SEMI-FINAL

TABLE OF CONTENTS: Page

Contraction Joint in Concrete – Their Location and Construction 2

Different Types of Soil Compaction Equipment’s -Types of Rollers 6

Types of Concrete Pavements -Their Construction Details and Applications 14
Types of Failures in Rigid Pavements and their Causes and Repair Techniques 24
Types of Joints in Concrete Construction 31
Different Types of Concrete Mixer or Concrete Mixing Machines 36
Expansion Joint in Concrete – Types and Characteristics 41
Types of Distresses in Concrete Pavements and their Causes 47
How to Prevent Cracks in Concrete? Causes & Repairs of Cracks in Concrete 52
Effects of Compaction on Soil Properties 60
Control Joint vs. Expansion Joint Difference 65
Contraction Joint in Concrete – Their
Location and Construction
Contraction joints in concrete are provided at regular interval to from a weak plane, so
that cracks are formed at the joints but not in undesired places. Contraction joints are
provided in concrete pavements, slabs, walls, floors, dams, canal linings, bridge, retaining
walls etc.

When concrete is placed, due to shrinkage, creep and thermal movement concrete tends
to reduce in size due to which small cracks are formed in the concrete at weak zone.

Fig 1: Cracks formed due to shrinkage of concrete.

In this article we discuss about the need of contraction joints, how to make a contraction
joint and locating a contraction joint.

Need of Contraction joint in Concrete

Concrete tends to shrink or reduce in size when it starts hardening. This shrinkage of
concrete creates tensile stresses in the concrete which develops the minute cracks at the
weak plane.

These cracks are restricted and prevent the formation of large cracks due to the presence
of reinforcement in the concrete. But if its unreinforced concrete, the small cracks tends
to develop into a large cracks at irregular interval

To prevent such cracks, contraction joints must be installed at appropriate intervals. It is

also recommended to install these joints in reinforced concrete too.
 Construction of Contraction Joint in
Concrete
The main aim of providing a weak joint is to create a weak plane in the concrete at
regular intervals where the possibility of cracking is more. These joints are placed to
produce panels that are as square as possible and never exceed a length to width ratio of 1
½ to 1. Joints are commonly spaced at distances equal to 24 to 30 times the slab
thickness. The contraction joint is known as control joint.

Fig 2 : Forming of vertical contraction joint.

The process of forming contraction joint can be done in any of 3 stages:

1. While placing concrete, a premoulded strip may be inserted into the concrete to create a plane of
weakness. Metal strips inserted into terrazzo or preformed plastic strips can be inserted into
concrete pavements to avoid cracks.

2. Saw cut joints or dry cut joints can be made after the placing of concrete. Saw-cut joints should
be done within 4 to 12 hours after the concrete has been finished. Dry-cut joints should be made
between 1 to 4 hours after completion of finishing. In this method, joints are made using hand
grover or concrete saw and the concrete is cut at regular intervals and a permeable material is
placed that bonds with concrete well.
3. Once the concrete has hardened sufficiently, a sawn joint may be formed. The joint should be
made as early as possible and prior to drying shrinkage starting to occur. Delay can result in
unplanned cracking of the pavement. The sawn joint is then filled with a joint sealant to prevent
dirt and other debris entering it, as unsealed joints tend to fill with dirt and become ineffective.

Fig 3: Sawed contraction joint.

Materials used on concrete joints must be flexible enough to absorb or deform as needed
and then being able to restore back to their original stat

Location of Contraction Joint

Generally these joints are pre-defined in the drawings given by designer or architect. If
not defined, they will be in a regular pattern or be an integral part of the architectural
features.

Contraction joints form a convenient point at which to stop concrete work at the end of
the day. Construction joints should never be formed in the middle of a bay.
 Fig 4: Finishing of contraction joint.

Contraction joint is placed at the location of highest concentration of tensile stresses

resulting from shrinkage are expected:

o At abrupt changes of cross-section; and

o In long walls, slabs.

 Different Types of Soil Compaction
Equipments -Types of Rollers
There are different types of rollers and other soil compaction equipments available. Use
of these compacting machines depends on soil types and moisture conditions.

Different Types of Soil Compaction

Equipments:
The soil compaction equipments can be divided into two groups:

1. Light soil compacting equipments

2. Heavy soil compacting equipments

1. Light Soil Compacting Equipments:

These equipments are used for soil compacting of small areas only and where the
compacting effort needed is less. Below are light equipments for soil compaction:

(i) Rammers:
Rammers are used for compacting small areas by providing impact load to the soil. This
equipment is light and can be hand or machine operated. The base size of rammers can be
15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more.
For machine operated rammers, the usual weight varies from 30kg to 10 tonnes (6 lbs to
22000 lbs). These hammers with 2- 3 tonnes (4400 to 6600 lbs)weights are allowed to
free fall from a height of 1m to 2m (3ft to 7ft) on the soil for the compaction of rock
fragments.

Rammers are suitable for compacting cohesive soils as well as other soils. This machine
in areas with difficulty in access.

(ii) Vibrating Plate Compactors:

Vibrating plate compactors are used for compaction of coarse soils with 4 to 8% fines.
These equipments are used for small areas. The usual weights of these machines vary
from 100 kg to 2 tonne with plate areas between 0.16 m2 and 1.6 m2.
(iii) Vibro Tampers:
Vibro tampers is used for compaction of small areas in confined space. This machine is
suitable for compaction of all types of soil by vibrations set up in a base plate through a
spring activated by an engine driven reciprocating mechanism. They are usually manually
guided and weigh between 50 and 100 kg (100 to 220 lbs).

2. Heavy Soil Compaction Equipments:

These compacting machines are used for large areas for use on different types of soils.
The heavy compaction equipments are selected based on moisture content of soil and
types of soil. Following are different types of these equipments:
 I) Smooth Wheeled Rollers:
Smooth wheeled rollers are of two types:

o Static smooth wheeled rollers

o Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers

The most suitable soils for these roller type are well graded sand, gravel, crushed rock,
asphalt etc. where crushing is required. These are used on soils which does not require
great pressure for compaction. These rollers are generally used for finishing the upper
surface of the soil. These roller are not used for compaction of uniform sands.

The performance of smooth wheeled rollers depend on load per cm width it transfers to
the soil and diameter of the drum. The load per cm width is derived from the gross weight
of the drum.

The smooth wheeled rollers consists of one large steel drum in front and two steel drums
on the rear. The gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonnes (18000 to
22000 lbs). The other type of smooth wheel roller is called Tandem Roller, which weighs
between 6-8 tonne (13000 to 18000 lbs).

The performance of these rollers can be increased by increasing the increasing the weight
of the drum by ballasting the inside of drums with wet sand or water. Steel sections can
also be used to increase the load of the drum by mounting on the steel frame attached
with axle.

The desirable speed and number of passes for appropriate compaction of soil depends on
the type of soil and varies from location to location. About 8 passes are adequate for
compacting 20 cm layer. A speed of 3-6 kmph is considered appropriate for smooth
wheel rollers.
Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers
In case of vibrating smooth wheeled rollers, the drums are made to vibrate by employing
rotating or reciprocating mass.

These rollers are helpful from several considerations like:-

(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work

(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths

(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers

Although these rollers are expensive but in the long term the cost becomes economical
due to their higher outputs and improved performance. The latest work specifications for
excavation recommends the use of vibratory rollers due to their advantage over static
smooth wheeled rollers.
(ii) Sheepsfoot roller Roller:
Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compacting fine grained soils such as heavy clays and
silty clays. Sheepsfoot rollers are used for compaction of soils in dams, embankments,
subgrade layers in pavements and rail road construction projects.

Sheepsfoot rollers are of static and vibratory types. Vibratory types rollers are used for
compaction of all fine grained soils and also soil with sand-gravel mixes. Generally this
roller is used for compaction of subgrade layers in road and rail projects.

As seen in picture above, sheepsfoot rollers consist of steel drums on which projecting
lugs are fixed and can apply a pressure upto 14kg/sq cm or more. Different types of lugs
are namely spindle shaped with widened base, prismatic and clubfoot type.

The weight of drums can be increased as in the case of smooth wheeled rollers by
ballasting with water, wet sand or by mounting steel sections.

The efficiency of sheepsfoot rollers compaction can be achieved when lugs are gradual
walkout of the roller lugs with successive coverage. The efficiency is affected by the
pressure on the foot and coverage of ground obtained per pass. For required pressure and
coverage of ground, the parameters such as gross weight of the roller, the area of each
foot, the number of lugs in contact with the ground at any time and total number of feet
per drum are considered.
The compaction of soil is mainly due to foots penetrating and exerting pressure on the
soil. The pressure is maximum when a foot is vertical.

(iii) Pneumatic Tyred Rollers:

Pneumatic tyred rollers are also called as rubber tyred rollers. These rollers are used for
compaction of coarse grained soils with some fines. These rollers are least suitable for
uniform coarse soils and rocks. Generally pneumatic tyred rollers are used in pavement
subgrade works both earthwork and bituminous works.

Pneumatic rollers have wheels on both axles. These wheels are staggered for compaction
of soil layers with uniform pressure throughout the width of the roller.

The factors which affects the degree of compaction are tyre inflation pressure and the
area of the contact. The latest rollers have an arrangement to inflate the tyre to the desired
pressure automatically. The total weight of the roller can be increased from 11.0 tonne to
25.0 tonne or more by ballasting with steel sections or other means.

(iv) Grid Rollers:

Grid rollers are used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded coarse soils. These
rollers are not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays and uniform soils. The main use of
these rollers are in subgrade and sub-base in road constructions.
As the name suggests, these rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting of a
network of steel bars forming a grid with squire holes. The weight of this roller can be
increased by ballasting with concrete blocks.

Typical weights vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes ballasted. Grid rollers provide
high contact pressure but little kneading action and are suitable for compacting most
coarse grained soils.

(v) Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers:

These rollers are similar to sheepsfoot rollers with lugs of larger area than sheepsfoot
rollers.

The static pad foot rollers also called tamping rollers have static weights in the range of
15 to 40 tonnes and their static linear drum loads are between 30 and 80 kg/cm. These
rollers are more preferable than sheepsfoot roller due to their high production capacity,
and they are replacing sheepsfoot rollers.

The degree of compaction achieved is more than sheepsfoot rollers. The density of soil
achieved after compaction with this roller is more uniform.

These rollers operate at high speeds, and are capable to breaking large lumps. These
rollers also consists of leveling blades to spread the material.

Pad foot or tamping rollers are best suitable for compacting cohesive soils.
Types of Concrete Pavements -Their
Construction Details and Applications
Concrete pavement which is occasionally called rigid pavement is a concrete layer that is
in contact with traffics directly and it is used for different purposes and applications.

The concrete used for pavements can be modified and changed in various ways as per the
requirement. Not only does the concrete pavement need to be strong and durable but also
it must be workable and cost effective because it is commonly prone to severe
environmental conditions.

Concrete pavements offer several advantages which is not possessed by bituminous

pavement designs, for example, it is considerably suitable for large points loads,
withstand diesel spillage and other aggressive materials, suitable for cases where sub-
grade strength is low, resist high temperature, and many more benefits.

There are different types of concrete pavement which are employed for various
applications and these will be discussed in the following sections.

Fig.1: Concrete Pavement Construction

 Types of Concrete Pavements -Construction
Details and Applications
Following are the different types of concrete pavements and their applications and
advantages:

o Jointed unreinforced concrete pavement

o Jointed reinforced concrete pavement

o Continuously reinforced concrete pavement

Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavement

As it can be observed from Figure-2, jointed unreinforced concrete pavement is
composed of batch work of concrete slab layers, which are small square units, connected
by employing tie bars and dowels or joints that is provided to prevent cracks.

So, the joint layout detailing of jointed unreinforced concrete pavement is important as it
affects the design, construction, and services of the concrete pavement.

Fig.2: Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavement

 Fig.3: Details of Joints in Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavement
The success of jointed unreinforced concrete pavements depends on the tensile strength
and flexural capacity of the concrete used which should withstand cracking and support
imposed loads.

The size of concrete pieces or panels is dependent on the concrete shrinkage strain
created due to concrete hardening. Shrinkage strain creates tensile force in concrete and
may cause cracks unless the tensile strength of concrete is greater than the tensile stresses
generated by shrinkage strains.

Designing, detailing and spacing of joints in the jointed unreinforced concrete pavements
are considerably significant and joints need to be organized in such a way that produces
square slab panels. This could be obtained when the 90 degree between longitudinal
joints and transverse joints are achieved as it can be seen in Figure-2.

Additionally, the joint intervals in the jointed unreinforced concrete pavement is dictated
by concrete slab thickness. The joint spacing increases as the thickness of the slab is
increased and vice-versa.

It is recommended to use steel dowels in the joints otherwise the ability of the joints to
contain movements will be declined and eventually the slab thickness need to be
increased.

Table-1, which is taken with slight changes from American Concrete Pavement
Association, provides guidance on determining spacing in concrete pavements.
Table-1: Joint Spacing for Concrete Pavement
Maximum recommended joint
Pavement Maximum recommended joint
spacing, Gravels and crushed stone
thickness, cm spacing, Limestone aggregate (m)
(m)

15 5.4 4.5

20 5.9 4.9

25 6.4 5.3

30 7.2 6
Applications of Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavements
Jointed unreinforced concrete slabs can be used in different applications which include
airfield taxiway as it can be seen in Figure-4, airfield aprons see Figure-5, and industrial
yard as shown in Figure-6.

Fig.4: Use of Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavement in Construction of Airfield

Taxiway
 Fig.5: Airfield Apron

Fig.6: Industrial Yard Constructed using Jointed Unreinforced Concrete Pavement

Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
The jointed reinforced concrete pavement is a modified or developed version of jointed
unreinforced concrete pavement. It is used instead of plain concrete pavement when there
is doubt regarding materials and workmanship and differential settlement are anticipated.

Not only does thickness of jointed reinforced concrete pavement is thinner but also its
joint spacing is greater compared to that of jointed plain concrete pavement.

Generally, reinforced concrete slab with length of 10m are used but there are cases in
which the slab length can reach up to 20m.

Jointed reinforced concrete pavement can be designed as crack free slabs or cracked
slabs. The embedded steel reinforcement controls cracking and improves concrete slab
stiffness. By and large, steel bars are installed in the middle of the slab but some
designers locate reinforcements at both slab faces.

The most outstanding benefit of steel bar installation in the middle of the jointed
reinforced concrete pavement is balancing positive and negative moments equally and as
a result the slab is permitted to flex prior to cracking.

Added to that, the application of doweled joints in the jointed reinforced concrete
pavement is a must because the spacing is large, which means the movement in the joint
cannot be controlled if dowel ties are not used.

Commonly, pavement slab thickness of 150mm is employed and it is influenced by

number of practical parameters such as required concrete cover.

Applications of Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement

The jointed reinforced concrete pavement is used in the case where huge concentrated
loads are expected and the designer has doubt about labor force who will build the
concrete pavement.
 Fig.7: Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
This type of concrete pavement is built like long slab and reinforcement bars are placed
at the middle of the slab. The longitudinal reinforcements, which are maintained at their
position by transvers reinforcement bars, are employed to limit shrinkage cracks.

Figure-8 shows embedded longitudinal reinforcements held by transverse reinforcements.

 Fig.8: Arrangement of Longitudinal and Transverse Reinforcement in Continuous
Reinforced Concrete Pavement
Cracks in continuous reinforced concrete pavement are initiated in arbitrary manner as
can be observed in Figure 9.

It is required to provide anchors at the end of the continuous reinforced concrete slabs
otherwise huge ripple or bump will be formed at the beginning of bituminous materials
due to movements which are generated by temperature fluctuations.

Fig.9: Cracking of Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Continuous reinforced concrete pavement operation is substantially influenced by cracks
spacing which is controlled by longitudinal reinforcement. Commonly, longitudinal
reinforcement ratio used in continuous reinforced concrete pavement is specified to be 6
percent of sectional area. If spacing between cracks are considerably small then it is
likely that concrete blocks fail in shear.

There are various types of finished that may be applied for instance whisper concrete and
thin bituminous wearing course on the surface finish of continuous reinforced concrete
pavement.

Fig.10: Continuous Reinforced Concrete Pavement with Successive Whisper

Concrete Resurfacing

Applications of Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement

Continuously reinforce concrete pavements may be employed for the construction of
airfield runways and highway projects and it is specifically cost effective when massive
quantity of aggregate is present at site.
Fig.11: Airfield Runway, Liverpool Airport, UK
 Types of Failures in Rigid Pavements
and their Causes and Repair
Techniques
Failures in rigid pavements are caused by distresses due to various causes. Repair
techniques these types of failures in rigid pavements are discussed.

Types of Failures in Rigid Pavements

The different types of distresses responsible for failures in rigid pavements are:

1. Joint Spalling

2. Faulting

3. Polished Aggregate

4. Shrinkage Cracking

5. Pumping

6. Punch out

7. Linear Cracking

8. Durability Cracking

9. Corner Break
 Joint Spalling in Rigid Pavements
Excessive compressive stress causes deterioration in the joints, called as the spalling.
This may be related to joint infiltration or the growth of pavement, that are caused by the
reactive aggregates.

Poor quality concrete or construction technique will also result in joint spalling. Small
edges to large spalls in the back of the slab and down to the joints can be observed.

Main causes of joint spalling in rigid pavements are:

o Joints subjected to excessive stress due to high traffic or by infiltration of any incompressible
materials

o The joint that are constructed with weak concrete

o Joint that is accumulated with water that results in rapid freezing and thawing
 Fig.1: Joint Spalling in Rigid Pavement Slabs
The joint spalls can be avoided by using good construction techniques, or by sealing the
joints.

Faulting in Rigid Pavements

The difference in elevation between the joints is called as faulting. The main causes of
failures in rigid pavements due to faulting are:

o Settlement of the pavement that is caused due to soft foundation

o The pumping or the erosion of material under the pavement, resulting in voids under the
pavement slab causing settlement

o The temperature changes and moisture changes that cause curling of the slab edges.

Fig.2: Faulting with difference in elevations found between the joints

Polished Aggregate in Rigid Pavements
The repeated traffic application leads to this distress. These are the failures in rigid
pavements caused when the aggregates above the cement paste in the case of PCC is very
small or the aggregates are not rough or when they are angular in shape, that it cannot
provide sufficient skid resistance for the vehicles.

The polishing degree should be specified before the construction is carried out. This
study is included in the condition survey, where it is mentioned as a defect.

Fig.3: Polished Aggregates

Shrinkage Cracking in Rigid Pavements
These are hairline cracks that are less than 2m in length. They do not cross the entire slab.
The setting and curing process of the concrete slab results in such cracks. These are
caused due to higher evaporation of water due to higher temperature cracks. Improper
curing can also create shrinkage cracks in rigid pavements.

Fig.4: Shrinkage Cracking in Pavements

Pumping Effects
The expulsion of water from the under a layer of the pavement is called as pumping. This
distress is caused due to the active vehicle loads coming over the pavement in a repetitive
manner. This will result in the fine materials present in the sub base to move along with
water and get expelled out with the water.
Larger voids are created under the pavement due to repeated expulsion. The stains on the
pavement or on the shoulder surface are the method through which this type of failure of
rigid pavement is evidenced.

Pumping can be avoided by prevention of water accumulation at the pavement sub-base

interface. This can be achieved by reducing the deflection to a minimum value and by the
provision of a strong well constructed sub-base.

The constructed sub-base must have sufficient drainage facility so that the subgrade
below is not saturated. Modern pavement construction makes use of underground
drainage system that is the best solution for pumping distress.

Fig.5: Pumping Effect

Corner Breaks in Rigid Pavements
These are the failures in rigid pavements that is caused due to pumping in excessive rate.
When the pumping completely remove the underlying support that no more support exists
below to taken the vehicle load, the corner cracks are created. The repair method is either
full slab replacement or the repair for the full depth must be carried out.

Fig.6: Corner Break Failures in Rigid Pavement

Punch-out in Rigid Pavements
A localized area of concrete slab that is broken into pieces will be named as punch out
distress. This distress can take any shape or form. These are mainly defined by joints and
cracks. The joints and cracks will mainly keep 1.5m width.

The main reason behind punch outs is heavy repeated loads, the slab thickness
inadequacy, the foundation support loss or the construction deficiency like
honeycombing.

Fig.7. Punch-out Failures in Rigid Pavements

Linear Cracking in Rigid Pavements
These types of failures in rigid pavements divides the slab into two or three pieces. The
reason behind such failures is traffic loads at repeated levels, the curling due to thermal
gradient and moisture loading repeatedly.

Fig.8: Linear Cracking

Durability Cracking in Rigid Pavements
The freezing and thawing action will create regular expansion and contraction which will
result in the gradual breakdown of the concrete. This type of distress is patterns of cracks
on the concrete surface as layers that are parallel and closer to the joints.

Joints and cracks are the areas where the concrete seem to be more saturated. Here a dark
deposit is found and called the ‗D‘ cracks. This failure of rigid pavement will finally
result in the complete disintegration of the whole slab.

Fig.9. Durability Cracking or „D‟ Cracks Failure in Rigid Pavements

 Types of Joints in Concrete
Construction
Joints in concrete construction are construction, expansion, contraction and isolation
joints. These joints are placed in concrete slabs and pavements at regular intervals to
prevent development of cracks in concrete.

Types of Joints in Concrete Constructions

Types of joints in concrete constructions are:
1. Construction Joints

2. Expansion Joints

3. Contraction Joints

4. Isolation Joints

1. Construction Joints
Construction joints are placed in a concrete slab to define the extent of the individual
placements, generally in conformity with a predetermined joint layout.

Construction joints must be designed in order to allow displacements between both sides
of the slab but, at the same time, they have to transfer flexural stresses produced in the
slab by external loads.

Construction joints must allow horizontal displacement right-angled to the joint surface
that is normally caused by thermal and shrinkage movement. At the same time they must
not allow vertical or rotational displacements. Fig.1 summarizes which displacement
must be allowed or not allowed by a construction joint.
Fig.2: Types of Construction Joints in Concrete Structures
2. Expansion joints
The concrete is subjected to volume change due to many reasons. So we have to cater for
this by way of joint to relieve the stress. Expansion is a function of length. The building
longer than 45m are generally provided with one or more expansion joint. In india
recommended c/c spacing is 30m. The joints are formed by providing a gap between the
building parts.

3. Contraction Joints
A contraction joint is a sawed, formed, or tooled groove in a concrete slab that creates a
weakened vertical plane. It regulates the location of the cracking caused by dimensional
changes in the slab.

Unregulated cracks can grow and result in an unacceptably rough surface as well as water
infiltration into the base, subbase and subgrade, which can enable other types of
pavement distress.

Contraction joints are the most common type of joint in concrete pavements, thus the
generic term ―joint‖ generally refers to a contraction joint. Contraction joints are chiefly
defined by their spacing and their method of load transfer. They are generally between
1/4 – 1/3 the depth of the slab and typically spaced every 3.1 – 15 m

4. Isolation Joints
Joints that isolate the slab from a wall, column or drainpipe

Isolation joints have one very simple purpose—they completely isolate the slab from
something else. That something else can be a wall or a column or a drain pipe. Here are a
few things to consider with isolation joints:
Walls and columns, which are on their own footings that are deeper than the slab
subgrade, are not going to move the same way a slab does as it shrinks or expands from
drying or temperature changes or as the subgrade compresses a little.

Even wooden columns should be isolated from the slab.

If slabs are connected to walls or columns or pipes, as they contract or settle there will be
restraint, which usually cracks the slab—although it could also damage pipes (standpipes
or floor drains).

Expansion joints are virtually never needed with interior slabs, because the concrete
doesn‘t expand that much—it never gets that hot.

Expansion joints in concrete pavement are also seldom needed, since the contraction
joints open enough (from drying shrinkage) to account for temperature expansion. The
exception might be where a pavement or parking lot are next to a bridge or building—
then we simply use a slightly wider isolation joint (maybe ¾ inch instead of ½ inch).

Blowups, from expansion of concrete due to hot weather and sun, are more commonly
caused by contraction joints that are not sealed and that then fill up with non-
compressible materials (rocks, dirt). They can also be due to very long unjointed sections.
Very long unjointed sections can expand enough from the hot sun to cause blow ups,
but this is rare.
Isolation joints are formed by placing preformed joint material next to the column or wall
or standpipe prior to pouring the slab. Isolation joint material is typically asphalt-
impregnated fiberboard, although plastic, cork, rubber, and neoprene are also available.

Isolation joint material should go all the way through the slab, starting at the subbase, but
should not extend above the top.

For a cleaner looking isolation joint, the top part of the preformed filler can be cut off and
the space filled with elastomeric sealant. Some proprietary joints come with removable
caps to form this sealant reservoir.

Joint materials range from inexpensive asphalt-impregnated fiberboard to cork to closed

cell neoprene. Cork can expand and contract with the joint, does not extrude, and seals
out water.

Scott Whitelam with APS Cork says that the required performance is what determines the
choice of joint materials. How much motion is expect, exposure to salts or chemicals, and
the value of the structure would all come into play—and of course the cost.

Polyethylene foam isolation joint material comes in various colors. C2 Products

At columns, contraction joints should approach from all four directions ending at the
isolation joint, which should have a circular or a diamond shaped configuration around
the column. For an I-beam type steel column, a pinwheel configuration can work.

Always place the slab concrete first and do not install the isolation joint material and fill
around the column until the column is carrying its full dead load.
 Different Types of Concrete Mixer or
Concrete Mixing Machines
What is a Concrete Mixer?
A concrete mixer mixes cement, aggregates and water and produce concrete
mechanically. There are various types of concrete mixers available which makes concrete
production quick and economical.

Types of Concrete Mixers

There are two broad types of concrete mixers:

1. Batch mixers

1. Drum Types Mixer

 Tilting drum mixers

 Non-tilting drum mixer

 Reversing drum mixer

2. Pan Type Mixer

Continuous mixers
 Batch Concrete Mixers
Batch mixers are widely used machines for concrete mixing. Concrete mix obtained by
this mixer is collected batch by batch and time by time. So, it is called as batch mixer.

After pouring all the materials into pan or drum, it mixes all of those for some time and
finally discharges. This process is repeated until required amount of concrete mix is
obtained.

In general Batch mixers are two types.

o Drum type mixers

o Pan type mixers

Drum Type Mixers
In case Drum type mixers concrete ingredients are mixed in a drum which is actually in
double conical frustum shape.

Drum types mixers are classified into three types:

o Tilting drum mixers

o Non-tilting drum mixers

o Reversing drum mixers
Tilting Drum Mixers
Tilting drum mixer means the drum will discharge concrete by tilting downwards. It is
rapid discharge process and used for larger projects. Rapid means it delivers concrete by
gravity that is tilting the drum downwards because of this the concrete mix obtained will
be not subjected to segregation.

Low workable concretes which contains large sized aggregates of size greater than 7.5cm
are also mixed efficiently with this tilting type mixers.

But the mixing efficiency depends on some of the factors as follows:

o Shape of the drum

o Angle of the drum

o Size of blades

o Angle of blades
The only disadvantage of this mixer is sticking of concrete to bottom of drum. To
overcome this a method called buttering of mixer is applied in which some amount of
cement mortar is mixed in the mixer before mixing first batch of concrete.
Non-Tilting Drum Mixers
Non- tilting drum mixers are not allowed to tilt and the drum rotates about its horizontal
axis. For the discharge of concrete a chute is arranged in inclined position which will
receives the concrete mix from drum and discharges out.

In this case, the drum is opened at two ends and consists blades insides when materials
are poured through one end and mix is collected through another end.

Rapid discharge of concrete is not possible in this case. Due to this delay, the concrete
may be vulnerable to segregation.

The larger size aggregate is not discharged easily with the mix. So, size of aggregate mot
more than 7.5cm is preferable for this type of mixers. So, this type of mixers are
generally used for small projects.

Reversing Drum Mixers

Reversing drum mixers are similar to non-tilting type mixers but in this case reversal of
rotation takes place for different action.

The drum has two openings, one end is for pouring materials and other end is for
discharge of mix. The drum rotates about its horizontal axis. The rotation of drum takes
place in one direction for mixing and in opposite direction for discharging.
Two different set of blades are arranged for mixing and discharging. They are suitable for
dry concrete mixes.

Pan Type Concrete Mixers

Pan type mixers consists a circular pan in which concrete is mixed. The mixing is done
by blades which are arranged in star shape inside the pan.

There are two types of pan mixers are available. In one case, the circular pan is constant
and only star blades rotate about vertical axis of pan. In the other case, circular pan
rotates while the blades are at static position.

But in both cases, the mixing is efficient and concrete mixture is collected through central
hole provided in the pan. The rotating star blades contains special blades called scrapper
blades which will make concrete not to stick to the pan.

The blades can also be adjusted in height so, there is no room for concrete to store in the
pan. We can say among the all types of batch mixers pan type mixer are more efficient.
Continuous Concrete Mixers
Continuous mixer, the name itself telling its duty that the loading, mixing and
discharging of mix is continuously done until the work is complete or work break occurs.
The loading of materials is done continuously by screw feeders.

Continuous mixtures are used for very large projects such as dams, bridges, construction
of high rise buildings, etc.
Expansion Joint in Concrete – Types
and Characteristics
Expansion joints are placed in concrete to prevent expansive cracks formed due to
temperature change. Concrete undergoes expansion due to high temperature when in a
confined boundary which leads to cracks.

Expansion joints are provided in slabs, pavements, buildings, bridges, sidewalks, railway
tracks, piping systems, ships, and other structures.

This article emphases on need of expansion joint in concrete, characteristics of expansion

joints, types of expansion joint and installation of expansion joints.

Fig 1: Cracks developed due to expansion of concrete.

 Need of Expansion Joint in Concrete
Concrete is not an elastic substance, and therefore it does not bend or stretch without
failure. However, concrete moves during expansion and shrinkage, due to which the
structural elements shift slightly.

To prevent harmful effects due to concrete movement, several expansion joints are
incorporated in concrete construction, including foundations, walls, roof expansion joints,
and paving slabs.

These joints need to be carefully designed, located, and installed. If a slab is positioned
continuously on surfaces exceeding one face, an expansion joint will be necessary to
reduce stresses. Concrete sealer may be used for the filling of gaps produced by cracks.

Characteristics of Expansion Joints

1. Expansion joints permits thermal contraction and expansion without inducing stresses into the
elements.
2. An expansion joint is designed to absorb safely the expansion and contraction of several
construction materials, absorb vibrations, and permit soil movements due to earthquakes or
ground settlement.
3. The expansion joints are normally located between sections of bridges, paving slabs, railway
tracks, and piping systems.
4. The expansion joints are incorporated to endure the stresses.
5. An expansion joint is simply a disconnection between segments of the same materials.
6. In the concrete block construction, the expansion joints are expressed as control joints.
Types of Expansion Joint
Based on the location of joint, expansion joints are divided into following types,

1. Bridge Expansion Joint

Bridge expansion joints are designed to allow for continuous traffic between structures
while accommodating movement, shrinkage, and temperature variations on reinforced
and prestressed concrete, composite, and steel structures.
 Fig 2: Expansion joint in bridges.

2. Masonry Expansion Joint

Clay bricks expand as they absorb heat and moisture. This places compression stress on
the bricks and mortar, encouraging bulging or flaking. A joint replacing mortar with
elastomeric sealant will absorb the compressive forces without damage.
 3. Railway Expansion Joints
Usually, expansion joints are not provided in the railways tracks, but if the track is laid on
a bridge having expansion joint, providing a expansion joint in the track becomes
mandatory to mitigate the expansion in base concrete structure.

Fig 3: Expansion joint in railway tracks.

4. Pipe Expansion Joints

Pipe expansion joints are necessary in systems that convey high temperature substances
such as steam or exhaust gases, or to absorb movement and vibration.

Based on the type of material used in making of joint, expansion joints are further
classified into following types,

1. Rubber expansion joint

2. Fabric expansion joint
3. Metal expansion joint
4. Toroidal expansion joint
5. Gimbal expansion joint
6. Universal expansion joint
7. In-line expansion joint
8. Refractory lined expansion joint
 Fig 4: Use of filler material in expansion joint.

Installation of Expansion Joints

The depth of an expansion joint is usually one fourth of the slab thickness, or more if
necessary. The expansion joint gap depends on the type of slab, like floating slab floor,
vehicle pavement, sidewalk, or monolithic slab foundation. It is also influenced by the
slab dimensions, type of concrete, and the reinforcing materials being used.

Cracks in concrete may occur at the expansion joints due to improper concrete mix or
curing. These conditions cause shrinkage between the expansion joints and cracks can be
formed.

1. Pre-Concrete Installation
When the site is prepared for the concrete pouring and the provisioning of the expansion
joints in slabs are made prior to the placing of concrete. An individual expansion joint is
created by the insertion of a flexible material that runs along the joint length.

2. After Concrete Installation

Once the concrete is set, suitable tools are used for making grooves in the poured
concrete for placing of the joint materials.
Types of Distresses in Concrete
Pavements and their Causes
There are various types of distresses in concrete pavements which may cause its failure.
These distress in pavements and their details are discussed.

Types of Distresses in Concrete Pavements

and their Causes
Following are the different types of distresses in concrete pavements and their causes:

a) Cracking of Concrete Pavements

Cracks in concrete pavements often result from stresses caused by expansion and
contraction or warping of the pavement. Overloading, loss of subgrade support, and
insufficient and/or improperly cut joints acting singly or in combination are also possible
causes. Several different types of cracking can occur:

(i) Longitudinal, Transverse, and Diagonal Cracks

A combination of repeated loads and shrinkage stresses usually causes this type of
distress. It is characterized by cracks that divide the slab into two or three pieces. These
types of cracks can indicate poor construction techniques or weak underlying pavement
layers.

(ii) Corner Breaks

Load repetition, combined with loss of support and curling stresses, usually causes cracks
at the slab corner. The lack of support may be caused by pumping or loss of load transfer
at the joint. This type of break is characterized by a crack that intersects the joints at a
distance less than or equal to one-half of the slab length on both sides, measured from the
corner of the slab.

A corner crack differs from a corner spall in that the crack extends vertically through the
entire slab thickness; a corner spall intersects the joint at an angle.

(iii) Durability “D” Cracking

―D‖ cracking usually appears as a pattern of cracks running in the vicinity of and parallel
to a joint or linear crack. It is caused by the concrete‘s inability to withstand
environmental factors such as freeze-thaw cycles because of variable expansive
aggregates.
This type of cracking may eventually lead to disintegration of the concrete within 1 to 2
feet (30 to 60 cm) of the joint or crack.

(iv) Joint Seal Damage

Joint seal damage is any condition that enables soil or rocks to accumulate in the joints or
that allows infiltration of water. Accumulation of materials prevents the slabs from
expanding and may result in buckling, shattering, or spalling. Water infiltration through
joint seal damage can cause pumping or deterioration of the subbase.

Typical types of joint seal damage include stripping of joint sealant, extrusion of joint
sealant, hardening of the filler (oxidation), loss of bond to the slab edges, and absence of
sealant in the joint. Joint seal damage is caused by improper joint width, use of the wrong
type of sealant, incorrect application, and/or not properly cleaning the joint before
sealing.

(v) Shattered Slab

A shattered slab is defined as a slab where intersecting cracks break up the slab into four
or more pieces. This is caused by overloading and/or inadequate foundation support.

b) Disintegration of Concrete Pavements

Disintegration is the breaking up of a pavement into small, loose particles and includes
the dislodging of aggregate particles. Improper curing and finishing of the concrete,
unsuitable aggregates, and improper mixing of the concrete can cause this distress.
Disintegration falls into four categories:

(i) Scaling, Map Cracking, and Crazing

Scaling is the disintegration and loss of the wearing surface. A surface weakened by
improper curing or finishing and freeze-thaw cycles can lead to scaling. Map cracking or
crazing refers to a network of shallow hairline cracks that extend only through the upper
surface of the concrete.

Crazing usually results from improper curing and/or finishing of the concrete and may
lead to scaling of the surface. Alkali-Silica Reactivity (ASR) is another source of distress
associated with map cracking. ASR is caused by an expansive reaction between
aggregates containing silica and alkaline pore solutions of the cement paste.

(ii) Joint Spalling

Joint spalling is the breakdown of the slab edges within 2 feet (60 cm) of the side of the
joint. A joint spall usually does not extend vertically through the slab but intersects the
joint at an angle. Joint spalling often results from excessive stresses at the joint or crack
caused by infiltration of incompressible materials or weak concrete at the joint (caused by
overworking) combined with traffic loads.

Joint spalling also results when dowels, which can prevent slab movement, become
misaligned either through improper placement or improper slippage preparation.

(iii) Corner Spalling

Corner spalling is the raveling or breakdown of the slab within approximately 2 feet (60
cm) of the corner. It differs from a corner break in that the spall usually angles downward
to intersect the joint, while a break extends vertically through the slab. The same
mechanisms that causes joint spalling often causes corner spalling, but this type of
distress may appear sooner because of increased exposure.

(iv) Blowups
Blowups usually occur at a transverse crack or joint that is not wide enough to permit
expansion of the concrete slabs. . Insufficient width may result from infiltration of
incompressible materials into the joint space or by gradual closure of the joint caused by
expansion of the concrete due to ASR.

When expansive pressure cannot be relieved, a localized upward movement of the slab
edges (buckling) or shattering will occur in the vicinity of the joint. Blowups normally
occur only in thin pavement sections, although blowups can also appear at drainage
structures (manholes, inlets, etc.).

The frequency and severity of blowups may increase with an asphalt overlay due to the
additional heat absorbed by the dark asphalt surface. They generally occur during hot
weather because of the additional thermal expansion of the concrete.

c) Distortion in Concrete Pavements

Distortion refers to a change in the pavement surface‘s original position, and it results
from foundation settlement, expansive soils, frost-susceptible soils, or loss of fines
through improperly designed subdrains or drainage systems. Two types of distortion
generally occur:
(i) Pumping
The deflection of the slab when loaded may cause pumping, which is characterized by the
ejection of water and subgrade (or subbase) material through the joints or cracks in a
pavement. As the water is ejected, it carries particles of gravel, sand, clay, or silt with it,
resulting in a progressive loss of pavement support that can lead to cracking.

Evidence of pumping includes surface staining and base or subgrade material on the
pavement close to joints or cracks. Pumping near joints indicates poor joint-load transfer,
a poor joint seal, and/or the presence of ground water.

(ii) Settlement or Faulting

Settlement or faulting is a difference in elevation at a joint or crack caused by upheaval or
non-uniform consolidation of the subgrade or subbase material. This condition may result
from loss of fines, frost heave, loss of load transfer device (key, dowel, etc.), or swelling
soils.

d. Skid Resistance of Concrete Pavements

Skid resistance refers to the ability of a pavement to provide a surface with the desired
friction characteristics under all weather conditions. It is a function of the surface texture
or the buildup of contaminants.

(i) Polished Aggregates

Some aggregates become polished quickly under traffic. Naturally polished aggregates
create skid hazards if used in the pavement without crushing. Crushing the naturally
polished aggregates creates rough angular faces which provide good skid resistance.

(ii) Contaminants
Rubber deposits building up over a period of time will reduce the surface friction
characteristics of a pavement. Oil spills and other contaminants will also reduce the
surface friction characteristics.
How to Prevent Cracks in Concrete?
Causes & Repairs of Cracks in
Concrete
Why Concrete Cracks?
Generally, it is assumed that cracks are due to some problems in the foundation, whereas
it is not always correct and should not be considered failure of structure or improper
design or bad quality work. Generally, 1/16 to 1/4-inch-wide cracks is acceptable limits.

The American Concrete Institute as per ACI 302.1-04 addresses this issue, even the best
construction & concreting cannot prevent cracking in concrete, and 0% cracks is an
unrealistic thing.

Causes of Cracks in Concrete

Causes of cracks in concrete can be many summarized as:

o Concrete expands and shrinks due to temperature differences

o Settlement of structure

o Due to heavy load applied or

o Due to loss of water from concrete surface shrinkage occurs

o Insufficient vibration at the time of laying the concrete

o Improper cover provided during concreting

o High water cement ratio to make the concrete workable

o Due to corrosion of reinforcement steel

o Many mixtures with rapid setting and strength gain performance have an increased
shrinkage potential.
Types of Cracks in Concrete
The following figure shows types of cracks in concrete:
How to Prevent Cracks in Concrete
Structures?

Preventive measures to avoid creation of cracks:

Preventive measures must be taken at the time of concreting and later to reduce cracks
after concrete formation. Main factors are:

Reduce Water Content in Concrete:

A low water cement ratio will affect the quality of concrete. W/C ratio is weight of water
to the weight of cement used. A lower w/c ratio leads to high strength in concrete and
lesser cracks.

W/C ratio shall not exceed 0.5 in concreting, which reduces the workability of concrete
which can be covered by use of plasticizer or superplasticizer. Less water content
increases the durability of concrete

Concrete expands and shrinks with changes in moisture and temperature. The overall
tendency is to shrink. Shrinkage is the main cause of cracks, when concrete hardens it
evaporates the excess water and thus shrinks, so lesser the water content, lesser is the
shrinkage.

Cracking shrinkage in slabs is ½ inch per 100 ft. The shrinkage of concrete pulls the slab
apart showing it as cracks on surface.

Proper Concrete Mix Design and use of Quality

Materials
The concrete itself must be properly proportioned, and properly mixed. If you use too
little cement, you can almost guarantee cracks. Using too much water will make the
concrete weak, leading to cracking.

Use good quality aggregates so will produce lower shrinkage concrete. Hard, dense
aggregate, using a large top size aggregate and optimizing the gradation of the aggregate
is able to reduce the shrinkage of the concrete.

If the aggregate is of poor quality, maximizing the size, gradation, and content may have
little effect on the concrete shrinkage. Mixing large aggregate with poor qualities to a
mid-size aggregate with good properties may increase the shrinkage of the concrete.
Avoid the use of shrinkage-promoting admixtures (such as accelerators, dirty aggregate
which increases water demand and using a cement with high shrinkage characteristics.

Finishing of Concrete Surface

Use proper finishing techniques and proper timing during and between finishing
operations. Flat floating and flat troweling are often recommended.

Avoid overworking the concrete, especially with vibrating screeds. Overworking causes
aggregate to settle and bleed water and excess fines to rise.

Don‘t finish the concrete when there is bleed water on the surface, finishing leads the
water back to concrete instead of evaporating thus leading to cracks.

Proper Curing of Concrete

Stop rapid loss of water from surface or drying of concrete due to hydration (liquid
concrete converts to plastic and then to solid state) causes drying of the slab, so it‘s
recommended to cure the slab for several days.

As soon as the concrete on slab sets its general practice to make boundary with mortar on
the slab and keep it filled with water. Cover slab with cotton mats soaked with water or
spray on a curing compound also prevents loss of water.
The concrete should not be subjected to load during the curing period, which can last up
to one month.

Proper Placement and Vibration of Concrete

Properly placed, vibrated, finished concrete reduces the chances of producing cracks.
Properly vibrate to release entrapped air which later leads to cracks.
Proper Compaction of Soil to Prevent Settlement
Cracks in Concrete
The area below the concrete slab has to be compacted properly and in layers so as to
ensure against settlement of soil later. If the soil is left loose it will settle over time and
create cracks on surface. This applies in the home as well as constructions on highways.

Providing Control Joints in Concrete

Control joints should be located at regular intervals so as to adjust the shrinkage of
concrete. Generally, for 4-inch depth of slab joints are provided 8 to 12 ft. apart. Control
joints are pre-planted cracks. An engineer should have an idea that concrete will crack at
control joints instead of cracking any other location.
Some Other Preventive Control Measures for Cracks
in Concrete:
o Applying good acrylic silicone sealer yearly to concrete works

o Avoid calcium chloride admixtures

o Prevent extreme changes in temperature.

o Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture

o Warm the subgrade before placing concrete on it during cold weather

o Consider using synthetic fibers to help control plastic shrinkage cracks.

Repairing Methods of Cracks in Concrete

Various types of Concrete Crack Repair Methodologies:
o Stitching

o Muting and sealing

o Resin injection

o Dry packing

o Polymer impregnation

o Vacuum impregnation
 o Autogenously healing

o Flexible sealing

o Drilling and plugging

o Bandaging

To summarize, always prevention is better than cure. Prevention of concrete cracks give
good quality, saves time, money and peace of mind to the owner.
 Effects of Compaction on Soil
Properties
Compaction is the process of expulsion of air from the voids present in the soil. In the
construction field, it is an important process as it improves the engineering properties of
soil to a great magnitude. Effects of compaction on different properties of the soil are
explained in this article.

It is known that the soil becomes dense when it undergoes compaction. To facilitate easy
compaction, some amount of water is added to the soil and the water content at which the
maximum dry density of soil can be obtained is known as optimum moisture content. It
can be seen in the compaction curve(fig-1).
So, if the amount of water added is less than the optimum moisture content then it is
called as dry of optimum compaction. If the amount of water added is more than the
optimum moisture content then it is called as wet of optimum compaction. Effects of
compaction on engineering properties of the soil are briefly discussed below.

Fig 1: Compaction Curve

Effects of Compaction on Soil Properties

Following are the properties of soil which get affected by compaction:

1. Permeability

2. Compressibility

3. Shear strength
4. Soil structure

5. Swelling of soil

6. Shrinkage of soil

7. Pore water pressure

8. Stress-strain behavior of soil

1. Permeability
o Compaction reduces the voids present in the soil hence permeability also reduces.

o At a particular density, for the same soil sample, permeability is more for soils which are
compacted to dry of optimum than those compacted to wet of optimum.

2. Compressibility
o The Compressibility of compacted soil varies according to the amount of pressure applied.

o For low-pressure range, compressibility is more for soils which are compacted to wet of
optimum than soil compacted to dry of optimum.

o Similarly, for high-pressure ranges, compressibility is more for soils which are compacted to dry
of optimum than soil compacted to wet of optimum.

3. Shear Strength
o Shear strength of soil compacted to dry of optimum is more than those compacted to wet of
optimum at lower strains.

o At higher strain, soil compacted to wet of optimum will have more shear strength.

o Type of compaction, drainage conditions and type of soil also influence the shear strength of
compacted soil.
 Fig 2: Compaction of Soil using
Sheep-foot Roller

4. Soil Structure
o Soils compacted to dry of optimum have flocculated structure due to the attraction between soil
particles because of low water content.

o Soils compacted to wet of optimum have dispersed structure due to repulsive force between soil
particles because of high water content.

Fig 3: Effect of Compaction

on Soil Structure

5. Swelling of Soil
o When the soil is compacted to dry of optimum, the soil is in need of water and it swells easily
when contacted with water.

o When water is compacted to wet of optimum, the soil particles are oriented in
a dispersed manner and swelling does not occur.
o So, to avoid swelling, soils should be compacted to wet of optimum.

6. Shrinkage of Soil
o Shrinkage is more for the soil compacted to wet of optimum than dry of optimum.

o In case of dry of optimum compaction, soil particles are in random orientation and they are in
stable condition.

o But in case of wet of optimum, soil particles are in parallel orientation and they are unstable
which makes it easy for packing of particles causing shrinkage.

Fig 4: Shrinkage Cracks in

Wet Compacted Soil

7. Pore Water Pressure

o Pore water pressure is high for those soil whose water content is high. Hence, soils compacted to
wet of optimum compaction will exhibit more pore water pressure than soil compacted dry of
optimum.

8. Stress-strain Behavior of Soil

o Soils compacted to dry side of optimum will take more stress for little strain hence, stress-strain
curve of this type of soil is much steeper and elastic modulus is more. Brittle failure occurs in
this case.
o Similarly, soils compacted to wet of optimum will produce more stress even for smaller stress.
Hence, Stress-Strain curve, in this case, is much flatter and plastic-type failure occurs at a larger
strain. These type of soils have low elastic modulus.

Fig 5: Stress – Strain Behavior of Compacted Soil

Control Joint vs. Expansion Joint
Difference
Control Joint in Concrete
Control joints in concrete are provided at regular interval to from a weak plane, so that
cracks are formed at the joints but not in undesired places. Control joints are provided in
concrete pavements, slabs, walls, floors, dams, canal linings, bridge, retaining walls etc.

When concrete is placed, due to shrinkage, creep and thermal movement concrete tends
to reduce in size due to which small cracks are formed in the concrete at weak zone.

Fig 1: Cracks formed due to

shrinkage of concrete.

Need of Control joint in Concrete

Concrete tends to shrink or reduce in size when it starts hardening. This shrinkage of
concrete creates tensile stresses in the concrete which develops the minute cracks at the
weak plane.
 Fig 2: Forming of vertical contraction joint.

These cracks are restricted and prevent the formation of large cracks due to the presence
of reinforcement in the concrete. But if its unreinforced concrete, the small cracks tends
to develop into a large cracks at irregular interval. To prevent such cracks, control joints
must be installed at appropriate intervals. It is also recommended to install these joints in
reinforced concrete too.

Location of Contraction Joint

Generally these joints are pre-defined in the drawings given by designer or architect. If
not defined, they will be in a regular pattern or be an integral part of the architectural
features. Control joints form a convenient point at which to stop concrete work at the end
of the day. Control joints should never be formed in the middle of a bay.

Control joint is placed at the location of highest concentration of tensile stresses resulting
from shrinkage are expected:

o At abrupt changes of cross-section; and

o In long walls, slabs.

Expansion Joint in Concrete

Expansion joints are placed in concrete to prevent expansive cracks formed due to
temperature change. Concrete undergoes expansion due to high temperature when in a
confined boundary which leads to cracks. Expansion joints are provided in slabs,
pavements, buildings, bridges, sidewalks, railway tracks, piping systems, ships, and other
structures.
 Fig 3: Cross section of expansion joint

Need of Expansion Joint in Concrete

Concrete is not an elastic substance, and therefore it does not bend or stretch without
failure. However, concrete moves during expansion and shrinkage, due to which the
structural elements shift slightly.

To prevent harmful effects due to concrete movement, several expansion joints are
incorporated in concrete construction, including foundations, walls, roof expansion joints,
and paving slabs.

These joints need to be carefully designed, located, and installed. If a slab is positioned
continuously on surfaces exceeding one face, an expansion joint will be necessary to
reduce stresses. Concrete sealer may be used for the filling of gaps produced by cracks.

Characteristics of Expansion Joints

1. Expansion joints permits thermal contraction and expansion without inducing stresses into the
elements.

2. An expansion joint is designed to absorb safely the expansion and contraction of several
construction materials, absorb vibrations, and permit soil movements due to earthquakes or
ground settlement.

3. The expansion joints are normally located between sections of bridges, paving slabs, railway
tracks, and piping systems.

4. The expansion joints are incorporated to endure the stresses.

5. An expansion joint is simply a disconnection between segments of the same materials.

6. In the concrete block construction, the expansion joints are expressed as control joints.
 Fig 4: Expansion Joint in pavement

Types of Expansion Joint

Based on the location of joint, expansion joints are divided into following types,

1. Bridge expansion joints

2. Masonry Expansion Joint

3. Railway Expansion Joints
4. Pipe Expansion Joints
Based on the type of material used in making of joint, expansion joints are further
classified into following types,

1. Rubber expansion joint

2. Fabric expansion joint
3. Metal expansion joint

4. Toroidal expansion joint

5. Gimbal expansion joint

6. Universal expansion joint

7. In-line expansion joint

8. Refractory lined expansion joint

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