Cerro de Pasco is one of the largest polymetallic

resources in the world with post-1950 production

plus known resources amounting more than:
~175 Mt @ 7% Zn and 2% Pb as well as 3 oz/t Ag

In addition, prior to 1950

1200 Moz Ag
2 Moz of Au
around 50 Mt @ 2% Cu were mined
 Outline

A four part presentation

• Geological setting
• Description of Cordilleran
base metal mineralization
• Age and lifetime of the
magmatic-hydrothermal
system using
geochronology
• Nature of the ore-forming
fluids from fluid inclusions Indian miner with ore sack, Cerro de
and stable isotopes Pasco, 1869 (Simonin 1969)
Geological context : Space

Phase
separation
Background

The Cerro de Pasco deposit is known since 1630, but most probably before.

Former studies (Bowditch, 1935; Graton and Bowditch, 1936; Lacy, 1949;
Ward, 1961; Petersen, 1965; Einaudi, 1968, 1977, Silberman and Noble,
1977) have mainly focused on the mineralization and some studies
attempted with success to define the nature of the ore-forming fluids as well
as to date the magmatic rocks present at Cerro de Pasco.

These studies were done until the late ’70. Since then, the open pit has been
developed, the mineralization is better exposed and the analytical techniques
have improved.
Geological setting

A A’

Lima

Mid-Miocene dacitic diatreme-dome complex

Eocene Pocobamba Formation (limestone and marls)
Cretaceous Goyllarizquizga Group (sandstone)
Upper Triassic-lower Jurassic Pucará Group
(limestone and dolostone)
Modified from
Permian Mitu Group (sandstone)
Bendezú et al. (2003)
Devonien Excelsior Group (phyllite and shale)
Geological setting

W E

Mid-Miocene dacitic diatreme-dome complex

Eocene Pocobamba Formation (limestone and marls)
Cretaceous Goyllarizquizga Group (sandstone)
Upper Triassic-lower Jurassic Pucará Group
(limestone and dolostone)
Permian Mitu Group (sandstone)
Devonien Excelsior Group (phyllite and shale)
Geological context
What are
Cordilleran (or well zoned) base metal deposits

(1) Close association in time and space with calc-alkaline igneous activity-
Same producing areas as porphyry - Cu or high sulfidation epithermal Au-
Ag deposits
(2) Deposition at shallow levels and at temperatures below (350°C) 300°C
(3) Deposition "late" in the evolution of the porphyry system
(4) Ores (Zn-Pb-Cu-Ag-Au) much richer in sulfides than porphyry copper ores
(5) Ores occur mainly as open-space fillings in silicate host rocks and as
replacement in carbonate rocks
(6) Well-developed zonation (ore and alteration minerals)
(7) Frequent early pyrite-quartz (±W) assemblage that can be extensive and
form large bodies
(8) High Ag/Au ratios.
Mineralization : 1st mineralization stage
Mineralization

A
1st mineralization stage:
- Pyrite-quartz body
- Pipe-like pyrrhotite bodies
- Zn-Pb ores (bearing Fe-rich Matagente
sphalerite) syncline

2nd mineralization stage:

- Cu-Ag-(Au-Zn-Pb) enargite-
pyrite veins
- Zn-Pb-(Bi-Ag-Cu) carbonate
replacement bodies (bearing
Fe-poor sphalerite)
A’
Mineralization : 1st mineralization stage

Modified after Einaudi (1977)

Mineralization : pyrite-quartz body

Sericite-pyrite-
quartz alteration
halo

Rumiallana
diatreme
breccia

pyrite-quartz body
 Mineralization : pyrite-quartz body

Pyrite-quartz body consists

of massive pyrite and quartz
Alteration: sericite-pyrite-
quartz

200 µm
 Mineralization : Zoning 1st mineralization stage

pyrrhotite, Mixture of
quartz, pyrite and
wolframite marcasite

pyrrhotite, sphalerite,
sphalerite, galena,arseno
chalcopyrite, pyrite,
stannite chalcopyrite,
pyrite
pyrrhotite,
sphalerite,
arsenopyrite, Pyrrhotite body
chalcopyrite Transition zone Transition zone
Pyrite-quartz body Zn-Pb ores
 Mineralization : 1st stage mineralogy

pyrrhotite

galena

sphalerite

100 m pyrite
Pipe-like pyrrhotite ores: pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, Fe-rich sphalerite
Alteration mineral: quartz

=> Low sulfidation state assemblages

 Mineralization : 1st stage mineralogy

quartz

asp

sphalerite

200 m

Zn-Pb ores: Fe-rich sphalerite (10-35 % mole FeS), galena, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite
Alteration minerals: chlorite, sericite, siderite, calcite, quartz
=> Low sulfidation state assemblages
 First mineralization stage

pyrite
pyrrhotite pyrrhotite pyrrhotite
± wolframite

chalcopyrite chalcopyrite
sphalerite sphalerite
stannite
arsenopyrite
galena

quartz

35.0 – 10.0 mol% FeS

Mineralization

1st mineralization stage: B’’

- Pyrite-quartz body
- Pipe-like pyrrhotite bodies
- Zn-Pb ores (Fe-rich sphalerite
bearing)
Matagente
syncline
2nd mineralization stage:
- Cu-Ag-(Au-Zn-Pb) enargite- B B’
pyrite veins
- Zn-Pb-(Bi-Ag-Cu) carbonate
replacement bodies (Fe-poor
sphalerite bearing)
Mineralization : 2nd stage
Mineralization : 2nd stage mineralogy

Superposition example:
Fe-poor sphalerite veins
cutting Fe-rich sphalerite
massive bodies (outer zone
Massive ore
of a pyrrhotite pipe).
with Fe-rich
sphalerite
Fe-poor
sphalerite
vein

Central part of the pit, in

the vicinity of the pyrite-
quartz body
20cm
Mineralization : Zoning 2nd stage

Core
zone
Intermediate
zone
Outer most
outer zone
zone
Mineralization : Zoning 2nd stage

Outer most
zone

Outer zone

Core and
intermediate
zone
 Mineralization : Core zone (Cu)

pyrite famatinite

Main assemblage:
famatinite (Cu3SbS4)-pyrite

Alteration assemblage:
alunite quartz-alunite-kaolinite

=>High sulfidation
state assemblages
50 m
Acid and oxidizing
Plain image
BSE polarized reflected light fluids
 Mineralization : Intermediate zone (Ag-Bi)
bismuthinite-
tetrahedrite stibnite s.s. Main ore minerals: pyrite, tetrahedrite,
sphalerite, famatinite. antimonpearcite
((Ag,Cu)(Sb,As)2S11,
Subordinate minerals: matildite
pyrite (AgBiS2), chalcopyrite

100 m
matildite
Plain polarized light cpy
alteration minerals: quartz, kaolinite,
hinsdalite, pyrite, alunite antimonpearcite

=>Intermediate sulfidation state tetrahedrite-

50 m
assemblages tennantite
 Mineralization : Intermediate zone (Ag)

galena
proustite Major ore minerals: galena, Fe-poor
sphalerite, pyrite
subordinate ore minerals: proustite
jordanite (Ag3AsS3), jordanite (Pb14(As,Sb)6S23)

50 m
sphalerite
Plain polarized light Plain polarized light
alteration minerals: kaolinite, proustite
hinsdalite, quartz
galena
proustite
=> Intermediate sulfidation 100 m
state assemblages
Crossed
Plain polarized
polars light
 Mineralization : Outer zone (Zn-Pb)

major ore minerals: Fe-poor

sphalerite (0.1-1.5 mole %
FeS), pyrite, marcasite, galena

hinsdalite

100 m
Transmitted light

alteration minerals: kaolinite,

hinsdalite, quartz
BSE image

pyrite kaolinite
30 m
=> Intermediate sulfidation state
assemblages
 Mineralization : Outer most zone

major ore minerals: hematite,

magnetite, pyrite

pyrite 100 µm

Reflected light
hematite magnetite

alteration minerals: Fe-Mn-Zn

carbonate minerals 200 µm

hematite magnetite
Second mineralization stage carbonate replacement bodies

Core Rim

pyrite pyrite pyrite

famatinite
tetrahedrite

Ag-Bi
minerals

sphalerite
galena

magnetite
hematite

0.1-2.5 0.1-3 0.1-6.5

 Mineralization : E-W enargite-pyrite veins

S N
 Mineralization : E-W enargite-pyrite veins

Diatreme enargite pyrite

Narrow E-W enargite-pyrite ± Au breccia
veins (fracture controlled).
Quartz-alunite alteration
assemblage in the center and
sericite-pyrite on the borders

Zonation:
enargite-pyrite, tennantite-
chalcopyrite,  sphalerite 
galena
E-W enargite-
pyrite vein
=> High to intermediate
sulfidation state assemblages
Mineralization : All stages 3D
 Conclusions mineralization

• Cerro de Pasco comprises two contrasting styles of polymetallic mineralization,

locally spatially superimposed.
1. Pyrite-quartz body, pipe-like pyrrhotite bodies zoned outwards to Zn-
Pb ores (bearing Fe-rich sphalerite) => low sulfidation state minerals

2. Zoned Cu-Ag-(Au-Zn-Pb) enargite-pyrite veins and Zn-Pb-(Bi-Ag-Cu)

carbonate replacement bodies (bearing Fe-poor sphalerite) => High to
intermediate sulfidation state minerals

• They both belong to the Cordilleran base metal deposit class

• This type of features are also present and have been described at Butte
(Montana), Colquijirca, Morococha, Julcani, Yauricocha, Huanzala, San Cristobal,
Quiruvilca, Pasto Buena and Huarón (Peru).
Part II

Age and lifetime of the magmatic-hydrothermal

system: Using U-Pb and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology
U-Pb on zircon and 40Ar/39Ar on biotite to obtain absolute
ages of magmatic rocks

40Ar/39Ar on alunite to obtain absolute ages on alteration

related to mineralization
Geochronology

Rumiallana
diatreme breccia

Dacitic tuffs,
including
accretionary
lapilli tuff
Dacitic
porphyritic
domes

Quartz-
monzonite
porphyritic dykes

Albitized quartz-
monzonite dykes
(underground),
post-ore
 Geochronology : U-Pb

CPR-602
15.36 ± 0.03 Ma
accretionary lapilli tuff
22
CPR602/10

15.40 ± 0.07 Ma 18

CPR602/2 CPR602/3
CPR602/12 CPR602/7

CPR602/1 Mean
206
Pb/
238
U age
CPR602/11 CPR602/8
Accretionary lapilli
14
tuff
15.36 ± 0.03
95% conf. MSWD = 0.76

.008 15.35 ± 0.05 Ma

0.012 0.016

207
0.020 0.024 0.028

Pb/235U

Dacitic domes

Quartz-monzonite dykes

15.16 ± 0.04 Ma
Albitized dykes:?
 Geochronology : 40Ar/39Ar Older age due to
chloritization of
biotite

15.92 ± 0.07 Ma
15.36 ± 0.03
Ma

15.40 ± 0.07
Ma

15.35 ± 0.05 15.14 ± 0.06 Ma

Ma

15.16 ± 0.04
Ma

Albitized
dykes:?
Geochronology :40Ar/39Ar
A failed attempt to date the sericite-pyrite alteration halo!
2 cm alteration halo
Altered diatreme breccia

diatreme breccia

unaltered
Altered
2 cm quartz-monzonite dyke
pyrite-quartz body
Six 40Ar/39Ar ages on sericite from altered
Plateau age = 17.230.08 Ma
diatreme breccia and quartz-monzonite
dykes yield ages between 18.15 and
16.36 Ma
Geologically unrealistic ages due to 39Ar
recoil!
Rb-Sr analyses showed geochemical
mixtures with inherited components
Geochronology : 40Ar/39Ar on alunite

1mm

1mm
Geochronology : 40Ar/39Ar on alunite

5 cm
Geochronology:
40Ar/39Ar

Venencocha

Enargite-pyrite
veins

Santa Rosa
Geochronology:
40Ar/39Ar

14.54 ± 0.06 Ma
14.53 ± 0.08 Ma
14.52 ± 0.12 Ma
14.50 ± 0.09 Ma
14.41 ± 0.07 Ma
Geochronology : 40Ar/39Ar on alunite

14.41 ± 0.07 Ma

14.52 ± 0.12 Ma

14.50 ± 0.09 Ma
14.53 ± 0.08 Ma

14.54 ± 0.06 Ma
Geochronology:
40Ar/39Ar

Two groups

14.54 ± 0.06 Ma
14.53 ± 0.08 Ma
14.52 ± 0.12 Ma
14.50 ± 0.09 Ma
14.41 ± 0.07 Ma

12.13 ± 0.07 Ma
12.39 ± 0.06 Ma
10.94 ± 0.10 Ma
Younger ages
WHY?
Geochronology : Younger alunite ages

Resetting of the younger alunite ages due to late

fluid circulation?

12.39 ± 0.06 Ma 12.13 ± 0.07 Ma 10.94 ± 0.10 Ma

Inclusions act as pathways

for Ar loss during late fluid
circulations

100 m
100 m
Conclusions geochronology

Magmatic activity
(15.4 - 15.1 Ma)

Cordilleran mineralization
(14.5 - 14.4 Ma)

Probably resetted
younger ages

16 15 14 Ma 13 12 11 10
 Conclusions geochronology

The question:
What is the age and lifetime of the magmatic-hydrothermal system at
Cerro de Pasco?

The answer:
• Magmatic activity: 15.4 Ma - 15.1 Ma (duration of at least 350’000 yr)

• First mineralization stage between 15.1 and 14.5 Ma

• Second mineralization stage from 14.5 to 14.4 Ma.

• The magmatic-hydrothermal activity at Cerro de Pasco lasted for about 1

Ma.
(The younger ages (12.39, 12.13, 10.94 Ma) could be the result of late fluid
circulations and thus would have resetted the ages)
 Part III
Nature of the ore-forming fluids derived from
fluid inclusions and stable isotopes
Magmatic fluids mixed with meteoric waters.

Results based on fluid inclusions on gangue and ore minerals and stable
isotopes (S, O, H, C)
Fluids : fluid inclusions

1st mineralization stage:

- Pyrite-quartz body qtz
- Pipe-like pyrrhotite
qtz
bodies
- Zn-Pb ores (Fe-rich qtz
sphalerite bearing)
2nd mineralization
stage:
- Cu-Ag-(Au-Zn-Pb)
enargite-pyrite veins qtz
- Zn-Pb-(Bi-Ag-Cu)
carbonate replacement
bodies (Fe-poor qtz,
sphalerite bearing) sl
 Fluids : Cathodoluminescence on quartz

Examples:
2nd mineralization stage
200 m
200 m quartz from enargite-
pyrite veins and
carbonate replacement
bodies

200 m
200 m
 Fluids : fluid inclusions in quartz

- Two-phase fluid inclusions

- No vapor-rich inclusions
- Along growth zones => primary fluid inclusions

40 m 30 m 20 m
Fluids : fluid inclusions in quartz 1st stage

Th salinity
(°C) wt% NaCl
eq.
180-275 0.1 – 11.5
Fluids : fluid inclusions in quartz 1st stage

Th salinity
(°C) wt% NaCl
eq.
180-275 0.1 – 11.5
190-240 1 – 12.2
Fluids : fluid inclusions in quartz 1st stage

Th salinity
(°C) wt% NaCl
eq.
180-275 0.1 – 11.5
190-240 1 – 12.2

170-220 3 – 5
Fluids : fluid inclusions in quartz 2nd stage

Th salinity
(°C) wt% NaCl
eq.
170-290 0.1 – 5
Fluids : fluid inclusions in quartz 2nd stage

Th salinity
(°C) wt% NaCl
eq.
170-290 0.1 – 5
170-260 0.1 – 11
 Fluids : fluid inclusions in sphalerite 2nd stage

Th salinity
Higher
(°C) wt% NaCl
temperatures eq.
uncertain
170-290 0.1 – 5
170-260 0.1 – 11

160-220 3 – 12
Fluids : fluid inclusions in quartz 2nd stage

Th salinity
(°C) wt% NaCl
eq.
170-290 0.1 – 5
170-260 0.1 – 11

160-220 3 – 12
240-260 3 – 8
Fluids : Stable isotopes

1st mineralization stage:

- Pyrite-quartz body quartz
sulfides
- Pipe-like pyrrhotite
bodies
sulfides
- Zn-Pb ores (Fe-rich
sphalerite bearing)

2nd mineralization stage:

sulfides
- Cu-Ag-(Au-Zn-Pb) alunite
enargite-pyrite veins barite
quartz
- Zn-Pb-(Bi-Ag-Cu)
carbonate replacement sulfides
bodies (Fe-poor kaolinite
sphalerite bearing) barite
carb.
quartz
 Fluids : O and H isotopes
Mixing of waters of meteoric and magmatic origin. The magmatic end
member corresponds to a fluid characteristic of those of late sericitic
alteration fluids.

Kaolinite
fluids
(220-200°C)
Kaolinite

Pyrite-quartz body

Replacement bodies

Enargite-pyrite veins
Magma degassing, a
Venencocha
Fluids in equilibrium with Fe-Mn-Zn fluids
process which
decreases δD in the
aqueous liquid
 Fluids : O and H isotopes
Alunite formation: Condensation of magmatic vapor with HCl and SO2 into
meteoric water

alunite alunite
fluids
(250°C)

Pyrite-quartz body

Replacement bodies

Enargite-pyrite veins

Venencocha
Fluids in equilibrium with Fe-Mn-Zn fluids
 Conclusions Fluids

Second mineralization stage kaolinite fluids => mixing between a

moderately saline (~10 wt % NaCl equiv) magmatic end member that had
degassed (as indicated by the low δD values) and meteoric water. The
magmatic end member corresponds to a fluid characteristic of those of late
sericitic alteration fluids.

Second mineralization stage alunite fluids => Condensation of

magmatic vapor with HCl and SO2 into meteoric water, which formed
alunite

• First mineralization fluids => less well constrained (no H isotopes).

Available data show strong similarities to the 2nd mineralization stage
kaolinite fluids pointing to mixing between magmatic waters meteoric waters.

• Ore deposition temperatures similar for the first and the second mineralization
stage (180-270°C)
Model
Model
Model First mineralization stage: only diluted brines

Magmatic fluids

Magmatic vapors

Diluted magmatic fluids

Meteoric water
Model Second mineralization stage: diluted brines
and some pulses of magmatic vapor

Magmatic fluids

Magmatic vapors

Diluted magmatic fluids

Meteoric water
Muchas
gracias!
Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Evolution in terms of f S2, f O2, and temperature of the

hydrothermal system?
Evolution of the hydrothermal system
Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Relative
sulfidation states
of hydrothermal
fluids

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Giggenbach’s
rock buffer
Mineral sulfidation
reactions (Barton and
Skinner 1979)

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Contours of mole %
in sphalerite
coexisting with
pyrite or pyrrhotite
(Scott and Barnes (1971 and
Czamanske (1974)

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

First mineralization
stage fluid
environement

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Second
mineralization
stage fluid
environment

Enargite-pyrite veins

Replacement bodies Contrasting

ore-forming
environments

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Mineral reactions
(compiled in Einaudi et al.
2003)

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Giggenbach’s rock
buffer
S-gas buffer
Predominance
boundaries H2S=SO4

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

Evolution of the hydrothermal system

Plutonic and First

volcanic arc mineralization
setting
state fluid
environment

Pyrite-quartz body

Pyrrhotite
pipes and
related Zn-Pb
ores

Modified from Einaudi et al. (2003)

 1st Py-qtz body
H2S
mineralization SO4
Zn-Pb ores
stage
Enargite-
pyrite veins

Replacement

2nd
mineralization
bodies

stage

Typical pattern
for magmatic
sulfur in HS
Venencocha
systems and Santa Rosa
Fluids : S and O isotopes

barite
alunite
Magmatic
hydrothermal
sulfate

Late
barite

Mixing with
meteoric
water