Sample and Sampling Techniques

 SAMPLE
a sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger whole. A larger whole could be of
anything out of which sample is taken .the whole could be a bucket o f water ,a
bag of sugar, a group of organizations, a group of entries sharing some common
set of characteristics is a population. In other words .the totality out of which
sample is drawn is referred to as population.

 Why Sample?

1. Saves cost, labor and time.

Research projects usually have budget and time constraints .Since sample can
save financial cost as well as time, therefore, to go for sample study is pragmatic.
Although sample study cuts cost, reduces labor requirement, and gathers vital
information quickly, yet there could be other reasons.

2. Quality Management / supervision.

Professional field workers are a scarce commodity .In a large study rather than
employing less qualified staff it may be advisable to do a sample study and
employ highly qualified professional fieldworkers. It can certainly affect the
quality of study. At the same time it may be easier to manage a small group and
produce quality information .Supervision, record keeping, training and so forth
would all be more difficult in a very large study.

3. Accurate and Reliable results

another reason for sampling is the samples, if properly selected, are sufficiently
accurate in most of the cases. If elements of a population are quite similar, only
small sample is necessary to accurately portray the characteristics of interest.
When the elements of population are highly homogenous, sample are highly
representative of population. Under these circumstances almost any sample is as
good as another. In a field survey a small well trained, closely supervised groups

1
may do more careful and accurate job of collecting information than a large group
of non-professional interviewers trying to contact everyone.

4. Sample may be the only way

many research projects, especially those in quality control testing, require the
destruction of the items being tested. If manufacturer of light bulbs were to burn
every bulb produced, there would be none to sell. This is called destructive
sampling. Destructive sampling is one of the sampling techniques which the
samples are destroyed so that the population is changed in the process of a
random sampling.

5. Determine the period of the study

interviewing every element of a large population without sampling requires lot of
time, may be a year or more. In such a long period of study, even the seasonal
variation may influence the response pattern of the respondent.for.eg if the study
was aimed at measuring the level of unemployment in a given large city, the
unemployment rate produced by the server data would not refer to the city as for
the beginning of interviewing or as of the end.
Researcher may be forced to attribute the unemployment to some hypothetical
date, representing to the midpoint of the study period. Hence it will be difficult to
determine the exact timing to which the data of the study pertains.

 SAMPLING TERMINOLOGY
there are a number of technical terms used in books on research which need
explanation. Some of the important terms are:

 ELEMENT
An element is that unit about which information is collected and which
provides that basis of analysis typically, in survey, research, elements are
people or certain types of people. It can be a person, group, families,
organization, corporation, communities and so forth.

 POPULATION
a population is theoretically specified aggregation of study elements. It is
2
translating the abstract concept into workable concept for e.g let us look at
a study of college students, “Theoretically who are the college students?”
They might include students registered in government colleges, and
private colleges. Students of intermediate classes and or graduate classes,
student do professional colleges, or non-professional colleges, and many
other variations. In this way the pool of all available elements is
population.

 TARGET PUPULATION
Out of the conceptual variations what exactly the researcher wants to
focus on. This may also be called a target population. Target population is
the complete group of the specific population element relevant to the
research project. Target population may also be called survey population.
i.e. that aggregation of elements from which sample is actually selected.
At the outset of the sampling process it is vitally important to carefully
define the target population so the proper source from which the data are
to be collected can be identified. In our example of “college students”
finally we may decide to study the college students from government
institutions located in Lahore, who are studying social science, who are
aged 19 years ,and hailing from rural areas.

 SAMPLING
the process of using small no of items or parts of a large population to
make conclusions about the whole population. It enables the researchers to
estimate unknown characteristics of a population.

 SAMPLING FRAME
A sapling frame is the list of elements from which the sample maybe
drawn. A simple example could be listing of all college students meeting
the criteria of target population and who are enrolled on the specified date.
A sampling frame is also called the working population because it
provides the list that can be worked with operationally.

3
 SAMPLING UNIT
a sampling unit is that element .or set of elements considered for selection
in some stage of sampling .sampling may be done in single stage or in
multiple stages in a simple, single-stage sample; the sampling units are the
same as the elements. In more complex samples, however, different levels
of sampling units maybe are employed. For example, a researcher may
select a sample of Mohallah in a city, and then select a sample of
households from the selected Mohallah, and finally may select a sample of
adults from the selected households. The sampling units of these three
stages of sampling are respectively Mohallah, household and adults, of
which the last of three are elements. More specifically the terms “primary
sampling units,” “secondary sampling units,” and “final sampling units”
would be used to designate the successive stages.

 OBSERVATION UNITS
an observation unit, or unit of data collection, is an element or aggregation
of elements from which the information is collected. Often the unit of
analysis and unit of observation are the same –the individual person-but
this need not be the case. Thus the researcher may interview heads of
household (the observation unit) to collect information about every
member of the household (the unit of analysis).

 PARAMETER
A parameter is a summary description of a given variable in a population.
The mean income of all families in a city and the age distribution of the
city’s population are parameters. An important part of survey research
involves the estimation of population parameters on basis of sample
observation.

4
  STATISTIC
A statistic is the summary description of a given variable in a survey
sample .thus the mean income computed from the survey sample and age
distribution of that sample are statistic. Sample statistics are used to make
estimates of the population parameters.

 SAMPLING ERROR
A sample being only a part of population cannot properly represent the
population, no matter how carefully the sample is taken. This results in a
difference between the value of sample statistic and the true value of the
corresponding population parameter.

 BASIC TERMS IN SAMPLING

N = The number on cases in the sampling frame
N = the number of cases in the sample
NCn = the number of combinations (subsets) of n from N.
F = n/N = the sample fraction

 SAMPLING WITH AND WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

 SAMPLE WITH REPLACEMENT

Sample is said to be with replacement when from finite or infinite
population a sampling unit is drawn, observed and then returned to the
population before another sample is drawn. The population in this case
remains the same and the sample can be drawn again more than once.

 SAMPLE WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

If a sampling unit is chosen and not returned to the population after it has
been observed, the sample is said to be without replacement .here the
sampling units cannot be drawn again for the sample as the units drawn
are not replaced.
5
 PROBABLITY AND NON-PROBABLITY SAMPLING
there are several alternative ways of taking a sample. Major alternate sampling
plans may be grouped into probability and non-probability sampling techniques.

 PROBABLITY SAMPLING
In this method every element in the population has a known non-zero
probability of selection. This method includes these types of sampling.

1. Simple random sampling

2. Stratified random sampling
3. Systematic random sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Double sampling

 NON PROBABLITY SAMPLING

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are
gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the
population equal chances of being selected. This method include these
types of sampling.

1. Convenience sampling
2. Purposive sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Snowball sampling
5. Sequential sampling
6. Theoretical sampling

6
 Probability sampling
a probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the population has a
chance of being selected in the sample.
A probability sampling method is any method of sampling that utilizes some form
of random selection. In order to have a random selection method, you must set up
some process or procedure that assures that the different units in your population
have equal probabilities of being chosen. Humans have long practiced various
forms of random selection, such as picking a name out of a hat, or choosing the
short straw.

 Types of Probability sampling

Probability sampling consists of following types

1. Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is the basic sampling technique where we
select a group of subjects (a sample) for study from a larger group
(a population). Each individual is chosen entirely by chance and
each member of the population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample. Every possible sample of a given size has
the same chance of selection.
Example of a simple random sample would be the names of 25
employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250
employees. In this case, the population is all 250 employees, and
the sample is random because each employee has an equal chance
of being chosen.

o Selection of simple random sample

1) Goldfish bowl procedure
In this method each member of the population is assigned a
number, after which numbers are selected at random. The
example in which the names of 25 employees out of 250 are
chosen out of a hat is an example of the lottery method at work.
Each of the 250 employees would be assigned a number
7
between 1 and 250, after which 25 of those numbers would be
chosen at random.

2) Random number table

A random number table is a list of numbers, composed of
the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Numbers in the list
are arranged so that each digit has no predictable
relationship to the digits that preceded it or to the digits that
followed it. In short, the digits are arranged randomly. The
numbers in a random number table are random numbers

3) Computer-generated process
selecting a random sample from a large population usually
requires a computer-generated process, by which the same
methodology as the lottery method is used, only the number
assignments and subsequent selections are performed by
computers, not humans.

o Different systems of drawing a random sample

There are two ways of selecting a random sample:

1) Sampling without replacement

In this system of selecting a random sample, each element
has an equal and independent chance of selection or when a
population element can be selected only one time

2) Sampling with replacement

In this system of selecting a sample, the selected element is
replaced in the same population and if it is selected again, it
is discarded and the next one is selected or when a
population element can be selected more than one time

o Advantages of simple random sampling

1) One of the great advantages of simple random

8
 sampling method is that it needs only a minimum
knowledge of the study group of population in advance.

2) It is free from errors in classification.

3) Simple random sampling is representative of the

population

4) It is totally free from bias and prejudice

5) The method is simple to use.

6) It is very easy to assess the sampling error in this

method.

o Disadvantages of Simple random sampling

1) This method carries larger errors from the same

sample size than that are found in stratified sampling.

2) In simple random sampling, the selection of sample

becomes impossible if the units or items are widely
dispersed.

3) It may be impossible to contact the cases which are

very widely dispersed.

o Uses when the population members are similar to one

another on important variables

2. Stratified random sampling

Stratified random sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division
of a population into smaller groups known as strata. In stratified random
sampling, the strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or
characteristics. An individual group is called a stratum. With stratified
sampling one should:

9
Partition the population into groups (strata). Obtain a simple random sample from
each group (stratum). Collect data on each sampling unit that was randomly
sampled from each group (stratum).

o Examples of Stratified Samples

Example 1 Example 2
Population All people in U.S. All elementary students in
the local school district

Groups (Strata) 4 Time Zones in the 11 different elementary

U.S. (Eastern, Central, schools in the local school
Mountain, Pacific) district

Obtain a Simple 500 people from each of 20 students from each of the
Random Sample the 4 time zones 11 elementary schools

Sample 4 × 500 = 2000 selected 11 20 = 220 selected

people students

o Allocation of sample size

By allocation of sample size we mean the total sample size is
distributed among the various strata into which population has
been divided. Four methods of allocating the samples are
available.

1) Equal allocation
the allocation is called equal when from each stratum
equal number of sampling units is selected. For
example if there are 100 frames and 5 processes given
each process 20 frames.

10
 2) Proportional allocation
the allocation is said to be proportional when the total
sample size is distributed among the different strata in
proportion to the size of strata.

3) Optimum allocation
The number of sampling units drawn from each stratum
is determined on the basis of both size and variation

o Advantages of stratified random sampling

1) Can acquire information about whole population

and individual strata.

2) Can apply different methods of data capture in

different strata.

3) Can provide greater precision than simple random

sampling

o Disadvantages of stratified random sampling

1) Time consuming.

2) Can be difficult to identify strata.

3) Required more administrative efforts than simple

random sampling

3. Systematic Random sampling

it is a probability sampling method. It has been stated that “with systematic
sampling, every Kth item is selected to produce a sample of size n from a
population size of N”
The systematic sampling technique is operationally more convenient than the
simple random sampling. It also ensures at the same time that each unit has
equal probability of inclusion in the sample. In this method of sampling, the
first unit is selected with the help of random numbers and the remaining units

11
 are selected automatically according to a predetermined pattern. This method
is known as systematic sampling.

Example Let N=50 and n=5. So k=10. Suppose first selected number between 1
and 10 is 3. Then systematic sample consists of units with following serial
number 3, 13, 23, 33, 43.

o Advantages of systematic random sampling:

1) Easy to implement.

2) Maximum dispersion of sample units throughout the

population.

3) Requires minimum knowledge of the population.

o Disadvantages of systematic random sampling:

1) Less protection from possible biases

2) Can be imprecise and inefficient relative to other

designs if the population being sampled is
heterogeneous

3) Systematic sampling can be applied only if the

complete list of population is available.

o How it is implemented:

1) Choose a starting point at random

2) Select samples at uniform intervals thereafter

3) When the population members are similar to one

another on important variables

4. Cluster sampling
a cluster sample is a probability sample in which each sampling unit is a
collection or a group of elements.

12
Example: In a survey of students from a city, we first select a sample of
schools, then we select a sample of classrooms within the selected schools,
and finally we select a sample of students within the selected classes.

o Simple one-stage cluster sample: it is a random sampling

of a big cluster

o Simple two-stage cluster sample: it is a random sampling

of small cluster within each selected big cluster

o Multi-stage sampling
sampling of an element within the sampled and within the
small cluster First one randomly samples the city blocks, then
household within the block, then individuals within the
households.

5. Double Sampling
this plan is adopted when further details is needed from the subset of the
group from which some information has already been collected for the same
study. A sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study to collect
some preliminary information of interest and later a sub-sample of this
primary sample is used to examine the matter in more detail, is called double
sampling.

o What is the appropriate sample design?

A researcher who must make a decision concerning the most
appropriate sample design for a specific project will identify a
number of sampling criteria and evaluate the relative importance of
each criterion before selecting a sample design. The most common
criteria.

1) Degree of Accuracy
selecting a representative sample is, of course important to
all researchers. However, the error may vary from project
13
to project, especially when cost saving or another benefit
maybe be a trade-off for reduction in accuracy.

2) Resources
the cost associated with the difference sampling techniques
vary tremendously. If the researcher’s financial and human
resources are restricted, this limitation of resources will
eliminate certain methods. For a graduate student working
on a master’s thesis, conducting a national survey is almost
always out of the question because of limited resources.
Managers usually weigh the cost of research versus the
value of information often will opt to save money by using
non-probability sampling design rather than make the
decision to conduct no research at all.

3) Advance Knowledge of The Population

advance knowledge of population characteristics, such as
the availability of lists of population members, is an
important criterion. A lack of adequate list may
automatically rule out any type of probability.

4) National versus Local Project

Geographic proximity of population elements will
influence sample design. When population elements are
unequally distributed geographically, a cluster sampling
may become more attractive.

5) Need for statistically analysis

the need for statistical projections based on the sample is
often a criterion. Non-probability sampling techniques do
not allow researcher to use statistical analysis to project the
data beyond the sample.

14
  Non Probability Sampling

Most researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these
limitations, it is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is
often necessary to employ another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling
technique. Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are
gathered in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal
chances of being selected. In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample
is not a product of a randomized selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample
are usually selected on the basis of their accessibility or by the purposive personal
judgment of the researcher.

 Types of non-Probability Sampling

Non probability sampling consist of following types

1. Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects
are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the
research. The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for
the study and the researcher did not consider selecting subjects that are
representative of the entire population.
In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in
most cases, the population is just too large that it is impossible to include
every individual. This is the reason why most researchers rely on sampling
techniques like convenience sampling, the most common of all sampling
techniques. Many researchers prefer this sampling technique because it is fast,
inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.
Example one of the most common examples of convenience sampling is
using student volunteers as subjects for the research. Another example is using
subjects that are selected from a clinic, a class or an institution that is easily
accessible to the researcher. A more concrete example is choosing five people
from a class or choosing the first five names from the list of patients. In
these examples, the researcher inadvertently excludes a great proportion of the
15
population. A convenience sample is either a collection of subjects that are
accessible or a self-selection of individuals willing to participate which is
exemplified by your volunteers.

o Uses
Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to
use, but because it also has other research advantages.
In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows
the researcher to obtain basic data and trends regarding his study
without the complications of using a randomized sample. This
sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular
quality of a substance or phenomenon occurs within a given sample.
Such studies are also very useful for detecting relationships among
different phenomena.

o Advantages of convenience sampling

1) Ease of Availability

2) Saves Time

3) Saves Money

o Disadvantages of convenience sampling

1) Possibility of Being Biased

2) High Possibility of a Sampling Error

3) Results Cannot be Generalized

2. Purposive sampling
Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling method and it occurs when
“elements selected for the sample are chosen by the judgment of the
researcher. A purposive sample is where a researcher selects a sample based
16
on their knowledge about the study and population. Participants are selected
according to the needs of the study; applicants who do not meet the profile are
rejected.
Example if the researchers are studying the effects of asthma medication, then
they are going to sample from only the population of people with asthma. This
ensures that the research returns relevant information and avoids wasting time
taking samples that have nothing to do with the research topic.

o Advantages of purposive sampling

1) Economical
It is less costly and less time consuming.

2) Proper representation
It ensures proper representation of the universe when the
investigation has full knowledge of the composition of the
universe and is free from bias

3) Avoid Irrelevant Items

It prevents unnecessary and irrelevant items entering into the
sample per chance

4) Intensive study
it ensures intensive study of the selected items.

5) Accurate Results:
It gives better results if the investigator is unbiased and has the
capacity of keen observation and sound judgment.

o Disadvantages of purposive sampling

1) Personal Bias
There is enough scope for bias or prejudices of the investigate
to play and influence the selection.

17
 2) No equal chance
There is no equal chance for all the items of the universe being
included in the sample.

3) No Degree of Accuracy
There is any possibility of having any idea about the degree of
accuracy achieved in the investigation conducted by this
method.

4) No Possibility of Sample Error

There is no possibility of calculating the sample error the idea
of which is based on the mathematical concepts which are no
applicable to non-random methods of sampling.

5) Unsuitable for Large Samples

this method is not suitable for the large samples where the size
of both the universe and the sample is considerably large.

3. Quota sampling
Quota sampling means to take a much tailored sample that’s in proportion to some
characteristic or trait of a population.
Example, you could divide a population by the state they live in, income or education
level, or sex. The population is divided into groups (also called strata) and samples are
taken from each group to meet a quota. Care is taken to maintain the correct proportions
representative of the population. For example, if your population consists of 45% female
and 55% males, your sample should reflect those percentages. Quota sampling is based
on the researcher’s judgment and is considered a non-probability sampling technique.

o Uses
Quota sampling is useful when time is limited, a sampling frame is not
available, the research budget is very tight or when detailed accuracy
is not important. Subsets are chosen and then either convenience or

18
 judgment sampling is used to choose people from each subset. The
researcher decides how many of each category is selected.

o Advantages of quota sampling

1) Easy to administer.

2) Fast to create and complete.

3) Inexpensive.

4) Takes into account population proportions, if desired.

5) Can be used if probability sampling techniques are not

possible.

o Disadvantages of quota sampling

1) Selection is not random.

2) Selection bias poses a problem. For example, you might

avoid choosing people who live farther away, or people in
rough neighborhoods. This may make the result
unrepresentative of the population.

4. Snowball Sampling:
Snowball sampling (or chain-referral, chain sampling, network, reputational sampling) is
a non-probability (non-random) sampling technique that is used by researchers to identify
potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate. It is based on an analogy to
a snowball, which begins small but becomes larger as it is rolled on wet snow and picks
up additional snow. It begins with one or a few people or cases and spreads out on the
basis of links to the initial cases. Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for
the study is very rare or is limited to a very small subgroup of the population. This type
of sampling technique works like chain referral. After observing the initial subject, the
researcher asks for assistance from the subject to help identify people with a similar trait
of interest. The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to

19
nominate another person with the same trait as your next subject. The researcher then
observes the nominated subjects and continues in the same way until the obtaining
sufficient number of subjects.
Example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It
is also possible that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being able to
observe one of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to more subjects for
the study.

o patterns of snowball sampling

There are following three patterns of snowball sampling:

1) Linear snowball sampling.

Formation of a sample group starts with only one subject and the subject
provides only one referral. The referral is recruited into the sample group
and he/she also provides only one new referral. This pattern is continued
until the sample group is fully formed.

2) Exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling

the first subject recruited to the sample group provides multiple referrals.
Each new referral is explored until primary data from sufficient number of
samples are collected.

3) Exponential discriminative snowball sampling.

Subjects give multiple referrals, however, only one new subject is
recruited among them. The choice of a new subject is guided by the aim
and objectives of the study.

5. Sequential Sampling
Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks
a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the
results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.It is similar to purposive
sampling with one difference. In purposive sampling, the researcher tries to find as many
relevant cases as possible, until time, financial resources, or his or her energy is
20
exhausted. The principle is to get every possible case. In sequential sampling, a
researcher continues to gather cases until the amount of new information or diversity is
filled. The principle is to gather cases until a saturation point is reached. This sampling
technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research methods and
gaining a vital insight into the study that he is currently pursuing. In sequential sampling
technique, the researcher can accept the null hypothesis, accept his alternative hypothesis,
or select another pool of subjects and conduct the experiment once again. This entails that
the researcher can obtain limitless number of subjects before finally making a decision
whether to accept his null or alternative hypothesis.
Example a researcher locates and plans in-depth interviews with 60 widows over 70
years old who have been living without a spouse for 10 or more years. Depending on the
researcher’s purposes, getting 20 widows whose life experiences, social background, and
worldview differ little from the first 60 may be unnecessary.

6. Theoretical Sampling
Theoretical sampling can be defined as the process of collecting, coding and analyzing
data in a simultaneous manner in order to generate a theory. This sampling method is
closely associated with grounded theory methodology. In theoretical sampling, what the
researcher is sampling (e.g. people, situation, events, time periods, etc.) is carefully
selected, as the researcher develops grounded theory. A growing theoretical interest
guides the selection of sample cases. The researcher selects cases based in new insights
they may provide.
Example, a field researcher may be observing a site and a group of people during week
days. Theoretically the researcher may question whether the people act the same at other
times or when other aspects of site changes. He or she could then sample other time
periods (e.g. nights and weekends) to get more full picture and learn whether important
conditions are the same.

21