DURABILITY & TESTING OF CONCRETE

[CONTENTS: Introduction – Definitions and Classification; Physical Processes; Chemical Processes –

(a) Acid Attacks, (b) Sulphate Attacks, (c) Alkali – Aggregate Reactions, (d) Corrosion of Embedded
Steel; Fire Performance; TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE – Introduction &
Classification; Rebound Hammer Test, Pull-out Test, Ultra Sonic Test.]

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
DEFINITIONS:
Durability: Durability of concrete refers to its capability to retain, during its entire service life,
(i) its form (shape & size), (ii) its quality (Physical & Mechanical properties), (iii) its serviceability,
when exposed to its environment; and, to resist all the processes that have a deteriorating
effect on it.
Service-life: A material (or Object/Structure) is assumed to have reached the end of its service-
life when, its properties under the conditions of its use have deteriorated to an extent that its
continued use is deemed to be either unsafe or uneconomical.
CLASSIFICATION OF DETERIORATING PROCESSES:
(i) Physical Processes ‒ Abrasion, Erosion, Cavitation, etc.
(ii) Chemical Processes ‒ Acid Attacks, Sulphate Attacks, Alkali – Aggregate Reactions, and,
Corrosion of Embedded Steel.
(iii) Environmental Processes ‒ Thermal effects, Humidity ,(Fire, Freezing & Thawing, etc.
(iv) Biological Processes ‒ Micro-organisms, Lichens, Mosses, Algae, Roots of trees & plants.
(A) PHYSICAL PROCESSES ‒ Definitions:
Abrasion ‒ Abrasion refers to dry wearing-out of surfaces due to relative movement of
dissimilar materials in contact with each other. For example, Wearing-out of Pavements by
vehicular traffic; Wearing-out of Industrial/Warehouse Floors due to dragging of containers,
equipments; etc.
Erosion ‒ This refers to the wearing out of surfaces by the action of flowing fluids (Liquids,
Gases) containing sediments in suspension. Example, Erosion that takes place in Hydraulic
structures like Spillways, Energy-Dissipaters, Pipe surfaces, etc.
Cavitation ‒ This refers to the loss of particles/mass caused by bursting of vapour bubbles
carried by flowing liquids at solid surfaces. Example, Water conductors like, Penstock pipes,
Pressure-Tunnels, Siphons, etc. where at any locations pressure can fall below the vapour
pressure of the liquid flowing through them.
The deterioration of concrete due to Physical processes that cause wearing-out of surfaces will
be very severe when there is a repeated cycle of sustained attrition. This is because, hardened
cement paste/mortar has low resistance to wear, especially, when concrete is having high
porosity, low strength, or the mortar particles are inadequately protected by hard durable
Durability: Durability of concrete refers to its capability to retain, during its entire service life,
(i) its form (shape & size), (ii) its quality (Physical & Mechanical properties), (iii) its serviceability,
when exposed to its environment; and, to resist all the processes that have a deteriorating
effect on it.
Service-life: A material (or Object/Structure) is assumed to have reached the end of its service-
life when, its properties under the conditions of its use have deteriorated to an extent that its
continued use is deemed to be either unsafe or uneconomical.
CLASSIFICATION OF DETERIORATING PROCESSES:
(i) Physical Processes ‒ Abrasion, Erosion, Cavitation, etc.
(ii) Chemical Processes ‒ Acid Attacks, Sulphate Attacks, Alkali – Aggregate Reactions, and,
Corrosion of Embedded Steel.
(iii) Environmental Processes ‒ Thermal effects, Humidity ,(Fire, Freezing & Thawing, etc.
(iv) Biological Processes ‒ Micro-organisms, Lichens, Mosses, Algae, Roots of trees & plants.
(A) PHYSICAL PROCESSES ‒ Definitions:
Abrasion ‒ Abrasion refers to dry wearing-out of surfaces due to relative movement of
dissimilar materials in contact with each other. For example, Wearing-out of Pavements by
vehicular traffic; Wearing-out of Industrial/Warehouse Floors due to dragging of containers,
equipments; etc.
Erosion ‒ This refers to the wearing out of surfaces by the action of flowing fluids (Liquids,
Gases) containing sediments in suspension. Example, Erosion that takes place in Hydraulic
structures like Spillways, Energy-Dissipaters, Pipe surfaces, etc.
Cavitation ‒ This refers to the loss of particles/mass caused by bursting of vapour bubbles
carried by flowing liquids at solid surfaces. Example, Water conductors like, Penstock pipes,
Pressure-Tunnels, Siphons, etc. where at any locations pressure can fall below the vapour
pressure of the liquid flowing through them.
The deterioration of concrete due to Physical processes that cause wearing-out of surfaces will
be very severe when there is a repeated cycle of sustained relative movement. This is because,
hardened cement paste/mortar has low resistance to wear, especially, when concrete is having
high porosity, low strength, or the mortar particles are inadequately protected by hard durable
aggregates. Problem becomes even more worse, when aggregates themselves are soft, porous
and have very low resistance to wear.
Measures to improve resistance to ABRASION & EROSION:
(i) Grade of Concrete ‒ The resistance against abrasion & erosion is closely related to concrete
strength; more the strength, more is the resistance. ACI (201) recommends min. 25MPa grade
for concretes exposed to moderate risk of abrasion & erosion; and, 40MPa grade for severe
risk.
 (ii) Coarse Aggregates ‒ Hardness of CA, its size, shape, texture plays very important role in
the ability of concrete to resist abrasion & erosion. Hard, angular and rough textured
aggregates provide increased resistance to abrasion & erosion due to stronger bond and
interlocking effect.
(iii) Delayed Finishing ‒ It is recommended to delay the surface finishing of concrete to allow
for evaporation of bleed water that comes-up to the surface before finishing. This would then
improve consistency and enhance resistance to abrasion & erosion.
(iv) Curing ‒ Minimum 7 days continuous moist curing should be ensured to improve
resistance to abrasion & erosion.
(v) Wearing Course ‒ A 25 mm to 75 mm thick wearing course of special rich mix concrete can
be provided.
(vi) Mix Design ‒ Some of the measures recommended for design of mix for concretes exposed
to abrasion & erosion are, Proper grading and proportioning of aggregates; Using the least
possible consistency (W/C ratio) which can be satisfactorily placed and compacted with
available methods; Min. air content suitable for prevailing exposure conditions.
Measures to improve Resistance to CAVITATION:
A good, strong concrete though essential, it cannot by itself resist cavitation. The best solution
to problem of cavitation lies in the removal of causes of cavitation by designing the conveyance
system properly. The measures suggested in this regard are: Removal of any misalignment,
avoiding abrupt changes in slope, providing smooth surface. A surface course of Polymer
concrete or Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete or Epoxy coating is recommended in cases of
exposure to severe risk of cavitation.
[B]. CHEMICAL PROCESSES ‒ (1) ACID ATTACKS:
Acid attacks are fundamentally different from all other chemical processes because, it affects
all constituents of the concrete [Unlike others which attack only a particular constituent] and
completely destroys the internal structure of hardened concrete.
Acids convert all calcium compounds present in concrete, viz., Calcium Hydroxide, Calcium
Silicate, Calcium Aluminates into calcium salts of respective acids through substitution
reactions. Solutions of Ammonium Chloride, Ammonium Sulphate also, react similarly through
‘cat-ion’ exchange reactions.
The resulting calcium salts, then, get dissolved in water and get removed through leaching.
This results in complete destruction of internal structure and the concrete loses its strength.
Porosity and Permeability of concrete is also increased making it vulnerable to other processes
of deterioration.
There are no forms of cement concrete which can resist acid attack, because, all forms of
cement and their hydrolisation products are alkaline in nature. Further, the severity of
deterioration is not so much dependent on the aggressiveness of acids, but, rather the solubility
calcium salts that result from acid attacks. The permeability of concrete is also of minor
importance. Thus, acid attack is uniquely distinct from all other deterioration processes.
Exposure Situations:
Concrete is exposed to acid attacks in Industrial environment. Chemical Industries,
Food Processing Industries, Dairy & Soft Drinks Industries, Fertilizer Industries, etc.
Protective measures:
Protection of cement concrete exposed to acid attack is possible, only by, giving them an
overlay of special concrete layer of 25 to 75 mm thickness and an acid resistant surface
protective coating. Some of the Surface protective coatings are: (i) Silicon Fluoride Treatment
[OCRATE PROCESS]; (ii) Drying Oil Coatings; (iii) Rubber Paints; (iv) Epoxy Paints; (v) Polymer
Coatings or Polymer Impregnation. [Refer M.S SHETTY – ‘Surface Treatments of Concrete’]
(2) SULPHATE ATTACKS
Sulphate attack is more common & severe in Coastal regions. Concrete structures in sub-
soil, Marine environment, Industrial environment get exposed to sulphate attack.
When hardened concrete is exposed to water containing compounds of sulphate, the
sulphates in solution react with alumina bearing compounds, viz., hydrated C 3A, C4AF and
Ca(OH)2. The products of this reaction involve a high sulphate form, called,
‘Ettringite’ ‒ (C3A. 3CS . H32).
In the presence of sufficient water, ettringite absorbs lot of water, swells and grows in
volume. The expansion of this compound and also, to some extent, the expansion of calcium
sulphate, which is another product of sulphate attack, exert a lot of internal pressure which
leads to severe cracking of concrete. This gives easier access for further penetration of sulphate
solution to the interior of concrete, the process accelerates and continues till complete
disintegration of concrete.
The sulphate attack results in progressive loss of strength and loss of mass of concrete.
Sometimes the expansion of concrete causes displacement of structural components leading to
severe stress and structural problems.
Sulphate attack is different from acid attack in that it attacks only alumina bearing
compounds of concrete, viz., C3A, C4AF and Ca(OH)2. Further, only when sulphates are in
solution form, they find entrance into pores of concrete; solid salts of sulphate does not attack
concrete. Thus, permeability of concrete is a factor that determines the severity of sulphate
attack.
Protective measures:
(i) Use of sulphate resisting Cement ‒ This is a most efficient method of way of resisting
sulphate attack. These are cements with a low C3A content. In general, if C3A content is less
than 7% the concrete will have satisfactory resistance to sulphate attack.
 (ii) Quality of concreting ‒ A low W/C ratio concrete, well designed, placed and compacted
with very low void content, less cracking and thus having low permeability will have high
resistance to sulphate attack.
(iii) Use of Puzzolones ‒ Incorporation of Puzzolones as a partial substitute for cement gives a
better sulphate resistant property to concrete. This is because Puzzolones react with
uncombined Ca(OH)2 and convert them into cementitious product, reduces C3A content and
reduces permeability.
(iv) Air Entrainment ‒ Air Entrainment to the extent of about 6% has benefitial effect on
sulphate resisting property of concrete.This is because of reduction in seggregation and
bleeding which reduces permeability.
(v) High pressure Steam Curing ‒ This improves resistance to sulphate attack because C3A
changes into a less reactive form and there is reduction in Ca(OH)2 content under high pressure
and temperature.
(3) ALKALI – AGGREGATE REACTIONS
Alkali – Aggregate Reactions are the reaction between the alkalis present in cement and
the reactive silica constituents of the aggregates.
Some forms of silica present in aggregates react with hydroxides of Ca, Na and K derived from
cement to form an Alkali-Silicate gel (A-S gel). This gel imbibes lot of water, swells, grows in size
and creates a lot of internal pressure. This disrrupts the bond between the cement paste and
aggregates and results in a typical pattern of irregular cracking, called ‘Map-Cracking’. The
cracking start at the interior of concrete and then reaches the surface. [unlike the sulphate
attack, in which the cracking start at the surface]
The formation and expansion of A-S gel and cracking of concrete results in loss of strength,
elasticity and durability of concrete. Once the cracks are developed quality of concrete
deteriorates very fast due to effects of other Physical & Chemical deterioration processes also.
Protective measures:
(i) Selection of Non-Reactive Aggregates ‒ Avoiding the use of aggregates having reactive
forms of silica is the best method of protection. Case history of use of aggregates from a
particular source, Petrographic examination of thin sections of rock types, ‘Stanton’s Mortar
bar expansion Test’ and Chemical tests prescribed by IS 2386 (Part VII) help in identifying
potentially reactive type of aggregates and their source.
(ii) Use of Low Alkali Cement ‒ Restricting alkali content in cement to less than 0.6% [0r more
preferably less than 0.4%] is observed to be very effective in controlling Alkali – Aggregate
reactions in concrete.
(iii) Use of Puzzolans ‒ It has been observed that aggregates will be reactive only when it
contains silica in optimum proportions and of specific fineness. This optimum condition can be
disturbed by use of Puzzolanic materials as they tend to react with silica in aggregates. The use
of Puzzolans has been found to be very effective in controlling Alkali – Aggregate Reactions.
(iv) Decreasing Permeability of concrete ‒ For expansion of the A-S gel and resultant
disruption of concrete, continued availability of moisture is essential. Therefore by improving
the quality of concrete [a low W/C ratio concrete, well designed, placed and compacted with
very low void content, less cracking] permeability of concrete can be significantly reduced. This
controls Alkali – Aggregate Reactions very effectively.
(v) Decreasing Permeability of concrete ‒ For expansion of the A-S gel and resultant
disruption of concrete, continued availability of moisture is essential. Therefore by improving
the quality of concrete [a low W/C ratio concrete, well designed, placed and compacted with
very low void content, less cracking] permeability of concrete can be significantly reduced. This
controls Alkali – Aggregate Reactions very effectively.
(vi) Decreasing Permeability of concrete ‒ For expansion of the A-S gel and resultant
disruption of concrete, continued availability of moisture is essential. Therefore by improving
the quality of concrete [a low W/C ratio concrete, well designed, placed and compacted with
very low void content, less cracking] permeability of concrete can be significantly reduced. This
controls Alkali – Aggregate Reactions very effectively.
(4) CORROSION OF EMBEDDED STEEL
Concrete is normally expected to provide a high degree of protection against corrosion. This
is because concrete provides an alkaline environment (pH > 12.5) that inhibits corrosion. In
addition a well cured, low W/C ratio concrete with low permeability, minimizes the penetration
of corrosion inducing agents like water, oxygen, chlorine, carbon dioxide. Thus, adequate
concrete cover is expected to provide protection to steel against corrosion.
However, in practice, this expectation is not fully realised, especially in coastal regions
where a large number of RCC and PSC structure have shown signs of extensive deterioration
due to corrosion. Main reason for this is loss of Ph value and excessive chloride, carbonation.
Reduction in pH is caused by following processes: (i) Leaching of alkaline hydroxides and lime by
water; (ii) Carbonation – Reaction of atmospheric CO2 with hydrated cement compounds; (iii)
Chemical reactions forming soluble salts of alkalis, which are then washed-out by water.
Further, when concrete cover is carbonated or chloride ion concentration exceeds a threshold
value corrosion of steel can occur even at high pH value. In the presence of Chloride ions, acidic
solutions, carbonation, the passivity of is destroyed and steel will then be vulnerable to
corrosion.
Rate of corrosion of steel is affected by: Alternate wetting and drying; Rapid changes in
temperature; Presence of salt, which affects conductivity; thickness of Concrete Cover and
Permeability of concrete which allows ingress of corrosion inducing agents – Moisture, CO2,
Chloride ions; Oxygen.
Mechanism of Corrosion:
In an alkaline ambience, steel becomes passive, a layer of protective oxide is formed, that
protects it from corrosion. But, in the presence of Chloride ions, acidic solutions,
carbonation, the passivity of is destroyed setting the stage for corrosion. In this condition,
steel ionises, due to normal ionic activity of metals, in the presence of an aqueous solution.
This ionisation is the primary stage or primary reaction in corrosion reactions and is called
‘anodic reaction’. This is represented as, Fe → Fe++ + 2(e‒). This reaction results in the
formation of an anodic region in the metal with excess of electrons.
This, excess free electrons flow through the metal to a neighbouring region, where an
electron acceptor, such as H2 ion or dissolved O2, is available to absorb them. This reaction
is called cathodic reaction, and its site forms the cathodic region. The reaction is
represented as, 2(H+) + 2(e‒) → H2; and, (1/2)O2 + H2O + 2(e‒) → 2(OH‒) . This is the
secondary reaction and it controls the rate of corrosion. The secondary reactions/Cathodic
reactions enables continuation of primary reaction, resulting in accumulation of Fe ions.
Ferrous ions, in the presence of water and oxygen, are further oxidised to complete the
process and form products of corrosion, viz., hydrated iron oxide → Fe 2O3 or FeO (Rust);
or, iron hydroxide → Fe(OH)3 or Fe(OH)2; depending upon availability of O2 and presence
of Cl2 ions.
The composition and structure of the corrosion products varies with the conditions
prevailing during its formation. If the corrosion layer formed is hard, dry and fairly
adherent to the metal surface, it will form a protective coating and retard further corrosion.
On the other hand, if the corrosion layer is spongy and detachable, it will attract more
oxygen, moisture from surrounding region and consequently add to further corrosion of
the metal. The presence of chloride ion promotes this second condition and there by
enhances the severity corrosion of steel.
Forms of corrosion:
Normally, four forms of corrosion of embedded steel are observed in concrete:
(i) Uniform or General corrosion ‒ This is normally characterised by the electrochemical
reactions proceeding uniformly over the entire rebar surface or over its very large area.
The rebar in this case, becomes smaller in C/S area and fails. Corrosion caused by
carbonation results in this form.
(ii) Pitting ‒ This is a extremely localised form of attack that results in holes/cavities in the
rebar. It is a destructive form of corrosion which causes failure because of perforations
with only a small loss in weight. This is a very dangerous form as it is often difficult to
detect pits due to their smaller size and they being covered by corrosion products.This
occurs in local regions where ther is a high Chloride ion concentration.
(iii) Micro-corrosion ‒ These are usually formed because of impurities, residual stress or
defects in metal substrate. Corrosion of these areas, in the presence of Chloride ion
concentration is the cause of this form, and, this usually occur over short lengths less than
about 25mm to 50 mm.
(iv) Macro- Corrosion ‒ This is the most common form of corrosion in RCC. It occurs over a
relatively large area, usually, involving double mat construction. This form is initiated by
diffusion of environmental Chloride ion. A large part of outer mat becomes anode, due to
Chloride ion concentration and the Chloride free inner mat becomes cathode for the
formation of corrosion cell.
The first sign of distress due to corrosion is the appearance of a brown stain in concrete
around the embedded steel. This is followed by cracking, delamination and/or spalling of
concrete cover. Corrosion may, also, cause structural failure because of loss of bond
between steel and concrete and reduced C/S area of steel. There can be snapping of
Ties/Stirrups, Buckling of reinforcement bars and Bulging of concrete in severe cases of
corrosion.
Protective measures:
(i) Providing Extra Cover ‒ The additional cover recommended when there is exposure to risk
of corrosion is 15 to 50 mm beyond that specified under normal conditions. However total
cover should not exceed 75mm.
For, RCC works totally immersed in water, the additional cover can be reduced to 40mm; and,
in concrete of grade 40 MPa and higher, this additional cover can be reduced to 25 mm.
(ii) Limiting chloride ion content ‒ The chloride ion content in concrete should be limited to
below threshold value. IS 456 has specified that total chloride ion % by mass of cement, should
be less than 0.15% for RCC and 0.06% for PSC.
(iii) Use of corrosion Inhibitors ‒ In case of excessively corrosive environment, corrosion
Inhibitors like, CaCO3, Al2O3,Ca(NO3)2 which are cathodic Inhibitors; or, Alkalis & Phosphates of
calcium which are anodic Inhibitors, may be used as an admixture into concrete to suppress
corrosion.
(iv) Protective coating for steel ‒ Metallic or non-metallic coatings that completely envelope
the bar and remain unbroken have been observed to give satisfactory protection to steel
embedded in concrete. Zinc coating (Galvanising), epoxy coating in cases of exposure to severe
risk have been very effective; and, a coating of thick cement paste has been used satisfactorily
in cases of exposure to moderate risk of corrosion.
(v) Surface Protective Coating to concrete ‒ The surface coating provided to concrete act as a
barrier to ingress of corrosion inducing agents, viz., water, oxygen, chlorine, carbon dioxide.
These have also been used extensively for protection against corrosion.
[C] FIRE RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE
In assessments of deteriorations due to fire, the endurance of structural element and its
residual strength are of main concern than that of the building material. However, fire
resistance of the materials of construction has an influence on the decision about restoration of
the structural elements.
In general, concrete is considered to have a better fire resistance than other competing
materials. The period of time under fire during which concrete continues to perform
satisfactorily (i.e., ‘Fire Rating’) is relatively very high. Fire Rating is distinct from heat
resistance; the criteria of Fire Rating/performance under fire, are Load carrying capacity at
elevated temperature, Resistance to flame penetration, Resistance to heat transfer.
Metals lose their strength rapidly, even under moderate temperature rise. But, concrete
has a very typical behaviour; the loss in strength is small, and, irregular below 250 0C. A
significant loss in strength occurs above 3500C. If high temperature is of short duration
(say,< 1 hour), a slow recovery of strength can, also, take place. At, very low temperatures, say
less than ‒ 600 / ‒ 1200 C, compressive strength of concrete is 2 to 3 times higher than that at
room temperature. Also, Flexural strength is affected more than strength under direct stress.
Further, the strength of moist concrete is will be much higher than dry concrete; Relative
strength of concrete, at high temp., is greater for higher W/C ratio. The moisture content at the
time of load application is of importance. However, excessive moisture content at the time of
fire, and consequent steam pressure, is the primary cause of spalling of concrete; if there is no
escape for moisture. Also, a lower thermal conductivity and leaner mix improves fire resistance.
Thus, LWC have better fire performance than NSC; HSC has a poor fire performance.
The mineral composition of aggregates is also a very important factor. Concretes with
aggregates that do not contain silica show lesser loss of strength; example, aggregates of,
Limestone, basic Igneous rocks, Blast furnace slag, Brick bats. Also, light weight aggregates,
because of their low thermal conductivity, suffer lesser loss of strength. However at,
temperatures above 8000C, there will be no difference in loss of strength among aggregates.
Change in colour of concrete, is also, a significant behaviour. This is dependent on presence of
compounds of iron. Colour changes from pink/red, to grey to buff. The change in colour being
permanent, it enables an estimate of max. temperature rise and residual strength. Concretes
whose colour has changed beyond pink is suspect; and, that past grey stage will be friable and
porous.
 TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE
INTRODUCTION: Many in-situ, Non-Destructive and Partially destructive tests have been
developed which asses quality & strength of concrete in an indirect way. These tests are not
accepted as a complete substitute for conventional cube testing method. But, they are being
used as a quick and economical way of testing quality and strength of concrete without causing
much damage to the structure.
This is because, they have practical limitations ‒ their reliability and accuracy vary widely.
Interpretation of the data from these tests require engineering judgment.
The results from these tests depend upon skill and judgment of the analyst. They are prone to
misleading interpretations and disputes over their accuracy.
However, when used in conjunction with conventional cube testing or in-situ core tests
they can be very effective and economical. They speed-up assessment of quality, strength of
concrete and are helpful in decision making process.
CLASSIFICATION OF TESTS: (i) Based on Purpose ‒
(a) Quality control tests: This refers to the tests that are normally conducted by suppliers,
contractors. They are carried-out to ensure that quality of materials used in the work and the
quality of final product are of acceptable standard.
(b) Quality compliance tests: This refers to the tests that are performed on behalf of
owner/client to ensure compliance with the specifications.
(c) Secondary/Evaluation Tests: This refers to the tests that are performed in situations
when there is a doubt/dispute about the reliability of Quality control/compliance test results or
those tests were not conducted, their results are not available.
These are also conducted on existing/old structures to evaluate their quality, strength, service
life; assess the deterioration in their quality and devise strategy for repair/rehabilitation of the
structures.
(ii) Based on Distress to Structures ‒
(a) Non-Destructive Tests: These are the tests that are carried-out without causing any
distress to the structure and without affecting their performance. They are performed directly
on the in-situ concrete without removal of any sample form it. Normally the required
properties are not measured directly but they are estimated by correlation with some other
property which can be measured without causing any damage to the specimen.
Example: Rebound Hammer Test; Ultra Sonic Test.
(b) Partially Destructive Tests: In these tests damage caused is very much localised and the
member tested is not weakened to any significant extent. The concrete is tested to failure, but,
the destruction and distress is caused only to a small part of the member without affecting its
performance. Example: Pull-out Test; Penetration Test.
(c) Destructive Tests: These asses the required property directly by causing significant distress
to the member being tested or complete rupture of the test specimen. Example: Test on Core-
cut Samples; Load Test on members; Conventional Cube, Cylinder and Beam Tests.
1]. REBOUND HAMMER TEST ‒ ‘Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer Test’:
Developed by Swiss Engineer ‒ Ernst Schmidt
Assessment of localised surface hardness by means of hand held device.
Rebound from concrete surface measured in terms of a ‘Rebound Number’.
Rebound Number is correlated to strength of concrete by a calibration curve.
Typical Specifications: Hammer Weight = 2kg; Impact Energy = 2.2 Nm.
Suitable for concrete strengths of 20 to 60 MPa.
Applications: (a) Checking Uniformity of concrete quality; (b) Checking compliance with
Specification; (c) Approximate Estimation of Strength; (d) Estimation of Abrasion Resistance.
Limitations: (a) Assesses only a small surface layer of depth approximately 30 to 50 mm deep;
(b) Affected by Course Aggregate type, size, proportion, its cover; (c) Readings affected by local
variations in roughness of concrete, carbonation, moisture condition; (d) Mix characteristics,
like, type of cement, its content and age of concrete.
[QUESTION: Explain briefly, with a neat sketch, Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer and its test
method]
2]. PENETRATION RESISTANCE ‒ WINDSOR PROBE TEST
Windsor probe, like the rebound hammer, is a hardness tester of penetration type. The
penetration of the probe reflects the precise compressive strength in a localized area. However,
the probe penetration does relate to property of the concrete below the surface to some
depth, and, within limits, it is possible to develop better correlation between strength
properties & the penetration of probe.
EQUIPMENT FOR WINDSOR PROBE TEST:
Windsor probe consists of a powder-actuated gun or driver, hardened alloy steel probes,
loaded cartridges, a depth gauge for measuring the penetration of probes. Probes have a tip
dia. of 6.3 mm (or 7.9 mm dia. for LWC), a length of 79.5 mm, & a conical point. The rear of the
probe is threaded and screws into a probe driving head, which is 12.7 mm in diameter and fits
snugly into bore of the driver. The probe is driven into concrete by firing of a precision powder
charge that develops energy of 79.5 m kg. Depth gauge measures exposed lengths of probes.
PROCEDURE:
For flat surfaces a suitable locating template to provide 178 mm equilateral triangular pattern is
used, & 3 probes are driven into concrete, one at each corner. For curved surfaces, 3 probes are
driven individually using single probe template. In both, measured average value of exposed
Probe length is used to estimate compressive strength by means of appropriate correlation
data.
Advantages:
The test is relatively quick and the result is achieved immediately Correlation with strength is
affected by a relatively small number of variables. Result represents strength at a depth greater
than 25 mm to 75 mm from the surface rather than just the property of the surface layer as in
the Schmidt rebound test. The probe is simple to operate, requires little maintenance except
cleaning the barrel; not sensitive to operator technique.
Limitations:
Test is limited to less than 40 MPa; if two different powder levels are used to accommodate
larger range of strengths, correlation becomes complicated. Test leaves an 8 mm hole in the
concrete where the probe penetrated and, in older concrete, the area around the point of
penetration is heavily fractured. On exposed faces the probe has to be removed and the
damaged area has to be repaired.
Applications: (a) Checking Uniformity of concrete quality; (b) Checking compliance with
Specification; (c) Approximate Estimation of Strength; (d) Estimation of Abrasion Resistance.
3]. PULL-OUT TEST ‒
Assessment based on Force required to Pull-out a specially designed device embedded in
concrete.
A steel rod with enlarged head or similar device is used as an insert.
Pull-out Force is correlated to strength of concrete by a calibration curve.
Test performed by either ‘Cast-in Method’ or by ‘Drilled Hole Method’.
Test involves localised fracture and removal of a cone shaped portion.
Applications: (a) Measurement of strength at greater depths than Surface hardness methods;
(b) To assess strength of concrete of unknown composition; (c) Assess safe minimum age of
concrete for speedy loading of structure, Demoulding of Precast members; (d) Minimum age of
concrete for Application of Prestressing loads.
Merit: For a given Insert, Relationship between Pull-out Force and strength of concrete is
unique, and, it is not affected by mix characteristics, composition, workmanship, surface
condition, etc. [QUESTION: Explain briefly, with a neat sketch, Pull-Out Test]
4]. ULTRA SONIC TEST ‒
An Ultra Sonic Longitudinal Pulse (wave) produced by an Electro-acoustical Transducer –
Transmitter. Pulse travels a known distance through specimen/member being tested; Received
by another Transducer – Receiver. Receiver converts pulse into an Electrical signal; Electronic
timer measures the time of travel. Knowing time and distance, Velocity of travel is calculated.
Pulse velocity is correlated to quality of concrete.
Three Modes of Transmitter – Receiver arrangement:
1. Direct Transmission /Cross Probing: Transmitter and Receiver on opposite faces.
2. Semi-Direct Transmission: Transmitter, Receiver on adjacent faces.
3. Indirect Transmission /Surface Probing: Transmitter and Receiver on the same surface.
Direct Transmission /Cross Probing is most reliable and preferred.
In general, Higher Pulse Velocity => Good Quality Concrete.
 Strength of concrete is estimated using calibration curves relating Pulse velocity and
concrete strength. Strength estimation is considered as not very reliable. Assessment of
Modulus of Elasticity and Density is very reliable. This test can be used to detect Internal Flaws,
like, inadequate compaction, voids, cracks, segregation, etc.
The pulse velocity method has been used to study the effects on concrete of freeze-thaw
action, sulphate attack, and acidic waters. Generally, the degree of damage is related to a
reduction in pulse velocity; but, it is often difficult to interpret results. Sometimes the pulse
does not travel through the damaged portion of the concrete. The pulse velocity method can
also be used to estimate the rate of hardening and strength development of concrete in the
early stages to determine when to remove formwork. As concrete ages, the rate of increase of
pulse velocity slows down. However, beyond a strength of 13.6MPa/20.4 MPa accuracy in
determining strength development is less than ±20%.
As per IS 13311 – Part I :
Pulse Velocity(km/s) Pulse Velocity (km/s) Concrete
Cross Probing Surface Probing Quality
> 4.5 > 3.5 EXCELLENT
3.5 to 4.5 3.0 to 3.5 GOOD
3.0 to 3.5 2.5 to 3.0 MEDIUM
< 3.0 < 2.5 DOUBTFUL (Poor)
Applications of Ultra Sonic Test:
Both Hardened and Fresh concrete (after4 to 6h/Final set) can be tested.
1. Assessment of Uniformity in quality of concrete; Degree of compaction; Level of
workmanship.
2. Detection of imperfections/defects, like, voids, cracks, segregation, etc.; their location, extent.
3. Deterioration in quality due to weathering, chemical & physical attacks, Fire, etc. Devising
strategy for Repair and Restoration.
4. Estimation of Strength, Modulus of Elasticity and Density.
5. Estimation of thickness of slabs ‒ Pavements for Road, Runway, etc.
6. Location of reinforcement bars, its cover condition, its thickness.
7. Estimation of thickness of protective coatings, their quality.
8. Research studies regarding strength development in concrete.
5]. MATURITY TEST METHOD
The maturity method is a Non-Destructive Technique for estimating the early strength
development of concrete during its curing period by measuring the temperature history of the
concrete. Maturity Index: M = ∑(T‒T0) × ∆t; Where: M = maturity index, degree Celsius-hour
(or degree Celsius-day), T = average concrete temperature (degree Celsius) during the time
interval Δt, T0 = datum temperature (usually taken to be 10°C); Δt = time interval (h/day).
The underlying principle, which is known as the maturity rule, is concrete of the same mix at
the same maturity (reckoned in temperature–time) has approximately the same strength
whatever be conditions of curing. When we know maturity of a concrete, from that concrete’s
specific Strength-Maturity relationship, a reliable estimate of its strength at any instant of time
can be made. Temperature versus time is recorded by means of thermocouples inserted into
fresh concrete. The measured time history could be used to compute the maturity index which
provides a reliable estimate of early age concrete strength as a function of time.
Key Maturity Benefits: (i) Concrete strength can be evaluated in real-time. (ii) Less time is spent
waiting for test specimens to catch up to concrete strength. (iii) The number of test specimens
required for QC and potentially QA will decrease. (iv) Expedited schedules result in savings in
costs.
APPLICATIONS:
This method can be used to estimate the in-place strength of concrete to allow the start of
critical construction activities such as: (1) removal of formwork and reshoring; (2) post-
tensioning of tendons; (3) sustain saw cutting equipment and procedures (4) opening of
roadways to traffic, letting out pavements and new concrete structures for intended service.
Also, this method can be used to: (5) Reduce the risk of concrete damage in cold weather, time
of termination of cold weather protection; (6) Estimate strength of laboratory specimens cured
under non-standard temperature conditions.
6.a]. CORROSION MONITORING – Half-Cell Potential Method
There are several methods available for detecting and evaluating the corrosion in
reinforcement steel. However, half-cell potential (HCP) has been recognized by many
researchers as a main method to detect corrosion activity in RC structures. In this method
potential difference (p.d.) is measured between steel reinforcement and an external electrode
with a voltmeter. The half-cell consists of a metal rod immersed in a solution of its own
(Cu/CuSO4 or Ag/AgCl). It is connected with reinforcement bar by a voltmeter. Some surface
preparations including wetting to ensure good electrical connection are necessary. The main
application of this method is in situ.
Interpretation of results of half-cell potential measurement for R.C. structures require high
skills and experience, as this only provides information regarding the probability of corrosion
instead of its rate and nature of corrosion. Further, availability of oxygen, cover thickness, and
concrete resistivity are few factors influencing the results of half-cell potential test. This
method evaluates p.d. on the exposed surface of the structures. The p.d. can be measured at
any point on the surface or average of several measurements taken from different points on
the same surface may be considered. More the negative value of measured half-cell p.d.
indicates more is the probability of corrosion.
According to ASTM C876 for Cu/CuSO4 half-cell:
HCP (mV) < ‒ 350 ‒ 350 to ‒ 200 > ‒ 200
Corrosion Probability % 90 90 to 10 10
Measured half-cell potential values can be used to plot a potential contour for the surface of
reinforced concrete structure and this potential contour map can be used to evaluate the
probability of corrosion at different points on the surface. Using potential contour map,
portions of the structures likelihood of high corrosion activity can be obtained and identified by
their high negative potentials.
APPLICATIONS:
Half-cell potential measurements are useful in the following purposes:
(1) Assessment of corrosion condition and location of corroded reinforcements.
(2) Assessment of the condition of the Reinforced Concrete structure.
(3) Deciding location for further detailed destructive and nondestructive testing.
(4) Evaluation of the efficiency of repair work through corrosion state monitoring of repaired
Reinforced Concreter structures.
Relative Limitations of Half-Cell Potential Method:
1. Provides only evaluation of point likely to be corroded; not assessment of rate. Cannot
provide reliable results with epoxy coated bars, coated concrete surfaces.
2. Moist or wet conditions can influence the results of HCP; if value of HCP vary with time,
prewetting of the concrete is required and sufficient time is to be allowed for the moisture to
penetrate the surface layer to stabilize the potential.
ASTMC-876 emphasizes that if the measured value of HCP changes with time surface of
concrete should be wetted for at least 5 minutes.
3. Interpretation requires factors such as variation in moisture, chloride content, concrete
electrical resistance to be considered as they have significant influence.
4. For electrical connection to reinforcement requires local breakout of cover.
5. Results are highly influenced by the composition of the deteriorated concrete. Thus,
interpretation criteria might be different for different deterioration types.
6 Shortcomings of HCP measurements result from fact that p.d. are measured not near rebars
but on concrete surface; judgement is required to get reliable results.
4.b]. CORROSION MONITORING – Linear Polarisation Resistance
The LPR technique is the most frequently used being both quick and easy. The Gill AC, Gill 8 and
12, the Field Machine, the Pocket Machine, the LPR meter and the Bubble Test software all use
this method. A small sweep from ‒ 10 mV to +10 mV at 10 mV/min around rest potential is
performed. The voltage sweep results in a response shown above. Inverse slope of resulting
current/voltage plot is proportional to the corrosion rate.
A step method is used in hand held instruments for example the pocket machine. The current
is measured at points A and B after initial current surge has steadied. Corrosion current in
mA/cm2 multiplied by 12 gives corrosion rate in mm/year.
Another variant of LPR test measures asymmetry of anodic & cathodic current response. This
is called the pitting index. A feature built into to the portable LPR meter is availability of
switching option between corrosion rate and pitting index.
The LPR method is ideal for monitoring RCC structures. It offers an almost instantaneous
indication of corrosion rate allowing for quick evaluation of remedial action and minimizing
unscheduled downtime.
As an example and guide table below gives a qualitative classification of corrosion rates of
carbon steel in a water cooling system.
Corrosion rate < 0.03 0.03 – 0.08 0.08 – 0.13 0.13 – 0.2 0.2 – 0.25 > 0.25
mm/year
Classification Excellent Very good Good Moderate Poor Very poor
Linear polarisation resistance can be done either with three or two electrodes. The two
electrode method relies on both electrodes been similar so that when they are coupled offsets
of the test is still in the linear region. This matching of electrodes is not needed when using the
three electrode method as the potentiostat measures the rest potential and offsets the test
around that.

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