Unit 6 Oral Exam Questions

1. As Glucose enters the body through food, the hormone Insulin is released, causing
the body to absorb glucose from the blood and lowering the blood sugar level to normal.
When blood sugar drops too low, the level of insulin declines and other cells in the
pancreas release glucagon. Which causes the liver to turn stored glycogen back into
glucose and release it into the blood, which brings the blood sugar levels back up to
normal.
2. Neuron’s resting membrane potential is -70mV. This is maintained by polarizing the
cell; the inside of the membrane is negative and the outside is positive. This is because
of the concentration of sodium and potassium ions. Sodium ions are located outside the
cell while potassium ions are found inside.
3. The first structure in a neuron is the Dendrites/Soma. Dendrites are the tree looking
structure of a neuron that are connected to the soma, or cell body, which holds the
nucleus of the neuron. The dendrites and soma are responsible for receiving and
processing incoming information. The axons are the tube looking path from the soma to
the axon terminal and they usually have a substance called Myelin covering them. Their
function is to communicate the information to the axon terminals. Finally the axon
terminals/synapses are another tree looking structure at the end of the neuron that is in
charge of communicating the information to other neurons.
4. The primary immune response occurs the first time that the immune system comes in
contact with the antigen. During this time the immune system has to learn to recognize
antigen and how to make antibody against it. The secondary immune response occurs
the second time (3rd, 4th, etc.) the person is exposed to the same antigen. At this point
immunological memory has been established and the immune system can start making
antibodies immediately.
5. An example is the Kinesis of a woodlouse, which is for it to speed up when there is a
change of the temperature from their preferred range. This is a defensive innate behavior
because this is a behavior that they are born with in their genes and help them to better
survive because it gets them out of bad environments.
6. Immune system cells can communicate to one another either by direct cell-cell
interactions or by secreting factors that bind to and activate each other. Cell-cell
interactions occur via receptors that are unique to certain immune cells. Secreted factors
that activate other immune cells include molecules called cytokines and interferons. This
communication leads to the the immune system to mount a coordinated defense against
foreign invaders of the body.
7. To communicate neurons form synapses between the axon nerve endings and the
dendrites. Through this the axon sends a nerve impulse, and a dendrite receives it. The
result of this communication is an impulse sent to the central nervous system which
allows organisms to respond to their environment.
8. In the active transport of sodium and potassium ions across a neuron membrane a
pump is used to generate gradients of both sodium and potassium ions. These gradients
are used to propagate electrical signals that travel along nerves. Therefore the action of
nervous tissue requires ATP to generate resting potentials
9. They diffuse passively through ligand gated channels and leak channels. Potassium
through leak channel. Both through ligand gated channels.
10. The plasma membrane of muscle cell (the sarcolemma) can create an action
potential. The mitochondria provide the ATP needed for the cycling involved in muscle
contractions. The specialized endoplasmic reticulum stores (calcium ions). When
released, the calcium ions cause contraction; when actively transported back into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, the dropping levels of calcium ions in the cytoplasm cause
muscle contraction to cease. The cytoskeletal elements (microfilaments) are what
contract, thereby causing the muscle cell to shorten.
11. In response to acute stress, the body's sympathetic nervous system is activated due
to the sudden release of hormones. The sympathetic nervous systems stimulates the
adrenal glands triggering the release of catecholamines, which include adrenaline and
noradrenaline. This results in an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and breathing
rate.
12. Antibodies are produced by specialized white blood cells called B lymphocytes (or B
cells). When an antigen binds to the B-cell surface, it stimulates the B cell to divide and
mature into a group of identical cells called a clone. The mature B cells, called plasma
cells, secrete millions of antibodies into the bloodstream and lymphatic system.
As antibodies circulate, they attack and neutralize antigens that are identical to the one
that triggered the immune response. Antibodies attack antigens by binding to them. An
example would be an bacteria unknown to the body.
13. Organisms are able to recognize others as members of their own species through
using such things as a combination of appearance, calls, behaviour and smell. One
example is dogs smelling each other in order to recognize one another.
14. A particular cell is a target cell for a hormone if it contains functional receptors for that
hormone, and cells which do not have such a receptor cannot be influenced directly by
that hormone. A reception of a radio broadcast provides a good analogy. Everyone
within range of a transmitter for National Public Radio is exposed to that signal (even if
they don't contribute!). However, in order to be a NPR target and thus influenced directly
by their broadcasts, you have to have a receiver tuned to that frequency. But a biology
example would be that liver cells have receptors for insulin.
15. A neurotransmitter is a chemical that relays information across the gap (synapse)
between one neuron(nerve cell) and an adjacent neuron or a non-neuron cell (muscle
cell, gland cell). The neurotransmitter is released by the axon terminal end of one
neuron, in response to an electrical impulse, and travels across the microscopic synapse
in milliseconds to the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, where it is recognized by a
receptor site. Examples include acetylcholine, dopamine, serotonin, and nitric oxide.
16. Only T cells are infected resulting in a decrease of T cell population. This decreases
B cell proliferation which leads to the decrease of overall immunity. T cell signalling to B
cell is also slowed down. The viral glycoproteins bind to CD4 sites of the T4 cell and
RME occurs. Also, reverse transcription incorporation of viral genome into lymphocyte
genome also occurs. Eventually there is a cell disruption which leads to the death or
impaired function of the cell.
17. The first time the body is exposed, selective proliferation and differentiation of
lymphocytes occur. Selected B cells produce antibody-secreting effector B cells (plasma
cells) and selected T cells are activated to their effector forms. Eventually, T cells clear
the antigen from the body.
18. The second time the same antigen is exposed, the response is faster. The antibodies
produced in the secondary immune response have a greater affinity for the
antigen.Clones of the T and B memory cells generate initial exposure to an antigen.
These memory cells proliferate or differentiate faster when they attack the same antigen
again.
19. Mammal labor is classified as Positive Feedback because Oxytocin is used to help
enhance and stimulate childbirth Contractions will continue to intensify until the baby is
outside of the birth canal. The contractions will ease when the pressure receptors stop
receiving stimulus. Four hormones that help regulate reproduction are oxytocin,
endorphins, adrenaline and related stress hormones, and prolactin. These hormones
play a major role in regulating labor and birth.
20. Imprinting is the rapid learning that occurs during a brief receptive period, typically
soon after birth or hatching, and establishes a long-lasting behavioral response to a
specific individual or object, as attachment to parent, offspring, or site. Animal
communication is the transfer of information from one or a group of animals (sender or
senders) to one or more other animals (receiver or receivers) that affects the current or
future behaviour of the receivers.
21. Insulin and Glucagon comes from the pancreas, Insulin tells your body to use
glucose as an energy source, glucagon causes the liver to release glucose into the
blood. The insulin can lower the glucose levels which is positive, without insulin though
it could result in diabetes, which is negative. Insulin will release when glucose levels are
high, and glucagon tells your body to release glucose when it is too low.
22. Parathyroid hormone is secreted from the parathyroid and Calcitonin is secreted by
the thyroid. Parathyroid raises calcium levels in the blood. Calcitonin decreases calcium
in the blood. When calcium levels are low the PTH will raise is and when it is too high
the Calcitonin will lower it, allowing to find that happy medium.
23. TSH comes from the anterior pituitary gland, it stimulates the thyroid gland. T4
comes from the thyroid gland and stimulates the process of metabolism. TSH will
stimulate T4 which starts metabolism which is positive feedback.
24. Pheromones can serve as an alarm to help survival of a certain population. An
example would be minnows in a tank, when one is alarmed it will secrete a pheromone
and warn the others.
25. Mimicry allows some organisms to imitate larger organisms so that they can survive.
An example could be butterflies with patterns on their wings that allow them to look like
an owl.
26. An organism will not be able to make antigens to fight back the pathogen. Thus
memory cells will not be made and a secondary response will be useless.
27. The individual will have a slower 2nd response due to lack of memory cells to
recognize the pathogen from the first time.
28. The individual will still have helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells, and natural killer cells.
29. Insulin binds to a specific receptor (tyrosine kinase) on the cell surface. Ligand
binding to two adjacent monomers forms an active dimer (tyrosine kinase). Dimer and
other proteins become phosphorylated. Transduction: Binding of signaling molecule
alters the receptor protein in some way. Stimulates a cascade pathway/mediated by a
second messenger/amplifies signal. Response: Transduced signal triggers a specific
action by the target cell. Increases/raises cellular uptake of glucose.
30. Target cells: Liver cells, (skeletal) muscle cells. Reception: Binds to a specific
receptor on the cell surface (G-protein-coupled receptors on liver cells). G protein-GTP
activates adenylyl or guanylyl cyclase. Transduction: Binding of signaling molecule
alters the receptor protein in some way. (G-protein binds to GTP and this activates other
signal molecules such as adenylyl cyclase/amplifies signal.), cAMP or cGMP active as
second messenger/phospholipase C activation releases IP3 and DAG. Kinase
activation by cAMP or cGMP/phosphorylated effector proteins. Response: Transduced
signal triggers the specific action by the target cell. Releases glucose into the
bloodstream from liver.
31. A stimulus must be detected by a sensory receptor. The sensor must translate the
stimulus into a nervous signal (an action potential). The signal must be interpreted by the
central nervous system (the Brain).
32. All or nothing event, where the neuron rapidly changes its resting electrical potential
from negative back to positive, and then back to negative again
causes the release of neurotransmitters.
33. Taste is mediated by taste buds in the tongue. Taste buds interpret different
molecules as different tastes. PBDG receptors determine whether express the certain
taste.
34. Smell is interpreted when molecules (odorants) interact with receptors on the cell
membranes of chemoreceptors that protrude from the olfactory bulb of the brain. Human
sense is vastly less pronounced than that of typical mammals. Smell is important for
taste as well, as odorants are released into the nasal cavity when food is chewed.
35. The medulla oblongata is located in the brainstem, anterior to (in front of) the
cerebellum. helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion,
sneezing, and swallowing. This part of the brain is a center for respiration and
circulation. Sensory and motor neurons (nerve cells) from the forebrain and midbrain
travel through the medulla.
36. The cerebrum is located in the upper part of the cranial cavity, which is a space
inside the top of the skull. It is divided into a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere by a
deep groove known as the longitudinal fissure. The right half of the cerebrum controls
the left side of the body. The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems,
the spinal cord, and other parts of the brain and then regulates motor movements.
37. The cerebrum is located in the upper part of the cranial cavity, which is a space
inside the top of the skull. It is divided into a right hemisphere and a left hemisphere by a
deep groove known as the longitudinal fissure. The right half of the cerebrum controls
the left side of the body. The cerebrum is divided into four regions called lobes that
control senses, thoughts, and movements. The four lobes are the occipital, temporal,
frontal, and parietal lobes. ... The occipital lobe, found in the back of your cerebrum,
plays a role in processing visual information.
38. Skeletal, voluntary motion. Smooth, lines organs, involuntary. Cardiac, independent,
heart.
39. It is the process of muscle contraction involving the sliding of actin & myosin
myofilaments past each other to shorten the length of each sarcomere.
40. The human skeleton is an endoskeleton made of bone tissue. It is responsible for
support, movement, protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine
regulation. Bone marrow is the site of blood cell production.