SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN - 2017

1. a) Explain elements of a system. (8m)

Ans: In most cases, systems analysts operate in a dynamic environment where
change is a way of life. The environment may be a business firm, a business
application, or a computer system. To reconstruct a system, the following key
elements must be considered:
1. Outputs and inputs.
2. Processor(s).
3. Control.
4. Feedback.
5. Environment.
6. Boundaries and interface.

Outputs and Inputs: A major objective of a system is to produce an output that

has value to its user. Whatever the nature of the output (goods, services, or
information), it must be in line with the expectations of the intended user. Inputs
are the elements (material, human resources, and information) that enter the
system for processing. Output is the outcome of processing. A system feeds on
input to produce output in much the same way that a business brings in human,
financial, and material resources to produce goods and services. It is important
to point out here that determining the output is a first step in specifying the
nature, amount, and regularity of the input needed to operate a system. For
example, in systems analysis, the first concern is to determine the user’s
requirements of a proposed computer system – that is, specification of the
output that the computer is expected to provide for meeting user requirements.

Processor(s): The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual
transformation of input into output. It is the operational component of a system.
Processors may modify the input totally or partially, depending on the
specifications of the output. This means that as the output specifications change
so does the processing. In some cases, input is also modified to enable the
processor to handle the transformation.

Control: The control element guides the system. It is the decision – making
subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and
output. In an organizational context, management as a decision – making body
controls the inflow, handling and outflow of activities that affect the welfare of
the business. In a computer system, the operating system and accompanying
software influence the behaviour of the system. Output specifications determine
what and how much input is needed to keep the system in balance. In systems
analysis, knowing the attitudes of the individual who controls the area for which
a computer is being considered can make a difference between the success and
failure of the installation. Management support is required for securing control
and supporting the objective of the proposed change.

Feedback: Control in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback. Feedback

measures output against a standard in some form of cybernetic procedure that
includes communication and control. Output information is fed back to the input
and / or to management (Controller) for deliberation. After the output is
compared against performance standards, changes can result in the input or
processing and consequently, the output. Feedback may be positive or negative,
routing or informational. Positive feedback reinforces the performance of the
system. It is routine in nature. Negative feedback generally provides the
controller with information for action. In systems analysis, feedback is
important in different ways. During analysis, the user may be told that the
problems in a given application verify the initial concerns and justify the need
for change. Another form of feedback comes after the system is implemented.
The user informs the analyst about the performance of the new installation. This
feedback often results in enhancements to meet the user’s requirements.

Environment: The environment is the “suprasystem” within which an

organization operates. It is the source of external elements that impinge on the
system. In fact, it often determines how a system must function. For example,
the organization’s environment, consisting of vendors, competitors, and others,
may provide constraints and, consequently, influence the actual performance of
the business.

Boundaries and interface: A system should be defined by its boundaries – the

limits that identify its components, processes and interrelationship when it
interfaces with another system. For example, a teller system in a commercial
bank is restricted to the deposits, withdrawals and related activities of customers
checking and savings accounts. It may exclude mortgage foreclosures, trust
activities, and the like. Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of
influence and control. For example, in an integrated banking – wide computer
system design, a customer who has a mortgage and a checking account with the
same bank may write a check through
the “teller system” to pay the premium that is later processed by the “mortgage
loan system.” Recently, system design has been successful in allowing the
automatic transfer of funds form a bank account to pay bills and other
obligations to creditors, regardless of distance or location. This means that in
systems analysis, knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in
determining the nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.

1. b) Differentiate (5m)
i) Physical and Abstract systems
Ans: Physical systems are tangible entities that may be static or dynamic in
operation. For example, the physical parts of the computer centre are the
officers, desks, and chairs that facilitate operation of the computer. They can be
seen and counted; they are static. In contrast, a programmed computer is a
dynamic system. Data, programs, output, and applications change as the user’s
demands or the priority of the information requested changes.

Abstract systems are conceptual or non-physical entities. They may be as

straightforward as formulas of relationships among sets of variables or models –
the abstract conceptualization of physical situations. A model is a representation
of a real or a planned system. The use of models makes it easier for the analyst
to visualize relationships in the system under study. The objective is to point out
the significant elements and the key interrelationships of a complex system.
ii) Open and Closed systems
Ans: An open system has many interfaces with its environment. It permits
interaction across its boundary; it receives inputs from and delivers outputs to
the outside. An information system falls into this category, since it must adapt
to the changing demands of the user.

An closed system is isolated from environmental influences. In reality, a

completely closed system is rare. In systems analysis, organizations,
applications and computers are invariably open, dynamic systems influenced by
their environment.
1. c) What is system? Explain. (3m)
Ans: The term system is derived from the Greek word systema, which means an
organized relationship among functioning units or components. A system exists
because it is designed to achieve one or more objectives. We come into daily
contact with the transportation system, the telephone system, the accounting
system, the production system, and for over two decades, the computer system.

2. a) Explain Formal and informal information systems. (6m)

Ans: Formal Information system
A formal information system is based on the organization represented by the
organization chart. The chart is a map of positions and their authority
relationships, indicated by boxes and connected by straight lines. It is concerned
with the pattern of authority, communication and workflow. Information is
formally disseminated in instructions, memos, or reports from top management
to the intended user in the organization. This structure also allows feedback up
the chain of command for follow – up. In Figure 1-1 input form the
environment provides impetus for policy decision by top management. Policies
are generalizations that specify what an organization ought to do. Policies are
translated into directives, rules and regulations and transmitted to lower-level
management for implementation. The output represents employee performance.

Informal Information Systems

The formal information system is a power structure designed to achieve
company goals. An organization’s emphasis on control to ensure performance
tends to restrict the communication flow among employees. As a result, an
informal information system develops. It is an employee based system designed
to meet personnel and vocational needs and to help solve work – related
problems. It also funnels information upward through indirect channels. In this
respect, it is a useful system because it works within the framework of the
business and it’s stated policies. In doing a systems study, the analyst should
have a knowledge of the chain of
Command, the power-authority-influence network, and how decisions are made
to get a feel for how much support can be expected for a prospective
installation. Furthermore, knowledge about the inner workings of the employee-
based system is useful during the exploratory phase of analysis. Employee
cooperation and participation are crucial in preventing sabotage and training
users. Since computers cannot provide reliable information without user staff
support, a proper interface with the informal communication channels could
mean the difference between the success and failure of new systems.

2. b) Explain with diagram all stages in SDLC. (10m)

Ans: System development life cycle has 7 phases. They are
1.Recognition of need
2.Feasibility study
3.Analysis
4.Design
5.Implementation
6.Post-implementation
7.maintenance
RECOGNITION OF NEED
One must know what the problem is before it can be solved. The basis for a
candidate system is recognition of a need for improving an information system
or a procedure. For e. g: a supervisor may want to investigate the system flow in
purchasing or a bank president has been getting complains about the long lines
in the drive-in. This need leads to a preliminary survey or an initial investigation
to determine whether alternative systems can solve the problems. It entails
looking into the duplication of efforts, bottleneck, inefficient existing in
procedures or whether parts of the existing system would be candidates for
computerization.
FEASIBILITY STUDY.
Depending on the results of the initial investigations the survey is expanded to a
more feasibility study. We can define feasibility study as a test to a proposed
system according to its workability, impact on the organization, ability to meet
user needs and effective use of resources. The objective of a feasibility study is
not to solve the problem but to acquire a sense of its scope. During this study,
the problem definition is crystallized and aspects of the problem to be included
in the system are determined.
The result of the feasibility study is a formal proposal. This is like a report. This
report summarizes what is known and what is going to be done. It consists of
the following.
1.Statement of the problem:- a carefully worded statement of the problem that
led to analysis.
2.Summary of findings and recommendations:- a lists of the major findings
and recommendations of the study.
3.Details of findings:-an outline of the methods and procedures undertaken by
the existing system.
4.Recommendations and conclusions:-specific recommendations regarding the
candidate system, including personnel assignments, costs, project schedules and
target dates.
Then the management reviews this report. After the proposal is reviewed, it
becomes a formal agreement that paves the way for actual design and
implementation.

ANALYSIS
Analysis is a detailed study of the various operations performed by a system and
their relationships within and outside of the system. A key question is: what
must be done to solve the problem?. One aspect of analysis is defining the
boundaries of the system and determining whether or not a candidate system
should consider other related systems. During analysis data are collected on the
available files, decision points and transactions handled by the present system.
Data flow diagrams, interviews, on site observations and questionnaires are
some tools that are used in analysis.

DESIGN
The most creative and challenging phase of system life cycle is system design.
The term design describes a final system and the process by which it is
developed. It refers to the technical specifications that will be applied in
implementing the candidate system. It also includes the construction of
programs and program testing. The key question here is how should the
problem be solved?
There are four steps in design phase. They are
Output design: This step is to determine how the output is to be produced and
in what format.
Input design: In this step the samples of input and its format is finalized.
File design: In this step the master file , transaction files have to be designed.
Processing design: This is also called Operational Phase. In this step the
program construction and testing is performed.
Finally details related to justification of the system and an estimate of the
impact of the Candidate system on the user and the organization are
documented and evaluated by management as a step to word implementation.
The final report prior to the implementation phase includes procedural flow
charts , report layout and a workable plan for implementing the candidate
system.

IMPLEMENTATION:
The implementation phase is less creative than system design. It is primarily
concerned with the user training , site preparation and file conversion . During
the final testing user acceptance is tested followed by user training. Depending
on the nature of the system extensive user training may be required .Conversion
usually take place at about the same time the user is being trained or later.
System testing checks the readiness and accuracy of the system to access,
update and retrieve data from new files. Once the programs become available
test data are read into the computer and processed against the files provided for
testing. If successful the programs is then run with live data . Otherwise a
diagnostic procedure is used to locate and correct errors in the program.

POST IMPLEMENTATION AND MAINTENANCE:

Like any system there is an aging process that requires periodic maintenance of
h/w and s/w . If the new information is inconsistent with the design
specification, the changes have to be made. Hardware also requires periodic
maintenance to keep into with the design specification. The importance of
maintenance is to continue to bring new systems to standards
3. a) Explain analyst/user interface. (8m)
An important aspect of system development is a viable interface between the
analyst and user. Analysts must devote as much skill and effort to achieve a
productive relationship with the user as they devote to the technical
requirements of the system. Most research indicates that as the number of users
increases, the probability of the system failure increases without close
analyst/user interface.
The interface problem emerged in the 1960s when there was an adversary
relationship between the analyst and user. The analyst represented management
and essentially imposed change on the user. Analysis was a defensive business
with the overriding concern to avoid failure rather than achieve success. User
involvement was limited. The analyst was "kingpin." Later, growth in user
friendly technology, improved knowledge of the user in information systems,
and maturity of the analyst paved the way for greater user participation in
system development. It also narrowed the cultural gap between the user and the
analyst.

Behavioural Issues
Much research has been done to study users and their relationships with systems
analysts. Increasing reports of system failures that were not caused by technical
problems made it necessary to seek a better understanding of the analyst/user
differences, and the political factor.

User Motivation
The motivational approach in system development states that the candidate
system should satisfy the user's needs if they are going to use it. Several models
of user behavioural attempted to look at the motivation behind system
acceptance. For example, lucas's descriptive model of user behaviour identifies
attitudinal, personal, and situational factors that affect system use. Use depends
on the both positive attitudes towards the system's features and the decision
making style of the user.
One conclusion from the motivational perspective is that the impact of
the computer on the user's daily work is important. System design is essentially
task design. A candidate system must be tailored to the user's task to be
accepted.
Analyst/user differences
 On the surface, differences in education, experience, and language are
quite obvious. The analyst's impatience with the user's ignorance about
terminology like chip and CRT and the user's impatience with the analyst's
limited understanding of the business, however , often lead to conflict during
system development.
Two implications may be drawn for system design. First, there is a need
for mutual understanding between the analyst and the user. Second, once
differences are understood and accepted, alleviating them may be possible
through a deeper involvement of the user and support of the analyst.

The political factor

Since information is a source of organizational power., the process of
system development may be viewed as a contest for power where analysts have
the initial advantage. System development is often viewed as a bargaining
process, where analysts and users attempt to enhance their power positions and
self-interests. To achieve political rationality, the analyst should not brag about
the technical aspects of the candidate system. A system that is simple to explain
and easy to understand is more readily accepted than a technical presentation; it
also makes the user feel less vulnerable. In essence, the political factor prompts
the analyst to honestly assess the motives of all parties involved and attempt to
remove barriers that lead to system failure.

3. (b) What academic qualifications are important for system

analyst? Write about the personal attributes of analyst. (8m)
Ans: The answer is in education, experience, and personality. Most of today's
analysts are college graduates with major in accounting, management, or
information systems.
The background and experience of analyst include:
1. A background in systems theory and organization behaviour.
2. Familiarity with the makeup and inner working of major application areas
such as financial accounting, personnel administration, marketing in sales,
operations management, model building, and production control.
3. Competence in system tools and methodologies and a practical knowledge of
one or more programming and data base languages.
4. Experience in hardware and software specifications, which is important for
selection.
Personal attributes are:
1. Authority- the confidence to "tell" people what to do. Much of this quality
shows in project management and team work to meet deadlines.
2. communication skills- ability to aruculate and focus on a problem area for
logical solution.
3. Creativity- trying one's own ideas, developing candidate systems using
unique tools or methods.
4. Responsibility- making decisions on one's own and accepting the
consequences of these decisions.
5. Varied skills- doing different projects and handling change.

4. (a) Discuss role of an System analyst. (8m)

Ans: Among the roles an analyst performs are change agent, monitor, architect,
psychologist, salesperson, motivator and politician.

Change Agent
The analyst may be viewed as an agent of change. A candidate system is
designed to introduce change and reorientation in how the user organization
handles information or makes decisions. It is important, that the user accept
change. Analyst can secure user acceptance is through user participation during
design and implementation.
In the role of a change agent, the systems analyst may select various styles to
introduce change to the user organization. The styles range from that of
persuader (the mildest form of intervention) to imposer (the most severe
intervention). In between there are the catalyst and the confronter roles. When
the user appears to have a tolerance for change the persuader or catalyst style is
appropriate. On the other hand, when drastic changes are required, it may be
necessary to adopt the confronter or even the imposer style. No matter what
style is used, the goal is same: to achieve acceptance of the candidate system
with a minimum of resistance.

Investigator and monitor

In defining a problem, the analyst will collect and put together all the
information to determine why the present system does not work well and what
changes will correct the problem. This work is similar to that of an investigator-
extracting the real problems from existing systems and creating information
structures that uncover previously unknown trends that may have a direct
impact on the organization.
Related to the role of investigator is that of monitor. To undertake and
successfully complete a project, the analyst must monitor programs in relation
to time, cost, and quantity .Of these resources, time is the most important. If
time “gets away”, the project suffers from increased costs and wasted human
resources. Implementation will also get delayed.

Architect
As architect an analyst must create detailed physical design of candidate system.
He aids users in formalizing abstract ideas and provides details to build the end
product-the candidate system.

Psychologist
The analyst plays the role of a psychologist in the way he reaches people
interprets their thoughts, assesses their behaviour, and draws conclusions from
these interactions. Understanding inter functional relationships is important. It
must be aware of people’s feelings and be prepared to get around things in a
graceful way. The art of listening is important in evaluating responses and
feedback.

Salesperson
Selling change can be crucial as initiating change. Selling the system actually
takes place at each step in the system life cycle. Sales skills and persuasiveness
are crucial to the success of the system.

Motivator
A candidate system must be well designed and acceptable to the user. The
analyst role as a motivator becomes obvious during the first few weeks after
implementation and during times when turn over results in new people being
trained to work with the candidate system. The amount of dedication it takes to
motivate users often taxes the analyst’s abilities to maintain the pace.

Politician
In implementing a candidate system, the analyst tries to appease all parties
involves. Diplomacy and finesse in dealing with people can improve acceptance
of the system. In as much as a politician must have the support of his or her
constituency, so is the analyst’s goal to have the support of the users staff. He or
she represents their thinking and tries to achieve their goals through
computerization.

4. (b) Discuss about initial investigation. (8m)

First step in SDLC is the identification of the user's need. The initial
investigation is one way to do this. Another objective at this stage is to
determine whether the user's need is feasible or not.

The objective is to determine whether request is valid and feasible before a

recommendation is reached to do nothing, improve or modify the existing
system or build a new one.
The user’s request form specifies the following:

1. User assigned title of work requested.

2. Nature of work requested (problem definition).
3. Date request was submitted.
4. Date job should be completed.
5. Job objective (s) – purpose of job requested.
6. Expected benefits to be derived from proposed change.
7. Input/ Output description – quantity and frequency of inputs and outputs of
proposed change.
8. Requester’s signature, title, department, and phone number.
9. Signature, title, department and phone number approving, the request.

The user request identifies the need for change and authorizes the initial
investigation. It may undergo several modifications before it becomes a written
communication. Once the request is approved, the following activities are
carried out :

1.) Problem definition.

Problem definition is the process of identifying the need of the user which led
him to request for the system change.

2.) Background analysis:-

Background analysis is the process of getting the basic information about the
customer's company or organization i.e. How it really works? What people are
involved in it? Etc.
Background analysis helps the system analyst to prepare the organization chart
with the list of people and functions.

3.) Fact finding:-

After obtaining the background information, analyst start gathering the data like
input, output and cost of the existing system. Information can be gathered by
following tools:-
 Review of written documents.
 On-site observations
 Interview and questionnaires

4.) Fact Analysis: - After the collection of data it must be organized and
evaluated so that report can be prepared for the final approval from the user.

5.) Determination of Feasibility:-

After organizing data, and fact analysis feasibility is evaluated and determine
that any alternative proposal is possible or not for the customer's
Project.

5. (a) Explain the following information gathering tools. (12m)

i) On - Site observation
ii) Interviews
iii) Questionnaires

i) On - Site observation
The major objective of on-site observation is to get close to the real system
being studied. The methods used may be natural or contrived, obtrusive or
unobtrusive, direct or indirect, and structured or unstructured. The main
limitation of observation is the difficulty of observing attitudes and motivation
and the many unproductive hours that often are spent in observing one-time
activities.

ii) Interviews
It is a face-to-face interpersonal meeting designed to identify relations and
capture information as it exists. It is flexible tool, offering a better opportunity
than the questionnaire to evaluate the validity of the information gathered. The
major drawback is preparation time. Interviewing is an art that requires
experience in arranging the interview, setting the stage, establishing rapport,
phrasing questions clearly, avoiding arguments, and evaluating the outcome.
Guidelines for successful Interview:
a.) Set the stage for the interview.
b.) Establish rapport: put the interviewee at ease.
c.) Phase questions clearly.
d.) Be good listener, avoid arguments.
e.) Evaluate the outcome of the interview

iii) Questionnaires
It is a self-administered tool that is more economical and requires less skill to
administer than the interview. It examines a large number of respondents at the
same time, provides standardized wording and instructions, and places less
pressure on subjects for immediate response. The main drawback is the low
percentage of returns. In constructing a questionnaire, the analyst must focus on
question content, wording, and format. These are considered with validity and
that stem from respondent’s failure to remember specific details, reluctant to
report the true impressions of what occurred, or inability to communicate
information.
Advantages:
1. It is economical and requires less skill than an interview.
2. It can be used to gather data from large number of people simultaneously
3. It is a uniform method in which all question asked are the same to all people
4. The users are happy as they know that the answers they give are confidential
5. User get time to think about the questions and so can give more accurate
results than in an interview

5. (b) Explain various varieties of closed questions. (4m)

Ans: There are five major varieties of closed questions:
a. Fill-in-the-blanks questions request specific information.
b. Dichotomous questions offer a two-answer choice.
c. Ranking scales questions ask the respondent to rank a list of items in order of
importance or preference.
d. Multiple-choice questions ask for specific answer choices.
e. Rating scales questions ask the respondent to rank various items along a
single dimension (scale).

6. (a) Explain categories of information are available for analysis.

Ans: (8m)

INFORMATION OF THE FIRM

Information about the organization’s policies, goals, objectives, and structure
explains the kind of environment that promotes the introduction of computer-
based systems. Company policies are guidelines that determine the conduct of
business. Policies are translated into rules and procedures for achieving goals. A
statement of goals describes management’s commitment to objectives and the
direction system development will follow. Objectives are milestones of
accomplishments toward achieving goals. Information from manuals,
pamphlets, annual reports etc help the analyst to get an idea of the goals of the
Organization.
After policies and goals are set, a firm is organized to meet these goals. The
organization structure indicates management directions and orientation. The
organization chart represents an achievement-oriented structure. It helps us
understand the general climate in which candidate systems will be considered.
In gathering information about the firm, the analyst should watch for the
correspondence between what the organization claims to achieve goals and
actual operations. Policies, goals, objectives and structure are important
elements for analysis.

INFORMATION ABOUT THE USER STAFF

Another kind of information for analysis is knowledge about the people who run
the present system, their job functions and information requirements, the
relationships of their jobs to the existing system and the interpersonal network
that holds the user group together. The main focus is on the roles of the people,
authority relationships, job status and functions, information requirements and
inter personnel relations. Information of this kind highlights the organization
chart and establishes a basis for determining the importance of the existing
system for the organization. Thus the major focus is to find out the expectations
of the people before going in for the design of the candidate system.

INFORMATION ABOUT THE WORK FLOW

The workflow focuses on what happens to the data through various points in a
system. This can be shown by a data flow diagram or a system flow chart. A
data flow diagram represents the information generated at each processing point
in the system and the direction it takes from source to destination. A system
flowchart describes the physical system. The information available from such
charts explains the procedures used for performing tasks and work schedules.

(b) Describe the concept and procedure used in constructing

DFD's. Write the basic rules for constructing a DFD. (10m)
The Data Flow Diagram (DFD)
The first step is to draw a data flow diagram (DFD). The DFD was first
developed by Larry Constantine as a way of expressing system requirements in
a graphical form; this led to a modular design.
A DFD also known as a “bubble chart,” has the purpose of clarifying system
requirements and identifying major transformations that will be come programs
in system design. So it is the starting point of the design phase that functionally
decompose the requirements specifications down to the lowest level of detail. A
DFD consists of a series of bubbles joined by lines. The bubbles represent data
transformations and the lines represent data flows in the system. The system
takes orders from the customer (bookstore, library, etc.), checks them against an
index (file) listing the books available, verifies customer credit through a credit
information file, and authorizes, shipment with an invoice.
DFD Symbols

In the DFD, there are four symbols

A square defines a source (originator) or destination of system data.
1. An arrow identifies data flow- data in motion. It is a pipeline through which
information flows.
2. A circle or a “bubble” (some people use an oval bubble) represents a process
that transforms incoming data flow(s) into outgoing data flow(s).
3. An open rectangle is a data store- data at rest, or a temporary repository of
data.

Constructing a DFD
Several rules of thumb are used in drawing DFDs.
1. Process should be named and numbered for easy reference. Each name
should be representative of the process.
2. The direction of flow is from top to bottom and from left to right. Data
Traditionally flow from the source (upper left corner) to the destination (lower
Right corner), although they may flow back to a source. One way to indicate
this is to draw a long flow line back to the source. An alternative way is to
repeat the source symbol as a destination. Since it is used more than one in the
DFD, it is marked with a short diagonal in the lower right corner.
3. When a process is exploded into lower- level details, they are numbered.
4. The names of data stores, sources and destinations are written in capital
letters. Process and data flow names have the first letter of each word
capitalized.

7. (a) Explain about quality assurance. (8m)

Ans: QUALITY ASSURANCE: Quality assurance defines the objectives of
the project and reviews the overall activities so that errors are corrected early in
the development process. Steps are taken in each phase to ensure that there are
no errors in the final software.

Quality Assurance Goals in the Systems Life Cycle

The software life cycle includes various stages of development and each stage
has the goal of quality assurance. The goals and their relevance to the quality
assurance of the system are summarized next.

Quality Factors Specifications

The goal of these stages is to define the factors that contribute to the quality of
the candidate system. Several factors determine the quality of a system:

1. Correctness-the extent to which a program meets system specifications and

user objectives.
2. Reliability-the degree to which the system performs its intended functions
over a time.
3. Efficiency-the amount of computer resources required by a program to
perform a function.
4. Usability-the effort required to learn and operate a system.
5. Maintainability-the ease with which program errors are located and corrected.
6. Testability-the effort required to test a program to ensure its correct'
performance.
7. Portability-the ease of transporting a program from one hardware
configuration to another.
8. Accuracy-the required precision in input editing, computations, and output.
9. Error tolerance-error detection and correction versus error avoidance.
10. Expandability-ease of adding or expanding the existing database.
11. Access control and audit-control of access to the system and extent to which
that access can be audited.
12. Communicativeness-how descriptive or useful the inputs and outputs of the
system are.

Levels of Quality Assurance

Quality assurance specialists use three levels of quality assurance.
a. Testing a system to eliminate errors.
b. Validation to check the quality of software in both simulated and live
environments.
c. Certification that the program or software package is correct and conforms to
standards.

(b) Discuss cost/benefits analysis in brief. (8m)

Cost and Benefit Categories
In developing cost estimates for a system, we need to consider several cost
elements. Among them are hardware, personnel, facility, operating and supply
costs.
1. Hardware costs relate to the actual purchase or lease of the
computer and peripherals (for example, printer, disk drive, tape unit).
Determining the actual cost of hardware is generally more difficult when the
system is shared by various users than for a dedicated stand- alone system. In
some cases, the best way to control for this cost is to treat it as an operating
cost.

2. Personnel costs include EDP staff salaries and benefits (health

insurance, vacation time, sick pay, etc.) as well as pay for those involved in
developing the system Costs incurred during development of a system are one –
time costs and are levelled developmental costs. Once the system is installed,
the costs of operating and maintaining the system become recurring costs.

3. Facility costs are expenses incurred in the preparation of the

physical site where the application or the computer will be in operation. This
includes wiring, flooring, acoustics, lighting and air conditioning. These costs
are treated as onetime costs and are incorporated into the overall cost estimate
of the candidate system.

4. Operating costs include all costs associated with the day-to-day

operation of the system; the amount depends on the number of shifts, the nature
of the applications, and the calibre of the operating staff. There are various ways
of covering operating costs. One approach is to treat operating costs as
overhead. Another approach is to charge each authorized user for the amount of
processing they request from the system. The amount charged is based on
computer time, staff time and volume of the output produced. In any case, some
accounting is necessary to determine how operating costs should be handled.
5. Supply costs are variable costs that increase with increased use of paper,
ribbons, disks, and the like. They should be estimated and included in the
overall cost of the system. A system is also expected to provide benefits. The
first task is to identify each benefit and then assign a monetary value to it for
cost/ benefit analysis. Benefits may be tangible and intangible, direct or indirect.
The two major benefits are improving performance and minimizing the cost of
processing. The performance category emphasizes improvement in the accuracy
of or access to information and easier access to the system by authorized users.
Minimizing costs through an efficient system – error control or reduction of
staff- is a benefit that should be measured and included in cost/benefit analysis.

Procedure for Cost/ Benefit Determination

There is a difference between expenditure and investment. We spend to get
what we need, but we invest to realize a return on the investment. Building a
computer – based system is an investment. Costs are incurred throughout its life
cycle. Benefits are realized in the form of reduced operating costs, improved
corporate image, staff efficiency, or revenues. To what extent benefits outweigh
costs is the function of cost /benefit analysis. Cost/ benefit analysis is a
procedure that gives a picture of the various costs, benefits and rules associated
with a system. The determination of costs and benefits entails the following
steps:
1. Identify the costs and benefits pertaining to given project.
2. Categorize the various costs and benefits for analysis.
3. Select a method of evaluation.
4. Interpret the results of the analysis.
5. Take action.

8. Write short notes on any four: (4*4=16)

a) Characteristics of a system.
Our definition of a system suggests some characteristics that are present in all
systems: organization (order), interaction, interdependence, integration and a
central objective.

Organization: Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement

of components that helps to achieve objectives. In the design of a business
system, for example, the hierarchical relationships starting with the president on
top and leading downward to the blue – collar workers represents the
organization structure.

Interaction: Interaction refers to the manner in which each component

functions with other components of the system.

Interdependence: Interdependence means that parts of the organization or

computer system depend on one another. They are coordinated and linked
together according to a plan. One subsystem depends on the input of another
subsystem for proper functioning: that is, the output of one subsystem is the
required input for another subsystem. This interdependence is crucial in systems
work.

Central objective: The last characteristic of a system is its central objective.

Objectives may be real or stated. Although a stated objective may be the real
objective, it is not uncommon for an organization to state one objective and
operate to achieve another. The important point is that users must know the
central objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a successful
design and conversion.

b) Technical skills of Analyst.

Technical skills include:
1.Creativity - helping users model ideas into concrete plans and developing
candidate systems to match user requirements.
2. Problem solving - reducing problems to their elemental levels for analysis,
developing alternative solutions to a given problem, and deadlineating the pros
and cons of candidate systems.
3. Project management - scheduling, performing well under time constraints,
coordinating team efforts, and managing costs and expenditures.
4. Dynamic interface - blending technical and non-technical considerations in
functional specifications and general design.
5. Questioning attitude and inquiring mind - knowing the what, when, why,
where, who, and how a system works.
6. Knowledge of the basics of the computer and business function.

c) Feasibility analysis.
Steps in Feasibility Analysis
Feasibility analysis involves eight steps:
1. From a project team and appoint a project leader.
2. Prepare system flowcharts.
3. Enumerate potential candidate systems.
4. Describe and identify characteristics of candidate systems.
5. Determine and evaluate performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate
system.
6. Weight system performance and cost data.
7. Select the best candidate system.
8. Prepare and report final project directive to management.

d) Form types
Flat Forms
 It is a single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed
on a paper. For additional copies of the original, carbon papers are
inserted between copies.
 It is a simplest and inexpensive form to design, print, and reproduce,
which uses less volume.
Unit Set/Snap out Forms
 These are papers with one-time carbons interleaved into unit sets for
either handwritten or machine use.
 Carbons may be either blue or black, standard grade medium intensity.
Generally, blue carbons are best for handwritten forms while black
carbons are best for machine use.
Continuous strip/Fanfold Forms
 These are multiple unit forms joined in a continuous strip with
perforations between each pair of forms.
 It is a less expensive method for large volume use.
No Carbon Required (NCR) Paper
 They use carbonless papers which have two chemical coatings
(capsules), one on the face and the other on the back of a sheet of paper.
 When pressure is applied, the two capsules interact and create an image.

e) System planning
Planning is the process of setting goals, developing strategies and outlining
task and program to accomplish the goal.
Planning the information system in the business is very important in today's
competitive environment to make the business high grow able, and to make
business retain in adverse conditions because:-
a.) Information is very important recourse for any company to be managed and
it is equally important as the cash, personnel etc.
b.) Financial resources are committed to the information system.
c.) To make the system growing and retain in the competitive environment .

f) System testing
Testing is vital to the success of the system. System testing makes a logical
Assumption that if all the parts of the system are correct, the goal will be
successfully achieved.
Another reason for system testing is its utility as a user-oriented vehicle for
implementation. Techniques used for system testing
1. Online response. Online systems must have a response time that will not
cause a hardship to the user. One way to test this is 10 input transactions on as
many CRT screens as would normally be used in peak hours and time the
response to each online function to establish a true preference level
2. Volume. In this test, we create as many records as would normally be
produced to verify that the hardware and Software will function correctly. The
user is usually asked to provide test data for volume testing
3. Stress testing. The purpose of stress testing is to prove that the candidate
system does not malfunction under peak loads. Unlike volume testing, where
time is not a factor, we subject the system to a high volume of data for a short
time period. This simulates an online environment where a high volume of
activities occurs in spurts.
4. Recovery and security. A forced system failure is induced to test a backup
recovery procedure for file integrity. Inaccurate data are entered to see how the
system responds in terms of error detection and protection. Related to file
integrity is a test to demonstrate that data and programs are secure from
unauthorized access.
5. Usability documentation and procedure. The usability test verifies the user
friendly nature of the system. This relates to normal operating and error-
handling procedures, for example. One aspect of user-friendliness is accurate
and complete documentation. The user is asked to use only the documentation
and procedures as a guide to determine whether the system can be run smoothly