Educational Philosophy

Ontology is the "the science of being" of ouisa: The object of ontology is to determine what is.

Epistemology is the science of knowledge that is the theory of how we know that which we
know. Epistemology is by nature self-referential, recursive.

Axiology is the science of moral choice, of fundamental values.

General School of thoughts

Idealism

Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet that ideas are the only
true reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is
enduring and everlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the mind. Plato, father of
Idealism, espoused this view about 400 years BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato
believed that there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is eternal,
permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There is also the world of appearance, the world
experienced through sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound that is changing imperfect, and
disorderly. This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body. Reacting against
what he perceived as too much of a focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory world,
Plato described a utopian society in which "education to body and soul all the beauty and
perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal. In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the
sensory world must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth. To understand truth,
one must pursue knowledge and identify with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed that the
soul is fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the Universal Being. The birth
process checks this perfection, so education requires bringing latent ideas (fully formed
concepts) to consciousness.

In idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each individual's abilities and full
moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of
mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching methods focus on handling ideas
through lecture, discussion, and Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to
help students discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part
logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind.
Character is developed through imitating examples and heroes.

Realism
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the human mind. The ultimate reality is the
world of physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what can be
observed. Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist philosophy, is called
the father of both Realism and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to
understand objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all observable data."
Aristotle believed that to understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood, which
does not change. For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it. A rose can
exist in the mind without being physically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties with
all other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may be red and another peach colored.
Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason about
physical events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is viewed as the ultimate purpose
for humankind. The Realist curriculum emphasizes the subject matter of the physical world,
particularly science and mathematics. The teacher organizes and presents content systematically
within a discipline, demonstrating use of criteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus
on mastery of facts and basic skills through demonstration and recitation. Students must also
demonstrate the ability to think critically and scientifically, using observation and
experimentation. Curriculum should be scientifically approached, standardized, and distinct-
discipline based. Character is developed through training in the rules of conduct.

Pragmatism (Experientialism)
For pragmatists, only those things that are experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th
century American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the Realists and
Rationalists, Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and that we learn best
through applying our experiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is
dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world. There is no absolute and unchanging
truth, but rather, truth is what works. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles Sanders
Peirce (1839-1914), who believed that thought must produce action, rather than linger in the
mind and lead to indecisiveness.

John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy in his progressive approaches. He

believed that learners must adapt to each other and to their environment. Schools should
emphasize the subject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent on the context of
place, time, and circumstance. Different cultural and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively
and contribute to a democratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new social order.
Character development is based on making group decisions in light of consequences.

For Pragmatists, teaching methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and
projects, often having students work in groups. Curriculum should bring the disciplines together
to focus on solving problems in an interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized
bodies of knowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners should apply their
knowledge to real situations through experimental inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship,
daily living, and future careers.

Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The physical
world has no inherent meaning outside of human existence. Individual choice and individual
standards rather than external standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of
what we are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence by the choices we make. We
should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take
responsibility for deciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the development of authentic
individuals, as we make meaning of our lives.

There are several different orientations within the existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard
(1813-1855), a Danish minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of
existentialism. His was a Christian orientation. Another group of existentialists, largely
European, believes that we must recognize the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile
planet, rather than believing in salvation through God. Our existence is not guaranteed in an after
life, so there is tension about life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more
austere European approaches where the universe is seen as meaningless when faced with the
certainty of the end of existence, American existentialists have focused more on human potential
and the quest for personal meaning. Values clarification is an outgrowth of this movement.
Following the bleak period of World War II, the French philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested
that for youth, the existential moment arises when young persons realize for the first time that
choice is theirs, that they are responsible for themselves. Their question becomes "Who am I and
what should I do?

Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist classrooms should be a matter of

personal choice. Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social context in which the
learner must confront others' views to clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes
individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from
outside authority. Examining life through authentic thinking involves students in genuine
learning experiences. Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be
measured, tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the educational experience to focus on
creating opportunities for self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student, rather
than on curriculum content.

Educational school of thoughts

Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about the
great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in any
era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant,
not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change.
Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their minds
need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a worthwhile
education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing students'
growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the
great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational
philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and
Mortimer Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books of western
civilization.

Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to
students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential
knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in
some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of society. It
should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read,
write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set or influence
policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are
to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness.
This approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s.
William Bagley, took progressivist approaches to task in the journal he formed in 1934. Other
proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover (1959), Paul
Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).

Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content
or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active
experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing
the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes
meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective
teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived
from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators so
that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on
process-how one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in
America from the mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent.
One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through
experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers
with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.

Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a
quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a
curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987)
was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He
recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty or
the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human compassion. George
Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of preparing people for creating
this new social order.

Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to
overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian
whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle
for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its
victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the development
of awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in
which the educator deposits information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as
a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.

For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and
taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation,
and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and
literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning
and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.
 Educational Research
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is inquiry into an identified problem, based on testing a theory, measured
with numbers, and analyzed using statistical techniques. The goal of quantitative methods is to
determine whether the predictive generalizations of a theory hold true.

Qualitative research
A study based upon a qualitative process of inquiry has the goal of understanding a social or
human problem from multiple perspectives. Qualitative research is conducted in a natural setting
and involves a process of building a complex and holistic picture of the phenomenon of interest.

Basic Research
Research done solely to expand the knowledge base. Basic research is research that fills in the
knowledge we don't have; it tries to learn things that aren't always directly applicable or useful
immediately

Applied Research

The discipline dealing with the art or science of applying scientific knowledge to practical
problems. Applied research is research that seeks to answer a question in the real world and to
solve a problem.

Experimental and Non experimental Research

The key difference between experimental and non-experimental research lies in the extent to
which the environment is controlled and manipulated by the researcher. In experimental studies
the researcher sets up the environment and carefully controls the variables s/he is interested in.
Non-experimental research takes place in a real-life setting, and it is not possible for the
researcher to control all possible variables. This means that it is harder to determine causality in
non-experimental studies, but also that they tend to be more flexible and allow for a greater
range of topics to be studied.
Please note that validity discussed here is in the context of experimental design, not
in the context of measurement.

• Internal validity refers specifically to whether an experimental treatment/condition

makes a difference or not, and whether there is sufficient evidence to support the claim.
• External validity refers to the generalizibility of the treatment/condition outcomes.

Factors which jeopardize internal validity

 • History--the specific events which occur between the first and second measurement.
• Maturation--the processes within subjects which act as a function of the passage of time.
i.e. if the project lasts a few years, most participants may improve their performance
regardless of treatment.
• Testing--the effects of taking a test on the outcomes of taking a second test.
• Instrumentation--the changes in the instrument, observers, or scorers which may
produce changes in outcomes.
• Statistical regression--It is also known as regression to the mean. This threat is caused
by the selection of subjects on the basis of extreme scores or characteristics. Give me
forty worst students and I guarantee that they will show immediate improvement right
after my treatment.
• Selection of subjects--the biases which may result in selection of comparison groups.
Randomization (Random assignment) of group membership is a counter-attack against
this threat. However, when the sample size is small, randomization may lead to Simpson
Paradox, which has been discussed in an earlier lesson.
• Experimental mortality--the loss of subjects. For example, in a Web-based instruction
project entitled Eruditio, it started with 161 subjects and only 95 of them completed the
entire module. Those who stayed in the project all the way to end may be more motivated
to learn and thus achieved higher performance.
• Selection-maturation interaction--the selection of comparison groups and maturation
interacting which may lead to confounding outcomes, and erroneous interpretation that
the treatment caused the effect.
• John Henry effect--John Henry was a worker who outperformed a machine under an
experimental setting because he was aware that his performance was compared with that
of a machine.

Factors which jeopardize external validity

• Reactive or interaction effect of testing--a pretest might increase or decrease a subject's

sensitivity or responsiveness to the experimental variable. Indeed, the effect of pretest to
subsequent tests has been empirically substantiated (Willson & Putnam, 1982, Lana,
1959).
• Interaction effects of selection biases and the experimental variable
• Reactive effects of experimental arrangements--it is difficult to generalize to non-
experimental settings if the effect was attributable to the experimental arrangement of the
research.
• Multiple treatment interference--as multiple treatments are given to the same subjects,
it is difficult to control for the effects of prior treatments.

Three Experimental Designs

To make things easier, the following will act as representations within particular designs:

• X--Treatment
• O--Observation or measurement
• R--Random assignment
The three experimental designs discussed in this section are:

The One Shot Case Study

This is a single group studied only once. A group is introduced to a treatment or condition and
then observed for changes which are attributed to the treatment
XO

The Problems with this design are:

• A total lack of control. Also, it is of very little scientific value as securing scientific
evidence to make a comparison, and recording differences or contrasts.
• There is also a tendency to have the error of misplaced precision, where the researcher
engages in tedious collection of specific detail, careful observation, testing and etc., and
misinterprets this as obtaining good research. However you can not misinterpret that a
detailed data collection procedure equals a good design.
• History, maturation, selection, mortality and interaction of selection and the experimental
variable are all threats to the internal validity of this design.

One Group Pre-Posttest Design

This is a presentation of a pretest, followed by a treatment, and then a posttest where the
difference between O1 and O2 is explained by X:
O1 X O2

However, there exists threats to the validity of the above assertion:

• History--between O1 and O2 many events may have occurred apart from X to produce
the differences in outcomes. The longer the time lapse between O1 and O2, the more
likely history becomes a threat.
• Maturation--between O1 and O2 students may have grown older or internal states may
have changed and therefore the differences obtained would be attributable to these
changes as opposed to X.
• Testing--the effect of giving the pretest itself may effect the outcomes of the second test
(i.e., IQ tests taken a second time result in 3-5 point increase than those taking it the first
time). In the social sciences, it has been known that the process of measuring may change
that which is being measured--the reactive effect occurs when the testing process itself
leads to the change in behavior rather than it being a passive record of behavior
(reactivity--we want to use non-reactive measures when possible).
• Instrumentation--examples are in threats to validity above
• Statistical regression--or regression toward the mean. Time-reversed control analysis
and direct examination for changes in population variabilities are useful precautions
against such misinterpretations. What this means is that if you select samples according
to their extreme characteristics or scores, the tendency is to regress toward the mean.
Therefore those with extreme high scores appear to be decreasing their scores, and those
 with extreme low scores appear to be increasing their scores. However this interpretation
is not accurate, and to control for misinterpretations, researchers may want to do a time-
reversed (posttest-pretest) analysis to analyze the true treatment effects. Researchers may
exclude outliers from the analysis.
• Others--History, maturation, testing, instrumentation interaction of testing and
maturation, interaction of testing and the experimental variable and the interaction of
selection and the experimental variable are also threats to validity for this design.

The Static Group Comparison

This is a two group design, where one group is exposed to a treatment and the results are tested
while a control group is not exposed to the treatment and similarly tested in order to compare the
effects of treatment.

X O1

O2

Threats to validity include:

• Selection--groups selected may actually be disparate prior to any treatment.

• Mortality--the differences between O1 and O2 may be because of the drop-out rate of
subjects from a specific experimental group, which would cause the groups to be
unequal.
• Others--Interaction of selection and maturation and interaction of selection and the
experimental variable.

Three True Experimental Designs

The next three designs discussed are the most strongly recommended designs:

The Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

This designs takes on this form:

R O1 X O2

R O3 O4

This design controls for all of the seven threats to validity described in detail so far. An
explanation of how this design controls for these threats is below.

• History--this is controlled in that the general history events which may have contributed
to the O1 and O2 effects would also produce the O3 and O4 effects. This is true only if the
experiment is run in a specific manner--meaning that you may not test the treatment and
 control groups at different times and in vastly different settings as these differences may
effect the results. Rather, you must test simultaneously the control and experimental
groups. Intrasession history must also be taken into consideration. For example if the
groups truly are run simultaneously, then there must be different experimenters involved,
and the differences between the experimenters may contribute to effects.

A solution to history in this case is the randomization of experimental occasions--

balanced in terms of experimenter, time of day, week and etc.

• Maturation and testing--these are controlled in that they are manifested equally in both
treatment and control groups.
• Instrumentation--this is controlled where conditions control for intrasession history,
especially where fixed tests are used. However when observers or interviewers are being
used, there exists a potential for problems. If there are insufficient observers to be
randomly assigned to experimental conditions, the care must be taken to keep the
observers ignorant of the purpose of the experiment.
• Regression--this is controlled by the mean differences regardless of the extremety of
scores or characteristics, if the treatment and control groups are randomly assigned from
the same extreme pool. If this occurs, both groups will regress similarly, regardless of
treatment.
• Selection--this is controlled by randomization.
• Mortality--this was said to be controlled in this design, however upon reading the text, it
seems it may or may not be controlled for. Unless the mortality rate is equal in treatment
and control groups, it is not possible to indicate with certainty that mortality did not
contribute to the experiment results. Even when even mortality actually occurs, there
remains a possibility of complex interactions which may make the effects drop-out rates
differ between the two groups. Conditions between the two groups must remain similar--
for example, if the treatment group must attend treatment session, then the control group
must also attend sessions where either not treatment occurs, or a "placebo" treatment
occurs. However even in this there remains possibilities of threats to validity. For
example, even the presence of a "placebo" may contribute to an effect similar to the
treatment, the placebo treatment must be somewhat believable and therefore may end up
having similar results!

The factors described so far effect internal validity. These factors could produce changes which
may be interpreted as the result of the treatment. These are called main effects which have been
controlled in this design giving it internal validity.

However, in this design, there are threats to external validity (also called interaction
effects because they involve the treatment and some other variable the interaction of which cause
the threat to validity). It is important to note here that external validity or generalizability always
turns out to involve extrapolation into a realm not represented in one's sample.

In contrast, internal validity are solvable within the limits of the logic of probability statistics.
This means that we can control for internal validity based on probability statistics within the
experiment conducted, however, external validity or generalizability can not logically occur
because we can't logically extrapolate to different conditions. (Hume's truism that induction or
generalization is never fully justified logically).

External threats include:

• Interaction of testing and X--because the interaction between taking a pretest and the
treatment itself may effect the results of the experimental group, it is desirable to use a
design which does not use a pretest.
• Interaction of selection and X--although selection is controlled for by randomly
assigning subjects into experimental and control groups, there remains a possibility that
the effects demonstrated hold true only for that population from which the experimental
and control groups were selected. An example is a researcher trying to select schools to
observe, however has been turned down by 9, and accepted by the 10th. The
characteristics of the 10th school may be vastly different than the other 9, and therefore
not representative of an average school. Therefore in any report, the researcher should
describe the population studied as well as any populations which rejected the invitation.
• Reactive arrangements--this refers to the artificiality of the experimental setting and the
subject's knowledge that he is participating in an experiment. This situation is
unrepresentative of the school setting or any natural setting, and can seriously impact the
experiment results. To remediate this problem, experiments should be incorporated as
variants of the regular curricula, tests should be integrated into the normal testing routine,
and treatment should be delivered by regular staff with individual students.

Research should be conducted in schools in this manner--ideas for research should originate with
teachers or other school personnel. The designs for this research should be worked out with
someone expert at research methodology, and the research itself carried out by those who came
up with the research idea. Results should be analyzed by the expert, and then the final
interpretation delivered by an intermediary.

Tests of significance for this design--although this design may be developed and conducted
appropriately, statistical tests of significance are not always used appropriately.

• Wrong statistic in common use--many use a t-test by computing two ts, one for the pre-
post difference in the experimental group and one for the pre-post difference of the
control group. If the experimental t-test is statistically significant as opposed to the
control group, the treatment is said to have an effect. However this does not take into
consideration how "close" the t-test may really have been. A better procedure is to run a
2X2 ANOVA repeated measures, testing the pre-post difference as the within-subject
factor, the group difference as the between-subject factor, and the interaction effect of
both factors.
• Use of gain scores and covariance--the most used test is to compute pre-posttest gain
scores for each group, and then to compute a t-test between the experimental and control
groups on the gain scores. Also used are randomized "blocking" or "leveling" on pretest
scores and the analysis of covariance are usually preferable to simple gain-score
comparisons.
 • Statistics for random assignment of intact classrooms to treatments--when intact
classrooms have been assigned at random to treatments (as opposed to individuals being
assigned to treatments), class means are used as the basic observations, and treatment
effects are tested against variations in these means. A covariance analysis would use
pretest means as the covariate.

The Soloman Four-Group Design

The design is as:

R O1 X O2

R O3 O4

R X O5

R O6

In this design, subjects are randomly assigned to four different groups: experimental with both
pre-posttests, experimental with no pretest, control with pre-posttests, and control without
pretests. By using experimental and control groups with and without pretests, both the main
effects of testing and the interaction of testing and the treatment are controlled. Therefore
generalizability increases and the effect of X is replicated in four different ways.

Statistical tests for this design--a good way to test the results is to rule out the pretest as a
"treatment" and treat the posttest scores with a 2X2 analysis of variance design-pretested against
unpretested.

The Posttest-Only Control Group Design

This design is as:

R X O1

R O2

This design can be though of as the last two groups in the Solomon 4-group design. And can be
seen as controlling for testing as main effect and interaction, but unlike this design, it
doesn't measure them. But the measurement of these effects isn't necessary to the central
question of whether of not X did have an effect. This design is appropriate for times when
pretests are not acceptable.
Statistical tests for this design--the most simple form would be the t-test. However covariance
analysis and blocking on subject variables (prior grades, test scores, etc.) can be used which
increase the power of the significance test similarly to what is provided by a pretest.

Main Types of Qualitative Research

Attempts to shed light on a phenomena

by studying indepth a single case
Case study example of the phenomena. The case
can be an individual person, an event, a
group, or an institution.
To understand the social and
Grounded theory psychological processes that characterize
an event or situation.
Describes the structures of experience as
they present themselves to
Phenomenology consciousness, without recourse to
theory, deduction, or assumptions from
other disciplines
Focuses on the sociology of meaning
through close field observation of
Ethnography
sociocultural phenomena. Typically, the
ethnographer focuses on a community.
Systematic collection and objective
evaluation of data related to past
occurrences in order to test hypotheses
Historical concerning causes, effects, or trends of
these events that may help to explain
present events and anticipate future
events. (Gay, 1996)

Sampling Techniques

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the population has
an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random sample is to
give each individual in a population a number, and then use a table of random numbers to decide
which individuals to include.1

2. Systematic sampling

Individuals are selected at regular intervals from a list of the whole population. The intervals are
chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. For example, every 10th member of the population is
included. This is often convenient and easy to use, although it may also lead to bias for reasons
outlined below.

3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into sub-groups (or strata) who all share a similar
characteristic. It is used when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary
between the different sub-groups. Gender or smoking habits would be examples of strata. The
study sample is then obtained by taking samples from each stratum.

In a stratified sample, the probability of an individual being included varies according to known
characteristics, such as gender, and the aim is to ensure that all sub-groups of the population that
might be of relevance to the study are adequately represented.

The fact that the sample was stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, sub-groups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather than
individuals. The population is divided into sub-groups, known as clusters, and a selection of
these are randomly selected to be included in the study. All members of the cluster are then
included in the study. Clustering should be taken into account in the analysis.

The General Household survey, which is undertaken annually in England, is a good example of a
cluster sample. All members of the selected households/ clusters are included in the survey.

5. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of
subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an interviewer might be told to go
out and select 20 adult men and 20 adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that
they could interview them about their television viewing. There are several flaws with this
method, but most importantly it is not truly random.2

6. Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because participants are
selected in the most convenient way, and are often allowed to chose or volunteer to take part.
Good results can be obtained, but the data set may be seriously biased, because those who
volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to.

7. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard to reach groups.
Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases
in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours
amongst intravenous drug users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be
interviewed.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our
topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We
narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This
ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data --

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach (please
note that it's "bottom up" and not "bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the bartender says to
customers when he's trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with
specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some
tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general
conclusions or theories.

• Null hypotheses

These are used when the researcher believes there is no relationship between two variables or
when there is inadequate theoretical or empirical information to state a research hypothesis

• Directional hypotheses

These are usually derived from theory.

They may imply that the researcher is intellectually committed to a particular outcome.

They specify the expected direction of the relationship between variables i.e. the researcher
predicts not only the existence of a relationship but also its nature.

• Non-directional hypotheses
Used when there is little or no theory, or when findings of previous studies are contradictory.

They may imply impartiality.

Do not stipulate the direction of the relationship.

Educational Assessment
Formative Assessment

Assessment for learning is ongoing assessment that allows teachers to monitor students on a day-
to-day basis and modify their teaching based on what the students need to be successful. This
assessment provides students with the timely, specific feedback that they need to make
adjustments to their learning.

Summative Assessment

Assessment of learning is the snapshot in time that lets the teacher, students and their parents
know how well each student has completed the learning tasks and activities. It provides
information about student achievement. While it provides useful reporting information, it often
has little effect on learning.

NRT and CRT

Criterion-Referenced Norm-Referenced
Dimension
Tests Tests
To determine whether each student
To rank each student with respect to
has achieved specific skills or
the achievement of others in broad
concepts.
areas of knowledge.
Purpose
To find out how much students
To discriminate between high and
know before instruction begins and
low achievers.
after it has finished.
Measures specific skills which Measures broad skill areas sampled
make up a designated curriculum. from a variety of textbooks, syllabi,
Content
These skills are identified by and the judgments of curriculum
teachers and curriculum experts. experts.
 Each skill is expressed as an
instructional objective.
Each skill is tested by at least four Each skill is usually tested by less
items in order to obtain an adequate than four items.
sample of student
Item performance and to minimize the Items vary in difficulty.
Characteristics effect of guessing.
Items are selected that discriminate
The items which test any given between high
skill are parallel in difficulty. and low achievers.

Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.

Types of Reliability

1. Test-retest reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by administering the same test

twice over a period of time to a group of individuals. The scores from Time 1 and Time
2 can then be correlated in order to evaluate the test for stability over time.

2. Parallel forms reliability is a measure of reliability obtained by administering different

versions of an assessment tool (both versions must contain items that probe the same
construct, skill, knowledge base, etc.) to the same group of individuals. The scores from
the two versions can then be correlated in order to evaluate the consistency of results
across alternate versions.

3. Inter-rater reliability is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to which

different judges or raters agree in their assessment decisions. Inter-rater reliability is
useful because human observers will not necessarily interpret answers the same way;
raters may disagree as to how well certain responses or material demonstrate knowledge
of the construct or skill being assessed.

4. Internal consistency reliability is a measure of reliability used to evaluate the degree to

which different test items that probe the same construct produce similar results.

Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.

Types of Validity
1. Face Validity ascertains that the measure appears to be assessing the intended construct under
study. The stakeholders can easily assess face validity. Although this is not a very “scientific”
type of validity, it may be an essential component in enlisting motivation of stakeholders. If the
stakeholders do not believe the measure is an accurate assessment of the ability, they may
become disengaged with the task.

2. Construct Validity is used to ensure that the measure is actually measure what it is intended
to measure (i.e. the construct), and not other variables. Using a panel of “experts” familiar with
the construct is a way in which this type of validity can be assessed. The experts can examine the
items and decide what that specific item is intended to measure. Students can be involved in this
process to obtain their feedback.

3. Criterion-Related Validity is used to predict future or current performance - it correlates test

results with another criterion of interest.
 Educational Psychology

Piaget cognitive development

1. Sensory Motor Stage (Birth - 2yrs)

Piaget's ideas surrounding the Sensory Motor Stage are centred on the basis of a 'schema'.
Schemas are mental representations or ideas about what things are and how we deal with them.
Piaget deduced that the first schemas of an infant are to do with movement. Piaget believed that
much of a baby's behaviour is triggered by certain stimuli, in that they are reflexive. A few
weeks after birth, the baby begins to understand some of the information it is receiving from it's
senses, and learns to use some muscles and limbs for movement. These developments are known
as 'action schemas'.

2. Pre-Operations Stage (2yrs-7yrs)

Piaget's second stage of development, was the Pre-Operations Stage. Children usually go through
this stage between the age of two to seven years old. During this stage, children's thought
processes are developing, although they are still considered to be far from 'logical thought', in the
adult sense of the word. The vocabulary of a child is also expanded and developed during this
stage, as they change from babies and toddlers into 'little people'.Pre-operational children are
usually 'ego centric', meaning that they are only able to consider things from their own point of
view, and imagine that everyone shares this view, because it is the only one possible.

3. Concrete Operations Stage (7yrs-11yrs)

The Concrete Operations Stage, was Piaget's third stage of cognitive development in children.
This stage was believed to have affected children aged between seven and eleven to twelve years
old. During this stage, the thought process becomes more rational, mature and 'adult like', or
more 'operational', Although this process most often continues well into the teenage years. The
process is divided by Piaget into two stages, the Concrete Operations, and the Formal Operations
stage, which is normally undergone by adolescents.

4. Formal Operations Stage (11yrs-16yrs)

Finally, in the formal operational stage of adolescence, the structures of development become the
abstract, logically organized system of adult intelligence. When faced with a complex problem,
the adolescent speculates about all possible solutions before trying them out in the real world.
The formal operational stage begins around age 11 and is fully achieved by age 15, bringing with
it the capacity for abstraction. This permits adolescents to reason beyond a world of concrete
reality to a world of possibilities and to operate logically on symbols and information that do not
necessarily refer to objects and events in the real world.

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.

Vygotsky believed children’s thinking is affected by their knowledge of the social community
(which is learnt from either technical or psychological cultural tools). He also suggested that
language is the most important tool for gaining this social knowledge; the child can be taught this
from other people via language. He defined intelligence as “the capacity to learn from
instruction”, which emphasizes the fact there is a requirement for a more knowledgeable other
person or ‘teacher’. He referred to them as just that: the More Knowledgeable Other (MKO).
MKO’s can be parents, adults, teachers, coaches, experts/professionals – but also things you
might not first expect, such as children, friends and computers.

He described something known as the zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is a key
feature of his theory. There are two levels of attainment for the ZPD:

• Level 1 – the ‘present level of development’. This describes what the child is capable of
doing without any help from others.
• Level 2 – the ‘potential level of development’. This means what the child could
potentially be capable of with help from other people or ‘teachers’.

Another important feature of this theory is scaffolding. When an adult provides support for a child, they
will adjust the amount of help they give depending on their progress.

Bandura - Social Learning Theory

There are four mediational processes proposed by Bandura:

1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behaviour. For a behaviour to be
imitated it has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviours on a daily basis and many
of these are not noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a
behaviour has an influence in others imitating it.

2. Retention: How well the behaviour is remembered. The behaviour may be noticed, but is it
not always remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a
memory of the behaviour is formed to be performed later by the observer. Much of social
learning is not immediate so this process is especially vital in those cases. Even if the
behaviour is reproduced shortly after seeing it, there needs to be a memory to refer to.

3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just
demonstrated. We see much behaviour on a daily basis that we would like to be able to
 imitate but that this not always possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that
reason, even if we wish to reproduce the behaviour, we cannot. This influences our decisions
whether to try and imitate it or not. Imagine the scenario of a 90-year-old-lady who struggles
to walk watching Dancing on Ice. She may appreciate that the skill is a desirable one, but she
will not attempt to imitate it because she physically cannot do it.

4. Motivation: The will to perform the behaviour. The rewards and punishment that follow a
behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweighs the
perceived costs (if there are any) then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the
observer. If the vicarious reinforcement is not seen to be important enough to the observer
then they will not imitate the behavior

Classical Conditioning.

One important type of learning, Classical Conditioning, was actually discovered accidentally by
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who discovered this phenomenon
while doing research on digestion. His research was aimed at better understanding the digestive
patterns in dogs.
During his experiments, he would put meat powder in the mouths of dogs who had tubes inserted
into various organs to measure bodily responses. What he discovered was that the dogs began to
salivate before the meat powder was presented to them. Then, the dogs began to salivate as soon
as the person feeding them would enter the room. He soon began to gain interest in this
phenomenon and abandoned his digestion research in favor of his now famous Classical
Conditioning study.

Operant Conditioning.

Another type of learning, very similar to that discussed above, is called Operant Conditioning.
The term “Operant” refers to how an organism operates on the environment, and hence, operant
conditioning comes from how we respond to what is presented to us in our environment. It can
be thought of as learning due to the natural consequences of our actions.
Let’s explain that a little further. The classic study of Operant Conditioning involved a cat who
was placed in a box with only one way out; a specific area of the box had to be pressed in order
for the door to open. The cat initially tries to get out of the box because freedom is reinforcing.
In its attempt to escape, the area of the box is triggered and the door opens. The cat is now free.
Once placed in the box again, the cat will naturally try to remember what it did to escape the
previous time and will once again find the area to press. The more the cat is placed back in the
box, the quicker it will press that area for its freedom. It has learned, through natural
consequences, how to gain the reinforcing freedom.

Curriculum
Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophical/ ideological foundation

It is concerned with beliefs.
What is real --- ONTOLOGY
What is true --- EPISTEMOLOGY
What is good – AXIOLOGY

Philosophy means the love of wisdom, it search for truth, not simple truth, It search for eternal
truth, reality and general principles of life. Curriculum help in the practical use of knowledge in
real life situations and understanding realities and ideas of life and this world that why
curriculum is called the dynamic side of philosophy.

Curriculum is used for the modification of the behavior of the students and philosophy help in
the process of finding new ways and basis for teachers and curriculum planner to modify their
behavior. Philosophy also helps in the exploring new methods of teaching and how to apply in
the classroom situation for better achievement of the teaching learning process. It also provides
new ways and methods for the evaluation of student’s achievement and evaluation of curriculum.

Psychological foundations
Psychological foundation is based on the individual differences, every student has its own unique
personality and they have differences in their leering and skills. They are different in nature so
they can’t be treated alike in teaching learning process, some may be fast learner while other
slow. Therefore the curriculum should be based on the above facts, and it should be design to
support the capacity and potentialities of all the students.
Psychology play a vital role in the teaching learning process it is the foundation for all type of
educational related programmed. The methods of teaching, the selection of content of subject
and the methods and theories of learning, the overall development of the students and to
inculcate the norms of the society in the students. Psychology helps in all the processes above in
the development process of the curriculum.

Socio Cultural Foundation

According to Murray print (1993). The society and culture exercise massive powers on the
formation curriculum and the reason behind that it was society who created schooling to
safeguard the survival of their cultural heritage, and survival of their species.
The purpose of curriculum planner and developers to translate traditional norms, philosophies,
ethics, knowledge and attitudes in the objectives of curriculum, the content, learning processes
and the evaluation of elements of the curriculum. Sociological factors have highest impact on
the content of curriculum and that is the reason that curriculum developers and planner both
reflect and transfer their own culture in curriculum. Therefore a curriculum without the reflection
of culture is not possible for that reason one should consider what characteristic of the culture
should be the part of curriculum and what not.
The social and cultural inspirations that affect curriculum designers consciously and
unconsciously are apparent from the curriculum and their influence is deep. For example in
Pakistan the curriculum is more reflective of the society and curriculum is design in a way that
leads society to change. The society manifest through the curriculum and education, and the
outcomes of the curriculum developers display the role of both of the above in curriculum
development.
Historical Foundations
It includes

1. Role of curriculum in achievements of nations.

2. Guides future plans
3. Factors that influence development of nation e.g. unity
4. Eliminates the useless traditions.

Role of the History of curriculum in the development of curriculum

History of the curriculum plays a very important role in the development of the nation. It takes
long and tedious time to formulate a good curriculum which represents the need of the society
and the experiences of the past. The history of the curriculum tell the curriculum planner how to
develop and modify the curriculum, what to teach and what should be the core material of the
subjects, what objectives they want to achieve through the curriculum. History also tell them
how the teacher should teach, what are the best practices they need to incorporate in curriculum
teaching and what kind of teaching need to be avoid.

The 4 Components of Curriculum.

Curriculum plays an important role in an educational system. It is somehow a blueprint which
leads the teacher and the learner to reach the desired objectives. As a result, authorities have to
design it in such a way that it could lead the teacher and the learner meet the desired learning
outcomes.
The four components of the curriculum are :

1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
3. Curriculum Experience
4. Curriculum Evaluation

Type of Definition
Curriculum
 Is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of schooling
1. Overt, experiences. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts, films, and
explicit, or supportive teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support
written the intentional instructional agenda of a school. Thus, the overt
curriculum curriculum is usually confined to those written understandings and
directions formally designated and reviewed by administrators, curriculum
directors and teachers, often collectively.

2. Societal As defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes defines this curriculum as:…[the] massive,
curriculum (or ongoing, informal curriculum of family, peer groups, neighborhoods, churches,
social organizations, occupations, mass media, and other socializing forces that
curricula) “educate” all of us throughout our lives. 24

This type of curricula can now be expanded to include the powerful effects of
social media (YouTube; Facebook; Twitter; Pinterest, etc) and how it actively
helps create new perspectives, and can help shape both individual and public
opinion.
3. The hidden That which is implied by the very structure and nature of schools, much of what
or covert revolves around daily or established routines.
curriculum
Longstreet and Shane (1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for this term
– the “hidden curriculum,” which refers to the kinds of learnings children derive
from the very nature and organizational design of the public school, as well as
from the behaviors and attitudes of teachers and administrators…. ” 46

Examples of the hidden curriculum might include the messages and lessons
derived from the mere organization of schools — the emphasis on: sequential
room arrangements; the cellular, timed segments of formal instruction; an
annual schedule that is still arranged to accommodate an agrarian age;
disciplined messages where concentration equates to student behaviors were
they are sitting up straight and are continually quiet; students getting in and
standing in line silently; students quietly raising their hands to be called on; the
endless competition for grades, and so on. The hidden curriculum may include
both positive or negative messages, depending on the models provided and the
perspectives of the learner or the observer.

4. The null From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that which is not taught
curriculum in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some people are empowered to make
conscious decisions as to what is to be included and what is to be excluded from
the overt (written) curriculum. Since it is physically impossible to teach
everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be intentionally
excluded from the written curriculum. But Eisner’s position on the “null
 curriculum” is that when certain subjects or topics are left out of the overt
curriculum, school personnel are sending messages to students that certain
content and processes are not important enough to study. Unfortunately, without
some level of awareness that there is also a well-defined implicit agenda in
schools, school personnel send this same type of message via the hidden
curriculum. These are important to consider when making choices. We teach
about wars but not peace, we teach about certain select cultures and histories but
not about others. Both our choices and our omissions send messages to students.

5. Phantom The messages prevalent in and through exposure to any type of media.
curriculum These components and messages play a major part in the enculturation of
students into the predominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into
narrower or generational subcultures.

6. Concomitant What is taught, or emphasized at home, or those experiences that are part of a
curriculum family’s experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family. (This type
of curriculum may be received at church, in the context of religious expression,
lessons on values, ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social experiences
based on the family’s preferences.)

Elements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised from ideas offered
7. Rhetorical by policymakers, school officials, administrators, or politicians. This
curriculum curriculum may also come from those professionals involved in concept
formation and content changes; or from those educational initiatives
resulting from decisions based on national and state reports, public
speeches, or from texts critiquing outdated educational practices. The
rhetorical curriculum may also come from the publicized works offering
updates in pedagogical knowledge.

8. Curriculum- The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things in textbooks,
in-use and content and concepts in the district curriculum guides. However, those
“formal” elements are frequently not taught. The curriculum-in-use is the actual
curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher.

9. Received Those things that students actually take out of classrooms; those concepts
curriculum and content that are truly learned and remembered.
10. The Processes, content, knowledge combined with the experiences and realities of
internal the learner to create new knowledge. While educators should be aware of this
curriculum curriculum, they have little control over the internal curriculum since it is
unique to each student. Educators can explore this curricula by using
instructional assessments like “exit slips,” reflective exercises, or debriefing
discussions to see what students really remember from a lesson. It is often very
 enlightening and surprising to find out what has meaning for learners and what
does not.

Tylor Model of Curriculum

The Tyler Model, developed by Ralph Tyler in the 1940’s, is the quintessential prototype of
curriculum development in the scientific approach. One could almost dare to say that every
certified teacher in America and maybe beyond has developed curriculum either directly or
indirectly using this model or one of the many variations.

Tyler did not intend for his contribution to curriculum to be a lockstep model for development.
Originally, he wrote down his ideas in a book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction for
his students to give them an idea about principles for to making curriculum. The brilliance of
Tyler’s model is that it was one of the first models and it was and still is a highly simple model
consisting of four steps.

1. Determine the school’s purposes (aka objectives)

2. Identify educational experiences related to purpose
3. Organize the experiences
4. Evaluate the purposes