SUBDUCTION ZONES and ISLAND ARCS

Subduction Zones are where cool lithospheric plates sink back into the
mantle. It takes about 50 my for the ocean lithosphere that formed in the
hot (>1000°C) environment at mid-ocean ridges to cool to an equilibrium
state and sink to its maximum depth below sea-level. Although there is no
universal agreement on the balance of forces that drives plate tectonics,
the "slab-pull" force is thought to be an important one. For instance the
Pacific Plate is the fastest moving plate (ca. 10 cm/yr), and this is the
plate that supplies most of the Earth's subducting lithosphere, and thus
where the overall slab-pull force will be the larger. The normal argument
is that the cool ocean crust will more easily convert to dense eclogite
which, as we have seen in Lecture 1, is much more dense than pyrolite.

What is most surprising is the great variation in geological features

associated with subduction. There is a huge difference between the East
Pacific and the West Pacific. Not only that, but there are differences along
the Andean margin, and also quite major differences as we go back in
time. But it is important to understand subduction because this is where
the continental crust grew progressively with time.

Subduction is where tectonics, structural geology, sedimentation, igneous

petrology, metamorphism, geochemistry, geophysics and applied geology
all interact. Typical "textbook" features of a mature continental margin
subduction zone are shown below. The cartoon shows sediment being
scraped off the downgoing plate to form an accretionary wedge, and that
a forearc basin is forming on top of the wedge as it is dragged down (and
is presumably fed by volcanic debris from the arc). However, the cartoon
avoids the issue of how and where the volcanic magmas come from. To
what extent does the basaltic subducted slab contribute to arc magmas?
Is it just the fluids carried down in altered oceanic crust that migrate into
the mantle wedge overlying the subduction zone and cause melting? Ot
what extent do sediments carried down the subduction zone then
contribute to arc magmas? Why are arc volcanoes nearly always situated
about 110 km above the Benioff Zone? What happens to material taken
down the subduction zone?
MARGINAL BASINS & BACK ARC SPREADING

Marginal basins are a common feature of the Western Pacific. Examples

(north to south) are the Sea of Japan, the West Philippine Basin, the
Parace Vela & Shikoku Basins, the Mariana Trough, the Woodlark Basin,
the Fiji and Lau Basins. By contrast marginal basins are rarer in the
Eastern Pacific. The two examples in the Atlantic are the Caribbean and
the Scotia Sea.

Marginal basins are small oceanic basins, usually adjacent or "marginal"

to a continent, which are separated from larger oceans by an island arc.
Some marginal basins at continental margins may be imperfectly
developed and represented by thinned crust, often associated with basic
volcanism. Karig (1971, 1974) divided marginal basins into:

(1) Active marginal basins with high heat flow.

(2) Inactive marginal basins with high heat flow.

(3) Inactive marginal basins with normal heat flow.

The first two are thought to have formed by back-arc spreading, either still
active (1), or recently active (2). The third may represent basins formed
by even older back-arc spreading, or normal ocean crust that has been
"trapped" behind a recently developed oceanic island arc.

FRAMEWORK OF AN ISLAND ARC SYSTEM

The commonly held model of an arc - back-arc system has the following
components:

(1) Subduction Zone

(2) Fore-arc region with accretionary sedimentary prism

(3) Frontal Arc

(4) Active Arc

(5) Marginal Basin with spreading centre

(6) Remnant Arc

(7) Inactive Marginal Basin

Although the extensive fore-arc region of many island arcs was thought to
be composed of off-scraped sediments, drilling has not substantiated this.
It appears that - at least at intraoceanic arcs - abyssal sediments on the
downgoing plate are largely subducted.

That the back-arc region is a zone of asthenospheric upwelling is

supported by seismic evidence which suggests a low-Q (seismic
attenuation) zone behind the arc, compatible with a small amount of melt
in the back-arc region:

Magnetic anomalies in back-arc basins are not so well developed, nor

have such symmetrical linear patterns, as those in the normal ocean
basins. There have been difficulties in identifying the anomalies. It has
been suggested by Lawver & Hawkins (1978) that spreading may be
more diffuse and not constrained to one central well-defined spreading
centre. Good dateable magnetic anomaly patterns were first described
from the Scotia Sea back-arc basin (IA Hill). Spreading in some basins
may be asymmetric, with accretion favoured on the active arc side.

Models for Back-arc Spreading (see Karig, 1974)

Active Diapirism: One of the earliest models, based on the Mariana Arc
System, is that of an uprising diapir splitting the arc. The diapir is initiated
either as a result of frictional heating at the subduction zone, or more
likely through fluids released from the dehydrating subducting slab. The
rising diapir then splits the arc in two and the two halves are progressively
separated by seafloor spreading:
Passive Diapirism: This results from regional extensional stresses in the
the lithosphere across the arc system. In effect the downgoing slab,
although acting like a conveyor belt, also has a vertical component that
causes "roll-back". The arc and forearc then stays with the subduction
zone, as a result of a supposed trench suction force:

Stepwise Migration: Here it is assumed that the subducting slab is

snapped off near the hinge, presumably because something on the
downgoing slab is too light to go down, and so a new subduction is
initiated oceanwards. The arc stays near the hinge and the
asthenosphere wells up behind it:
Convection-driven: This model proposed by Toksoz & Bird (1978), and
requires that subsidiary convection cells are driven by the downward drag
of the downgoing slab. Calculations suggest that spreading would occur
about 10 my after the start of subduction. This might explain why back-arc
spreading is more common in oceanic regions ™ the lithosphere is
thinner and thus more easily disrupted than under continents:

Uprising Harzburgite Diapir: This model (Oxburgh & Parmentier 1978)

depends on the fact that refractory lithosphere (which has lost its basalt
component at mid-ocean ridges) is less dense and inherently more
buoyant than normal fertile mantle. Thus it would rise if heated to same
temperature as surrounding mantle. Such diapirs could in theory be
derived from subducting lithosphere, although it is doubtful that
subducting lithosphere could be heated within 10 my; more likely it takes
1000 - 2000 my according to megalith concepts of Ringwood (1982):

Old and Young Lithosphere: Molnar & Atwater (1978) have argued that
it depends on the dip of the subducting slab whether extension occurs in
the back arc region. In the W. Pacific it is old (Jurassic), cold and dense
lithosphere that is subducting - with very steep dip and strong vertical
component. Thus extensional conditions in back-arc region. In the E.
Pacific, on the other hand, the lithosphere subducting beneath the Andes
is young (Tertiary), warm and less dense, and subducts at a shallow
angle. Thus convergence is more compressive than extensional. Uyeda &
Kanamori (1979) have characterised these two extreme types of
subduction as Mariana and Chilean type respectively. See also Dewey
(1981)

Other models: Various researchers have since commented on the

possible causes of back-arc spreading, including assessments of
dependence on absolute and relative plate motions. Consult some of
references listed below. Experimental laboratory studies have been
carried out by Kincaid & Olsen (1987), observing the effects of continued
subduction where the subducting slab 'hits' the 650 km discontinuity. The
results show that steep subduction does produce a significant roll-back
effect on the hinge, which will generate extensional conditions in the
back-arc region. Note that with subduction rates of about 7 cm/yr it would
take about 10 my before newly subducted ocean lithosphere would 'hit'
the 650 km discontinuity and begin to initiate 'roll-back' of the hinge, and
thus extensional conditions.

EVOLUTION OF MARIANA ARC SYSTEM

The Mariana Arc is perhaps the type intra-oceanic arc system, and the
most extensively studied through marine geophysical studies, dredging
and drilling (particularly Legs 58, 59 and 60 of DSDP in late 1970's). From
west to east it consists of the following features:

(1) West Philippine Basin

(2) Kyushu-Palau Ridge (a remnant arc)

(3) Shikoku & Parece-Vela Basins

(4) West Mariana Ridge (a remnant arc)

(5) Mariana Trough

(6) Active Mariana Arc

(7) Mariana Fore-arc (made of old arc)

(8) Mariana Trench (up to 11 km deep)

(9) The subducting Pacific Plate (Jurassic age)

West Philippine Basin: This may be 'trapped' in origin and not strictly
formed by back-arc spreading. It appears to pre-date the Kyushu-Palau
Ridge. Magnetic anomalies suggest active spreading in the early Tertiary
(62-40 Ma) with the NW-SE trending Central Basin Fault as the spreading
centre. The Oki-Daito Ridge in the northern West Philippine Sea is
aligned parallel to this feature and has been regarded as an old remnant
arc: however drilled samples from the Oki-Daito Ridge are alkaline
basalts, not island arc basalts. Drilled samples from the W. Philippine
Basin are fairly typical MORB.

The Philippine Basin is slowly subducting to the west beneath Taiwan,

etc. The subduction rate is much less than that of the Pacific Plate
beneath the Marianas.

Kyushu-Palau Ridge: This is over 2000 km long and rises 2 km above

the adjacent basin floors. Consists of vesicular lava flows, dykes and sills,
interbedded with volcaniclastic breccias lying below Middle Oligocene
oozes. Lavas all belong to Island Arc Tholeiite (IAT) Series, typical of the
most primitive island arcs. Now an inactive Remnant Arc that was active
between about 42 and 32 my ago.

Parece-Vela and Shikoku Basins: Magnetic anomaly patterns indicate

back-arc spreading between 30 and 17 my in Parece-Vela and between
26 and 15 my in the Shikoku Basin in north. Basaltic sills common in
sediments near basement, indicating high rates of sedimentation near
near ridge axis. Basalts are vesicular. Similar to MORB.

West Mariana Ridge: Shallower and younger than the Kyushu-Palau

Ridge. Drilling penetrated about 1000 m of volcaniclastic material
composed of basalts, basaltic andesites, rare andesites and plagioclase
phenocrysts. Their character is calc-alkaline, with much higher contents
of Ba and Sr than those of K-P Ridge. Arc was active 17-8 my ago. So
now a Remnant Arc. Arc built up when spreading in P-V / Shikoku Basins
ceased.

Mariana Trough: This is 1500 km long, 250 km wide. Rough topography,

high heat flow. Magnetic lineations poorly developed, but suggest back
arc spreading from about 6 my ago - i.e. when activity on West Mariana
Ridge ceased. Near the West Mariana Ridge metabasalts, gabbros and
anorthositic cumulates were drilled - deeper part of a rifted-apart arc?
Basalts in Mariana Trough are MORB-like, but have some arc
characteristics. Vesicular. Spreading still in progress. Further north, on
Iwo-Jima Ridge, there is an incipient back-arc basin just beginning to form
- the Bonin Trough.

Mariana Active Arc: This consists of numerous small islands and

seamounts, on the eastern edge of the extensive Fore-arc region. Lavas
are mainly basalts, basaltic andesites and andesites.

Mariana Fore-arc: The forearc region shows a history of continual

subsidence. The basement is Eocene in age (similar to Kyushu-Palau
Ridge) and consists of two distinct lava types:

(1) Island Arc Tholeiites (very similar in character to those of

Kyushu-Palau Ridge). These magmas can normally be easily
distinguished from calc-alkaline basalts from more mature arc
systems.

(2) Boninites, or high-magnesian andesites. These are unusual

lavas, combining high Si with high Mg, Ni and Cr. They are thought
to have formed by wet-melting of rather refractory lithosphere.

(3) Dacites also occur on Guam.

Drilling and dredging in the trench area of the fore-arc has recovered
mainly volcanic materials. No scraped-off sediments from the oceanic
plate - with the implication that all sediment is being subducted, and that
the fore-arc itself is suffering tectonic erosion as a result of the rasping
action of the downgoing slab.

TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF MARIANA ARC SYSTEM

Combining evidence from magnetic anomalies, drilling, dredging and

geochronology, the geologic history of the arc system can be pieced
together. In the period immediately preceding the development of the arc,
the plate configuration in the eastern Indian Ocean and western Pacific
was dominated by the rapid movement of India northward. There were
some major N - S oriented transform faults at this time, so about 60 Ma
ago the plate tectonic configuration probably looked like this:
India was just about to collide into Asia to form the Himalayas, Australia
had just begun to separate from Antarctica, and note the very large ridge
offsets on the N-S transforms. The critical point at this time was that slab-
pull associated with the rapidly-moving Indian Plate will stop as soon as
India collides. Similarly, the spreading ridge in the NE Pacific is going to
push itself under the Aleutians, when upon the slab-pull will also stop.
This leaves the northerly pull forces on the Pacific plate very weak, and
very vulnerable to change in plate motion direction. So about 40 my ago
the Pacific Plate changed motion from northwards to westward (c.f. kink
in Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain). The sequence of events can be
tracked as follows:

(1) The Kyushu-Palau Ridge is thought to mark the position of one of

these major transform faults, with younger, warmer and thinner ocean
ocean lithosphere to the west, and older, cooler and denser lithosphere to
east. Drawn to scale, the position immediately before the change in plate
motion probably looked like this:
It can easily be envisaged how the eastern side would easily subduct
under the new young warm lithosphere to the west that had recently
formed at a spreading ridge. After the change in plate motion direction,
the map then looked like:

A new volcanic arc forms at the site of the easternmost transform, and
many complications develop in SE Asia (Philippines, etc.) because of
transforms turning into arcs, and various subduction-flips as thick
(plateau-type) ocean crust refuses to subduct. A new subduction zone
develops north of Australia.

(2) Rapid build-up of Kyushu-Palau Arc in late Eocene – Oligocene

through voluminous eruption of island arc tholeiites and high-Mg
boninites. Activity continued for ca 10 my. So what happened to bring
about such a rapid rate of magma production. It is possible that the
earliest stages of subduction looked as follows:

Note that the downgoing plate not only has "conveyor-belt" motion, but
also a strong vertical component so that it is sinking into the mantle. At
this point hot asthenosphere mantle rushes in to replace it. So in a rather
unique rapidly extensional tectonic environment, wet altered ocean crust
is juxtaposed next to very hot asthenospheric mantle. With an abundance
of heat and water, it is not surprising that huge amounts of magma are
generated. This tectonic situation is actually even more extensional than
at a mid-ocean ridge, so it may be expected that all the features of a
"type" mid-ocean ridge are reproduced: pillow lavas, sheeted dykes,
gabbros, etc. This is shown below:

(to come)

(3) Splitting of K-P Arc in half about 30 my ago with formation of

Parece-Vela & Shikoku Basins by back-arc spreading. Spreading
stopped about 16 my ago.
 (4) Formation of West Mariana Arc between about 17 and 8 my ago
through eruption of calc-alkaline basalts and basaltic andesites.

(5) Splitting of West Mariana Arc abut 6 my ago to form Mariana

Trough by back-arc spreading, and leaving West Mariana Ridge as
remnant arc.

(6) Formation of new Mariana Arc 5 my ago to present. Now

erupting lavas with mixed calc-alkaline - island arc tholeiite
characteristics.

Presumably the Mariana Arc will continue migrating eastwards into the
Pacific.

Magma Compositions

Arc Magmatism

The magmas erupted at the Mariana Arc show a gradual evolution in

composition with time. Note that the whole arc system has evolved
entirely within the oceanic regime (no continental crust or sub-continental
lithosphere involved).

The earliest lavas erupted (now seen on Kyushu-Palau Ridge and

Mariana Fore-arc) are island arc tholeiites (IAT) and boninites. These are
characteristic of very primitive oceanic island arcs, and are not usually
erupted on continents or in the later stages of arc development. IAT have
similarities with mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB), in having depleted rare-
earth element (REE) patterns, but are usually more Fe-rich and with low
Cr and Ni contents, very low Nb and Ta, higher K contents and high K/Rb
ratios. Boninites are high-Mg lavas, but have high silica contents more
typical of andesites; they have high Cr and Ni contents, but have lower Ti
contents and higher K, Rb, Ba and Sr contents than would normally be
expected of high-Mg rocks.
Boninites are thought to result from wet melting of the rather refractory
Mg-rich mantle wedge beneath the developing arc - with the wedge being
contaminated with elements such as K, Rb, Ba, Sr transported from the
subduction zone during dehydration of the hydrous ocean crust.

IAT could be melts of the more fertile asthenosphere, the magmas then
undergoing extensive crystal fractionation en route to the surface. Or they
could represent melts of subducted ocean basalt crust (only possible at
the very start of subduction when the ocean lithosphere is pushed down
into hot mantle).

After opening of the Parece Vela basin by back-arc spreading, arc

volcanic activity was transferred 17 my ago to the what is now the West
Mariana Ridge, and continued building up that arc for ca. 9 my. The lavas
erupted however were mainly calc-alkaline basalts (CAB) and basaltic
andesites, with higher Al contents, much higher Sr and Ba contents and
light rare-earth enriched rather than depleted REE patterns. These lavas
are more similar to calc-alkaline lavas erupted at continental margins
(though the latter are usually dominated by andesite rather than basaltic
andesites).

These CAB magmas may have been derived from the mantle wedge. But
if so there is an implication that the wedge may have been enriched in Ba,
Sr, light REE, etc., perhaps as a result of continued fluid transport of
these elements into the wedge from the dehydrating subducting slab.

Modern lavas erupted at the active Mariana Arc tend to be mainly

andesites and basaltic andesites having characteristics in between those
of IAT and CAB. There is some evidence that a small component (ca.
0.5%) of subducted abyssal sediment is involved in their source regions.

Perhaps the most interesting aspect of the Mariana arc is that at least
three distinct magma types appear to have been generated from the one
subduction zone. Yet the whole arc system evolved entirely within the
oceanic environment.

Back-arc Basalts

In many respects marginal basin basalts (MBB) are similar to normal mid-
ocean ridge basalts (N-type MORB). However during the early stages of
back-arc spreading, when the uprising mantle diapir splits the volcanic
arc, the basalt magmas are derived from the sub-arc mantle. These
basalts tend to have an arc-like geochemical signature. Thus their REE
patterns may be slightly light REE enriched, they have higher Ba, Sr, K
and Rb, but low Nb and Ta. Moreover they tend to have higher water
contents and be vesicular - a consequence of fluids distilled from the
subducting slab. These features are useful discriminants in trying to
characterise ophiolites as being derived from either obducted ocean floor
or marginal basin crust. See Saunders & Tarney (1984; 1991) for
summary.

Addition: Schematic cross-section across the Mariana Arc showing the

components involved in magma generation.

Fluids are released from the sub-ducting slab as "wet" amphibolite

recrystallises at ca. 100km depth to dry dense eclogite. These fluids
migrate upwards into the mantle wedge and induce melting of the sub-arc
lithosphere. (The more water, the more melting, and higher the magma
production?). However, this mantle varies in it's fertility because of
previous metasomatic events affecting the deeper lithosphere.

More active mantle diapirism occurs in the back-arc region, and this
results in much more melting and active spreading. Hydrous fluids are still
involved in these mamgas, but to a lesser extent than in the arc rocks.
WHAT CAUSED THE CHANGE IN PACIFIC PLATE MOTION THAT
PRODUCED THE MARIANA ARC?

If we bear in mind that plate motions are dominantly controlled by 'slab

pull', then anything which reduces the slab-pull force will encourage
changes in the direction and speed of plate motion. It is notable that in the
southeastern Pacific the Aluk Ridge (spreading centre) began to
progressively subduct along the Antarctic Peninsula; at the same time,
the northwestern Pacific the Kula Ridge began to subduct beneath the
Aleutians - Kamchatka. A result was a marked reduction in the N™S slab-
pull, because recently formed hot lithosphere is not very dense and not
keen to subduct. In combination with other plate re-configuring events
worldwide, this may have been enough to cause switch in Pacific Plate
motion from N – S to E – W. But see Richards et al. (1996)

REFERENCES: Arcs and Marginal Basins

The references below lead to most aspects of interest to island arcs, even
if you just look at the abstracts & diagrams!

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volcanic rocks from the Mariana forearc and the role of an incompatible element-enriched
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CHASE, C.G. 1978. Extension behind island arcs and motions relative to hot spots. Journal
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CHASE. C.G. 1979. Asthenospheric counterflow: a kinematic model. Geophysical Journal

of the Royal Astronomical Society 56, 1-18.

CRAWFORD, A.J., BECCALUVA, L. & SERRI, G. 1981. Tectono-magmatic evolution of the

West Philippine-Mariana region and the origin of boninites. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 54, 346-356.

DAVIES, J.H. & STEVENSON, D.J. 1992. Physical model of source region of subduction
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HAMILTON, W.B. 1988. Plate tectonics and island arcs. Geological Society of America
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HASTON, R. & FULLER, M. 1991. Palaeomagnetic data from the Philippine Sea plate and
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HAWKINS, J.W., BLOOMER, S.H., EVANS, C.A. & MELCHIOR, J.T. 1984. Evolution of
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HICKEY, R.L. & FREY, F.A. 1982. Geochemical characteristics of boninite series volcanics:
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HILDE, T.W., UYEDA, S. & KROENKE, L. 1977. Evolution of the western Pacific and its
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HOLE, M. J., SAUNDERS, A. D., MARRINER, G. F. & TARNEY, J. 1984. Subduction of

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HSUI, A.T., MARSH, B.D. & TOKSOZ, M.N. 1983. On melting of the subducted ocean
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JURDY, D.M. 1979. Relative plate motions and the formation of marginal basins. Journal of
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KARIG, D.E. 1971. Structural history of the Mariana island arc system. Geological Society
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KARIG, D.E. 1971. Origin and development of marginal basins in the Western
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KARIG, D.E. 1982. Initiation of subduction zones - Implications for arc evolution and
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KINCAID, C. & OLSON, P. 1987. An experimental study of subduction and slab

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KUSHIRO, I. 1990. Partial melting of mantle wedge and evolution of island arc
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MARSH, B.D. 1979. Island arc development: some observations, experiments and
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MOLNAR, P. & ATWATER, T. 1978. Interarc spreading and cordilleran tectonics as

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NATLAND, J.H. & TARNEY, J. 1982. Petrological evolution of the Mariana Arc and Back-
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STERN, R.J., BLOOMER, S.H., LIN, P.-N. & SMOOT, N.C. 1989. Submarine arc volcanism
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TARNEY, J., SAUNDERS, A.D. & WEAVER, S.D. 1977. Geochemistry of volcanic rocks
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TECTONICS OF SUBDUCTION ZONES

Contrasts between West & East Pacific

Uyeda & Kanamori (1979) emphasised that there were two contrasting
types of subduction zone: Mariana Type and Chilean Type - with of
course many intermediate types. The Mariana Type is characterised by a
very steeply dipping slab; the Chilean Type by a shallow-dipping slab.
These differences were further amplified by Dewey (1981).

Mariana Type has:

1. Deep open trench (up to 11 km deep) that subducts old cold Jurassic
crust.

2. A very steep Benioff Zone

3. Extensive faulting, subsidence and tectonic erosion of the outer trench
wall.

4. Widespread intra-arc extension and back-arc spreading.

5. More earthquakes in the under-riding than in the over-riding plate.

6. A rather thin mafic-intermediate composition volcanic-plutonic crust.

7. Extensive volcanism; mainly basaltic with only minor andesites.

8. Little or no sedimentary accretion at the trench.

9. Subdued morphological expression.

10 Lavas have quiet eruptive style.

11 Volcanoes are mainly submerged cones with fringing reefs.

12 Poorly developed volcaniclastic dispersal fans.

Chilean Type has:

1. Shallower trench (up to 6 km) that subducts younger, warmer, Eocene

age oceanic crust.

2. Thrust faulting common on outer trench wall.

3. Major thrust faulting in the under-riding Nazca Plate up to 200 km west

of the trench.

4. A Benioff Zone with a very shallow dip down to about 200 km, and then
a steeper deeper portion

below a seismic gap.

5. Widespread intra-arc compression and back-arc thrusting over a

foreland trough.

6. More, and higher energy, earthquakes in the over-riding than in the

under-riding plate.
7. Plutonism is dominant over volcanism.

8. Volcanism is dominantly of andesite-dacite-rhyolite type; basalts being

much rarer.

9. Thick (ca 70km) continental crust gradually tapering trenchward to less

than 10 km.

10 Because of dominant compression, continental arc has high uplift

rates.

11 Violent eruptive style. High viscosity lavas. Extensive volcaniclastic

dispersal fans.

12 Spectacular geomorphological expression.

Difference in seismic characteristics: The steep dip of the Benioff Zone in

the Mariana type means that the contact interface between the
subducting slab and the mantle wedge lithosphere is less than 100 km,
hence not much frictional drag. In any case tectonic conditions are
extensional. In Chilean type however, the shallow slab dip and greater
thickness of continental lithosphere means that the contact interface can
be as much as 400 km. Hence considerable resistance and friction and
much greater seismic activity.

Tectonic Erosion and Accretion: In the Mariana Arc there is no

accretion of abyssal sediments at the trench. Yet considerable volumes of
sediment are entering the trench: sediments are 0.5km thick on Pacific
Plate entering the trench, subduction rate 10 cm/yr for ca. 40 m.y. (work
out how many cubic km per unit length of arc!). Instead forearc is
undergoing tectonic erosion ("subcretion"). Most of the sediment is being
subducted - only a small proportion of it is re-cycled into arc volcanics.
Along Chilean margin the sediment supply varies: very little in north
where desert conditions, but much more in south where rainfall is high. It
has been suggested that the continental basement may be eroding by
subcretion in Northern Chile, but growing by sediment accretion in
Southern Chile. Where sediment supply is high, sediments may fill the
trench and flood over on to the oceanic plate; thus depressing it so that it
approaches subduction zone at a shallow angle.

Explanation for differences between East and West Pacific Margins

Contrast cannot be explained simply by differences in convergence rate,

since Chilean, Mariana, Japanese and Tonga arcs all have head-on
convergence rate of about 10 cm/yr. Contrast must be related to balance
between "roll-back" of hinge and convergence rate. If roll-back is faster
than convergence rate then back-arc extension results; if slower, then
back-arc compression.

Roll-back may be determined by age of subducting lithosphere (Molnar &

Atwater 1978). Old cold lithosphere is denser and subducts at steeper
angle . . presumably takes less time to reach 650 km discontinuity. If it
cannot penetrate discontinuity then splays back (see experiments of
Kinkaid & Olsen (1987)) and induces roll-back of hinge at subduction
zone, giving extensional tectonics. However, with shallower angle
subduction of younger warmer lithosphere the slab will take longer to
reach 650km discontinuity, and will warm up more and become less
coherent and less able to induce roll-back effect. So no extension. An
additional factor is that in the Eastern Pacific the American Plate is over-
riding the Pacific (Nazca) Plate due to the opening of the Atlantic . .
although the rate is quite small.

Wider implications: If the balance between compression and extension at

convergent plate margins is related to dip of slab (and hence age of
lithosphere subducting), then it may explain why intraoceanic island arcs
are essentially a Phanerozoic phenomenon, and become rare or absent
in the middle to early Precambrian. Higher thermal gradients in
Precambrian would mean greater ridge length and smaller plates (see
Hargraves 1986), so subducting plates would be younger and warmer,
and less likely to subduct at steep angle. Hence much less likely to
induce extensional conditions at convergent plate boundaries. Is it only
when there is extension that island arcs are produced?

References
DEWEY, J.F. 1981. Episodicity, sequence and style at convergent plate boundaries. In: The
Continental Crust and its Mineral Deposits. Geological Association of Canada, Special
Paper 20, 553-572.