears the roots of the plant. “A single bamboo clump can
produce up to 15 kilometres of usable pole (up to 30 cm in diameter) in its lifetime.”

PROPERTIES OF BAMBOO

1Tensile strength:

The fibres of the bamboo run axial. In the outer zone are highly elastic vascular bundles
that have a high tensile strength. The tensile strength of these fibers is higher than that of
steel.

2 Shrinking:

Bamboo shrinks more than wood when it loses water. The canes can tear apart at the
nodes. Bamboo shrinks in the cross-section ca. 10-16 %, in the wall thickness ca. 15-17
%.

3 Fire resistance:
The fire resistance is very good because of the high content of silicate acid. Filled up with
water, it can stand a temperature of 400° C while the water cooks inside

4 Strength Compressive:

The portion of lignin affects the compressive strength. Whereas the high portion of
cellulose influences the buckling and the tension strength, because it represents the
building substance of the bamboo fibre.

5Flexural (bending) strength: A troops analysed common bamboos: diameter of tubes=

70-100 mm, wall thickness= 6-12 mm with a span of 3,60m. The elastically deflections
were minimum =1/25under maximum 1/16, and as an average 1/20,1 of the spans. Where
a deflection in the construction was unavoidable and annoying, one could bend the
recently harvested tubes so that you get a super elevation, which later will be
compensated under the working load.

THE FRACTURE BEHAVIOR

The behaviour of breaking of common building wood differs clearly from the breaking
conditions of bamboo. Here you don't have a spontaneous break through the whole
material after the tearing of single bamboo fibres like wood does. The appearing clefts are
led off immediately in direction of the fibre and so they impair the critical region less.
The energy transfer is delayed by diffusion. Especially the pressure-, shearing-, and inter
laminar strength are raised by the knots. Those symptoms are titled as increasing factor of
the fracture toughness. In the research of modern compound material it is less important
to prevent the formation of cracks than to counteract the distribution of the clefts by
finding a suitable material construction.

ADVANTAGES OF BAMBOO

• Bamboo is low weight material to be used for construction.

• It can be transported and worked easily.

• The use of cranes is mostly unnecessary.

• It is a very flexible plant. • Grows back very rapidly once harvested.

• Raw material for paper making.

• Bamboo has a higher tensile strength.

• Usage of bamboos will reduce deforestation

• Composite material

DISADVANTAGES OF BAMBOO

• If not treated well it will get attacked by the fungi.

• Bamboo does not lend itself to being painted because of its waxy coating.

• Bamboo is not designed to bear weight width-wise

Technical Aspects
One of the difficulties of building with bamboo is joining them together. Since bamboo is
prone to splitting, it can't be joined with many of the traditional techniques like bolts,
screws, and nails as compared to building with wood. Bamboo that are lashed or pinned
will eventually come loose due to the expansion and contraction loosening the joints.
Moreover, since bamboo is available in different lengths, sections of bamboo have to be
joined with reinforcement bars and concrete mortar to create lengths that are needed.
Special fastening techniques, such as the use of nylon, steel or vegetal cord, are required
when joining bamboo.

However, one technique is to use bolts at the joints, followed by filling the area around
the joints with mortar, which then becomes solid. This keeps the bamboo from breaking
when a heavy load is placed on it. Bamboo has nodes at varying distances and these
should be used in construction. Columns or beams need to have a node at both ends to
prevent the pressure of a structure from crushing the bamboo. Other important techniques
when using bamboo as a construction material include properly splicing bamboo poles
and joining horizontal and vertical elements.

USAGE IN CONSTRUCTION

BAMBOO FOOTINGS

For use as foundation, the bamboo poles are directly driven into the ground. They have
to, however, be pre-treated for protection from rot and fungi.

BAMBOO TRUSSES

For the spanning larger distances in public utility buildings like schools, storage areas,
commercial buildings, bamboo is utilized as a truss member. Bamboo has a high strength
/weight ratio and hence is a good alternative for roof framing.

Fig2: Bamboo Truss

BAMBOO WALLS
Bamboo walls are constructed by nailing a thin bamboo mat to either sides of a braced
timber frame.

Fig3: Bamboo Walls

BAMBOO SCAFFOLDING

Since ancient times, bamboo poles have been tied together and used as scaffolding. The
properties of bamboo such as resilience, shape and strength make it an ideal material for
the purpose. The working platforms for masons can also be built of bamboo.

Fig4: Bamboo Scaffolding

BAMBOO TILE ROOFING

• This is the simplest form of bamboo roofing. The culms are split into halves, the
diaphragms scooped out and these run full length from eave to ridge.

• The first layer of bamboo splits is laid concave side up and the second layer interlock
over the first with convex side up. Though a very simple method, it can be completely
watertight. The minimum pitch of the roof should be 30°.
 Fig5: Bamboo Tile Roofing

BAMBOO REINFORCEMENT

Besides the use of bamboo as a building material, there have been proposals to use
bamboo as reinforcement in RC columns, beams and slabs. One of the examples is a silo
made of bamboo-reinforced concrete. This is the avenue for further research in the
process of combining the ancient of bamboo building with modern materials like
concrete.

BAMBOO STRUCTURES IN THE WORLD

 Bird-Like Amphitheatre, Hanoi, Vietnam: This amphitheatre in Vietnam used for

the plays, auditorium is constructed only with bamboo and ropes.

Fig6: bird-like amphitheatre

 Green School, Bali: The Green School in Bali is the school with no walls. It’s one
of the green schools in the world where education is taught in the laps of
environment.
 Fig7: green school , bali

 Bangkok Hair Salon – Thailand

Thai designer Nattapon Klinsuwan, of NKDW Studio, was inspired by natural
caves in his unconventional design of this Hair Salon. He used thousands of
bamboo stakes to separate the different interior zones by hanging them from above
like stalactites. These “stalactites” connect with “stalagmites”, bamboo stakes
rising from the floor, to form columns.

Fig8: salon, Thailand

 TIMBER

Fig1 Timber

Timber is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is also
known as “lumber” in US and Canada. Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or
firewood of growing trees. Any wood capable of yielding a minimum dimensional size
can be termed as a timber or lumber. It is a stage in the process of wood production.
Timbers are used for the structural purpose. Those woods which are adapted for building
purposes are timbers. Finished timber is supplied in standard sizes for the industry.

Timber can be divided into two categories- hardwood and softwood. There are many types
of timber under these two categories. They are-

 Bamboo
 Cross-laminated
 Cherry
 Birch
 Cedar
 Glulam
  Green timber
 Lime
 Mahogany
 Oak
 Pine
 Plywood
 Sapele wood
 Tulipwood
 Walnut
 Wood ash
 Spruce
 Fir

PROPERTIES OF TIMBER

 Colour: It should be uniform.

 Odour: It should be pleasant when cut freshly.
 Soundness: A clear ringing sound when struck indicates the timber is good.
 Texture: Texture of good timber is fine and even.
 Grains: In good timber grains are close.
 Density: Higher the density stronger is the timber.
 Hardness: Harder timbers are strong and durable.
 Warping: Good timber does not warp under changing environmental
conditions.
 Toughness: Timber should be capable of resisting shock loads.
 Abrasion: Good timber does not deteriorate due to wear. This property
should be looked into, if timber is to be used for flooring.
 Strength: Timber should have high strength in bending, shear and direct
compression.
 Modulus of Elasticity: Timber with higher modulus of elasticity is
preferred in construction.
 Fire resistance: A good timber should have high resistance to fire.
  Permeability: Good timber has low water permeability.
 Workability: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog the saw.
 Durability: Good timber is one which is capable of resisting the action of
fungi and insects attack
 Defects: Good timber is free from defects like dead knots, shakes and
cracks.

ADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

Timber is a versatile material. It offers several different advantages.

1. Excellent insulator: houses they are built out of bricks also known to have
outstanding insulating properties, but timber manages to surpass them
2. Timber is an elastic material: At the opposite of brick or concrete walls, timber
walls don’t need to be very thick. A 20m timber wall for example, is strong
enough to protect the internal space against the winter cold, in conjunction with a
proper treatment
3. Easy and fast to build: a timber construction can be build very easy and fast in
contrast to a common brick or concrete construction
4. Sustainable: timber is a renewable resource
5. Reusable: timber can be used more than once. It is easy to recycle
6. Price: to build a timber house or a timber construction is cheaper than any other
common procedure which has the same requirements or sizes.
7. Weight: timber is very light
8. Strength: Timber framings are strong in real structural terms
9. Aesthetic appeal: timber is a beautiful material for both internal and external
appearance

DISADVANTAGES OF TIMBER

1. Shrinking and swelling: Timber has a natural ability to absorb water which is
also known as Hygroscopy
 2. Fire resistance: If timber has not passed a special treatment which ensure a
special fire rating, timber is highly combustible
3. Discolouration: With the time untreated timber which is exposed to the different
weather influences it discolours turns to a dark and dirty optic
4. Mouldiness: If timber is treated wrong or the installation is not regulated
accordingly, timber has the ability to mould.

Processing of Timber

Processing of Timber contains following steps

1. Felling of Trees

2. Seasoning of Timber

3. Conversion of Timber

4. Preservation of Timber

1. Felling of Trees

Felling of trees is nothing but cutting of trees which are suitable for engineering purposes.
Felling should be done when the tree is matured. Then only it contains more amount of
heart wood than sap wood. The perfect age of trees for felling varies from 50 to 100
years. The best season for felling of trees is Mid-winter for plain areas and mid-summer
for hilly areas.

Firstly, a cut is made at the lower most part of the trunk on a side where tree is expected
to fell. The cut should be beyond centre of gravity of tree. Then provide parallel cut
which is exactly opposite to the first cut. Then tie up the tree top with 4 ropes on 4 sides.

Now pull the rope of first cut side and loosen the rope on the opposite side. Using other
two ropes swing the tree slowly. Then the tree starts breaking along the cuts and gently
fall on the ground. The branches are chopped off, bark is removed and is cut into required
sizes.
 Fig 2: Felling of a Tree

2. Seasoning of Timber
Seasoning of timber means removal of moisture content from timber. A newly fell tree
contains water up to 50% of its dry weight. The timber contains free moisture and bound
moisture.

Free moisture is present in timber as water vapor while bound moisture is present in cell
walls. When it is allowed to seasoning, free moisture evaporated first and this point is
called as fibre saturation point.

After Fibre saturation point, the timber will shrink on drying which is nothing but
evaporation of bound moisture.

There are two methods of seasoning are there namely

 Natural seasoning

 Artificial Seasoning

Fig 3: Seasoning of Timber

 3. Conversion of Timber
Conversion of timber is the process of cutting of timber into required sections. This can
be done by using power machines. Skilled persons should be required for economic
conversion of timber. The conversion can be done by four types as follows

 Ordinary sawing

 Tangential sawing

 Quarter awing

 Radial sawing

Ordinary sawing
It is the most used and easy method of sawing. The cutting is done through the section of
timber piece at perpendicular to the annual rings. Wastage of timber is minimum in this
case.

The obtained planks are not of equal strength. The outer planks contain sap wood and
shrinks more while the inner portion planks contain heart wood which shrinks less.

Fig 4: Ordinary Sawing

Tangential sawing
In this type of sawing the cuts are tangential to annual rings and they meet each other at
right angles. This method is suitable when the annual rings are very distinct with each
other.
 Fig 5: Tangential Sawing
Quarter sawing
In quarter sawing, the cuts are made right angles to each other. This is suitable when the
timber have no distinct medullary rays.

Fig 6: Quarter Sawing

Radial sawing
In this type of sawing, the cuts are made parallel to the medullary rays radially. In this
method wastage of timber is maximum.

Fig 7: Radial Sawing

4. Preservation of Timber
The final stage of timber processing is preservation which is carried out to increase the
durability of timber and also to resist the attacks of fungi, insects etc. on timber. In
general, ASCU, Coal tar, Oil paints, Solignum paints etc. are used as preservatives.

Fig8 : Preservation of Timber

TERRACOTTA

Architectural terracotta is a fired mixture of clay and water that can be used in a non-
structural, semi-structural, or structural capacity on both exterior or interior of a building.
Terracotta is a porous clay that is left open to dry out and then fired at a temperature
between 700 degree Celsius to 1000 degree Celsius. It is a type of ceramic product.
Terracotta colour is a natural brown orange because of the presence of iron content
reacting with oxygen during firing.
porous terracotta – It is fireproof, Soundproof, can be chiselled and nailed easily and is
resistant to weathering action. It is structurally weak .

polished terracotta -It is called the fine terra cotta. It is hard, strong & durable and leak
proof (water absorption < 12%) & can be easily cleaned. It remains unaffected by
extreme atmospheric conditions

CHEMISTRY

Terracotta is made of a clay or silt matrix, a fluxing agent, and grog or bits of previously
fired clay. Clays are the remnants of weathered rocks that are smaller than 2 microns.
They are composted of silica and alumina. Kaolinite, halloysite, montmorillonite, illite
and mica are all good types of clays for ceramic production. When mixed with water they
create hydrous aluminium silica that is plastic and mouldable. During the firing process
the clays lose their water and become a hardened ceramic body.

Fluxes add oxygen when they burn to create more uniform melting of the silica particles
which increases the strength of the material.

PROPERTIES OF TERRACOTTA-

1) Its glazing property makes it suitable for making tableware, decorations in icy
areas, sanitary pipes, sculptures, etc.
 2) Buildings can be protected from direct sunlight by using terracotta sun baguettes
which acts as best sun block for the buildings.
3) Terracotta has insulating properties making it extremely useful in heat extreme

areas offering pleasant and healthy atmosphere.

4) They also have damp proofing properties preventing the rain to come into the
building.
5) The porousness of terracotta can be reduced by surface burnishing before firing
followed by a layer of glaze. It makes the terracotta watertight, making it ideal for
underground usage to carry rushed water for backyard pots or decorations
6) Terracotta is a versatile material which can be molded into many shapes, sizes and
patterns and can be colored according to the building requirements.
7) Terracotta can withstand varied temperature changes with a lower chance of
cracking, making it incredibly functional.
8) It is an eco-friendly material which can be easily recycled and reused.

USES OF TERRACOTTA –

1) It is also used to make arches, cornices and casing for steel columns and beams
because of its fire-resistant properties.
2) Terracotta is widely used to make roof tiles of various patterns and sizes
3) It can also be used for floor tiles and wall bricks.
 4) It has also found its application in making wastewater pipes because of its
glazing properties. It has many other uses such as beautiful, pottery, statues,
cooking pots, sculptures and murals.

THATCH

Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, water reed,
sedge (Cladium mariscus), rushes, heather, or palm branches, layering the vegetation so
as to shed water away from the inner roof.

Advantages of Thatch

A properly, professionally installed thatched roof which is maintained on a regular basis

and sited away from any overhanging trees will offer great durability. You can expect
thatch to last anywhere between 15 to 20 years in good condition.
- Being a naturally insulating material, thatch is able to insulate your home without the need
for additional insulating materials in the loft space such as natural or synthetic wools. A
good insulator will not only keep your home warm in the winter months but will also keep
it cool during the summer.
- Thatch changes with age, and as it settles in it will begin to darken. This helps it to blend
with the surrounding countryside, creating a sense of harmony and belonging which more
boldly coloured and textures tiles and slates cannot offer. This makes thatched roofs
perfectly suited to more rural locations, although it is just as attractive in towns and villages.
- Thatch is highly environmentally friendly, and is one of the best eco roof types around.
The materials needed are grown easily and harvested with little to no machinery. Whilst
thatched roofs are more labour intensive to source and construct than some other options,
most of the materials are sourced from rural communities which benefit greatly from the
work created.
- One of the most interesting characteristics of thatch is its ability to be shaped into natural,
flowing forms unlike the harsh lines that tiles create. This adds great character and
personality to a house, and allows you a lot of freedom when designing the shape of the
roof.
- Thatching your roof is a fairly low cost method of adding on space to your home by
utilising roof space which would otherwise form a loft. Additionally, the high, open ceilings
create a very spacious feel to the rooms.

Disadvantages of thatch

Thatched houses are more vulnerable to fire risk than those covered with other materials,
and it is therefore imperative that precautions be taken to reduce the risk. Insurance costs
can be higher due to this factor. The process of thatching is more labor intensive than
other methods of roofing, affecting the overall cost.

Being an organic material, thatch is susceptible to decay and decomposition and

precautions must be taken to minimize the possibility of this process taking place. In
warm, wet climates thatch is prone to fungal attacks.

Animals can cause damage. Birds looking for food, gathering nest-making materials or
nesting in the roof itself becomes a greater possibility when the plant material is not
processed appropriately for its intended use. Rodents can cause extensive damage when
present in the house. The quality of design and building can greatly affect the
performance of the roof. If built and/or maintained inadequately, then problems such as
vulnerability to wind damage and prolonged damp conditions are issues.

Thatch can be maintenance intensive. The maintenance cycle varies based on thatch type,
roof pitch, the degree of shade or exposure and the kinds of materials used.

PROPERTIES OF THATCH –

1) It is naturally weather-resistant.

2) It does not absorb a lot of water when properly maintained.

3) A roof pitch of at least 50-degrees allows precipitation to run off quickly.

4) It is a natural insulator, with air pockets that insulate well in both warm and cold
weather.

5) When applied correctly, thatch has very good wind resistance.

6) Thatch is relatively light, meaning that less timber is required in the roof structure.

7) It is a versatile material when it comes to covering irregular roof shapes.

8) thatch roofing is at a higher risk of fire, meaning that thatched houses are harder to
insure.