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Education In India

The educational history of India can be divided into several epochs each having a

characteristic educational pattern of its own. The chronological limits of these epochs

may be considered to coincide with ancient, medieval and modern India including
post-independence era.

Ancient India covers a very long period of nearly twenty-five centuries. Considering

the time of Buddha as the beginning of the central era one can trace the educational
development before and after this era.

The Vedic Period (From B.C. 1000 to B.C. 600):

In ancient Indian literature of the Vedic period the words “Siksha” and “Adhyapana”

frequently occur. “Siksha” means to learn to recite. In those days education consisted

of learning to recite the Holy text. The word ‘Adhyapana’ which literally means ‘to go
near’ implies the idea of pupils going to some teacher for education.

The ancient Indian education emerged from the Vedas, because the Vedas are the

source of Indian Philosophy of life. Veda means knowledge. During this period

education was divided into two kinds of knowledge this worldly and other worldly.

This worldly education dealt with the social aspect, whereas, the other worldly
education was related to intellectual pursuits for achieving salvation.

However, the greater emphasis was laid on the latter. Because, education was
considered as a means of emancipation from life bondages.

Objective of Vedic Education:

The main objective of Vedic education was the development of physical, moral and

intellectual powers of man and to achieve salvation through it. In the field of
salvation much emphasis was laid on attention, concentration and yoga.
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Man’s effort was to lift himself above everything through these methods. But

according to Shri A.S. Altekar, there are six main objectives of ancient Indian
education, which can be categorized under following heads.

Inculcation of a Spirit of Piety and Righteousness:

In ancient days the life of man was simple and pious and was full of religious

feelings, ideas and ideals.

As man had a moral standard before him, he performed his duties with great

attention and devotion.

In the educational institutions also the whole atmosphere was surcharged with such

feelings.

Education for the future existence was blended in due proportion to achieve spiritual

elevation.

The main purpose was to enable the individual to awake and arise from the deep

slumber of the worldly illusion.

Preservation and Spread of Ancient Culture:

Preservation and transmission of ancient Indian culture was one of the aims of
ancient educational system.

Renowned and devoted teachers were engaged in teaching work. Pupils were
prepared not only for this life.

Education for the future existence was blended with it in due proportion.

In this system students practiced education independently and this helped them in
the upliftment of their future life.

Development of Personality:
The Vedic education was based on lofty ideals.
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Ample opportunities were provided to the pupils for the multi-dimensional

development of their personality.

They had their own methods of work in order to achieve it. They also endeavored to

develop their personality physically, mentally and morally by residing at their

preceptor’s home through their devotional service. Besides, pupils were acquainted
with the principle of know thyself, self-realization, self-confidence and sell respect.

Preservation and transmission of ancient Indian culture was one of the aims of
ancient educational system.

Renowned and devoted teachers were engaged in teaching work. Pupils were
prepared not only for this life. Education for the future existence was blended with it

in due proportion. In this system students practiced education independently and

this helped them in the up liftment of their future life

Formation of Character:

The educational system of Vedic period achieved a considerable success in

connection with character formation.

Gurukulas were established with this aim in view. In these institutions students led
the life of ‘Brahmachari’ a celibate.

The life in the Gurukulas was rigorous and hard. All the pupils were bound to obey

the daily routines. This system lacked pleasures, comforts and luxuries. Simple food,
good behaviour and high ideals were constantly stressed.

Inculcation of Civic and Social Duties:

Inculcation of social and civic duties was one of the aims in Vedic period. This was

necessary for a better future life. After the completion of the study in the Gurukulas,
there was provision for family life. Pupils joined the society and enjoyed a happy civic
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life. So, their main duty was to observe the norms set by the society. They became the

part and parcel of the society and were required to perform their duties towards

family members. Their daily routine was to perform social, national and parental
services.

Promotion of Vocational Efficiency:

In this system of education, emphasis was given not only on book learning and

providing basic knowledge but on application of knowledge in everyday life. So the

scope of education was very comprehensive and wide.

For the development of vocational efficiency, healthy, positive attitude and dignity of
labour were fostered in pupils since the very beginning of their study.

They were trained to earn their living according to their abilities and power.

System of Education:

At the early stages the demand for education among the people was not so
prominent.

The system of education which was prevalent was altogether different from what is
today.

Somewhere in the hoary past a band of selfless, devoted persons converted their

forest homes into schools, away from the haunts of din and distractions of the

material world and engaged with teaching work exclusively with single minded
devotion.

These institutions were situated in the calm and serene atmosphere of the hills and
forests.

At the beginning the priest or the Brahmanic class inherited and transmitted the
tradition and the folklore to the succeeding generation.
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In the early Vedic Schools instruction was confined to young Brahmanic and was
regarded mainly as a preparation for their future vocation as priests

Learning was almost monopolized by the Brahmins. They formed a very small
section of the society.

As time passed on, the other two castes, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, were also entitled
to knowledge.

In the initial stage of the Vedic education caste system had not assumed strict
rigidity.

Even then the Sudras in general were denied the privileges of studying the Holy
Scriptures.

With the passage of time, the aptitude or fitness of an individual to receive a

particular kind of education was kept above all considerations of caste and status.

But to give instruction was the exclusive privilege of the Brahmins. This marked the
throwing influence of the priesthood.

During the period most of the vocations that people in general followed did not

require any learning, as such, except the informal training that they received at home
through observation and imitation.

Therefore, the demand for education came from a limited section of the society. So
there was no necessity of an elaborate organisation of education

Curriculum:

The beginning of education was marked by the ‘Upanayana’ a ceremony which was

generally performed at a prescribed age level. The age limit was varying from caste to
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caste. It was eight year, eleventh year and twelfth year, respectively for Brahmins,
Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. The studentship lasted usually for twelve years.

The then prevalent system of education was not merely theoretical.

It was related to the realities of life. Various branches of learning were incorporated
in the curriculum.

The subjects of teachings

Philosophy, Grammar, Astrology and Logic. In the teaching of languages, emphasis

was laid on proper pronunciation and grammar. Along with theoretical aspect of the
curriculum, the practical aspects of education was given due importance.

There was proper co-ordination between the mid practical aspects of the curriculum.

Through different subjects an attempt was made to make the student capable of
experiencing the supreme truth himself and to mould the society accordingly.

The pupils’ residence in teachers’ house helped them to develop social contacts.

It was considered a sacred duty on the part of the pupils to collect fuel-wood, supply
water and do other household odd jobs for the teacher.

In this way the pupils were receiving instructions related to domestic life and also
learning the concrete lesson of the dignity of labor and social service.

Besides, the pupils of ancient India were receiving valuable training in the

occupations of animal husbandry, agriculture, dairy farming, etc. by grazing the cows
of the Guru and serving him in various ways.

The modem concept of ‘Learning by Doing’ as understood in the West today was the
very core and essence of education in Ancient India.
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The student’s life was considered as the laboratory for the educational
experimentation.

As the pupils were residing in the house of the Gurus, they were begging alms for
their own subsistence and also for the preceptor.

This practice of begging alms by the pupils was to inculcate in them noble sentiment
of humanitarian virtues.

The motive behind this system was to sublimate the unruly passions and ego in the

pupils, which enabled them to face the realities of life and helped in social
integration.

It was considered a concrete lesson in the cultivation of virtue of self-help and the

sense of gratitude and duty towards the society. In the curriculum religious

instruction was given much importance and religion permeated the whole scene of
education.

Though the curriculum in vogue was essentially spiritual and religious in character,
yet it did not ignore the material aspect.

Methods of Teaching:

Amidst beautiful natural surroundings sitting at the feet of the preceptor the pupils

were trying to comprehend the various problems of life through listening,

intellection, reflection and meditation.

As written language was not developed, the teacher made his pupils learn the text by
rote.

Every pupil acquired knowledge according to his individual capacity. The basis of the
method of teaching was psychological.
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The students were classified into very intelligent normally and sub normally
intelligent, respectively.

This classification naturally points to the different in the mental powers of various
students.

Every day before the birds announce the day break the students used to recite the
Vedic hymns.

At the time of recitation careful attention was paid to the correct pronunciation of
words.

By listening to the Gurus attentively the pupils were trying to commit into their
memory the Vedic hymns along with the prescribed pronunciation.

Thus, the teaching, in a way was oral. But unintelligent memorization of the Vedic
hymns was regarded as utterly futile.

It was considered that he who studied Vedas without understanding the proper

meaning could be compared to an ass carrying the load of sandal wood, feels only its
weight, without being benefitted by its perfume.

Seminars and symposia were also held from time to time and students were getting
the opportunity to show their worth through reasoning and argumentation.

In the teaching learning process individual was treated as the teaching unit and
individual attention was paid.

Students were encouraged to ask questions to the teachers for removing their doubts
and difficulties.
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Through different subjects, teachers were not only trying to stimulate the intellectual

curiosity of the students but also transferring something and that something was the
high character and sinlessness.

The pupils’ residence in teachers’ house helped them to develop social contacts.

It was considered a sacred duty on the part of the pupils to collect fuel-wood, supply
water and do other household odd jobs for the teacher.

The modem concept of ‘Learning by Doing’ as understood in the West today was the
very core and essence of education in Ancient India.

The student’s life was considered as the laboratory for the educational
experimentation.

As the pupils were residing in the house of the Gurus, they were begging alms for
their own subsistence and also for the preceptor.

This practice of begging alms by the pupils was to inculcate in them noble sentiment
of humanitarian virtues.

The motive behind this system was to sublimate the unruly passions and ego in the

pupils, which enabled them to face the realities of life and helped in social
integration.

The teachers were accepting very limited number of students. The students were very

polite and submissive in their behavior and held in high esteem. To obey the teacher
was their duty.

The teacher had also tremendous sympathy and love for the students.

The chief aim of the teacher was the all round development of the personality of the
students.
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The teacher was also commanding great respect in the society.

He was honored and respected at all places.

Starting from the kings and emperors to the most primitive tribes in the hills, all
were paying great tribute to the teachers.

Therefore, in the past the main source of inspiration for the student. teacher- taught
relationship was very cordial and intimate.

The teacher was regarded He was a model before the students. He was the symbol of
purity.

The teacher was also under obligation to f ulfil his duty towards the pupil.

l. Not only he was loving the pupils as his own children but also he was giving full
attention on the teaching.

The teachers were discharging their duties and responsibilities exclusively with
selfless and single-minded devotion.

Aims Of Education

 Development of Personality
 Physical & Intellectual development
 Reliogious & Spiritual development
 Character building
 Promotion of Social Efficiency& Happiness
 Preservation & Spread of Culture
Education During Medieval Period
The beginning of the 8th century A.D. witnessed a large number of Mohammedan invasions.
Mahmud Ghaznavi invaded the country and established a large number of schools and
libraries in his own country by the looted wealth.

Later on when the Muslim rulers established permanent empire in India, they introduced a
new system of education. Consequently, the ancient system of education was greatly
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changed. In fact, the education of the Muslim period was much inferior than that of the
Hindu period.

No Muslim ruler except Akbar did commendable works in the field of education.

Aim of Education
 The aim of education during Muslim period was the illumination and extension of
knowledge and the propagation of Islam.
 The education of this period was imparted for the propagation of Islamic principles,
laws and social conventions.
 Education was based on religion and its aim was to make persons religious minded.
 The Muslim education aimed also at the achievement of material prosperity

. Babur, the first Mughal ruler, was a man of literary taste and possessed perfect
knowledge of Persian, Arabic and Turkish. His memoirs, is a work of great literary
importance.

He had great love for education and got a number of schools and colleges repaired.

He also set up a number of new educational institutions.

Despite his great love for education, Babar could not accomplish much because his
reign lasted only for four years.

Humayun (1530—1556 A.D.) was also a great scholar like his father. He
provided patronage to man of arts and literature.

In spite of many political difficulties, he rendered valuable service to the cause of

education.

He established a college at Delhi and appointed Shaikh Hussain as its Principal.

He was fond of the company of scholars and saints and spent lot of time in scholarly
pursuits.

He was also fond of collecting books and raised a beautiful library. In recognition of
this interest to the cause of education his tomb was provided with a Madrasa.

Sher Shah Suri, who ruled India when Humayun was in exile, was also a great
Patron of education and learning.
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He established a Madrasa at Narnaul which became a prominent centre of

education.

He was the first Muslim ruler who made provision for the education of ordinary
Muslims too

Akbar, the great showed much greater interest in education.

It would not be wrong to say that his reign marked the beginning of a new chapter in
the history of education for Muslim India,

Though, Akbar was not himself much educated, he showed a great love for the
scholars a During his reign, subjects like philosophy, history, literature and arts
made tremendous progress. He introduced certain changes in the existing
curriculum of studies in educational institutions Subjects like logic, arithmetic’s,
astronomy, accountancy and agriculture etc. were included in studies.

This naturally provided a secular bias to the educational system, Akbar paid great
attention to the elementary education of children

During Akbar’s times, education was liberalised and even Hindus were admitted to
Muslim Muktabs and Madrasas, As a result, in course of time certain Hindu scholars
and historians learnt Persian and made valuable contribution to the cause of
education.

Jahangir, the successor of Akbar, was also a great lover of learning.

He himself possessed a command over Persian and also knew Turkish.

He was fond of literary and cultural persons and showed great regard to them.

Jahangir repaired even those Madrasas that for 30 years had been the dwelling
places of birds and beast and filled them with students and professors.

He set up a Madrasa near Jama Masjid

Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal Emperor, was also educated and had love for
education.

However, he spent most of the funds for the education of the Muslim subjects.
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Thus, he tried to extend his orthodoxy to the field of education and neglected
Hindus. He gave liberal grants to poor children belonging to Muslim families

Organization of Education In the Muslim period, education was organized in Maktabs

and Madrasas.

Primary education was given in Maktabs and Higher Education in Madrasas.

In Maktabs the children were made to remember the ‘Ayats’ of Quran.

They were also imparted the education of reading, writing and primary arithmetic.

Children were given the education of Persian language and script.

After completing the primary education, children were sent to Madrasas to receive higher
education.

Special emphasis was also given to the education of religious education of secular subjects,
which was imparted in Madrasas.

The chief characteristics of education in Muslim period were lack of University education,
neglect of Vernaculars, decline in teacher- pupil relationship and problem of discipline.

Corporal punishment was started. The system of examination depended upon the will of the
teacher to send the pupil to the higher classes or not.

Degree was given after the completion of education.

Military education was compulsory in order to establish supremacy over the Hindu kings.

Maktabs

In a Maktab children of general people were given primary education. Along with religious
education they were also taught reading, writing and arithmetic.

He was also taught some romantic literature of Persian e.g. LailaMajnu, Yusuf- Julekha etc.
General practical education was also given in Maktabs. Letter writing applications and
accountancy were taught in them.

 Madrasas After completing the education in a Maktab, one could come to a Madrasa for
Higher Education.

During the Muslim period, Madrasas were centers of higher learning.

Madrasa, along with religious objective education, practical affairs of life were also
attended to.
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Akbar did a great deal in this direction and tried to give a practical shape also to education
in a unprecedented manner.

Islamic religion was compulsorily taught to all the students. But Akbar stopped this tradition.
He provided study of Hindu religion and philosophy also in many Madrasas.

He introduced the study of medicine, history, geography, economics, political science,

philosophy, astrology, law and mathematics.

He made the study of Vedanta, Jurisprudence and Yoga of Patanjali compulsory for Sanskrit
students. Abulfazl has described the educational system introduced by Akbar in his famous
book Ain-e-Akbari. Law in those days was based on religious practices.

So the study of religious principles was in a way education in law.

Method Oral education and memorization of the assigned lesson were the chief methods of teaching
in the Maktabs. Akbar encouraged writing and tried to reform the scripts.

He wanted the educational procedure to be systematic. So he urged that the student should be
given the knowledge of alphabets, then word knowledge and afterwards sentence knowledge.
During this period, cooperation of students was sought in maintenance of discipline.

Practical education was given much importance.

There was no half-yearly or annual examination fixed for students. But the students were examined
from time to time in practical situations of life.

Military training, development of fine arts, crafts and women education were given much
importance in this period

It was considered a concrete lesson in the cultivation of virtue of self-help and the
sense of gratitude and duty towards the society. In the curriculum religious
instruction was given much importance and religion permeated the whole scene of
education. Though the curriculum in vogue was essentially spiritual and religious in
character, yet it did not ignore the material aspect

Ethical teachings of Buddha:

Dependant Origination- Buddha calls this as pratityasamutpada, as per which everything
happens with a cause and leaves an effect. Nothing happens by chance. He believed in the
madhyam marg or the ‘middle view’ than externalism (the reality exists externally) or
nihilism (something that exists can cease to be).
Theory of Karma- Karma is the principle of causation. Present existence of an individual is
due to his doctrine of karma, causation of past and future.
The Law of Universal Change and Impermanence- All things are subjected to change,
everything arises from some condition and therefore impermanent everything, which has a
beginning has also an end to it. Buddha’s followers have developed this as a theory of
momentariness of ksanika vada i.e. existence of things in momentary.
The Theory of Non-existence of the Soul- Buddha opposed the concept of existence of soul.
He believed that nothing remained without change i.e. the law of change is universal. Present
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state of soul inherits its characters from previous ones, hence past continues into the
present. Memory becomes inexplicable without soul.
Pabbajja- The First Ordination:
Pabbajja means going out of home in to the Buddhist order. This is like the procedure of an
individual going out in search of a Guru as in Brahmanical system. The minimum age for
initiation is eight years.

Upasampada- The Final Ordination:

After Pabbajja, a Buddhist monk had to undergo this ceremony. It is different from Pabbajja.
Upasampada means the arrival of the full status of manhood or a Bhikshu, a full-fledged
member of the order. This ceremony was performed, when a monk complete twelve years of
education that is at the age of twenty.

Buddhism and Educational Implications:

The whole philosophy of Buddhism ultimately prepares its disciples to find out the truth and
overcome the sufferings through the 8-fold path.

Aim:
 No self, no God, no soul.
 To understand the 4 noble truths of life.
 To follow the 8- fold path to attain the truth.
 To understand Karma principle and cessation.
 To be more practical and realistic in deeds.
 To develop self-determination, confidence, overcome passions.
 Serve humanity.
Curriculum:
 Buddha didn’t write personally rather his disciples wrote about his preaching 100
years after his death.
 The collection of literature is known as Tripitikas (Vinay pitaka, Sutta pitaka,
Abhidamma pitaka)
 Philosophical principles of Buddhism ( Pratitya samutpada, ksanikavada,
arthkriyakaritva, anatmavada)
 Five Skandas or Tatvas (roopa skanda, vedanta skanda, sangya skanda, samskara
skanda and vigyan skanda)
 Karmavad.
Method:
 Direct methods.
 Imitation
 Recitation
 Practical experience
 Nirvana/ attaining bodhisattva personally through madhyam marg meditation.
Teacher:
 Teacher is God.
 Students must follow the teacher.
 Teacher teaches all the philosophical principles of Buddhism.
Pupil:
 They should follow the preaching.
 Follow the 8- fold path strictly.
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 Should learn/ follow/ practice the literature related to Tripitikas and know about the
Tatvas.
 Should follow self-discipline.
JAINISM:

The preachers of Jainism are called Tirthankaras. There are 24 Tirthankaras in Jainism.
Rishabanath was founder of Jainism and first Tirthankara. Parshwanath was the
23rd Tirthankara.
The last (24th) Tirthankara Vardamana Mahaveera, lived during 6th Century B.C and was a
contemporary to Gautama Buddha.
These 24 Tirthankara’s (teachers), their work and philosophy together gave rise to Jainism.
The word Jain means the conqueror of desires. They believed that every spirit (Jiva) is in
bondage.
The three Ratnas or Jewels: - (Three rules)

Angas are the holy books of Jainism. Most of the basic literature is available in ‘
Prakrata’.The followers were divided which are popularized later as:

SVETAMBARA
DIGAMBARA

Jainism believed in the five vows and they felt that by following these will lead to
good/perfect right/ conduct.

1. Ahimsa includes abstinence from injury to life (non-violence).

2. Sathyam is truth/ abstinence from falsehood.
3. Asteyam means non-stealing.
4. Brahmacharyam is following bachelor life/ spinster.
5. Aparigraha is non- attachment/ non-receipt of unwanted wealth.
Educational Implications

The monks must undergo rigorous practices/ observances to make an individual with good
character and conduct. They spend their time throughout their life with all observances and
ultimately try to liberate the soul from bondage.

Aims:
 To adopt Triratnas.
 To attain good conduct, five vows are to be adopted.
 To make them self-reliant and self-restraint.
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 Liberation in education should be maintained.

 Finally, to attain liberation from the bondage i.e. to overcome anger, pride,
infatuation, greed etc.
Curriculum:
 Preaching’s of Jain Thirthankaras/ Saints.
 Triratnas.
 Religious knowledge of Jain.
 Knowledge regarding world, spirit and matter.
 Methods:
 Imitation.
 Recitation.
 Practical/ empirical method.
 Adopting all the five vows.
 Individual’s practice to acquire all the vows.
Teacher:
 A model.
 A living exemplary with all vows.
 Gurus are considered as Gods.
 Train rigorously to liberate the soul from bondage.
Disciple:
 Should respect the teachers and treat them as Gods.
 Emulate all the ideal character from their gurus.
 Aim at becoming like their gurus and liberate from the bondage.
 Follow the five vows to attain good conduct. (Panchamahavratas)
 To be careful in all the walks of life.
 Practice ten different dharmas like, non-attachments, forgiveness, self-restraint,
austerity, sacrifice, celibacy etc.
 Discipline.
 Self-discipline.
 Self-restraint.

MEDIEVALPERIOD

ISLAMIC AND INDIAN PATASHALAS

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The rise of the Mohammedanism is one of the most extraordinary events in the history of the
world. It changes the whole history of India, just as in another way Christianity had changed
the history of world. With a century after the death of Mohammed the Prophet (570- 632
A.D.), the Arabs conquered the extensive territories and in 711 A.D. the empire of Islam
extended from the frontiers of China to the shores of Atlantic. The Arabs and the Turks
brought many new customs and institutions to India. They differed a lot from Brahmanism
and Buddhism.

Facts:
Muslim education did not reach to such a high point in India as in other Muslim lands.

There was no continuous growth and development

Islam- Concept of Reality: The ultimate reality or being is Allah.

Islam- Concept of Knowledge: The Prophet Mohammad gave huge importance to
knowledge and education.
He considered it more holy and as the true responsibility of a Muslim. He believes
that, education is the best gift a parent can give to their children. With knowledge,
the servant of God can rise to the goodness and attain happiness.
Islam-Values: The religion of Islam is based upon the foundations of love, respect, devotion
and happiness. Islam stresses strong connections in between fellow human beings, between
the body and soul. Most important connection between man and his creator, the Almighty
God. Values of truthfulness, sincerity and purity to be cultivated till it becomes implanted in
a person’s soul and disposition. These values should reflect throughout the person’s c
Objectives of Islamic Education:
The aim of Muslim education during Sultanate and Mughal period was multifarious and it
differed with different rulers.
During the reign of Akbar, the aim of Muslim education was to harmonize the patterns of
political, religion and social aspects and organising a new nation.
 During the reign of Aurangzeb, the aim of Muslim education was spreading
Islamic education and cultures, destroying Hindu culture. The people acquired knowledge as
a religious obligation.
 Islamic Patashalas: Education was imparted in different educational institutions
based upon needs and potential of each student.
 Maktab- It is an elementary school often attached to a Mosque, these were run by
private individuals and education was rudimentary based on the three R’s and prayers of
Koran.
 Bismilah- Bismilah is a colourful ceremony conducted when a Muslim boy is four
years, four months and four days old. The child is introduced to education and allowed to
Maktabs after invoking God.
 Madarasas- It is a school for higher learning and is generally attached to mosque.
Some of them rose to the status of Universities. The course included grammar, logic,
literature, science, metaphysics etc.
 Role of the Teacher:
Teachers were held in high esteem and their students considered it as a privilege to follow
them.

Chief characteristics of Muslim education:-

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(1) Patronage of the rulers: The rulers helped in the spread of education. They built
educational institutions and universities. They endowed them with the funds. Big
landlord also provided financial help for the spread of education. The rulers
patronized the men of learning.

(2) No state control: The rules neither claim any authority over the educational
institutions nor interfered with their management.

(3) Religion dominated educationThe pupils acquired knowledge as a religious

obligation.

(4) Countryside as the centre of education: By and large, educational institutions

flourished in the countryside.

(5) Provision of various discipline: Through education was primarily religion-

oriented, it included the study of many intellectual activities like mathematics,
astronomy, grammer, polity and politics. Art and literature were also encouraged.

(6) Norms of conduct: Adequate stress was laid on well- define

Curriculum:
 Elementary stage- reading, writing, arithmetic and religious education.
 Higher stage- Astronomy, physics, medicine, algebra, geometry, law, history,
economics etc.
 Hindus were taught their own religious books and they were allowed at the
Madarasas. Many of the Hindus also read Persian and acquired mastery.
 Science and art/craft was getting more of importance.
 Theological curriculum, Dare-E-Nizami were followed in India.
Methods of Teaching:
 Oral
 Recitation
 Monitorial
 Akbar stressed on effective teaching by writing letters.
 Women education: Due to the Purdah system, women’s education was totally
neglected. Young girls were secluded and so education was a matter of great difficulty.
 Examination system:
 No annual exams.
 Evaluation was a continuous process.
 Promotions was based upon assessment by the teacher.
The most important degrees were:
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Education was centred mainly in towns and cities. Muslim education was confined to a very
small group and basically to minority.

It was on fifth of the population.

Where ever Muslim power got established there was a university or college or Madarasas.

These towns included places like Jaunpur, Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Jullundar, Sikri, Fatehpur,
Ajmer, Hyderabad, Bihar, Lukhnow, Allahabad, Bijapur, Multan etc.

Education during ModernPeriod

arren Hastings set up the Calcutta Madrasa in 1781 for the study
and learning of Persian and Arabic. In 1791, the efforts of Jonathan
Duncan opened Sanskrit College at Banaras for understanding of the laws,
literature and religion of the Hindus.
2. The Fort William College was set up by Lord Wellesley in 1800 for
the training of the civil servants of the company in vernacular languages
and customs of India. The College published an English-Hindustani
dictionary, a Hindustani grammar and some other books. However to
impart training to civil servants a East India College at Hailebury, England
was established in 1807.
3. Charter Act, (1813): It provided for an annual expenditure of one
lakh of rupees "for the revival and promotion of literature and the
encouragement of then learned natives of India and for the introduction
and promotion of knowledge of the science among the inhabitants of the
British territories."
4. Sir Charles Wood's Despatch on Education, 1854: It is considered
as the Magna Carta of English Education in India. It declared that the aim
of the Government's educational policy was the teaching of Western
Education. The three universities of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay came
into existence in 1857. It proposed the setting up of primary schools
21

(vernacular languages) at the lowest level, high school in Anglo

vernacular and colleges (English Medium) at district level.
Wood’s Despatch is an important topic in modern Indian history for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. It
took modern education in India to a whole new level.
This despatch, which was sent to the then Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, contained steps that were
suggested to the British authorities in order for the governing body to take education in British India
seriously and to the benefit of the Indians.
Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control of the English East India Company, had a great
impact on disseminating education in India when in 1854 he sent a despatch to Lord Dalhousie, the then
Governor-General of India and suggested that Primary Schools must Adopt vernacular languages.
He also suggested that high schools use anglo-vernacular medium and that English should be the medium
for college level education.

Features of Wood’s Despatch

He recommended the following steps:

 An education department was to be set up in every province.

 Universities on the model of the London university be established in big cities like Bombay,
Madras and Calcutta.
 At least one government school be opened in every district.
 Affiliated private schools should be given grant in aid.
 Indian natives should be given training in their mother tongue also.
 Provision was made for a systematic method of education from primary level to the university
level.
 The government should always support women’s education.

6. The Hunter Education Commission, 1882-83: The principal

object of the enquiry of the commission was to present the state of
elementary education throughout the Indian Empire and the means
by which this can be extended and improved.

Hunter Commission Report of 1882

The Hunter Commission of 1882 was appointed by the then Governor-General of India on 3 February
1882. Presided by Sir William Hunter, an Indian Civil Service officer and a member of the Executive
Council of the Viceroy. The following were the main objectives:
Consider different aspects of education in India, paying particular attention to primary education.
Enquire into the execution of the Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 and suggest ways to improve outcomes of the
same.
What Were the Main Recommendations of the Hunter Commission?
Major recommendations by the Hunter Commission of 1882 resulted in the following changes in the
education system of British India:
22

 Preference was given to literate candidates for government jobs in the lower levels, along with
expansion of primary schools in backward districts.
 District and municipal boards were entrusted with the management of primary education under the
Local Self Government Act. The funds were separated for rural and urban areas to avoid funds
earmarked for rural schools being misappropriated by urban schools.
 Secondary schools were to be established by private parties with funds provided by the
government. Model schools fully run by the government were to be opened in each district to
guide such private schools.
 Secondary school curriculum was also revised with academic and vocational courses diversified
into different branches.
 Missionary schools were discouraged and Indian participation in the private school system was
solicited by the raj. Special care was supposed to be taken in advancing the education of girls and
women.
Though most of these changes were positive, these changes were only limited to the schools following the
system laid down by the British Indian Government. As traditional schools died out from lack of funding
and enrolment, the government school system became more and more overburdened, resulting in systemic
problems in primary education that affect the society even today.
This is an important part of the UPSC Syllabus for History of India and Indian National Movement for IAS
prelims as well as IAS Mains General Studies. This topic is part of the static syllabus of UPSC, hence
should be read in detail.

Hunter Commission of 1920

While the Hunter Commission of 1882 was appointed by the then Governor General in circumstances of
relative peace, the Hunter Commission of 1920 was appointed by the then Secretary of State for India,
Edwin Montagu under far more tragic circumstances during a time of turmoil. The official name of the
Hunter Committee of 1920 was the Disorders Inquiry Committee and was constituted after the
massacre at Jallianwalla Bagh on 13 April 1919. The events leading up to the actions of
General Dyer at Jallianwalla Bagh are well known and form an important part of the History
of the Freedom Movement. The Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre, also known as the Amritsar
Massacre of 1919 took place when General Dyer of the British Indian Army ordered his
troops to open fire and keep firing into a crowd of unarmed people inside Jallianwalla Bagh.
The Hunter Commission of 1920 appointed to investigate the Amritsar Massacre had the
following members:

 Lord William Hunter, Chairman of the Hunter Commission, former Solicitor General of
Scotland
 W.F. Rice, Home Department member
 Thomas Smith, Member, Legislative Council, United Provinces
 Pandit Jagat Narayan, Member,Legislative Council, United Provinces and lawyer
 H.C. Stokes, Secretary of the Commission and Home Department member
 Sardar Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Khan, Gwalior State lawyer
 Sir Chimanlal Harilal Setalvad, Vice-Chancellor, Bombay University and advocate, Bombay
High Court
 Mr Justice George C. Rankin, Calcutta
 Major-General Sir George Barrow, KCB, KCMG, GOC Peshawar Division
Due to the commission being composed of both British and Indian officials, there were
reports of racial tension between them. In spite of this, the committee unanimously
condemned General Dyer’s actions and published the following findings:
23

 Dyer did not ask the crowd to disperse before opening fire into the crowd and continued
firing until ammunition was exhausted. This constituted a serious error.
 Dyer’s intention of producing moral effect through the use of force was condemnable and
he had exceeded the limits of authority assigned to him.
There was no conspiracy to oust British Rule from Punjab that had led to the assembly of
people at Jallianwalla Bagh.
The Indian members added to these findings, the following observations:

 Orders prohibiting public meetings had not been sufficiently circulated in the Punjab in
general and in Amritsar in particular which could have prevented the Jallianwalla Bagh
Massacre.
 Innocent people formed the crowd at Jallianwalla Bagh and there was no violence before the
massacre.
 Dyer should have ordered troops to help the wounded people or informed civilian
authorities to arrange aid. His actions were condemned as inhuman and greatly damaged
the image of the British in India.
 The Hunter Commission report was important in the context that its findings paved the way
for public opinion in both Britain and India gradually turning against British rule in India. In
particular, General Dyer was relieved of command and officially rebuked by the House of
Commons of the UK based on his actions and statements during the massacre and
afterwards.
 The Hunter Commission report findings were also instrumental in the development of the
use of minimum force in crowd control worldwide.

r Philip Joseph Hartog, KBE, CIE (Born on 2nd March 1864 –

died on 27th June 1947) was a British chemist
and educationalist who undertook this role in England and
India.
 This Committee was appointed to survey the growth of
education in British India.
 In 1929, the Hartog Committee submitted its report.
 Sir Philip Hartog has served under the Sadler
Commission and has also been a vice chancellor of Dacca
University in 1921.

 It devoted far more attention to mass education than

Secondary and University Education.
24

 The committee was not satisfied with the scanty growth

of literacy in the country and highlighted the problem of
‘Wastage’ and ‘Stagnation’ at the primary level.
 The Hartog Committee had concentrated its attention
more on primary and secondary education and less on
university education.
Higher Education Reforms:-
 The Committee praised the growth in number of
affiliated colleges and it also hinted at the fall of standard in
university education due to the worsening of its environment
because of growth of affiliated colleges.
 The Committee criticized the introduction of
Honors courses in some universities and pointed out that
they were outmoded.
 Higher education could not be possible through
Honors courses, as only increasing the duration by one year
for these was not enough.
 The Indian public opinion, too, felt that the universities
had failed to meet the needs of the people. The country was
undergoing political upheavals and it needed young men with
a spirit of sacrifice and hard work.
 The universities in India were unable to contribute
anything in this sphere. Hence a discontent against them
spread in the people.
 Many universities were conducting only examinations,
although the teaching and research work had already been
started in some universities. There were no good libraries in
any university.
 In the opinion of the Hartog Committee it was the duty
of universities to produce such individuals who
25

were tolerant, liberal and suitable to undertake great

responsibilities.
 The universities in India were not equal to this task.
 Hence the Committee gave the following suggestions for
their reforms-
o The Committee recommended the establishment
of some affiliating universities keeping in view the great
demand for higher education.
o The Committee admitted that the standard of
education in the affiliated colleges of these universities
would be poorer than in teaching universities, but under the
circumstances affiliated colleges alone could meet the
demand for higher education of the people.
o The teachers for affiliated colleges should be
appointed by universities.
o The admission, in universities should be controlled
on the basis of abilities and aptitudes of students.
o The Honors course should be of more advanced
nature than the pass courses and these courses should be
instituted only at the universities.
o Provision should be made for technical education
by the universities. The universities have to control the
problem of unemployment by opening employment
opportunities.
Primary Education Reforms:-
It mentioned that the great waste of money and efforts
which resulted because of the pupils leaving their schools
before completing the particular stage of education.
26

It suggested the following important measures for the

improvement of primary education.
 Adoption of the policy of consolidation in place of
multiplication of schools;
 Fixation of the duration of primary course to four years;
 Improvement in the quality, training, status, pay, service
condition of teachers;
 Relating the curricula and methods of teaching to the
conditions of villages in which children live and read;
 Adjustment of school hours and holidays to seasonal
and local requirements;
 Increasing the number of Government inspection staff.
Secondary Education Reforms:-
 In the sphere of secondary education the Committee
indicated a great waste of efforts due to the immense
number of failures at the Matriculation Examination.
 It attributed that the laxity of promotion from one class
to another in the earlier stages and persecution of higher
education by incapable students in too large a number were
the main factors of wastage.
o So it suggested for the introduction of diversified
course in middle schools meeting the requirements of
majority of students.
 Further it suggested the diversion of more boys to
industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle
stage.
 Besides, the Committee suggested for the improvement
of University Education, Women Education, Education of
Minorities and Backward classes etc.
27

The Committee gave a permanent shape to the educational

policy of that period and attempted for consolidating and
stabilizing education.
The report was hailed as the torch bearer of Government
efforts.
However, the suggestions of the Committee could not be
implemented effectively and the educational progress could
not be maintained due to worldwide economic depression of
1930-31.
6. The Indian Universities Act, 1904: The act increased university
control over private colleges by laying down stringent conditions of
affiliation and periodical inspection by the Syndicate. The private colleges
were required to keep a proper standard of efficiency. The Government
approval was necessary for grant of affiliation or disaffiliation of colleges.
7. The Sadler University Commission, 1917-19: It recommended a
twelve-year school course after passing the intermediate examination,
rather than the Matriculation, the students were to enter a university.
8. Wardha Scheme of Basic Education: The main principle of basic
education (better known as Wardha Scheme) is 'learning through
activity'. The Zakir Hussain Committee worked out the details of the
scheme and prepared detailed syllabi for a number of crafts and made
suggestions concerning training of teachers, supervision, examination and
administration.
9. Sargeant Plan of Education: This plan envisaged the establishment
of elementary schools and high schools (junior and senior basic schools)
and the introduction of universal free and compulsory education for
children between the ages of 6 and 14.
The British Modern Education was injected in Indian society not for
education but to imparting Christianity to the people and creating a class
hartog committee upscof Anglo-Indian.
28

Objects of the Sargent Report:

The object of the plan was to create in India in a period of not less
than forty years, the same standard of educational attainments as
had already been admitted in England.

It provided for:
1. Pre-Primary Education between 3& 6 yeRS
 Separate Nursery Schools in urban areas:
 In rural area pre-primary education should be arranged with
basic or primary education. Nursery schools should be
invariably staffed with women teachers with training for the
work. Pre-Primary education should in all cases be free. The
main object of education at this stage is to give young children
social experience. Pre- Primary education will require
annually Rs. 3, 18,40,000 for ten lakhs pupils.
 2. Basic or Primary Educ
For primary education the Sargent Report has adopted the scheme
of Basic Education with some modifications. Primary education
should be universal, free and compulsory for the age-group 6 to 14.
It will again be sub-divided into two stages – a) Junior Basic and (b)
Senior Basic – (6 – 11) and (11 – 14). Education at this stage should
be based on the principle of “learning through activity” and a basic
craft or crafts suited to local needs and conditions. (The Board,
however, are unable to endorse the view that education at any stage
particularly in the lowest stages can or should be expected to pay for
itself through the sale of articles produced by the pupils).

On leaving the school, the pupil should be prepared to take his place
in the community as a worked and as a future citizen. The Senior
Basic School should offer the widest possible opportunities for those
corporate activities including physical training and organised
games.
29

3. High School Education

Aim:
High School Education should on no account be considered simply
as a preliminary to University education, but as a stage complete in
itself. It will, however, remain a very important function of the High
Schools to pass on their most able pupils to Universities.

The large majority of High School leavers should receive an

education that will fit them for direct entry into occupations and
professions. A certain percentage (10-15) of them may be expected
to require further training for a period of one to three years, either
on full-time or part-time basis

Types:
‘The proposed High Schools should be of two main types the
Academic and the Technical. The Academic High School will impart
instruction in the Arts and pure sciences; while the Technical High
School will provide training in the applied sciences and industrial
and commercial subjects. In both types the course in the Junior
stages will be very much the same and there will be a common core
of the ‘humanities’ throughout.

Art and Music should form an integral part of the curriculum in

both and all girls should take a course in domestic science. The
curriculum should be flexible so that transfer from one type to the
other should be made as easy as possible. In rural areas an
agricultural bias should be given to the curriculum.
30

The curriculum should be diversified as far as practicable in order

to provide a wide range of choice. The list of subjects to be taught in
both the types of High Schools is suggestive and it is not intended
that every pupil should be taught all the subjects.

Subjects common to both the types:

(1) The mother- tongue,

(2) English,

(3) Modern languages,

(4) History (Indian and World),

(5) Geography (Indian and World),

(6) Mathematics,

(7) Science,

(8) Economics,

(9) Agriculture,

(10) Art,

(11) Music,

(12) Physical Training.

In the Academic High School classical Languages and civics are

added to the common list. In the Technical High Schools the science
subjects are to be studied more intensively. Technological subjects
such as wood and metal work, and commercial subjects like book-
31

keeping, shorthand, typewriting and accountancy are also to be

added to the common list.