Review Article

Proc IMechE Part B:

J Engineering Manufacture
1–26
A review on effect of thinning, Ó IMechE 2018
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DOI: 10.1177/0954405417752509

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Takalkar Atul S and M C Lenin Babu

Abstract
There are various processes practiced in a market for manufacturing axisymmetrical cup with significant forming depth
among which deep drawing process is most prompt. The deep drawing process is a forming process with ongoing inter-
est which will have a major impact on industries in coming years. This article focuses on the current status and potential
of future development of technology in the deep drawing process. First, it describes various types of approaches and
techniques used in the deep drawing of different materials. This is followed by brief reviews of advantages and limitations
of these technologies with its application in industries. The details of these technologies are just referred rather than
explaining in detail. The further part of this article focuses on advanced methods for predicting defects like thinning,
wrinkling and spring-back in deep drawing process which are mostly responsible for rejection of the components. The
opportunity in the development of flexibility in deep drawing process is covered with an observed barrier in the predic-
tion of defects such as thinning, wrinkling and spring-back. The obtained evidence indicates that deep drawing process
may not be applicable for all materials, but represents an excellent opportunity in the drawing of multilayer metal and
composite material sheets to complex shapes.

Keywords
Metal forming, deep drawing, anisotropic, composite, thinning, wrinkling, spring-back

Date received: 1 January 2017; accepted: 5 November 2017

Introduction on the surface finish of tools. The increase in surface fin-

The deep drawing is a metal forming process used for
manufacturing the axisymmetric component having
measurable drawing depth. When the depth of compo-
nent is significantly greater than its diameter, such com-
ponents can be easily formed to the desired shape using
deep drawing process. This sheet metal forming process
is preferred in aerospace industries, automobile indus-
tries and kitchen utensil manufacturing industries.
When the component with a complex profile is drawn
to a certain depth, it will lead to uneven distribution of
thickness along the drawing direction. The thinning of
the sheet is observed at the bottom of a component,
whereas thickening is observed at the upper flange of
the component.1 The thinning is observed predomi-
nantly where the cup profile changes the direction, as it
creates the obstacle in the flow of material while draw-
ing. The different techniques which were used to elimi-
nate the problem of thickness variation and material
flow in the die cavity are briefed in this article. It is
observed that the flow of material in die cavity depends
ish increases the tendency of material flow which can be
enhanced by selecting a proper type of lubrication. The
effect of wet and dry lubrication can make a distinct dif-
ference in coefficient of friction.2 The component
achieved by maintaining above conditions will have a
uniform thickness and better mechanical strength which
has vast application in mechanical and electrical devices.
Another most common defect observed in forming
process is wrinkling. The wrinkling defect occurs due to
the application of uneven blank holding force. The
blank holder is specifically used for maintaining a pres-
sure on blank while performing a deep drawing opera-
tion. The excess application of blank holding force
School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, Vellore Institute of
Technology, Chennai, India
Corresponding author:
M C Lenin Babu, School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, Vellore
Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600127, India.
Email: lenin_babu@yahoo.com
2 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
leads to tearing of blank at the die shoulder radius or
punch nose radius, whereas low blank holding force
leads to the occurrence of wrinkles at the flange
region.3
Apart from thinning and wrinkling effect, the spring-
back effect is also observed frequently while performing
deep drawing operation. It is difficult to obtain the
exact required shape by forming process due to the
behaviour of the material. In few cases, it is observed
that when the punch retracts after drawing a required
component, it slightly regains its original shape due to
elastic property. This unwanted regaining of shape after
removal of applied force can be called as a spring-back
effect. The factors such as material anisotropy, punch
angle, die lip radius and punch radius found to have
more influence on spring-back effect.4 To achieve a pre-
scribed dimension of drawn component, spring-back
effect should be accurately predicted and measurable
actions should be taken.
The evidence obtained from recent reviews5 which
were carried out on deep drawing process indicated that
the parameters such as temperature, friction coefficient,
blank holder force (BHF), blank shape and punch
speed had more influence on the quality of the product.
However, these deterministic efforts neglect the effect
of geometrical parameters such as punch and die radius,
clearance and surface finish of tools and the brief dis-
cussion on defect caused due to these parameters while
performing the process. Also, the comprehensive litera-
ture review conducted on optimization aspects in deep
drawing process was limited to few techniques and
approaches. The advanced techniques and approaches
missed in recent review article are mostly included in
this review.
From literature, it has been found that the recent
research has been carried out on the deep drawing of
multilayer and composite materials which have vast
application in the field of automobile industries due to
its lightweight and high strength. To maintain safety,
Figure 1. Thickness distribution in cup for rolling direction 0° after (a) first drawing stage and (b) second drawing stage.6
the thickness variation in such advanced materials
should be within the safer limit. This review article dis-
cusses the evidence of parameters which promote the
defects such as thinning, wrinkling and spring-back
effect for deep drawing of metals, multilayer metals
and composite materials.
Thinning effect
The sheet metal forming processes need to be designed
properly in order to achieve a successful forming of a
component with complex profiles. Nowadays, con-
sumer demands a quality product which can be fulfilled
by adopting effective methods and techniques. The
quality directly influences the defect such as wall thin-
ning. Such defect can be analysed and predicted using
theoretical, numerical and experimental approach.
Approach to predict thinning effect
Traditionally, the deep drawing was carried out using
an analytical method and further validated by perform-
ing experimental tests. This method had been consum-
ing more time and cost which can be reduced by
introducing numerical technique. The effect of yield cri-
terion on numerical analysis of reverse deep drawing
process for mild steel sheet was investigated by Neto
et al.6 using Hill’48, Von Mises and Barlat Yld’91 the-
ory combined with Swift hardening law. The evaluation
of punch force and distribution of thickness along the
cup wall was carried out for two deep drawing stages
(see Figures 1–3). The predicted cup wall thickness by a
numerical method for the second stage was higher as
compared to the first stage. It was found that thickness
distribution predicted by Hill’48-R and Yld’91 models
were closer to experimental results.
Fereshteh-Saniee and Montazeran7 calculated the
force required for drawing complex profile component
using analytical, experimental and numerical techniques
Takalkar and Lenin Babu 3

Figure 2. Thickness distribution in cup for rolling direction 45° after (a) first drawing stage and (b) second drawing stage.6

Figure 3. Thickness distribution in cup for rolling direction 90° after (a) first drawing stage and (b) second drawing stage.6

and observed that the Siebel’s formula provides more

accurate results of drawing force than numerical tech-
nique. In a case of numerical technique, it was found
that Shell 51 element proved to be more effective for
deep drawing process instead of Visco Solid 106 ele-
ment (see Figure 4).
The conical dies were developed by Dhaiban et al.8
for deep drawing of a brass elliptic cup which involves
punching of circular blank using a single stroke with a
flat headed elliptical punch through a conical die having
an elliptical aperture. The effect of punch and die geo-
metry was investigated to optimize design process by
performing numerical analysis on the three-dimensional Figure 4. Drawing force variation with coefficient of friction
model. From the experimental test, it was observed that for different methods.7
half cone angle of 18° had best drawing ability, whereas
the best limiting drawing ratio (LDR) was about 2.24–
2.26. This technique has been proved to be convenient (see Figure 5(a) and (b)). Also, Garcia et al.9 carried
for drawing the sheet with the thickness between 1.9 out modelling and experimental tests for three different
and 3 mm by maintaining the thickness of cup along applications of deep drawing such as cylindrical cup
with major and minor axes for different clearance ratio test, Erichsen test and industrial sheet metal forming
4 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
Figure 5. Effect of clearance ratio on cup thickness t = 2.4 mm at LDR (a) along major axis and (b) along minor axis.8
Table 1. Observed variation in parameters after analysis.13
S. no. Parameter
1 Die shoulder radius
2 Punch nose radius
3 Radial clearance
4 Blank holding force
5 Fluid lubricant between punch and blank
6 Fluid lubricant between holder and blank
7 Solid lubricant between punch and blank
8 Solid lubricant between die and blank
process for EK4 steel. The obtained numerical results
for proposed model had less variation with experiential
results which prove that the model can be effectively
used to solve industrial problems.
The numerical approach is frequently used for the
optimization and validation of deep drawing processes.
The process optimization was carried out by Gantar
et al.10 for deep drawing of rectangular components
using finite element method (FEM) to increase the sta-
bility of the process. The study focuses on input para-
meters such as die radius, punch radius, blank holding
force, clearance, friction coefficient, restraining force of
drawbead, drawing speed of punch and outcoming
effects such as spring-back effect and thinning effect.
Also, the FE simulation for deep drawing of axisym-
metric cups with drawing depth 30, 18 and 6 mm was
carried out by Natarajan et al.11 to analyse the thick-
ness distribution and plane principle deformation. The
large-strain hyperelastic shell formulations which
include Hill’48-associated model were used for numeri-
cal simulation of a cup. Along with the mentioned
approaches, the artificial neural network (ANN) can
also be used for the optimization of process para-
meters. The blank optimization using ANN was carried
out by Haddadzadeh et al.12 for deep drawing of a cir-
cular cup. The numerical and experimental approach
was used to simulate the deep drawing process. The
Purpose Value
10 times sheet thickness
4 times sheet thickness
Greater than sheet thickness
Less than 3 tons
Reduce thinning mP = 0 0:3
Reduce thinning and stresses mP = 0:125 0:2
Reduce maximum residual stresses mP = 0:3 0:7
Reduce thinning and stresses mP = 0:125 0:2
neural network method was observed to be quicker, be
accurate and provide a solution in single step than sen-
sitivity analysis method. The obtained optimum blank
had a less thinning effect and uniform deformation in
drawn part which reduces the failure possibility.
Effect of parameters on thinning
The parametric study is carried out for optimization of
deep drawing process to minimize the thickness varia-
tion. El Sherbiny et al.13 carried out parametric analy-
sis to investigate the thinning and residual stresses in
deep drawing process of sheet metal (see Table 1). The
explicit analysis was performed on a three-dimensional
model by considering anisotropic material properties to
predict thickness distribution, residual stresses, geome-
trical and physical parameters.
Padmanabhan et al.14 implemented the Taguchi
method for identification of relative influence of process
parameters such as BHF, friction coefficient and die
radius on a deep drawing of axisymmetric stainless steel
cup. The predicted thickness distribution revealed that
the die radius had a greater influence on deep drawing
process than blank holder and friction coefficient. The
effects of parameters such as thinning, punch load, the
angle of U part and surface quality on micro U deep
drawing were investigated by performing experimental
tests15 (see Table 2).
Takalkar and Lenin Babu 5

Table 2. Effect of change in parameter for micro U deep

drawing process.15

Applied parameter Affected parameter

Die radius decreases Punch load increases

BHF increases Punch load increases
BHF increases Angle of U part increases

BHF: blank holder force.

Table 3. Effect of friction coefficient (m) on different cases.16

Cases Minimum Thickness deviation

thickness
Figure 6. Thickness distribution for various friction coefficient
Thickness variation Decreases Decrease than (m) under condition 1.16
increase
Between blank Increases Decreases
and punch
Between blank Decreases Decrease than
and blank holder increase

Lubrication conditions. The different types of lubricant

can be used for reducing friction between blank and
tooling while performing deep drawing process. Due to
inadequate and improper lubrication condition, defects
such as thinning, tearing and scratching are generated.
Ma et al.16 investigated the effect of friction coefficient
in deep drawing of aluminium alloy AA6111 sheet at
elevated temperature. The numerical analysis and
experimental tests were carried out on the basis of three
different cases such as the effect of friction coefficient
on thickness variation, friction coefficient between Figure 7. Thickness distribution for various friction coefficient
blank and punch and friction coefficient between the (m) under condition 2.16
blank and blank holder (see Table 3). It was observed
that thickness variation and failure modes of drawn
cup were influenced by friction coefficient and lubrica-
tion position, whereas variation in friction coefficient
depends on parameters such as pressure, temperature
and lubrication condition. The thickness distributions
were obtained for different coefficients of friction under
different conditions (see Figures 6–8). The acceptable
formability was obtained for 0.15 friction coefficient.
The effects of surface texturing, electro-discharge
texturing and mill finish on friction behaviour were
analysed by Ju et al.17 while stamping of Al 5182-O
aluminium sheet using cup drawing test. The numerical
simulation was performed for different lubrication con-
ditions to determine the coefficient of friction at the
tool and work piece (blank). The thickness distribution
was measured along with the rolling and transverse
Figure 8. Thickness distribution for various friction coefficient
directions (see Figure 9(a) and (b)), and it was found
(m) under condition 3.16
that the dry film lubrication with a coefficient of fric-
tion 0.08 shows better lubricity than wet lubricants with
a coefficient of friction 0.12. coefficient, contact area ratio and strain distribution.
Yang18 proposed a lubrication/friction model with a The effect of surface roughness on lubrication flow was
combination of elastic–plastic FEM code for axisym- included using Wilson and Marsault’s average
metric deep drawing process for prediction of friction Reynolds equation where the calculated friction was
6 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
Figure 9. Comparison of thickness obtained from experimental and simulation results for lubrication F: (a) rolling direction and (b)
transverse direction.17
expressed in terms of lubricant viscosity, sliding speed,
lubricant film thickness, strain rate and sheet rough-
ness. Also, Zhang et al.19 analysed the drawing beha-
viour and drawing ability of AZ31 alloy sheets with the
different initial texture. It was observed that compared
to as-received sheets, the repeated unidirectional bend-
ing processed sheets were drawn successfully with LDR
of 1.7 but found weaker texture intensity at the
shoulder which contributes to sheet thinning.
Thinning in different metals
The deep drawing process tooling is designed by consid-
ering the factor such as material behaviour. It has a sig-
nificant effect on designing geometrical parameters and
LDR. It was observed that proper selection of material
plays a significant role in the successful deep drawing of
a component. Gao et al.20 investigated the influence of
material parameters such as yield stress, hardening
exponent and elastic modulus on deep drawing of a
thin-walled hemispheric surface part by developing a
three-dimensional FE model. It was observed that the
effect of hardening exponent, yield stress, equivalent
strain and punch force had more influence on thickness
variation. The materials with high formability such as
aluminium alloy and steel alloys can be preferred for
deep drawing processes. Also, the zero-defect manufac-
turing process was introduced by Zoesch et al.21 for the
detection of cracks and thinning of material in the deep
drawing process. The 3MA (micro-magnetic, multi-
parametric, microstructure and stress analysis) is a non-
destructive testing which was used to investigate the
characteristics of ferromagnetic materials qualitatively
and quantitatively. The obtained result from proposed
method shows the direct correlation with sheet thick-
ness variation.
Aluminium metal sheets. The effect of parameters such as
forming rate, temperature and friction between a blank-
tooling element and blank holder pressure (BHP) on
formability of aluminium alloys in warm deep drawing
was investigated by Kim et al.22 The thickness variation
was maintained by applying large temperature gradient
between the die and punch. It was observed that LDR
was decreased when blank and tooling were heated to
the same temperature, whereas the warm deep drawing
of magnesium AZ31 alloy sheet was carried out by El-
Morsy and Manabe23 using finite element analysis
Takalkar and Lenin Babu
(FEA) tool. The heat transfer effect was considered for
improvement of drawability and temperature distribu-
tion which helps in drawing a blank without thinning.
It was observed that with an increase in punch speed,
the cup height and heat transfer decrease, whereas tem-
perature at the punch bottom increases. Also, Zheng
et al.24 proposed an approach combined with FEM to
analyse the deep drawing of magnesium alloy AZ31
cylindrical cups under non-isothermal condition. It was
observed that the applied approach works efficiently to
predict a fracture at punch nose radius and die shoulder
radius at different elevated temperature.
Ren et al.25,26 carried out warm deep drawing of
magnesium alloy AZ31 square-shaped cup using
numerical and experimental techniques. The thinning
observed at the corner of square-shaped cup can be
reduced by applying specific punch speed and tempera-
ture. The punching speed of 6 and 120 mm/min was
maintained for forming a sound cups at 150 °C and
250 °C. Also, the correlation between material proper-
ties obtained from tensile test and process parameters
such as forming temperature, punch speed and geome-
trical shape of blank was proposed. It was observed
that with an increase in temperature, the elongation
increases and work-hardening decreases, whereas the
material thinning and punch force can be decreased
using C-shaped blank.
The FLD generation, discrete element (DE) and FE
coupling simulation were carried out by Dong et al.27
by applying visual basic language to predict the frac-
ture instability and strain distribution in AA7075-T6
(aluminium alloy cold-rolling sheet) conical cup. At
forming temperature of 250 °C, the conical cup with
half cone angle of 15° and the relative height of 0.57
was formed in a single stroke. In contrast, Raju et al.28
used Taguchi’s signal-to-noise ratio for deep drawing
of AA 6061 sheet. It was observed that the die shoulder
radius has more influence on thickness variation than
BHF and punch nose radius. The variation in thickness
causes stress concentration which leads to failure of a
component.
Steel metal sheets. Bandyopadhyay et al.29 carried out
laboratory-scale deep drawing test to study LDR of
tailor-welded blanks (TWB) having a combination of
dual-phase steel and interstitial-free (IF) steel. The
simulation was carried out by developing an FE model
and further incorporating a theoretical model of FLD
to predict thinning effect and failure location of the
component. However, the transverse tensile testing of
TWB and laser-welded blank of low-carbon steel was
carried out by Vasudevan et al.30 to investigate the
effect of anisotropy in terms of thickness variation for
different forming depth and location. It was observed
that the factors such as R value and Lankford aniso-
tropy parameter influences thickness distribution and
failure location in case of TWBs. The drawing depth
for laser-welded blank was observed to be decreased by
7
5%–7% compared to parent metal due to the influence
of narrow weld zone of 0.5–0.7 mm.
Serri and Cherkaoui31 implemented Abaqus explicit
FE code using VUMAT subroutine to investigate the
effect of martensitic phase transformation on formabil-
ity of transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel
sheets. The effect of stress state and kinetics of marten-
site phase transformation on a deep drawing of a cup
was investigated at a different temperature.
Chen et al.32 proposed two models, one with the
effect of strain path and other with the effect of both
size and strain path for the prediction of forming limit
of stainless steel 304 foils at the micro-scale level. It was
found that the ultimate tensile strength and yield
strength increase with the increase in thickness to aver-
age grain size ratios (T/D), whereas the fracture strain
also increases with increase in T/D except for 20 mm
thickness. The effect of strain path was also studied by
Thuillier et al.33 on two-stage reverse deep drawing of
mild steel cylindrical cups with the thickness of 0.98 mm
where the hardening models were used for the calcula-
tion of cup thickness for different orientations in rolling
direction.
The numerical simulation was carried out by Ethiraj
and Senthil Kumar34 for deep drawing of austenitic
stainless steel 304 circular cup to improve LDR at
higher temperatures. It was observed that LDR for 1-
mm-thick sheet at room temperature was 2.1, whereas
for 1500 °C, it was 2.5. The variation in results obtained
from experimental and numerical simulation was about
5%.
Coated metal sheets. The metal sheets are coated with
other metal to enhance the forming property. Zhou
et al.35 developed an elastic–plastic FEM for a multi-
stage deep drawing of nickel-coated steel. The thickness
variation was influenced by principal stresses, and
deformation in the coating was observed at the flange
and dies fillet profile. Also, Lim et al.36 performed
numerical analysis for the prediction of formability of
vinyl-coated metal (VCM) using Gurson–Tvergaard–
Needleman (GTN) damage model. The formability of
VCM material was evaluated by generation of forming
limit curve (FLC) through dome test simulation using
Nakazima specimen. From the analysis, it was identi-
fied that the adhesive layer damage was influenced by
die fillets and punch velocity. On the contrary, Mamalis
et al.37 used explicit nonlinear FE code DYNA3D for
the simulation of deep drawing of square section–
coated sheets. The simulation helps in the prediction of
material flow and load curve for macroscopic point of
view in order to avoid thinning of the cup. Also, the
weldability, formability and surface micro crack were
analysed for hot deep drawing by Lee et al.38 using
laser-welded blank of Al-Si- or Zn-coated boron steel
of different thicknesses. The hardness observed in
welded area of Zn-coated boron steel was 450 HV, but
peeled off at 950 °C.
8 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
Table 4. Comparison of thickness variation in cup with initial thickness of blank.39
Cup diameter (mm) Thickness variation at
top edge compared with initial thickness
2 40% more
20 45% more
Figure 10. Thickness variation obtained for initial tool
geometry along the meridian contour.39
Other metal sheets. The blank holder made up of con-
centric rings was used by Brabie et al.39 for minimizing
the sheet thickness variation in deep drawing of copper
alloy cylindrical parts. The thickness measured along
the meridian contour had a maximum value at the top
edge of the cup and minimum value at the bottom part.
The thickness variation is observed for cup with a dia-
meter of 2 and 20 mm (see Table 4 and Figure 10). The
proposed solution minimizes the sheet thickness varia-
tion by proper utilization of BHF, contact force and
friction force. In contrast, Zhang et al.40 developed a
texture and microstructure for cold deep drawn pure
titanium. It was found that the recrystallization texture
decreases due to increase in twinning and dislocation
slip increases by over drawing which results in strength-
ening the texture.
Multilayer metal sheets. The multilayer metal sheets are
manufactured by arranging different layers of different
materials in order to achieve desirable properties. The
requirement of component design with manufacturing
conditions can be satisfied by proper selection of a
combination of materials and processes.41 The alumi-
nium alloys are the most common metal found in the
literature of deep drawing process for multilayer sheet
because of its high formability property and light-
weight. Ghosh et al.42 investigated the effect of drawing
ratio, holding time, effect of ram speed and tempera-
ture on warm deep drawing of Al–Mg–Si alloys (EN
AW-6016 and EN AW-6061) from room temperature
to 250 °C. No change was observed in anisotropy by
change in temperature, whereas change in thickness
was observed from bottom to the top with minimum
at mid-height of the wall. Also, Li et al.43 investigated
the interface microstructure, deformation behaviour
Thickness variation at bottom
edge compared with initial thickness
20% less
25% less
Figure 11. Effect of deep drawing parameters on LDR at
different temperatures for composite material (Al(5052)/
Mg(AZ31)/Al(5052)).43 A, B and C are punch temperature,
punch speed and die curvature radius.
and formability of composite (Al(5052)/Mg(AZ31)/
Al(5052)) which was fabricated by the accumulative roll-
bonding process at high temperature. The optimization
of parameters such as punch speed, punch temperature
and dies curvature radius was carried out to maximize
the LDR (see Figure 11). The drawing ratio of 3.1 was
obtained for 200 °C and keeps increasing with forming
temperature (see Figure 12). The drawing of Al/Mg/Al
multilayer composite sheet at a temperature of 200 °C
had fewer tendencies of thinning than 150 °C.
The theoretical, experimental and numerical analysis
was carried out by Bagherzadeh et al.44 to investigate
the behaviour of laminated aluminium/steel bimetallic
sheets using Fortran based code. The code was used for
the model of non-uniform oil pressure distribution in
the hydromechanical deep drawing process. The wider
working zone can be achieved by reducing drawing
ratio and thickness of the sheet.45 It was observed that
material parameters such as process window, formabil-
ity of aluminium sheet, layer thickness, and lay-up
arrangement influence the forming condition. The effect
of lay-up on process window prediction (see Figure 13)
and higher LDR with lower thinning for the low form-
able aluminium sheet was achieved in the case of A/S
lay-up than S/A lay-up (see Figure 14).
Thinning in composite material
Nowadays, the composite materials are used on large
scale especially in automotive industries due to their
Takalkar and Lenin Babu 9

Figure 12. Effect of punch force on displacement of multilayer composite sheets (Al/Mg/Al) drawn at different condition with
respect to punch speed (A), die curvature radius (B) and punch temperature (C).43 (a) Fracture – die at 230 °C, DR= 3.0., A(80)/
B(15)/C(10), (b) Success – die at 230 °C, DR = 3.0., A(50)/B(15)/C(10), (c) Fracture – die at 200 °C, DR= 3.2., A(50)/B(15)/C(10)
and (d) Success – die at 200 °C, DR= 3.1., A(50)/B(15)/C(10).

Figure 13. Effect of lay-up predicted by FE simulation on

process window.45
property of high strength and lightweight. They are
manufactured using different techniques having differ-
ent chemical and physical properties.
Woven composites sheets. Machado et al.46 analysed
forming of woven-reinforced thermoplastic matrix
composites by introducing temperature- and rate-
dependent material model to identify the thermome-
chanical shear behaviour. At low forming speed, the
higher shear angle was induced due to lower stiffness of
the material. The drop in temperature was observed
which resulted in an increase in shear stiffness. Also, a
new failure criterion was proposed by Wang et al.47
based on strain and strain ratio for woven natural fibre
composite. The study focuses on the effect of water
treatment on pre-consolidated natural fibre composites
and generation of FLC for different conditions. The
Figure 14. Predicted LDR for various lay-ups and thickness
combinations.45
generated FLC incorporates with FEA simulation. It
was observed that proposed failure criteria predict fail-
ure depth and failure region in stretch forming.
Epoxy filament composite sheets. Lee et al.48 investigated
the effect of process parameters such as blank holding
force and punch velocity on formability of CR340/
CFRP composites on deep drawing process. The
obtained depth for CR340/CFRPR*, a composite with
required thickness, was higher than CR340/CFRP
composites when blank holding force of 15 kN was
applied (see Figure 15(a) and (b)). As the blank holding
force increased from 30 to 90 kN, a constant forming
depth was obtained for CR340/CFRP and CR340/
CFRPR* composites. In contrast, Kim et al.49
10
Figure 15. Variation in forming depth due to (a) blank holding force (Bf) with Td = 140 °C and Vp = 8 mm/s and (b) punch velocity
(Vp) with Td = 140 °C and Bf = 15 kN.48
fabricated an interpretation model of E-glass/epoxy
filament wound composite pressure vessel using deep
drawing and ironing process. It was observed that the
process planning drawings could be generated automat-
ically using process design module and punch load
which was minimized by regulating the distance
between dies.
Knitted fibre composite sheets. Lim et al.50 carried out the
optimization for formability of knitted fabric–
reinforced polypropylene composite sheet by introdu-
cing parameter X which describes the amount of
stretching relative to drawing. The effects of a para-
meter such as blank size, blank holding load and tool
geometry on formability of composite material were
analysed in terms of thickness variation. It was found
that knitted fabric composite is a better material due to
fabric reinforcement that facilitates distribution of
strain and ease of loop straightening that caters for
blank stretching. Furthermore, the investigation was
carried out on knitted fabric–reinforced thermoplastic
composite sheets to exhibit excellent stretching and
drape ability.51 Whereas the nonlinear computational
algorithm was used by Takano et al.52 for simulation
of deep drawing of knitted fibre–reinforced thermo-
plastic composite material to determine the deforma-
tion and behaviour of the composite material by
adopting homogenization theory.
Reinforced composite sheets. The FLC for flax fibre–
reinforced polypropylene composite along with maxi-
mum strain failure criterion was proposed by Wang
et al.53 The FEA analysis was carried out to draw the
samples and predict the failure in natural fibre compo-
site by plotting FLD in different forming deformation
modes. On the contrary, Jiang et al.54 investigated the
formability of particle-reinforced metal matrix compo-
site (MMC) by performing tensile and compressive
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
tests at room temperature. It was observed that by
imposing a combination of superimposed hydrostatic
pressure and heat treatment, an accurate deep drawing
of MMC sheet can be carried out without failure due
to thickness variation. Also, an anisotropic elastoplas-
tic constitutive model was developed by Dean et al.55
for short fibre-reinforced polymers (SFRPs) for clin-
ching joints which help to provide a realistic numerical
prediction and to investigate mechanical response of
joints in practical applications.
Sandwich composite sheets. The study was carried out by
Sokolova et al.56 to identify the formability of 316L/
PP–PE/316L sandwich composites in deep drawing pro-
cess for different sample size and core thickness. The
two flat punches with different shape and size were ana-
lysed using photogrammetric and metallographic tech-
niques. It was observed that the sandwich composite
was influenced more by core thickness and geometry of
punch. The study on deep drawing and bending beha-
viour of metal–polymer–metal sandwich composites
was carried out by Sokolova et al.57 with embedded dif-
ferent solid and mesh steel inlays. The thickness of com-
posites was quantified by photogrammetry. The
observed thickness was more for the sandwich with
mesh inlays than sandwich with circular solid inlays.
Other composite sheets. The failure analysis of cylindrical
cup drawing was carried out by Park and Colton58
using rapid prototype tooling made up of polymer com-
posite material. The failure mode was determined using
stress–strain response obtained from FEA and vali-
dated by performing experiment tests. The parametric
study was carried out and valid damage parameters
were identified for die failure modes based on failure
mechanism. However, Hankeln and Mahnken59 devel-
oped a mesoscopic model for deep drawing of carbon
fibre prepregs by splitting constitutive equation for
Takalkar and Lenin Babu
Figure 16. Thickness distributions along rolling and transverse
directions.61
Figure 17. Thickness distributions along transverse direction
for different initial gaps.61
materials as anisotropic elastic, isotropic, visco-elastic
behaviour which was able to represent a definite beha-
viour of the material in terms of thickness variation
and strains. Also, both the intragranular dislocation
phenomenon and behaviour of fine-grained alumina–
zirconia ceramic composite were investigated by Chen
et al.60 for deep drawing process. It was observed that
the Al2O3/ZrO2 can be elongated to dome height of
12 mm with punching rate of 0.6 mm/min at a tempera-
ture of 1400 °C.
Advanced deep drawing techniques
Recently, a lot of works is been carried out in the field
of engineering to manufacture a component with a
compact shape and complex profile. For the manufac-
turing of such components with different materials, dif-
ferent techniques such as micro deep drawing and
hydro deep drawing are required.
Micro deep drawing technique. The micro deep drawing
process had investigated by few authors for single metal
sheet as well as for multilayer sheets. Irthiea et al.61 car-
ried out a micro deep drawing of stainless steel 304
11
Figure 18. Thickness distributions along transverse direction
for friction coefficients at blank/holder interface.61
Figure 19. Thickness distributions along transverse direction
for friction coefficients at blank/punch interface.61
sheets by performing the experimental and numerical
simulation. The Abaqus codes were used in the numeri-
cal simulation for prediction of quality and aspect ratio
of micro metallic cups. This study focuses on the inves-
tigation of forming parameters such as sheet thickness,
friction conditions at contact, initial gaps and aniso-
tropy of SS 304 material (see Figures 16 and 17). The
optimization of the initial gap with respect to sheet
thickness, thickness distribution, and punch/stroke
relationship was also studied (see Figures 18 and 19). It
was observed that the drawing of stainless steel 304
cups with larger aspect ratio can be carried out using
flexible die through single micro deep drawing stage
which was impossible by a conventional method. In
contrast, Manabe et al.62 carried out FE simulation to
validate the surface roughness model in a micro deep
drawing of the cup with a diameter of 500 mm by devel-
oping a high-precision sequence blanking and micro
drawing setup. The thinning effect was observed at the
wall and corner of cup, whereas thickening effect was
observed at the end part. Also, the micro deep drawing
process at room temperature was carried out by Gong
et al.63 with the velocity of 0.1 mm/s using diamond-like
carbon (DLC) film–coated blank holder and dies. It
was observed that the DLC film helps in decreasing
12
punch force, which results in maintaining LDR and
thickness.
Shimizu et al.64 studied the thickness strain evolution
and plastic anisotropic behaviour in a micro deep draw-
ing of ultra-thin rolled phosphor bronze foil with the
thickness of 20–300 mm. The experimental tests were
performed to show the importance of geometrical ani-
sotropy, such as defects and orientation of surface
topography for unstable deformation of ultra-thin
rolled metal foils. The opposite behaviour was observed
in a case of 100- to 300-mm-thick sheet and 20- to
50-mm-thick foils for the in-plane anisotropy of elonga-
tion. Also, the Fu et al.65 investigated the effect of grain
size, die design and deformation process on micro
blanking and deep drawing of copper sheet. The numer-
ical simulation was carried out to analyse the material
thinning and deformation load. It was observed that
the deformation load decreases with the increase in
grain size. This decrease in deformation load was not
significant when there were only a few grains in the
cross section of the sheet metal.
Hydro deep drawing technique. In the last decade, a lot of
advanced techniques have been developed in deep
drawing process using hydraulic power. The hydro
deep drawing technique can be used for drawing a sin-
gle- and multilayer sheet effectively by maintaining the
dimensional accuracy and reducing defects like scratch-
ing and thinning. A modified hydrodynamic deep
drawing method was proposed by Wang et al.,66 which
was assisted by radial pressure with the inward liquid
flow where the effect of radial pressure on wall thick-
ness distribution, punch force and compressive stress in
blank flange was investigated by performing a numeri-
cal simulation. The uniform wall thickness can be
achieved if the pressure in the die cavity reaches the
maximum value when a punch displacement equals the
punch corner radius plus die entrance radius. However,
the numerical simulation and experiments were carried
out by Lang et al.67 to investigate the hydro forming
characteristics such as thickness distribution, process
window, drawing ratio and quality by applying uni-
form pressure. It was observed that the drawing ratio
of 3.11 can be achieved for material Al1050-H0 and
2.46 for material Al6016-T4 which was possible using
optimized radial pressure. Also, the Hashemi et al.68
carried out hydrodynamic deep drawing process
assisted by radial pressure to obtain a process window
diagram for Al1050, pure copper and DIN 1623 St14
steel which was used for prediction of appropriate
forming area and rupture or wrinkling occurrence
under different loading pressure paths. The numerical
analysis was carried out by considering process para-
meters such as blank material, pressure path and thick-
ness. It was observed that the sheet with less thickness
and higher strength had better formability with uni-
form thickness distribution in the final product. The
theoretical model was proposed by Jalil et al.69 to
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
Table 5. Effect of parameters on fluid pressure and LDR.70,71
Applied parameters Affected parameter
Strain-hardening increases Fluid pressure decreases
Anisotropy parameter increases Fluid pressure increases
Friction coefficient increases Fluid pressure decreases
Sheet thickness increases Fluid pressure increases
Friction between blank and blank LDR decreases
holder increases
Die profile radius increases (at low LDR increases
pressure)
Sheet thickness increases (at higher LDR increases
pressure)
Punch friction increases LDR increases
Friction between blank and blank LDR decreases
holder increases
LDR: limiting drawing ratio.
investigate the critical rupture pressure in forming of
an Al1050/St13 double-layered part using hydrody-
namic deep drawing process. It was observed that the
thickness of each layer increases from 0.3 to 0.7 mm,
which results in an increase in safe pressure range from
30 to 55 MPa to 1372300 MPa.
The theoretical and experimental approach was used
by Fazli and Dariani70,71 to achieve a working zone for
the bulging and axisymmetric hydromechanical deep
drawing process. It was observed that the geometrical
parameters, material properties and tooling conditions
had more influence on fluid pressure (see Table 5),
whereas the process parameters such as die profile
radius, friction, chamber pressure and blank thickness
influence LDR (see Table 5) which were investigated
by performing FEA with experimental validation.
Wrinkling effect
The wrinkling effect is observed when insufficient BHF
is applied to hold a blank while performing deep draw-
ing operation. A lot of attempts were made by authors
to avoid wrinkling defect by introducing different draw-
ing techniques. The techniques such as different blank
holder shape, the size of blank holders, and variable
blank holding force (VBHF) were used to predict wrin-
kle formation at the flange region.
Approach to predict wrinkling effect
Traditionally, the wrinkles generated at the flange
region of the cup were predicted using analytical
models and validated by performing experimental
tests. Kadkhodayan and Moayyedian72 used two-
dimensional plane stress wrinkling model and bifurca-
tion function from Hill’s general theory to investigate
the elastic–plastic flange wrinkling of a circular blank
for deep drawing process. In contrast, Chu and Xu73
analysed the onset flange wrinkling in deep drawing of
the cup by considering it as an elastoplastic bifurcation
problem. It was observed that the parameters such as
Takalkar and Lenin Babu
Figure 20. Effect of yield function on wrinkling limit curve: (a) ST12 and (b) ST14.77
Figure 21. Effect of yield function on wrinkling limit curve: (a) copper and (b) brass.77
drawing ratio, material properties, strain hardening
and flange width influence wrinkle effect. Also, Shafaat
et al.74 carried out a study on onset wrinkling by devel-
oping deflection function for deep drawing of the coni-
cal cup using Hill’48 and Hosford yield criteria under
isotropy, planar anisotropy and normal anisotropy
conditions. It was observed that better prediction can
be achieved using Hosford yield criterion, whereas the
accuracy of prediction of results can be increased by
increasing effective stress. Also, the accuracy of results
was increased by implementation of analytical models
with mathematical models. The implementation of
mathematical models reduces time and cost which were
spent on performing experimental tests. Kim et al.75
investigated the initiation and growth of wrinkling in
deep drawing of an elliptical cup using bifurcation the-
ory and FEA with continuum-based resultant shell ele-
ments. The FE formulation was based on incremental
deformation theory and elastic–plastic material
13
modeling. On the contrary, Saxena and Dixit76 used
Hill’s bifurcation criterion for the prediction of flange
wrinkling in deep drawing of the circular and square
cup. The geometrical parameters, process parameters,
and material were considered for optimization of deep
drawing of cup without wrinkling which was predicted
by using Lagrangian approach. Also, Anarestani
et al.77 carried out a study on the critical blank holding
force for deep drawing of cylindrical component and
wrinkle formation at flange region for different materi-
als like ST12, ST14, copper and brass (see Figures 20
and 21).
The obtained analytical results using Hill’s bifurca-
tion method reveal that ST12 had highest compressive
instability, whereas copper plate had lowest compres-
sive instability. The theoretical and experimental
approach was combined by Magrinho et al.78 to deter-
mine the wrinkling and formability limits in sheet metal
forming. The numerical simulation was used to carry
14
Table 6. Effect of change in process parameter.88
Applied parameter Affected parameter 1
Punch velocity increases Punch load decreases
BHF increases Punch load increases
Blank temperature increases Punch load decreases
BHF: blank holder force.
out cylindrical deep drawing without a use of blank
holder. It was observed that the loading path beyond
transition point will give rise to wrinkling effect. In
contrast, Zeng and Mahdavian79 developed a theoreti-
cal model to predict a number of waves formed and
critical conditions in wrinkling while performing a deep
drawing operation at room temperature and at elevated
temperature. The equilibrium of moments was applied
on segments of the wrinkled flange, and critical condi-
tions were analysed with and without the blank holder.
Kawka et al.80 carried out static explicit ITAS3D
and dynamic explicit simulation to simulate wrinkling
in conical cups. It was observed that the obtained
numerical results were influenced more by the initial
shape of FE mesh. Also, De Magalhaes Correia and
colleagues81–83 performed FEA for prediction of wrink-
ling effect in deep drawing of the conical cup using
Abaqus/Explicit code. The wrinkling limit curves
depend on material properties, whereas local geometry
was defined by developing a local analysis. The plastic
yielding was used as a criterion for transversely aniso-
tropic material, and onset wrinkling was analysed as
elastic–plastic bifurcation for thin shallow shells. It was
observed that the critical wrinkling was affected by ani-
sotropy on the stress state and sheet curvature. Also,
the bifurcation analysis was performed to generate a
wrinkling limit curve for different orientations of ortho-
tropic axes with respect to principal stress axes and geo-
metrical axis of the principal curve.
A review was conducted by Mistri et al.84 on experi-
mental and numerical techniques used in the deep
drawing process. The detailed content of geometrical
parameters such as punch radius, die radius, radial
clearance, blank thickness and physical parameters
which include coefficient of friction, blank holding
force and cracking load was discussed. However, these
deterministic efforts neglect the brief study of defects
such as thinning, wrinkling and spring-back. The
advance trends in the industry are deep drawing of mul-
tilayer and composite materials which were neglected in
the study.
Effect of parameters on wrinkling
The precise deep drawing process can be achieved by
optimizing the process parameters. Dwivedi and
Agnihotri85 carried out a numerical simulation to opti-
mize the design process for deep drawing of aluminium
and brass cups by considering the effect of die-punch
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
Affected parameter 2
Forming depth decreases
Forming depth decreases
Forming depth decreases
geometry, punch-die-to-fillet radius, LDR and drawing
load with respect to punch stroke.
The optimization of design for wrinkling and thin-
ning was carried out by Shivpuri and Zhang86 for vary-
ing friction constraints and predefined blank holding
force. The optimum design was identified by a determi-
nistic Pareto front for multiple design alternatives and
trade-off strategy which was determined using FEA-
based algorithm approach (non-dominated sorting
genetic algorithm-II (NSGA-II)). The deterministic
optimized design had shown 33% improvement than
uniform friction design. Agrawal et al.87 carried out
optimization of process parameters such as blank hold-
ing pressure, and wrinkle formation was determined in
flange region during deep drawing of the axisymmetric
cup. The upper bond analysis was performed for esti-
mation of thickness variation, whereas minimum blank
holding pressure was applied to suppress the wrinkle
formation. The influence of process parameters such as
punch velocity, BHF and blank temperature on the hot
deep drawing of thin boron steel sheet was investigated
by Lee et al.88 The temperature of 300 °C was main-
tained for punch and dies to improve the formability.
The change was observed for different parameters (see
Table 6).
The review on optimization of process parameters
using different techniques in deep drawing process was
carried out by Joshi et al.89 The parameters such as die
radius, drawing speed and coefficient of friction were
focused, which influence the deep drawing process and
lead to the occurrence of defects such as wrinkling,
tearing and scratches. The wrinkling occurred at wall
and flange region of drawn cup was focused. The other
defects such as spring-back and wall thinning were
neglected while conducting the review.
Blank holding force. The investigation of optimum VBHF
was carried out by Zhang and Shivpuri90 for deep draw-
ing of aluminium-killed steel conical cup. The optimiza-
tion was achieved by minimizing the magnitude of
fracture and wrinkling defect under process uncertain-
ties like punch speed, sheet thickness, interface friction
at die surface and punch surface. The proposed design
improves yield to 99.98%, whereas traditional determi-
nistic design improves yield to 48.04%. Also, the
J-stamp simulation was carried out by Ouyang et al.91
to investigate the effect of blank holding force in hot
deep drawing of boron steel sheets by considering fric-
tion coefficient and interfacial heat transfer coefficient.
Takalkar and Lenin Babu
Figure 22. Calculation of maximum VBHF using the slab
method (analytic calculation) and FEM simulation to avoid
cracking for d0 = 70 mm and 76 mm; m= 0.45.93
It was observed that the friction coefficient between
blank and punch decreases with the increase in BHF
(but \ 30 kN); also, thickness variation and equivalent
strain were significantly influenced by the increase in
BHF. In contrast, Qin et al.92 used energy method for
prediction of critical blank holding force for axisym-
metric deep drawing. The observed relative error for
equivalent strain and circumferential stresses was
35.9% and 22.3%, respectively.
The analytical and FEA method was used by
Candra et al.93 for the prediction of maximum blank
holding force over the punch stroke to eliminate crack-
ing of cylindrical deep drawn cup. It was observed that
the formability and cup depth were increased up to 8%
and 17%, respectively, for the application of maximum
VBHF with palm oil lubrication having a coefficient of
friction 0.18 to 0.2 (see Figures 22 and 23). Also,
Tommerup and Endelt94 controlled the distribution of
blank holding force using active tool system, which was
integrated into existing stacked deep drawing tools
without any modification in the pressure.
The design optimization problem was constructed
by Kitayama et al.95 to identify the formability window
where punch stroke was subjected to wrinkling and
tearing effect. The different sample points were gener-
ated using Latin hypercube design and sequence
approximate optimization which was applied with
radial basis function to find the optimum VBHF and
pulsating blank holding force (PBHF) using formabil-
ity window (see Figure 24(a) and (b)). It was observed
that constant blank holding force can be replaced with
optimum PBHF for maintaining punch life while per-
forming deep drawing process.
The review was conducted by Singh and Agnihotri96
on research and development in a field of the deep
drawing process. The obtained results from literature
brief the effect of parameters such as blank shape,
15
Figure 23. Calculation of maximum VBHF using the slab
method (analytic calculation) and FEM simulation to avoid
cracking for d0 = 80 mm and 82 mm; m= 0.2.93
BHP, punch radius, die radius, the coefficient of fric-
tion and material properties on a deep drawing of the
cup. The defect such as spring-back effect was not con-
sidered for review. Also, the recent techniques such as
micro deep drawing, hydro deep drawing and multi-
layer and composite material deep drawing were also
not considered.
Texture and microstructure. Tang et al.97 investigated the
deep drawing behaviour and mechanical anisotropy for
AZ31 magnesium alloy sheets rolled in unidirectional
(UR) and cross direction (CR). These samples were
also used to investigate the properties such as tensile,
microstructure and texture at room temperature. It was
observed that CR sheet enhances the drawing capabil-
ities due to improvement in ductility of 28% elongation
to fracture and low r value (plastic strain ratio) close to
1, whereas UR sheets had planar anisotropy from
strong basal-type texture. The different crystal material
such as low-carbon aluminium–killed steel and pure
titanium with a thickness of 1 mm can also be used for
circular shell deep drawing.98 Also, Tikhovskiy et al.99
used texture component crystal plasticity FEM to pre-
dict the behaviour of aluminium alloy AA 5754 sheet
for deep drawing, whereas Zheng et al.100 used macro-
textured blank holder surface based on the energy
method for prediction of wrinkling at the flange region
due to variation in process parameters in deep drawing
process. The effect of variation in texture ratio on wrin-
kle formation for blank holding force of 10 kN and
forming the speed of 75 mm/s was significant (see
Figure 25).
Wrinkling in different materials
The wrinkle formation is observed due to insufficient
application of BHF to hold the blank. Similar to BHF,
16
Figure 24. (a) Optimum VBHF and PBHF for punch stroke of 20 mm and (b) formability window of blank.95
Figure 25. Effect of texture on wrinkling calculated using 1D
analytical, 2D analytical and experimental method.100
material properties also play a significant role in wrin-
kle formation. Many authors had adopted different
techniques for predicting wrinkle formation in the deep
drawing of different types of materials.
Aluminium and aluminium alloy sheets. Most of the authors
focus their study on wrinkle formation in deep drawing
of aluminium and aluminium alloys sheets. The form-
ing characteristic is not possible to predict accurately
using mathematical equations as it was stochastic and
random in nature. Sivasankaran et al.101 used ANN
technique for prediction of surface wrinkling in pure
aluminium sheet metals (ISS19000, ISS19600, and
ISS19660) when drawn through the conical die,
whereas Loganathan and Narayanasamy102 used coni-
cal and tractrix dies for studying an effect of mechani-
cal properties on wrinkling behaviour in three grades of
annealed commercially pure aluminium sheets
(ISS19000, ISS19600, and ISS19660). The wrinkling
effect was observed when the plastic strain reached a
critical value where strains followed nonlinear paths in
wrinkling limit diagram. It was suggested that alumi-
nium grade with a low yield stress, high strain
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
hardening index value and high normalized hardening
rate had better resistance to wrinkling. Also,
Narayanasamy and Loganathan103,104 carried out a
study on wrinkling of annealed different grades of com-
mercially pure aluminium sheet metals using wrinkling
limit diagram while drawing through the conical die or
tractrix dies. It was observed that aluminium grade
ISS19660 with a low tensile to yield ratio, high normal-
ized hardening and high strain hardening index value
had better resistance to wrinkling. The influence of fric-
tion on the prediction of wrinkle formation in deep
drawing of the pre-strained circular blank to cylindrical
cups through a conical die using flat bottom punch was
focused.
Zhang and Shivpuri105 presented a multi-criteria
design approach to incorporate into response surface
method (RSM)-based model for optimizing the prob-
abilistic design of drawing aluminium sheet by reducing
defects such as wrinkling and fracture. The RSM model
was generated using FEM-based high-fidelity model,
the design of experiments and simple linear weighted
approach. It was observed that the quality index was
improved by 42% which can be further improved to
98.97% with the reduction of friction coefficient to 2%.
In contrast, Neto et al.106 modelled material plastic ani-
sotropy using advanced yield criterion beyond the iso-
tropic behaviour. The FEA and experimental tests were
performed for deep drawing of AA5042 aluminium
alloy cylindrical cup to investigate the effect of tool
geometry and process parameters on wrinkling beha-
viour. The predicted wrinkling shape was found to be
dependent on FE mesh used for blank discretization,
whereas predicted punch force was influenced by fric-
tion coefficient.
Cui et al.107 proposed an incremental electromagnetic-
assisted stamping forming method with radial magnetic
pressure for deep drawing of aluminium alloy cylindrical
cup. It was identified from numerical results that the
forming depth was increased by 31% after consecutive
coil discharge using new process over traditional process.
On the contrary, Lai et al.108 used a dual-coil electromag-
netic forming system for radial Lorentz force augmented
Takalkar and Lenin Babu
Figure 26. Relationship between drawing depth at failure (hfailure/ts) and friction coefficient (m) at Q/Ests2: (a) 0.05 and (b) 0.10.111
Figure 27. Relationship between drawing depth at failure (hfailure/ts) and friction coefficient (m) at Q/Ests2: (a) 0.2 and (b) 0.4 and
0.5.111
deep drawing of aluminium alloy sheet (AA1060-H24)
with a large drawing ratio. The system enhances the flow
of material in flange region with the increase in forming
depth from 8.44 to 20.28 mm.
Copper alloy sheets. The deep drawing of the circular cup
of thin copper alloy sheet was carried out by Yagami
et al.109 where the algorithm was proposed for control-
ling the blank holder motion in perspective of wrinkling
behaviour and fracture limit. The effect of motion con-
trol on wrinkling behaviour was evaluated by perform-
ing experimental test, whereas the effect of fracture
damage reduction method was evaluated by performing
a numerical simulation.
Nickel-coated sheets. Wu et al.110 carried out the FE
analysis based on continuous damage mechanics by
considering blank holding force for the prediction of
failure modes like wrinkling in the cylindrical deep
drawing of nickel-coated sheet metal, whereas
17
developing damage mechanics and FE model111 was
used to establish a failure map for dimensionless pro-
cess parameters which was divided into three regions
such as wrinkling, fracture and success. The fracture in
the material was observed when friction coefficient and
blank holding force were large (see Figure 26(a) and
(b)), whereas wrinkling was observed for small friction
coefficient and blank holding force (see Figure 27(a)
and (b)).
Welded blank sheets. The wrinkling behaviour analysis
was performed by Abbasi et al.112 for TWB of IF steel
with a thickness of 0.8–1.2 mm by assuming principal
stress direction to be deviated from principal curve
axes, as a sheet is deformed in a thin segment. The
wrinkle wave is initiated in a thin segment of TWB and
propagates by three waves. In contrast, Wang et al.113
analysed the welding line moment behaviour for deep
drawing process of TWB sheet with different thickness
using FEM technology. Also, the theoretical and
18
experimental approach was used by Asadian-Ardakani
et al.114 to investigate the effect of non-uniform BHF
on the deep drawing of a rectangular cup of tailor-
welded IF steel blanks. It was observed that the weld
line displacement was influenced by parameters such as
thickness ratio, coefficient of friction, punch and die
radius and BHF. By applying a uniform BHF results in
movement of weld line towards the thicker side which
can be controlled by adjustment of appropriate BHF.
Multilayer metal sheets. The deep drawing of aluminium
stainless steel layered sheet in a circular cup was done
by Morovvati et al.115 to investigate the wrinkling
effect and effect of material properties like layer, a lay-
up on the blank holding force. Three different methods
were used for investigating three different parameters.
The analytical model based on energy method was used
for wrinkle prediction, FE simulation was used for
investigating the effect of forming parameters on
wrinkling and experimental tests were carried out for
the validation of obtained results. The same material
layers (Al1050/St304) were used by Afshin and
Kadkhodayan116 for warm deep drawing to investigate
the effect of the sequence layer, blank temperature and
various grain sizes on thinning and wrinkling. The alu-
minium was replaced with brass, and numerical analy-
sis was carried out by Atrian and Fereshteh-Saniee117
to investigate the cause which promotes the defects
such as fracture and wrinkling in deep drawing of steel/
brass laminated sheets. The experiments were carried
out to focus the effect of parameters such as lubrica-
tion, BHF, stacking sequence layers and diameter of
composite blank on drawing process.
Composite material sheets. Cherouat and Billoet118 inves-
tigated the elastic and visco-elastic properties of mesos-
tructure for the pre-impregnated composite material.
The two different FE families were combined which
include unidirectional truss FEs representative of warp
and membrane FEs representative of resin deformation
for prediction of ply wrinkling and fibre orientation.
On the contrary, Altmann et al.119 carried out the study
for the prediction of the strength of ply waviness
in composite materials. The Puck failure criterion
was used with MATLAB software to analyse the
matrix-dominated effect on strength behaviour of uni-
directional laminates for compressive loading. It was
identified that matrix-dominated shear strength affects
the failure behaviour of wavy laminates.
The prediction of forming and defects caused due to
fibre displacement and inter-ply friction of multilayer
carbon–weaved fabrics was done by Nezami et al.120 by
performing an analysis. The experimental tests were
carried out to investigate the parameters such as car-
bon woven fabric, fibre integrity, and friction proper-
ties. The fabrication technology was developed by
Behrens et al.121 to reduce a wrinkle formation in deep
drawing of fibre-reinforced plastic with a sheet metal.
Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)
The tooling concept was suggested to maintain the
pressure to avoid wrinkle formation at side wall area.
The effect of inter-ply friction, co-stacking and fibre
stresses in critical fibre direction on global wrinkling
behaviour was investigated. The improvement in form-
ability was observed due to the reduction in a number
of different combinations of fibre angles and friction.
In contrast, Zhang et al.122 developed a shear angle
curve and shear load shear angle curve using picture
frame test for a thermal deep drawing of the carbon
fibre woven composites. It was observed that shear
load increases rapidly as shear angle exceeds 33° which
results in wrinkle formation at the surface of the com-
ponent. Also, Sjolander et al.123 investigated mechan-
isms that are responsible for wrinkle formation in
composite laminates by performing a numerical analy-
sis. The study focuses on the effect of compression of
stack and interaction between two layers with specific
fibre direction on wrinkle formation.
The bias-extension tests were performed by
Guzman-Maldonado et al.124 to analyse the visco-
elastic behaviour of pre-impregnated thermoplastic
composites, which occurs due to in-plane shear defor-
mation and hyperelastic behaviour of reinforcements.
The wrinkling was observed due to increase in plane
shear stiffness, high strain rate and low temperature.
On the contrary, Rajabi et al.125 investigated the influ-
ence of process parameters and core materials on deep
drawing of thermoplastic metal composites by perform-
ing static numerical analysis and experimental tests.
The experiment count was optimized by applying
Taguchi method, and it was found that by maintaining
a high interaction between temperature and BHF,
wrinkle formation could be minimized. Also, Wang
et al.126 performed numerical analysis for deep drawing
of a square box by focusing on parameters such as a
position of the yarns, final shape of the laminate, the
angle between a wrap and weft direction to optimize
3D weaving by developing a surface 3D weaving
process.
Hydro deep drawing technique. A theoretical model based
on Barlat–Lian yield criterion and tensile instability
was proposed by Jalil et al.127 to predict a critical rup-
ture pressure in the hydrodynamic deep drawing of
cone cups and validate by performing experiments. It
was observed that a proposed technique with fluid
pressure was applied at the peripheral edge of a cup,
which helps to increase the surface finish, forming abil-
ity and dimensional accuracy. On the contrary, the
Deep et al.128 proposed a mathematical model to avoid
compressive and tensile instabilities by predicting safe
zone for blank holding force and die cavity pressure in
the hydromechanical deep drawing process. It was
observed that with an increase in process parameters
such as die clearance, sheet thickness and normal aniso-
tropy, the safe zone of blank holding force also
Takalkar and Lenin Babu
increases, whereas safe zone for die cavity pressure
increased with the increase in sheet thickness.
The effect of pre-bulging pressure and chamber pres-
sure on wrinkle behaviour of curved surface part was
investigated by Liu et al.129 The pre-bulging hydrome-
chanical deep drawing process was introduced for con-
trolling the wrinkle formation which depends on plastic
stress and strain in the component. The observed wrin-
kles were eliminated by reducing the tangential com-
pressive stress on the unsupported region and by
increasing the area of sheet adhered to punch surface.
However, Halkaci et al.130 carried out a hydromechani-
cal deep drawing of AA5754-O sheet using a shallow
drawbead to blank holder for enhancing a LDR. Also,
the experiment was demonstrated by Yossifon and
Tirosh131 to replace a rigid blank holder with hydro-
static fluid pressure. It was observed that the flange
wrinkling was suppressed by the parameters such as
drawing ratio, friction coefficient and wall thickness for
all three materials of stainless steel, aluminium and
copper.
Zhang et al.132 performed FE simulation and pro-
posed a novel response variable by generating FLD
which was used for prediction of fracture in the hydro-
mechanical deep drawing of a cylindrical cup with dif-
ferent hydraulic pressure, whereas Takalkar et al.133
generated FLD by performing dome test numerically
for the prediction of thinning and wrinkling effect.
Meng et al.134 proposed an optimum design method for
drawbead parameters to change the material flow to
avoid the occurrence of inner wrinkles while perform-
ing hydro deep drawing of a complicated component
with an irregular surface. It was observed that the anti-
wrinkle ability of drawbead reduces with the increase in
distance from die centre and oblique angle, whereas the
wall thickness increases with increase in distance and
oblique angle.
Spring-back effect
The spring-back defect was observed while performing
deep drawing process which can be accurately predicted
by studying the behaviour of the material. The compo-
nent manufactured by deep drawing can fail to achieve
the required dimensions due to the influence of spring-
back effect which has to be predicted at an earlier stage
of the process.
Approach to predict spring-back
The spring-back can be predicted using an analytical,
numerical and experimental method. Traditionally, it
was predicted analytically and validated by performing
experimental tests. Nowadays, many authors had pre-
ferred numerical approach than experimental approach
for the prediction of spring-back effect as it saves time
and cost. Previously, the spring-back was calculated
using traditional material laws with yield loci assuming
elastic material behaviour. This was not sufficient as
19
the local variation of lattice orientation of neighbour-
ing crystallites includes the transition from elastic to
plastic. As the volume methods were expensive and
consume more time, Taylor’s theory for elastic–plastic
media including the aspects of Sach’s theory was pro-
posed by Besdo.135 The material laws denoting the
influence of textures due to spring-back simulations
were also investigated, whereas the influence of unba-
lanced elastic deformation and residual stresses after
deformation on twist spring-back for deep drawing of
dual-phase steel was accounted by Xue et al.136 by per-
forming dynamic explicit analysis with anisotropic
modeling. The experimental tests such as hydraulic
bulge test, uniaxial tension test, and a forward reverse
shear test were performed to determine material prop-
erties of DP500 steel. The factors such as blank shape
geometry, material anisotropy and sheet piercing had
more influence on twist spring-back (see Figure 28(a)
and (b)). This prediction of spring-back can be
improved by deep drawing technique which includes
friction coefficient identification and digital image cor-
relation. Meguid and Refaat137 developed a method for
treating frictional contact in elastoplastic solids which
has large deformation using variable inequalities. The
approach helps to improve the computational econ-
omy, reduce the number of variables and further exam-
ine the effect of friction on geometry, spring-back,
punch load, Von Mises trajectory and residual stresses.
The FEA was performed by Muthler et al.138 and
demonstrated that p-extensions which are high-order
solid elements can be effectively used for computing
elastic spring-back of thin-walled structure, whereas
anisotropic three-dimensional continuum elements can
be effectively used for the discretization. A static expli-
cit FEM was proposed by Jung139 to solve the prob-
lems which can be solved using static implicit method
applied to drawbead process with spring-back effect.
This approach avoids the convergence which requires
more computational time and provides data related to
size and shape of the bed which helps in tool design.
The prediction of thinning and spring-back action
was carried out by Zein et al.140 for deep drawing of a
cup. To reduce the computational time, the boundary
conditions and anisotropic material properties were
defined for one-quarter three-dimensional FE model
and solved using explicit analysis. The variation in
spring-back was observed in sheet metal for the sake of
change in die shoulder radius and punch nose radius
(see Figure 29(a) and (b)). The study recommends for
maintaining a die shoulder radius 10 times the sheet
thickness, whereas punch nose radius 4 times the sheet
thickness. Along with these two parameters, the coeffi-
cient of friction has also impact on deep drawing pro-
cess (see Figure 30). The coefficient of friction
suggested the different interface in deep drawing pro-
cess (see Table 7).
Ul Hassan et al.141 used pre-strain-based multiple
cyclic stress–strain curves to predict the spring-back
effect for DP 600 material with different magnitude.
20 Proc IMechE Part B: J Engineering Manufacture 00(0)

Figure 28. (a) Comparison of twist spring-back angle calculated using yield criteria (numerically) and experimental setup and
(b) experimental calculation of twist spring-back for different rolling direction.136

Figure 29. Variation of the spring-back percentage in sheet metal with the (a) die shoulder radius (rd) and (b) punch nose radius
(rp, mm).140

Table 7. Recommended fluid lubricant for the different

interface in the deep drawing process.140

Interface Recommended fluid

lubricant with coefficient of friction

Punch–blank 0.25
Blank holder–blank 0.125
Die–blank 0.125–0.2

The numerical simulation was performed using Cha-

Figure 30. Effect of coefficient of friction between punch/blank
on variation of the spring-back percentage in sheet metal.140
boche–Roussilier model, anisotropic hardening model
and Yoshida–Uemori model for the prediction of
spring-back for tunnel geometry and hat geometry,
whereas gas-forming process simulation was carried
out by Yasar142 for the prediction of spring-back effect
in deep drawing of aluminium cylindrical cup. The
Takalkar and Lenin Babu
effect of die design parameters and detonation pressure
was investigated by performing implicit dynamic and
explicit analyses. In a case of the micro deep drawing
of circular cup Luo et al.143 performed spring-back
simulation and observed that the overall spring-back
was influenced by surface roughness by taking into
consideration a size effect and variance in material
properties for Voronoi models.
Conclusion
The deep drawing process is used for drawing a compo-
nent with a complex profile having a significant draw-
ing depth compared to its diameter. The material with
the property of high formability usually preferred for
deep drawing process.
In the deep drawing process, certain defects are
observed which directly affect the quality and manufac-
turing cost of the product. Mostly, the wall thinning
effect is observed while performing deep drawing oper-
ation, which leads to the failure of the component. The
flange wrinkling and spring-back effect are observed
due to insufficient blank holding force and elastic beha-
viour of the material.
The observed wall thinning in a cup can be predicted
by performing analytical, numerical and experimental
tests. The Hill’48, Von Mises, and Barlat Yld’91 mod-
els are used effectively with FE analysis for the predic-
tion of thickness variation. The thinning effect is more
influenced by the parameters such as punch radius, die
radius, BHF and lubrication. For few cases, the dry
lubrication acts better than wet lubrication. The thick-
ness variation in a micro deep drawing is reduced using
techniques such flexible die and DLC film–coated
blank holder dies.
The thickness variation of deep drawn cup depends
on the behaviour and formability of the material. In the
case of coated metals, the thickness variation depends
on principal stress which is analysed using GTN dam-
age model. The deep drawing ratio of multilayer sheets
and the composite material is increased with increase in
temperature. At 200 °C, the Al/Mg/Al multilayer com-
posite sheet has fewer tendencies of thinning than
150 °C.
The wrinkling at the flange region can be predicted
using theoretical models such as Hill–Hosford yield cri-
teria and Hill’s bifurcation criterion. The wrinkling
observed in pure aluminium sheets is predicted using
different techniques such as an ANN, wrinkling limit
diagram, energy method and multi-criteria design
approach with RSM. The FEA with continuous dam-
age mechanics is used for prediction of wrinkling in
nickel-coated metals. In a case of fibre glass/PA66 pre-
preg, wrinkling is suppressed by increasing temperature
and decreasing the strain rate and shear stiffness. The
wrinkling can be avoided in composite with fibre-
reinforced polypropylene by maintaining interaction
between temperature and BHF.
21
The wrinkle formation in pre-bulging hydromechani-
cal deep drawing process can be eliminated by reducing
the tangential compressive stress on the unsupported
region and increasing the area of sheet adhered to
punch surface. The wrinkling distribution can also be
improved using VBHF trajectories method, slab
method and constant volume of a material method.
The Taylor’s theory for elastic–plastic media with
aspects of Sach’s theory can be used for spring-back
prediction with less time and low cost. The spring-back
angle in valley region is decreased with an increment of
punch radius and punch angle. The prediction of
spring-back can be done using multi-cyclic stress-strain
curves generated from FE simulation and gas forming
process simulation. The surface roughness and varia-
tion in material properties affect the spring-back action
in case of the micro deep drawing of a cup.
The objective of the review is to suggest an appropri-
ate technique as per the type and behaviour of material
for different drawing conditions in order to achieve uni-
form thickness variation in drawn cup. The analytical,
numerical and experimental approach need to be uti-
lized together to carry out deep drawing process in
order to minimize the cost, time and defects such as
thinning, wrinkling and spring-back. The study has
skipped the multi-stage deep drawing process which will
be used for drawing the component with high drawing
depth, and complex profile need to be focused in future.
Also, the parameters such as drawing speed and tooling
temperature need to be focused in case of the deep
drawing of composite materials. These could offer an
excellent opportunity in the field of automotive indus-
tries for manufacturing lightweight cars.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship and/or publica-
tion of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the
research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
ORCID iD
M C Lenin Babu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2401-
3581
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