Sensors

Sensors and
Instrumentation
MF F 311
MECHATRONICS & AUTOMATION
Dr. Arshad Javed
BITS Pilani Asst. Prof.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Hyderabad Campus
Sensors
FUNCTIONS
Sense or Measure
Interface – between Energy domain &
Information Domain
Sense without drawing energy from
system
Handle different forms of energy
21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 2
Sensors: PERFORMANCE
TERMINOLOGY
RANGE & SPAN (algebraic diff.)

ERROR
STABILITY
ACCURACY
DEAD BAND/TIME
SENSITYVITY
RESOLUTION
HYSTERESIS ERROR
O/P impedance
NON-LINEARITY ERROR
REPEATABILITY
TERMINOLOGY
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• RESPONSE TIME
• TIME CONSTANT
• RISE TIME
• SETTLING TIME
TERMINOLOGY
5
TERMINOLOGY
Classification of Sensors
• Physical Quantity
• Physical law
– Optics, Electromagnetics, Hall, See Back....
• Technology
– Semiconductor, EM, optoelectronics....
• Spatial relationship with object and sensor
– Contact/Non Contact/remote
• Energy domain
• Digital Vs Analog
• Simple Vs Complex
• Self-generating Vs Modulating
Smart Sensors
• IEEE-P1451.2
“Provides function beyond those necessary for
generating a correct representation of a sensed
or controlled quantity”
It may have:
Onboard microcontroller
Signal processing, calibration
Communication circuit
Storage od I/P and O/P
Self-generating Vs Modulating
Sensors
• Displacement, position and proximity

Velocity and motion
• Force
• Liquid level
• Temperature
• Light sensors
• Fluid pressure
• Liquid flow
DISPLACEMENT, POSITION
AND PROXIMITY SENSORS
CONTACT/NON-CONTACT TYPE
POTENTIOMETER OPTICAL ENCODER
STRAIN GAUGED HALL EFFECT TYPE
CAPACITIVE TYPE ULTRASONIC
LVDT PIEZOELECTRIC
EDDY CURRENT TYPE PYROELECTRIC
(PROXIMITY) OPTIC
IC/MEMS
POTENTIOMETER
SLIDER
VS
V0 RL VL
Effect of load is to transform a linear relationship between

output voltage and angle into non-linear relationship.
Total Resistance RP 1  x   RL xRP RL  xRP 

POTENTIAL DIVIDER
VL RL xR P RL  xR P  x
 
VS RP 1  x   RL xR P RL  xR P  RP RL x1  x   1
IF R
12 L
   VL  xVS
Types of Potentiometers
Linear/rotary
Wirewound
•Wiper slides on a coil of wire
•step variation/wear/
Types of Potentiometers
Linear/rotary
Cermet
•Wiper slides on a conductive track
•Wear of track/non-linear
•High thermal conductivity, high Wattage
Plastic film
•Long life/better resolution/good temperature stability
Shunting resister
Potentiometer: Merit and
Demerits
• +Require analog signal for control
• +Require absolute positional information
• +Low cost
• -Temperature and wear variation
• -Dust and wet environment
STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENT
G (gauge factor)
METAL WIRE
Metal wire/foil=2-5.0
METAL FOIL
P-type=100 or more
SEMICONDUCTOR
N-type=-100 or more
R
 G
R
Strain Gage Selection
Considerations
• Strain gage dimensions • Arrangement of Gages in Gage
• Strain gage resistance Pattern
120, 350, 600, and 700 Ohms. • Strain Sensitive Alloy
• Carrier Material
• Gage Factor (Strain • Gage Width
Sensitivity) • Solder Tab Type
• Temperature Characteristic • Configuration of Solder Tab
• Service Temperature Range • Availability
• Maximum Permitted RMS
Bridge Energizing Voltage
• Number of Gages in Gage
Pattern
Strain gauge rosettes
Strain gauge rosettes
Applications
Experimental stress analysis. Diagnosis on machines and failure analysis.
multi axial stress fatigue testing, proof testing
residual stress
vibration measurement
torque measurement
bending and deflection measurement
compression and tension measurement
strain measurement
Sensors for machines, automotive, research etc.
force measurement in machine tools
aerospace
impact sensors
medical sensors
automotive, motor sport
Biometrics
tension sensors, web tension
force on hydraulic or pneumatic press
Strain gauge data sheet
21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
23
Force Sensors (Force/Torque Sensors)
Force Sensing Wrist
8 pairs of strain gauges Z
•3 Force components Y
•3 moments
1
2
4 deflection
bars/4-strain
gages each
100 mm dia. x 30 mm thk
21-Aug-19
200-300 g arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 24
Force Sensors (Force/Torque Sensors)
Wrist Force/Torque Sensor (WFTS)
Six-component (SRI International) – 8 pairs of SG
Z
R3 R4 X Y R5 R6
R8
R2 R1 R7
Capacitive sensors
sense a variety of things:

motion, chemical composition, electric field
Indirectly (motion or dielectric constant):
pressure, acceleration, fluid level, and fluid composition.
Low cost, Stability, Simple conditioning circuits
10-14 m displacements
good stability, high speed, and wide extremes of environment
Capacitive sensors in oil refineries measure the percent of water in
oil, and sensors in grain storage facilities measure the moisture
content of wheat
Calculation of capacitance
Spacing variation
Area variation
Three plate systems
• Sensor capacitance is
doubled
• Tilt is first-order
compensated
• Shielding is easier
Parallel multi-plates
Finger position sensor
Applications
Proximity Ice detector
Flow Shaft angle or linear position
Pressure Lamp dimmer switch
Liquid level Keyswitch
Spacing X-Y tablet
Scanned multiplate sensor Accelerometers
Thickness measurement
Capacitive proximity sensors
http://www.ab.com/en/epub/catalogs/12772/6543185/12041221/12041231/Capacitive-Proximity-Sensing.html
Capacitive proximity sensors
• Detects metal and nonmetal, liquids

and solids
• Can “see through” certain materials
(product boxes)
• Solid-state, long life
• Many mounting configurations
• Short (1 inch or less) sensing distance varies widely according to material

being sensed
• Very sensitive to environmental factors — humidity in coastal/water
climates can affect sensing output
• Not at all selective for its target — control of what comes close to the
sensor is essential
http://www.ab.com/en/epub/catalogs/12772/6543185/12041221/12041231/Capacitive-Proximity-Sensing.html
DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER
Ferrous Rod
Sec 1
Primary Output (Difference between the two secondary voltages)
Sec 2
di
eM
A.C. input dt
for i  I sint   
Output V1  K1 sint   ;V2  K 2 sint   
V1  V2  K1  K 2 sint   
Displacement
Principle
• Electromagnetic Induction:
– Primary Coil (RED) is connected to power source
– Secondary Coils (BLUE) are connected in parallel but with opposing polarity
– Primary coil’s magnetic field (BLACK) induces a current in the secondary coils
– Ferro-Metallic core (BROWN) manipulates primary’s magnetic field
Principle
– In the null position, the magnetic field generates currents of equal magnitude in both
secondary coils.
– When the core is moved, there will be more magnetic flux in one coil than the other
resulting in different currents and therefore different voltages
– This variation in voltages is linearly proportional to displacement
Null position
Displaced
21-Aug-19 Source: http://www.macrosensors.com/lvdt_macro_sensors/lvdt_tutorial/lvdt_primer.pdf

arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 36
Advantages
• Friction – Free Operation

– NO mechanical contact between core and coil (usually)
• Infinite Mechanical Life
• Infinite Resolution
– Electromagnetic coupling
• Limited only by electrical noise
• Low risk of damage
– Most LVDT’s have open bore holes
• Null Point Repeatability
– Zero displacement can be measured
• Single Axis Sensitivity
– Effects of other axes are not felt on the axis of interest
• Environmentally Robust
– Stable/Strong sensors – good for structural engineering tests!!!
Applications
• Automation Machinery
• Civil/Structural Engineering
• Power Generation
• Manufacturing
• Metal Stamping/Forming
• OEM
• Pulp and Paper
• Industrial Valves
• R & D and Tests LVDT accessories tips
• Automotive Racing
• Civil/Structural Engineering
21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in Source:http://www.rdpe.com/ex/tips.htm

38
Ultrasonic sensor
Ultrasonic sensors
• Use sound pulses

• Measures amplitude and time of flight
• Range provides more than on/off information
• Frequencies 40KHz-2MHz
Ultrasonic sensors
• Provide range data directly

• Level monitoring of solid and liquids
• Approach warning (collisions)
• Can (usually) work in heavy dust and water
Ambient noise is potentially an issue
HC-SR04 is one of the most popular
ultrasonic sensors used in robotics by
students and hobbyists to determine the
distance from a robot to objects. It is
available at a low-price, it is stable and
has high accuracy. Working principle is
similar to bats or dolphins, and its
operation is not affected by sunlight or
other noises.
PING is a low-cost and precise ultrasonic

sensor used for measurements of
moving or stationary objects. The sensor
is designed to measure the distance
between robot and object from a range
between 2 centimeters and 3 meters.
http://www.intorobotics.com/interfacing-programming-ultrasonic-sensors-tutorials-resources/
HALL EFFECT
BI
V  KH
t
+ KH Hall coefficient
Can be used as non-contact

t switches, position,
displacement and proximity
- sensor
High electron mobility:

• gallium arsenide (GaAs)
• indium arsenide (InAs)
• indium phosphide (InP)
• indium antimonide (InSb)
• graphene
Advantages
• Costs less than a mechanical switch and is much

more reliable
• Can be operated at higher frequencies than a
mechanical switch
• No contact bounce
• It will not be affected by environmental
contaminants since, can be used under severe
conditions.
• can measure a wide range of magnetic fields
• can measure either North or South pole magnetic
fields
Hal effect sensor
Eddy current sensor
• Supply of a.c. produces alternating
current
• -if there is a metal object in the
proximity to this alternating
magnetic field, then eddy currents
are induced
• -eddy currents themselves produces
a magnetic field
• -this distorts the magnetic field
responsible for their production
• -as a result, the impedance of the
coil changes and so the amplitude of
the alternating current
• -this may be used to trigger a switch
http://www.lionprecision.com/eddy-current-sensors/
Temperature Sensors
• Thermocouples
• Resistive Temperature Devices
• Thermistor
• Infrared Sensors
• Bimetallic Devices
• Change-of-state Sensors
• Thermometers
Thermocouples
• Available in different combinations of metals or calibrations.

J, K, T and E.
• There are high temperature calibrations R, S, C and GB.
• Each calibration=>different temperature range and environment
• The maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire
used in the thermocouple.
• Range is also limited by the diameter of the thermocouple wire.
• A very thin thermocouple may not reach the full temperature
range.
Thermocouples: Selection
• Temperature range:
– Calibration range
– Probe type
– Wire Diameter
• Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath
material
• Abrasion and vibration resistance
• Installation requirements (may need to be
compatible with existing equipment; existing holes
may determine probe diameter)
Thermocouples: Sheath
• The wall of the tube => sheath of the probe.

• Common sheath materials => stainless steel
and Inconel
• Inconel supports higher temperature ranges
than stainless steel
• stainless steel is often preferred because of its
broad chemical compatibility
• For very high temperatures, other exotic sheath
materials are also available
Thermocouples: Probe
• Grounded tip: Is in contact with the sheath wall.

Fast response time. but it is most susceptible to
electrical ground loops.
• Ungrounded junctions: thermocouple is separated
from the sheath wall by a layer of insulation.
• Exposed junction: The tip of the thermocouple
protrudes outside the sheath wall. Exposed
junction thermocouples are best suited for air
measurement.
Thermocouple Sensor Colour Codes
Extension and Compensating Leads
Code
Conductors (+/-) Sensitivity
Type
Nickel Chromium /
E -200 to 900oC
Constantan
J Iron / Constantan 0 to 750oC
Nickel Chromium /
K -200 to 1250oC
Nickel Aluminium
N Nicrosil / Nisil 0 to 1250oC
T Copper / Constantan -200 to 350oC
21-Aug-19 Source>> http://www.omega.com/thermocouples.html53
arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
Resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs)
• Changes in the electrical resistance with temperature
• Excellent stability
• Linear signal w.r.t temperature of any electronic temperature sensor.
• Generally more expensive than alternatives.
• Characterized by a slow response time and low sensitivity, and because they
require current excitation, they can be prone to self-heating
• The relationship between resistance and temperature is very linear and
follows the equation
For < 0oC RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT2 + cT3 (T - 100) ]
For > 0oC RT = R0 [ 1 + aT + bT2 ]
Where, RT = resistance at temperature T

R0 = nominal resistance
a, b, and c are constants used to scale the RTD
Common Resistance Materials
for RTDs
• Platinum
(the most common because of its wide temperature range, accuracy, and
stability)
• Nickel
• Copper
• Balco (rare)
• Tungsten (rare)
Resistance-Temperature Curve for a 100 Ω Platinum RTD,
a = 0.00385
21-Aug-19 http://zone.ni.com/devzone/cda/tut/p/id/711555
arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in
Benefits of Using an RTD
• The RTD is one of the most accurate

temperature sensors.
• RTDs are also relatively immune to electrical
noise and therefore well suited for temperature
measurement in industrial environments,
especially around motors, generators and other
high voltage equipment.
Types of RTD
RTD Elements
The RTD element is the simplest form of RTD. It consists of a
piece of wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core.
Because of their compact size, RTD elements are commonly
used when space is very limited.
RTD Surface Elements

A surface element is a special type of RTD element. It is
designed to be as thin as possible thus providing good contact
for temperature measurement of flat surfaces.
RTD Probes
The RTD probe is the most rugged form of RTD. A probe
consists of an RTD element mounted inside a metal tube, also
known as a sheath. The sheath protects the element from the
environment. OMEGA offers a wide variety of probes in
various configurations.
Thermistor
• It will be A negative (NTC), or positive (PTC)

resistance/temperature coefficient.
• −90 °C to 130 °C
• NTC = semiconductor resistors.
• NTCs should be chosen when a continuous change

of resistance is required over a wide temperature
range. They offer mechanical, thermal and electrical
stability, together with a high degree of sensitivity.
 PTC thermistors are temperature dependent resistors manufactured from

barium titanate and should be chosen when a drastic change in resistance is
required at a specific temperature or current level.
Infrared Temperature
Measurement Devices
• Infrared sensors are noncontacting devices.
They infer temperature by measuring the
thermal radiation emitted by a material
Bimetallic Temperature
Measurement Devices
• Bimetallic devices take advantage of the
difference in rate of thermal expansion
between different metals. Strips of two metals
are bonded together. When heated, one side
will expand more than the other, and the
resulting bending is translated into a
temperature reading by mechanical linkage to
a pointer. These devices are portable and they
do not require a power supply, but they are
usually not as accurate as thermocouples or
RTDs and they do not readily lend themselves
to temperature recording.
Fluid-Expansion Temperature
Measurement Devices
• Typified by the household thermometer, generally come in
two main classifications:
• The mercury type
• The organic-liquid type.
• Versions employing gas instead of liquid are also available.
• Mercury is considered an environmental hazard,
so there are regulations governing the shipment of devices
that contain it.
• Fluid-expansion sensors do not require electric power, do not
pose explosion hazards, and are stable even after repeated
cycling.
• On the other hand, they do not generate data that is easily
recorded or transmitted, and they cannot make spot or point
measurements.
Change-of-State Temperature
Measurement Devices
• Consist of labels, pellets, crayons, lacquers or liquid
crystals whose appearance changes once a certain
temperature is reached.
• They are used, for instance, with steam traps – when
a trap exceeds a certain temperature, a white dot on a
sensor label attached to the trap will turn black.
• Response time typically takes minutes, so these devices often do not respond
to transient temperature changes.
 Aaccuracy is lower than with other types of sensors.
 Furthermore, the change in state is irreversible, except in the case of liquid-crystal
displays.
 Even so, change-of-state sensors can be handy when one needs confirmation that
the temperature of a piece of equipment or a material has not exceeded a certain
level, for instance for technical or legal reasons during product shipment.
Temperature measurement
using IC
• IC temperature sensors can be used for measuring
temperatures in the environmental and biological range of
ñ50 Deg C to +150 Deg C.
• There are four basic types of IC temperature sensors,
according to the output signal produced in response to
sensed temperature, as follows
1. Analog Devices AD590/592 series temperature sensor, which
produces a linear current output of 1 µA/Deg K
2. National Semiconductor LM335 temperature sensor, which
produces a linear voltage output of 10 mV/Deg K
produces a linear voltage output of 10 mV/Deg F
produces a linear voltage output of 10 mV/Deg C
Light Detectors
λ=c/f
Ep=hf
1eV= energy of a photon
Optical or radio frequency =. No medium
21-Aug-19 http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm
Range
UV 0.002=<λ =<0.38 µm
Visible 0.38=< λ =<0.78 µm
Near IR 0.78=< λ =<1.7 µm
Near - fiber optic, IR sensors
Middle IR 1.7 =<λ =<6 µm
Mid - heat sensing
Far IR 6 .0=< λ =<1000 µm
Far - thermal imaging
Material
Exposed to light => photon concentration increases

=> Conductivity increases
Silicon cadmium sulphite (CdS)
Mercury cadmium telluride (MCT)
Mode of operation
Quantum: based on photovoltaic, photoconductive effect,
for UV and MUV
Thermal: for MUV and FIR

Photo resistor (Photo cell)
• Photo conductive device

• Light increases=>Resistance fall
• Similar to potentiometer
• CdS material
• Most sensitive to light then other photo device
• -Slow response (several mili sec.)
• -Short life in humidity and UV
Photo resistor (Photo cell):
types
• Bare coated
• Plastic
• Metal
• Glass
• Resistors: Slow and medium sensitivity.

Transistors: Relatively fast (comes in different speeds) and high
sensitivity.
Diodes: Fast to ultra fast (pin photo diodes are the fastest
responding) and not quite as sensitive.
Photo diode
• Light => Electrical energy

• Si,Gr
• 300nm to 1800nm
• Photovoltaic
• Photoconductive
• Photodiode has a quicker response time compared
to LDR
• Used in reverse bias
• Photodiodes is used for precision equipment
• Response times range from 30 psec to 2 msec
Photodiode: applications
• Spectroscopy
• Photography
• Analytical instrumentation
• Optical position sensors
• Beam alignment
• Surface characterization
• Laser range finders
• Optical communications
• Medical imaging instrumentation
Phototransistor
• Similar to BJT, but exposed to light

• It is about one hundred times more sensitive
than a photo diode
• Response slower than photodiode
• response times listed from 20 nsec to 1 msec.
http://www.electronicshub.org/light-sensors/
IR Transmitter and Receiver
IR Transmitter
• Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting
diode (LED) which emits infrared
radiations.
• The radiation emitted by it is invisible to
the human eye.
IR Receiver
• Also called as infrared sensors as they detect
the radiation from an IR transmitter.
• IR receivers come in the form of photodiodes
and phototransistors.
• They detect only infrared radiation.
http://www.electronicshub.org/ir-sensor/
OPTICAL ENCODER
Provides a digital output as a result of a linear or

angular displacement
Incremental
LED LIGHT
SENSOR
Absolute
Normal Code Gray Code
Track 1
0 0000 0000
Track 2
1 0001 0001
Track 3
2 0010 0011
3 0011 0010
OPTICAL ENCODER: Types
 Incremental
 Absolute
 Binary
 Gray
Encoder processing
• Need a squaring circuit to digitize signal
• A counter and index monitor
• Generally available in monolithic form
• Often with algorithms for control externally
programmable
Application
• Require accurate position information:

– 10,000 line incremental
– 360 line absolute
• Digital feed-back loop
• Compact and reasonably rugged (not as good
as inductive)
• Linear encoders also available
Acceleration Sensors
• Fall Detection
• Tilt Detection
• Vibration Detection
• Sports Diagnostics
• Anti-Theft Devices
• Appliance Balance
• Earthquake Detection
• Car Occupant Safety
• …
3-AXES ACCELERATION SENSOR
(Freescale MMA7260Q)
Features
• XYZ –3 axes of sensitivity in one device
• g-Select –in 1 single device, the sensitivity can be
selected at any of these values: 1.5g/2g/4g/6g
• Low current consumption: 500 µA
• Sleep mode: 3 µA
• Low voltage operation: 2.2 V –3.6 V
• Fast turn on time: 1 ms
• Low noise: can achieve higher resolution, more
accuracy
• Package: low profile 16-lead 6 x 6 x 1.45 mm
Sensitivity
• 1.5g – Freefall, accurate tilt compensation
• 2g – Handheld motion detection; Gaming
controllers
• 4g – Low vibration monitoring, shipping and
handling
• 6g – High vibration monitoring, Higher shock
readings
Applications
• Positioning – Personal navigation, Car navigation,
Back-up GPS, Anti-theft Devices, Map Tracking
• Shock – Fall log, Black Boxes/Event Recorders,
HDD Protection, Shipping and Handling Monitor
• Vibration – Seismic Activity Monitors, Smart Motor
Maintenance, Appliance Balance & Monitoring,
Acoustics
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
Lead Zirconium Titanate
Generate charge in
response to stress
Quartz SiO2 q  SF
Peizo material  0 r A
C
t
Metal electrodes
StF
Application should be such that the charge produced V 
 0 r A
by the pressure does not have much time to leak off
and 21-Aug-19
thus used for dynamic pressure changes
Load Cells [1]
• A load cell is a transducer which converts force into a measurable

electrical output.
• History:
– Mechanical lever scales.
• Very large range
• Reliably if they are properly calibrated and maintained
• Use of a weight balancing mechanism or the detection of the force developed by
mechanical levers.
– Hydraulic and pneumatic
– In 1843, English physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone devised a bridge circuit
– The first bonded resistance wire strain gage:1940s
– Strain gages have reproduced both as mechanical scale components and
in stand-alone load cells.
– Today, except for certain laboratories where precision mechanical
balances are still used, strain gage load cells dominate the weighing
industry.
Load Cells: Working
• Type of output signal generated pneumatic,

hydraulic, electric
• The way they detect weight
bending, shear, compression, tension, etc.
Load Cells: Technology
• Hydraulic load cells

– Hydraulic load cells are considered in remote locations, as they do
not require a power supply.
• Pneumatic load cells
– Pneumatic load cells are sometimes used where built-in safety and
hygiene are desired
• Strain-gage load cells
– Strain gage load cells offer accuracies from within 0.03% to 0.25%
full scale and are suitable for almost all industrial applications.
• Piezoelectric
– Piezoelectric load cells are a newer type of load cell that can
measure dynamic forces with more accuracy than strain gauge
based load cells.
• Capacitive
Load Cells: Types [2]
1. Canister Load Cells
2. S-Beam Load Cells
Load Cells: Types[2]
3. Bending Beam Load Cells
4. The Shear Beam Load Cell
Load Cells:Types[2]
5. Compression Load Cells
6. Compression/Tension Load Cells
Load cell: Specifications
Load Cell: Calculations
• A load cell sensitivity is stated in terms of its rated full
scale load. An equation for the output would be:
Eout = (Sensitivity/Full scale load) * (Excitation Voltage) *
(Applied Force)
Example Sensitivity = 2mv/V,
Full Scale Load = 5 Kg,
Excitation Voltage = 10 Volts DC,
Applied Load = 2.5 Kg
Eout = (2/5)* 10*2.5
Eout = 10 mV DC
Liquid Flow sensors
1. Positive – Displacement Methods

- Nutating-disk meter
- Rotary-vane flow-meter
- Lobed-impeller flow meter
2. Flow-Obstruction Methods
-Venturi
- Flow nozzle
- Orifice
Liquid Flow sensors
3. Flow Measurement by Drag Effects

- Rotameter
- Turbine meter
- Vortex-shedding Flowmeter
- Ultrasonic flowmeter
- Laminar flowmeter
4. Magnetic Flowmeter
Positive – Displacement
Methods
Flow - Obstruction Methods
• Sometimes called head meters.

• Head-loss or pressure – drop measurement is
taken as indication of the flow rate.
• Are also called differential pressure meters.
Flow-Obstruction Methods
Based on continuity relation
and Bernoulli equation
Rotameter (Drag Effect)
Bob rises to a point in the

tube such that the drag forces
are just balanced by the
weight and buoyancy forces.
Very commonly used flow-

measurement device.
Position of the bob is then
taken as an indication of the
flow rate.
Laminar Flowmeter
Magnetic Flowmeter
Flow of a conducting fluid through a

magnetic field.
A conductor moving in the field,
induced voltage will be
This induced voltage may be taken as a

direct indication of flow velocity.
Liquid level Sensors
• There are two categories of

level sensing devices.
1) Direct sensing
2) Indirect sensing

Direct Level Sensing
Examples of direct level sensing are;
1) Sight glass
2) Float
3) Probes – conductive, capacitive,
ultrasonic

Conductive probe
transmitter receiver
Capacitive probe Ultrasound

Indirect Level Sensing
In this method, the property of the liquid such as

pressure is sensed to determine the liquid level.
Example of indirect level sensing techniques are;
1) Bubbler technique- measuring pressure
2) Radiation technique- measuring radiation
3) Resistive tapes- measuring resistance
4) Load cells – measuring weight
5) Paddle wheel- measuring torque

transmitter
receiver
Radiation technique
Resistive tape technique

Paddle wheel technique
Bubbler technique

Special Purpose Sensors
• Gyroscopes
• Tilt Sensors
• Compass Sensors
• Fatigue Sensors
• Taste and Smell Sensors
• Vision Based Sensors

Common Transducer
- Ammeter - meter to indicate electrical current

- Bourdon tube - widely used industrial gage to measure pressure
and vacuum
- Chromatographic instruments - laboratory-type instruments
used to analyze chemical compounds and gases.
- Inductance-coil pulse generator - transducer used to measure
rotational speed. Output is pulse train.
- Linear-Variable-Differential transformer (LVDT)
electromechanical transducer used to measure angular or
linear displacement. Output is Voltage
- Manometer - liquid column gage used widely in industry to
measure pressure.
- Ohmmeter - meter to indicate electrical resistance
- Optical Pyrometer - device to measure temperature of an object
at high temperatures by sensing the brightness of an objects
surface.

- Orifice Plate - widely used flowmeter to indicate fluid flow rates
- Photometric Transducers - a class of transducers used to sense
light, including phototubes, photodiodes, phototransistors,
and photoconductors.
- Piezoelectric Accelerometer - Transducer used to measure
vibration. Output is emf.
- Pitot Tube - Laboratory device used to measure flow.
- Positive displacement Flowmeter - Variety of transducers used
to measure flow. Typical output is pulse train.
- Potentiometer - instrument used to measure voltage
- Pressure Transducers - A class of transducers used to measure
pressure. Typical output is voltage. Operation of the transducer
can be based on strain gages or other devices.
- Radiation pyrometer - device to measure temperature by
sensing the thermal radiation emitted from the object.

- Strain Gage - Widely used to indicate torque, force, pressure,
and other variables. Output is change in resistance due to
strain, which can be converted into voltage.
- Thermistor - Also called a resistance thermometer; an
instrument used to measure temperature. Operation is based
on change in resistance as a function of temperature.
- Thermocouple - widely used temperature transducer based on
the Seebeck effect, in which a junction of two dissimilar metals
emits emf related to temperature.
- Turbine Flowmeter - transducer to measure flow rate. Output is
pulse train.
- Venturi Tube - device used to measure flow rates.

References
[1]http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/loadcells.ht
ml

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Sensors and

RANGE & SPAN (algebraic diff.)

• Displacement, position and proximity

Effect of load is to transform a linear relationship between

Total Resistance RP 1  x   RL xRP RL  xRP 

sense a variety of things:

Three plate systems

• Detects metal and nonmetal, liquids

• Short (1 inch or less) sensing distance varies widely according to material

21-Aug-19 Source: http://www.macrosensors.com/lvdt_macro_sensors/lvdt_tutorial/lvdt_primer.pdf

• Friction – Free Operation

21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in Source:http://www.rdpe.com/ex/tips.htm

• Use sound pulses

• Provide range data directly

PING is a low-cost and precise ultrasonic

Can be used as non-contact

High electron mobility:

• Costs less than a mechanical switch and is much

• Available in different combinations of metals or calibrations.

• The wall of the tube => sheath of the probe.

• Grounded tip: Is in contact with the sheath wall.

Where, RT = resistance at temperature T

• The RTD is one of the most accurate

RTD Surface Elements

• It will be A negative (NTC), or positive (PTC)

• NTCs should be chosen when a continuous change

 PTC thermistors are temperature dependent resistors manufactured from

Exposed to light => photon concentration increases

Silicon cadmium sulphite (CdS)

Mercury cadmium telluride (MCT)

Thermal: for MUV and FIR

• Photo conductive device

• Resistors: Slow and medium sensitivity.

• Light => Electrical energy

• Similar to BJT, but exposed to light

Provides a digital output as a result of a linear or

• Require accurate position information:

Lead Zirconium Titanate

• A load cell is a transducer which converts force into a measurable

• Type of output signal generated pneumatic,

• Hydraulic load cells

1. Canister Load Cells

2. S-Beam Load Cells

3. Bending Beam Load Cells

4. The Shear Beam Load Cell

6. Compression/Tension Load Cells

1. Positive – Displacement Methods

3. Flow Measurement by Drag Effects

• Sometimes called head meters.

Bob rises to a point in the

Very commonly used flow-

Flow of a conducting fluid through a

This induced voltage may be taken as a

• There are two categories of

21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 100

21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 101

Capacitive probe Ultrasound

In this method, the property of the liquid such as

21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 103

Resistive tape technique

21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 106

21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 107

- Ammeter - meter to indicate electrical current

21-Aug-19 arshad@hyderabad.bits-pilani.ac.in 108