1 TRAFFIC FLOW AND CAPACITY DESIGN

1.1 Introduction

Geometric design is primarily concerned with relating the physical elements of the highway to
the requirement of the driver and the vehicle. It is mainly concerned with those elements, which
make up the visible features of the roadway, and it does not include the structural design of the
facility.

Features, which have to be considered in geometric design, are, primarily horizontal and vertical
curvature, the cross-section elements, highway grades and the layout of intersections. The design
of these features is considerably influenced by drivers’ behavior and psychology, vehicle
characteristics and trends, and traffic speeds and volumes. Proper geometric design will
inevitably reduce the number and severity of highway accidents while ensuring high traffic
capacity with the minimum delay to vehicles.

1.2 Design speeds for rural and urban roads

Design speed can be defined as the highest continuous speed, which individual vehicles can
travel with safety on the highway when weather conditions are favorable and traffic volumes are
low. Design speed impacts most safety-related features of the design as well as those associated
with rideability and comfort. It can also impact the efficiency and capacity of a roadway. The
selection of an appropriate design speed is based on a number of factors:
 Type of highway.
 Terrain and topography in the vicinity of the road
 Adjacent land use
 Driver expectation
In general, roads are engineered for design speeds between 15 and 75 mph. A design speed of 70
mph should be used for freeways, although depending on specific conditions (such as terrain,
urban/ rural conditions, etc.) actual design speeds may range from 60 to 80 mph. Most arterial
roadways and streets are designed for between 30 and 60 mph. The design speed of collector /
distributor roads is also in the lower area of this range and local streets typically 30 mph and
under.
The standard design speeds are 50km/hr, 60km/hr, 70km/hr, 85km/hr, 100 km/hr and 120km/hr.
These bands are based on the premise that it is considered acceptable if 85% of drivers travel at
or below the designated design speed for a given highway, generally inducing a situation where
approximately 99% of the drivers travel at or below one speed category above the design speed
(i.e. if the speed limit is set at 85km/hr, it can be assumed that 85% of the drivers will travel at
or below this value while 99% will travel at or below 120km/hr).
The speed bands are thus related to each other by a factor equal to the fourth root of 2, taken as
being approximately 1.19. Thus, if the chosen design speed is by definition the 85th percentile
speed for that highway, then the next speed band up will constitute its 99th percentile speed. The
same factor separates the chosen design speed and the next speed band down, which constitutes
the 50th percentile or mean speed, thus:

The design bands can thus be structured as shown in Table1 below

Table 1: Framework for design speeds

The geometric properties associated with the design speed of a highway constitute ‘desirable
values’ at which 85% of the drivers are travelling with complete safety. The geometric values of
the next design speed up constitute a standard at which 99% of the drivers can travel safely at
the original design speed. Conversely, the geometric values of the next design speed down will
constitute a relaxation at which only 50% of the drivers will be in a position to travel with
complete safety at the original design speed. Such values constitute absolute minimum values.
However, these may have to be adopted in difficult design conditions where many constraints
both physical and otherwise exist. Thus, in conclusion, the 85th percentile speed is selected as
the design speed on the basis that it constitutes the most appropriate and judicious choice, as use
of the 99th percentile would prove extremely expensive while extensive use of the 50th
percentile may prove unduly unsafe for the faster travelling vehicles.

Urban roads
The basic consideration in choosing the design speed for urban motorways is the running speed
desired for capacity flow during the peak hours. In America if the design speed is 80km/h, the
running speeds will be lowered to about 48km/h during the peak traffic hours. Little is gained by
using a design speed greater than is necessary for this purpose, since only few drivers benefit
during periods of light traffic.
Recommended design speeds
Primary distributors 80km / h
District distributors 50 km / h
Local distributors 50 km / h
Important access roads 50 km / h

Primary distributors - serve all longer distance traffic movement to, from and within the town.
District distributors -- distribute traffic within the residential, industrial and principle districts of
the town.
Local distributors --- distribute traffic within environmental areas.
Access roads ---------- Give direct access to buildings and land within environmental areas.

Rural roads:
Design speeds for rural roads are often selected by administrative decision or from an analysis of
actual speeds on similar structures of existing highways. Table2 below shows design criteria for
new rural roads.
Table 2:
Design speed Carriage way Design capacity Min radius Min radius for curves
Km/h width (m) Pcu/16h -day (m) desirable without transition

120 Dual 14.60 66000 1000 1500

120 Dual 11.00 55000 1000 1500
120 Dual 7.30 33000 1000 1500
100 10.00 15000 650 1350
100 7.30 9000 650 1350
80 7.30 9000 400 1200
80 ---- ---- 250 600

Note: Higher design speed not only safeguards against early obsolescence of the highway but
also provides an increased margin of safety for those driving at high speeds.
i.e. high type roads are now 120 km/h compared with 56 km/h in 1927.
Observations in rural areas have shown that the speeds exceeded by the faster car drivers are
closely related to the mean speed of cars. 85% and 95% speeds are approximately 1.19 and 1.32
times the average speed of cars. Hence if the desires and travel habits of drivers are taken into
account and each individual highway is treated on its own merits, these relationships can be used
to select the proper design speed. The change in design speed should not be introduced abruptly
but instead a transition stretch of adequate length be inserted. This results from topographical or
other physical limitations that prevent a constant design speed.
Where an analysis of the highway is carried out, the design speed is determined on the basis of
three factors:
 The mandatory constraint
 The layout constraint (Lc)
 The alignment constraint (Ac).
Statutory constraint
The general speed limit for motorways and dual carriageways is set at 70mph (112 km/hr),
reducing to 60mph (96km/hr) for single carriageways. The use of these mandatory speed limits
can restrict design speeds below those freely achievable and can act as an additional constraint
on speed to that dictated by the layout constraint Lc.
Layout constraint
Layout constraint assesses the degree of constraint resulting from the road cross-section, verge
width and frequency of junctions and accesses. Both carriageway width and verge width are
measured in metres. Density of access is expressed in terms of the total number of junctions,
laybys and commercial accesses per kilometre, summed for both sides of the road using the
three gradings low, medium and high, defined as:
 Low = Between 2 and 5 accesses per kilometre
 Medium = Between 6 and 8 accesses per kilometre
 High = Between 9 and 12 accesses per kilometre.
The layout constraints for different combinations of the above relevant parameters are defined in
Table 3 below for seven different road types. Having sketched a trial alignment on paper, the
table is utilised to estimate Lc, whose value will range from zero for a 3-lane motorway (D3M)
to 33 for a 6m single carriageway road with a high level of access to it and narrow verges (S2,
6m, H, 0.5m verge). Where the exact conditions as defined on the table do not apply,
interpolation between the given figures can be employed.
Table 3: Layout constraint values (Lc)

* Plus hard shoulder

Alignment constraint
Alignment constraint measures the degree of constraint resulting from the alignment of the
highway. It is assessed for both dual carriageways and single carriageways:
Dual carriageways:
Ac = 6.6 + B/10 (1.1)
Single carriageways:
Ac = 12 - VISI/60 + 2B/45 (1.2)
Where, B = Bendiness in degrees per kilometre (°/km)
 VISI = Harmonic mean visibility
VISI can be estimated from the empirical formula:
Log10 VISI = 2.46 + VW/25 - B/400 (1.3)
where
VW = Average verge width averaged for both sides of the road
B = Bendiness in degrees per kilometre (°/km)
An illustration of the method for calculating bendiness in given in figure 1 below. Having
determined values for the two parameters, the design speed is then estimated using figure 2 as
illustrated below.
New/upgraded rural roads
In these instances, the design speed is derived in an iterative manner, with an initial alignment to
a trial design speed drawn and the alignment constraint measured for each section of the
highway over a minimum distance of 2km.

Figure 1: Estimation of bendiness

Figure 2: Chart for deriving design speeds (rural highways) (source: TD 9/93 (DoT, 1993)).

The design speed calculated from the resulting alignment and layout constraints is then checked
against the originally assumed design speed so the locations can be identified where elements of
the initially assumed alignment can be relaxed in order to achieve savings in terms of either cost
or the environment. This procedure allows a design speed to be finalised for each section of
highway under consideration. Equally, it may be necessary to upgrade the design if the resulting
design speed dictates this. If any alterations to the geometry of the highway are undertaken, it
will be necessary to recalculate the design speed in order to make sure that its value has not
changed. The aim of this process is to ensure that all sections of the highway are both
geometrically consistent and cost effective. While the design speeds for two sections running
into each other need not be the same, it is advisable that their design speeds differ by no more
than 10km/hr.

Example 1
An existing 7.3 m wide single carriageway road with 1.5m wide verges (see figure below) has a
layout as indicated in figure 1 above. The length of the section of highway under examination is
4 km (X to Y). The relevant angles are:
A = 95°
B = 65°
C = 60°
There are a total of 24 access points and minor junctions along the length of the highway.
Calculate the design speed.

Cross-section of highway

Example 2 – Comparison of observed speeds with calculated design speed

Taking the existing stretch of highway referred to in Example 1, Table below shows the results
from a speed survey taken along the route.

Table : Speed Survey

Determine the 85th percentile speed and compare it with the derived design speed.
1.3 Design capacity

Basic considerations
The term capacity is used here to define the ability of a road to accommodate traffic under given
circumstances. Factors normally taken into account are the physical features of the road and
prevailing traffic conditions.

Prevailing road conditions

Capacity figures for uninterrupted flows on highway have to be modified if certain physical
design features are not adhered to. Poor physical features, which reduce capacity include:

1. Narrow traffic lanes. Lane widths of 3.65 m are now accepted as being the minimum
necessary for heavy volumes of mixed traffic.

2. In adequate shoulders. Too narrow or lack of shoulders alongside a road cause vehicles
to travel closer to the centreway there by increasing the medial traffic friction. Also vehicles
making emergency stops must park on the carriageway reducing the road capacity.

3. Side obstructions. Obstructions such as poles, bridge abutments, retaining walls, parked
cars located within 1.75 m of the edge of carriageway contribute towards reduction in the
effective width of the outside traffic lane.

4. Imperfect horizontal or vertical curvature. Long and / or steep hills and sharp bends
result in adequate sight distance. Drivers are then restricted in opportunities to pass and hence the
capacity of the facility will be reduced.

5. Prevailing traffic conditions. Prevailing traffic conditions are not fixed but vary from
hour to hour throughout the day. Hence the flows at anytime are a function of the speed of
vehicles, the composition of the traffic streams and the manner in which vehicles interact with
each other.
Figure indicate the relationships between speed and flow (No of vehicles passing a given point
unit time) and illustrates the basic features relating to traffic movement.

1. The portion SP represents the situation where free driving occurs on the highway. Mean
speeds are higher and traffic flow increases as speed decreases.
2. Portion OC is the zone of forced conditions. Mean speeds are much lower and vehicles move
under conditions of forced driving. A decrease in speed is associated with a decrease in traffic
flow.
3. Portion PBC indicates unstable conditions. Flows are very high but conditions are very
unstable. i.e. it is possible for the vehicles to be moving along under free driving conditions
and then under the influence of some restricting factors which may or may not be
determinable. Forced conditions of driving may supervene even though the flow may be the
same as before.

1.4 Sight distances

Another fundamental requirement of a highway design is the need to maintain adequate sight
lines for drivers. This can be accomplished in a number of different ways, including manual
checks on design profiles and through the application of theoretical stopping and passing sight
distance equations. At a minimum, all roads must be able to permit drivers operating vehicles at
the design speed and within assumed conditions, to bring a vehicle to a controlled stop in the
event that an obstacle is blocking the lane of travel. This must be true longitudinally (i.e.,
straight ahead), around horizontal curves, and over and under vertical curves. Where
economically and practically feasible, designers may also wish to provide enough advanced
visible distance to drivers such that they are able to perform a passing maneuvers in the lane of
oncoming traffic.
Sight distance can be defined as the length of carriageway that is visible to the driver. In highway
design there are two forms of sight distance that are of particular interest.
 If safety is to be built into the highway, then sufficient sight distance must always be available
to drivers to enable them to stop their vehicles prior to striking an unexpected object on the
carriageway. This sight distance is known as the safe stopping sight distances

 If efficiency is to be built into the highway, then sufficient sight distance must be provided for
drivers to overtake and pass slower vehicles in complete safety. This is called safe passing sight
distance.

Safe stopping sight distance

This is defined as the minimum sight distance required by the driver in order to be able to stop
the car before it hits an object on the highway. It is of primary importance to the safe working of
a highway. Whether on a 2-lane, 3-lane or multi-lane roadway, the driver travelling at the design
speed of the highway must have sufficient carriageway distance within his line of vision to
allow him stop his vehicles before colliding with a slowly moving or stationary object appearing
suddenly in his own traffic lane. Calculation of the distance is based on evaluation of the
driver’s perception and reaction times and distance necessary to stop the vehicles after the
brakes are applied.

The standard requires stopping sight distance to be measured from a driver’s eye height of
between 1.05 m and 2m above the surface of the highway to an object height of between 0.26 m
and 2m above it. These values ensure that drivers of low-level cars can see small objects on the
carriageway ahead. The vast majority (>95%) of driver heights will be greater than 1.05m while,
at the upper range, 2 m is set as the typical eye height for the driver of a large heavy goods
vehicle. With regard to object heights, the range 0.26 m to 2m is taken as encompassing all
potential hazards on the road. Checks should be carried out in both the horizontal and vertical
planes. This required envelope of visibility is shown in figure below.
Figure 3: Measurement of stopping sight distance.

The distance itself can be subdivided into three constituent parts:

 The perception distance – length of highway travelled while driver perceives hazard
 The reaction distance – length of highway travelled during the period of time taken by the
driver to apply the brakes and for the brakes to function
 The braking distance – length of highway travelled while the vehicle actually comes to a halt.

Perception reaction time: Is the time, which elapses between the instant the driver sees the
object on the Carriageway and the instant that he realizes that brake action is required.
Perception time depends upon the distance to the object, natural rapidity with which the driver
reacts, optical ability of operator, atmospheric visibility, type-condition-location of the roadway
and type-colour-condition of the hazardous object.

Most studies indicate that perception time at high speeds is usually less than at low speeds since
fast drivers are usually more alert. Also perception times in urban areas is lower than rural areas
due to varied conditions present in built-up locations which make drivers more alert.

Brake reaction time is time taken by drivers to actuate the brake pedal after perceiving the object.
Tests indicate that the the driver’s brake reaction time is 0.5 sec. But usually 0.75 sec is assumed
for design purposes. Driver perception time is usually combined with brake reaction time in order
to arrive at total perception-reaction time suitable for design purposes. Measurements show that
many drivers require 1.7 sec under normal road conditions. In urban areas a value of 1.5 sec is
used.
The length of highway travelled during the perception-reaction time is calculated from the
formula:

Perception-reaction distance (m) = 0.278tV

where
V = initial speed (km/hr)
t = combined perception and reaction time (s)

Braking distance: Is distance needed by a vehicle to stop on a level road after the brakes have
been applied. Depends on initial speed of the vehicle and friction developed between the wheels
and carriageway surface. This distance can be estimated by utilizing the principle that the change
in kinetic energy is equal to force multiplied by distance. Thus

1 Wv2 = wf ×d
2 g
Therefore
d = v2 = V 2
2fg 254f
where g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81ms)
v = initial speed ms, V = initial speed in km/h, d = braking distance
f = coefficient of friction
The choice of friction f is most complicated because of many variables involved i.e. hardness of
tread rubber, tread design, amount of tread, efficiency of brakes, condition / type of carriageway
surface. Recommended values of friction include 0.36, 0.33, 0.31, 0.30, 0.29, at 48, 64, 80, 96.5,
112 km / h respectively for use in designing safe stopping sight distances on most highways.
OR
Braking distance (m) = v2/2w
where
v = initial speed (m/s)
w = rate of deceleration (m/s2)
A rate of deceleration of 0.25 g is generally used for highway design.
Table shows, safe stopping sight distances used in design for single and dual carriageway on
urban and rural areas.
Design speed Stopping distance (m) Overtaking distance (m)
Km / h urban rural urban rural
120 - 300 - -
100 - 210 - 450
80 140 140 360 360
60 90 90 270 270
50 70 - 225 -
30 30 - 135 -

The safe stopping distances shown are based on passenger car units only. Commercial vehicles
generally require longer breaking distances than pcu traveling at same initial speeds. However in
practice commercial vehicles are not given special consideration for stopping sight
distances.why?
travel at lower speeds
higher position of driver in vehicle (he sees obstruction sooner than Pc driver does)

Passing sight distance/ Overtaking sight distance

Sufficient sight distance must be provided for fast vehicles to overtake slower ones in safety. The
minimum sight distance required by a vehicle to overtake safely on 2-lane or 3-lane road is the
visible distance which will enable the overtaking driver to pass a slower vehicle without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle travelling at a designed speed of the highway.
Consider a 2-lane road

d1 d2 d3 d4

d1 - Represents time taken or distance travelled by vehicle when driver makes up his mind
whether or not it’s safe to pass. This time (hesitation time) is normally 3.5secs.
d2 - Distance travelled by the vehicle in question while driver in the overtaking vehicle
completes the passing manoeuvre (Overtaking Time)
d3 - Represents safety dimensions i.e. time or distance between the overcoming vehicle and the
oncoming vehicle at the instant overtaking has returned to its lane. One suggested value for
this is 1.5secs.
d4 - Time or distance traveled by the opposing vehicle at the designed speed while overtaking is
in process. This can be approx. 2/3 d2 (Closing Time).
Overtaking sight distance is of central importance to the efficient working of a given section of
highway. Overtaking sight distance only applies to single carriageways. There is no full
overtaking sight distance (FOSD) for a highway with a design speed of 120 km/hr since this
design speed is not suitable for a single carriageway road.
Full overtaking sight distances are much larger in value than stopping sight distances. Therefore,
economic realities dictate that they can only be complied with in relatively flat terrain where
alignments, both vertical and horizontal, allow the design of a relatively straight and level
highway. Values for different design speeds are given in table below.

Table 4: Full overtaking sight distances for different design speeds

Full overtaking sight distance is measured from vehicle to vehicle (the hazard or object in this
case is another car) between points 1.05 m and 2.00m above the centre of the carriageway. The
resulting envelope of visibility for this set of circumstances is shown in figure

Figure 4: Measurement of full overtaking sight distance (FOSD).

For multilanes, other lanes make it feasible for very many overtakings to be accomplished in the
face of oncoming traffic provided that traffic does exceed its capacity