1. What is meant by the term “homeostasis”?

The maintenance and balancing of internal environment at optimal level for the
cellular activities, despite the external environmental changes - is termed as
homeostasis. With the help of homeostasis the optimal internal environment for
healthy, tissues, cells, and organs is regulated within the conditions of low and narrow
range.
2. Using a simple model of body temperature regulation as an example (eg
shivering or sweating), explain what is meant by the term “negative
feedback”. Give two extra examples of negative feedback systems in the
body and one example of positive feedback.
Negative Feedback
All those homeostasis phenomenas that alters the stimulus direction are considered as
negative feedback loop or negative stimulus. The stimulus may be either decreased or
increased by the negative feedback loop, but it is not allowed to the stimulus to
remain in that state as it was before the receptor sensed it.
Examples of Negative Feedback
1. Kidney can detect the lower oxygen level and then secrete erythropoietin
which increases the red blood cell formation.
2. When blood sugar rises, insulin sends a signal to the liver, muscles and other
cells to store the excess glucose. Some is stored as body fat and other is stored
as glycogen in the liver and muscles.
Example of Positive Feedback
The example for positive feedback is the contraction of uterus during the
childbirth. The uterus contraction is stimulated by the oxytocin hormone which is
produced by the endocrine system. This results in pain which is sensed by the
patient’s nervous system. Instead of decreasing the level of oxytocin to reduce the
pain, more formation of oxytocin is done till the contractions of uterus become strong
enough to complete the child delivery.
Explain why negative feedback systems are more common in the body than
positive feedback systems.
There are only few cases of positive feedback systems that function to turn your
situation worse, like contractions of uterus till the time baby is born. To regulate your
body system, negative feedback systems are also present. So, if something happens at
extreme level in your body, then that extreme effect gets reversed by the negative
feedback system.
3. Using labelled diagrams, or a flowchart, or a written description, explain
how the nervous and endocrine systems work together to maintain
homeostasis of
Glucose concentrations in the blood
 Glucose levels too high: The pancreatic beta cells release insulin. Muscle and
fat cells are stimulated by the insulin so they can take up increased level of
glucose from your blood through the facilitated diffusion. Hence, there will
be reduction in the glucose level.
 Glucose levels too low: The pancreatic alpha cells will release glucagon. Liver
cells get stimulated by glucagon to product such enzymes that will convert
the animal starch or stored glycogen into glucose. As a result, there will be
an increase in blood level.
Solute and water balance in the blood
 Levels of Solute too high (means water levels is too low): The osmo-receptors
of brain detect and then send signals to the pituitary gland. Then ADH
hormone is secreted by the pituitary gland. Due to ADH, more aquaporins
are produced by the kidney’s duct cells. More water is taken by the
bloodstreams from the collecting duct. That’s why we feel thirst and then
drink water.
 Levels of Solute get reduced (means water levels gets increased). Solute levels
are increased (water levels are decreased). The osmo-receptors of brain will
detect and then send signals toward pituitary gland. The pituitary gland
reduces the formation of ADH hormone. Very less amount of aquaporins
are produced by the kidney’s collecting duct cells. The bloodstream will
take up less amount of water. There will be increased excretion of water in
the dilute urine.

4. Draw a diagram of a nerve cell. Include the cell body, axon and dendrites.
Indicate the direction which electrical signals travel to and from the nerve
body down the cell processes
 5. Define the following terms in your own words.
 Action potential: The changings of the electrical potential are linked with the
impulse's passage along nerve or muscle cell membrane.
 Synapse: A system that allows a neuron to pass a chemical or electrical signal
towards effector cell.
 Neurotransmitter: A messenger that transmits the neurological information
from one cell to other.
6. Many snakes hunt for their prey and paralyse them using chemicals
called neurotoxins. Some neurotoxins from snakebite venom block
acetylcholine from binding to receptors on muscle cells, which are thus
maintained in a resting state. The affected muscles, including especially
the diaphragm, remain in paralysis, thus causing respiratory failure.
Name the branches of the nervous system that are responsible for
contractions of the diaphragm. Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter.
Explain why some snake venoms cause paralysis.
Then there are cytotoxic varieties of venom, which destroy cells and entire tissues,
wiping away flesh and causing tremendous pain leading to paralysis or even death..
7. You are relaxing with friends after sharing a meal. List the body
processes that will be occurring. List the branches of the nervous system
responsible for these processes.
 The heartbeats is slow down by the parasympathetic division when you are in
well-being or relaxation condition, and it also stimulates the digestive and stomach
activities in general.The sympathetic division nerves can have opposite effect on
body, even if they are present within the same parasympathetic nerves or organs.
8. A car rounds the corner and narrowly avoids hitting you. You feel shaky
and your heart is pounding. List the branches of the nervous system
responsible for this “fight or flight” response and describe the bodily
processes involved.
In the “fight response or fight”, there is involvement of sympathetic division. This
is basically a response to the possible danger, or condition in which you have to act
fast. The liver releases extra amount of glucose, pupils dilate, heart beat increases,
airways relax which permits more glucose and oxygen to move towards the skeletal
muscles to get them ready for an action. The meal will not be digested properly in the
stomach, and if the condition becomes more dangerous then it may results in
vomiting. Due to this body gets lightens and the workload reduces so that it can
concentrate more on escaping the possible danger.
9. In which direction do signals travel along the sensory neural pathway
(where do these signals go to?)
Sensory pathways are impulses or sensations that conduct a route between
receptors or sense organs to the reflex centres of more than on brain destinations,
cerebellum and cerebral cortex. From the cerebral cortex the impulses will reach the
thalamus and enter the brain’s conscious part, while in the cerebellum the impulses
are involved in the activities that lead to coordination.
10. In which direction do signals travel along the motor neural pathway?
In the Giant pyramidal cells of the motor area (also termed as Betz cells), there
will be origination of motor impulses, i.e., precentral gyrus of the area cerebral cortex.
From the cerebral cortex, the axons of all these cells move towards the medulla
oblongata and midbrain. These motor impulses are carried by the peripheral motor
nerves towards the voluntary muscles from the anterior horn.
11. Your heart continues to beat even while you are asleep. You can’t
consciously stop your heart from beating. Which part of the nervous
system is responsible? Why is this capacity important to the body?
The involuntary muscles are controlled by the autonomic nervous system, such as
cardiac and smooth muscle (.g., pumping action of human heart and peristalsis). We
call this system as involuntary nervous system as these functions are not consciously
controlled by our body.
12. Using multiple sclerosis as an example, describe what happens when the
neurons lose their insulating myelin sheaths.
The nerve impulse transmission is impaired in case if sheath gets destroyed. The
transmission of messages towards the correct body parts from the brain is not clear
and quick. If the destruction of sheath is more, then the nerve impulses would be less
efficient and slower. Based on the severity of attack on immune system, the nerve
fibers may b destroyed or damaged by themselves.
13. Define the following words and explain the function of these structures of
the brain: Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Brainstem, Hypothalamus
Part Definition Function
Cerebrum The cortex or cerebrum is the Higher brain functions are
biggest part in the human brain performed by cerebrum such as
and its position is the top most thinking and action.
area of the central nervous
system.
Cerebellum This part is smaller than Voluntary movements are
cerebrum and receive coordinated by this part such as
sensations from the spinal speech and coordination,
cord, sensory system, and other posture, smooth muscle
brain parts where they regulate activity, and balance.
the motor nerves.
Brainstem The part connected with the Regulates the message flow
lower base f the brain and is between other body parts and
stem-like brain, other functions are also
controlled by brain-stem such
as blood pressure, breathing,
swallowing etc.
Hypothalamus It’s a small area of the brain.  Regulating body

Its position is the brain’s base temperature

close to the pituitary gland.  Releasing hormones

 Managing sexual
 behavior
 Maintaining routine

physiological cycles
 Controlling appetite

 Regulating the

emotional responses

14. List the lobes of the brain and describe the location and role of each.
 Frontal Lobe- Linked with movement, planning, emotions, parts of speech,
reasoning and problem solving
 Parietal Lobe- linked with perception of stimuli, orientation, movement,
recognition,
 Occipital Lobe- Linked with the visual processing
 Temporal Lobe- linked with recognition and perception of memory, auditory
stimuli, and speech
SPECIAL SENSES
1. Which cells in the eye detect colour?
Cone cells in the retina of the human eye detect color with the help of three types
of photoreceptor. These cells are responsible for color vision and function best in
bright light.
2. Which cells in the eye enable night vision?
The rod cells located around the fovea enable night and peripheral vision. These
cells are more sensitive to light and insensitive to colour.
3. What is the name of the opening in the eye that allows light to enter?
The outmost lens of the eye that functions like a window that focuses and
regulates entry of light into the eye is cornea.
4. A person has a corneal transplant. What is the purpose of the cornea in
the eye?
Cornea helps to protect the eye from dust, germs and other harmful things. It also
functions like a window focusing and controlling the light entering the eye. Cornea
also filters the damaging ultraviolet (UV) wavelengths in sunlight.
5. Which nerve transmits information to the brain regarding sight?
 Optic nerves connects the eye with the brain and transmits information to the
brain regarding sight
6. Fill in the table below.
Part Function
Aqueous Humor  Maintains shape of the eye
 Supply nourishment and nutrients to the parts of
the eye where blood supply is limited
 Helps in removing waste
Vitreous Humor  Maintains shape of the eye
 Absorbs shocks
 Keep the retina and back wall of the eye
connected
Retina  Receives light focused by lends
 Convert light into neural signals
 Transmit signals to the brain for recognizing the
vision
Iris  Controls size and diameter of pupil
 Controls light that reached the retina
 Defines eye color
Lens  Focuses the light rays passing through it
 Helps in creating images of objects
Cornea  Refracts and bend light
 Protects eye from dust, germs and other harmful
material
 Controls light by screening out damaging UV
wavelengths
Fovea  Provides clear vision of all
 Allow light to directly reach cones
Pupil  Controls amount of light entering the eye
Sclera  Protects the eye from damages
Choroid  Provides nourishment and oxygen to outer layer
of retina
 THE EAR — HEARING
1. Name the three small bones found in the middle ear.
The three small bones found in the middle ear are malleus, incus and stapes.
2. In which part of the ear is the cochlea located?
The cochlea is located in the inner ear that is involved in hearing.
3. What happens to the tympanic membrane in response to sound?
Tympanic membrane vibrates when sound waves pass through it transmitting the
waves to inner ear.
4. Which nerve transmits information to the brain regarding sound?
Auditory nerve transmits information to the brain regarding sound.
THE TONGUE — TASTE
1. What are the receptors for taste called?
Receptors of taste are called taste buds that located in the tongue, near the pharynx
and in the roof of mouth.
2. Where are the taste receptors located?
Taste receptors are located chiefly in the tongue but are also found near the pharynx
and in the roof of mouth.
3. What five tastes can be detected by the receptors?
Taste receptors can detect sweet, sour, bitter, salty and umami tastes.
THE NOSE — SMELL
1. Which nerve transmits information on smell to the brain?
The olfactory nerve transmits information to the brain related to smell.
2. How are smells detected by our nose?
Humans detect smell by inhaling the air containing odor molecules. These molecules
interact with the molecules and transmit sensations to the brain through olfactory
nerve.
THE SKIN — TOUCH
1. What is the outer layer of skin called?
The outer layer of skin is called epidermis
2. What is under the dermis?
Subcutaneous fat lies under the dermis.
3. Name the protein that the outer layer of skin and hair is made from.
The outer layer of skin and hair is made from Keratinocytes
4. What protein makes our skin waterproof?
Keratin makes our skin waterproof and provide resistance against physical wear.
5. What is the name of the pigment (colour) that determines hair and skin
colour?
Melanin produced in the basal cells determines hair and skin colour
6. Which glands in the skin help the body to cool down when it is hot?
Sebaceous glands in the skin help the body stay hydrated and cool down.
7. What gland is found attached to each hair follicle?
Sebaceous oil gland is found attached to each hair follicle.
8. What two proteins give skin strength and flexibility?
Collagen and elastin give skin strength and flexibility.
9. What sensations can the skin detect via specialised nerves?
Through skin we can feel cold, hot, smooth, rough, pressure, tickle, itch, pain,
vibrations, and more.
10. Summarise five special senses and describe the role each plays in the
human body.
 The Sense of Sight (Eyes) - eye is the organ which is responsible for
vision. it is most used than any other sense.
 The Sense of Hearing (Ears) - Ears are used for the purpose of Hearing.
 The Sense of Smell (Nose) - Nose is use for Breathing and smelling
 The Sense of Taste (Tongue) - It is used to thought of the taste and
recognizes sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness and umami
 The Sense of Touch (Skin) - It is the sense which we feels whenever our
body is touched somewhere.
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. What is the endocrine system?
The endocrine system secretes hormones into the blood and is made up of a number
of glands.
2. What is a hormone?
A hormone is a regulatory substance that is transmitted in blood or sap stimulating
tissues or cells into action.
3. Complete the table below by filling in the missing words. (table at page
40)
Endocrine Gland What the body can do as a result of the hormone
produced by this gland
Gonads Male and female characteristics are determined by the
effects of the hormones made here.
Parathyroid gland Maintains blood calcium level
Thyroid Gland Controls the rate of metabolism
Pancreas Secretes hormones to maintain glucose homeostasis
Hypothalamus Small part of the brain controlling the endocrine system
through its control of the pituitary gland.
Pituitary Gland Master gland: produces a variety of different
hormones under the instructions of the hypothalamus
Pineal Gland Regulates day/night cycle

4. The thyroid gland has been called “the engine of the body”. Use your
device to find out how the thyroid regulates the rate of metabolism
(remember, metabolism is the sum of anabolism, or “building” reactions,
and “catabolism”, or reactions that bring complex molecules down into
simpler forms).
When the level of thyroid hormone drops down then Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone (TSH) is released by hypothalamus. TSH is secreted by TRH hormone that
stimulates the pituitary to produce TSH
5. Name the part of the brain and the gland of the endocrine system that
directly link the nervous and endocrine systems.
Hypothalamus link the nervous and endocrine systems.
6. “It is difficult to separate the brain from the pituitary, both in terms of
structure and function.” Explain this statement.
The hypothalamus, an important part of the brain, interacts with master gland
called pituitary to regulate functions of the body. Thus, nearly all functions of
hypothalamus are dependent on pituitary gland and cannot be separated.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following are parts of a neuron?
a. brain, spinal cord and vertebral column
b. dendrite, axon, and cell body
 c. sensory and motor neuron
d. cortex, medulla and sheath
2. What is a synapse?
a. a connection between the brain and the spinal cord
b. collection of neurons
c. a connection between two neurons
d. a connection between two blood vessels
3. The hypothalamus contains accurate temperature sensors. If body temperature
is too low, the hypothalamus signals the anterior pituitary. The anterior
pituitary produces a substance that stimulates the thyroid gland to produce
thyroxine hormone. Thyroxine then increases metabolic rate and heat is
produced. The diagram shows a control mechanism. From this it would be
reasonable to conclude that:
a. response I would include increased heat production at a cellular level
b. response II would include increased oxygen usage by cells
c. transmission III must involve more than one hormone
d. transmission IV would involve reduced production of thyroid
stimulating hormone by the pituitary
4. From the information above, these processes demonstrate:
a. that the hypothalamus and pituitary function independently of each
other
b. a form of homeostasis
c. that the thyroid gland functions separately from the anterior pituitary
d. that the body can tolerate a wide range of internal temperatures
5. Which structures form the central nervous system?
a. The brain and the spinal cord
b. The spinal cord, the brain and the leg nerves
c. The brain and the facial nerves
d. The spinal cord and the facial nerves
6. When a response alters the effect of a stimulus it is called:
a. a reflex arc
b. a feedback system
c. homeostasis
d. a reaction
 7. In what order do nerve impulses travel through parts of a neuron?
a. Dendrite, cell body, axon
b. Axon, cell body, dendrite
c. Dendrite, axon, cell body
d. Axon, dendrite, cell body
8. Which chemicals are used to communicate between synapses?
a. Enzymes
b. Hormones
c. Neurotransmitters
d. Water
9. A person is given an anaesthetic that blocks sensory nerves in the foot. The
foot is pinched sharply with a pair of forceps. What would happen?
a. The person would feel the pinch but not respond by pulling the foot
away
b. The person would feel the pinch and pull their foot away
c. The person would not feel the pinch but would pull their foot away by
reflex
d. The person would not feel the pinch and would not move the foot
10. A model of the way we can respond to stimuli is given below.

Which best describes the response of the retina of the eye?

a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
11. Which best describes a loud sound?
a. A
b. B
 c. C
d. D
12. The salt balance in the blood is controlled by ADH hormone. You would
expect ADH secretion to increase in all of the following situations, except one.
Which one?
a. Dehydration
b. Blood loss
c. Reduced salt to water ratio in the blood
d. Following a high salt meal
13. When insulin is secreted, what happens?
a. The blood glucose level rises
b. Glucose is taken up by the cells
c. The liver breaks down glycogen
d. Tissue store of glucose is depleted