IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY &

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

the appearance of a rock is determined by its mineralogy

and its texture (Gefüge)

mineralogy – relative proportions of the different minerals

texture – size and shape of crystals

crystals – coarse – seen with naked eye

- fine – otherwise

shape – needle, flat, platy, equant

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 1

mineralogy and texture are determined by the rock’s origin
– where & how it was made

all rocks that were formed by cooling of lava/molten

rock are IGNEOUS

all rocks that were formed by the burial of

sediments (of crystals or rock fragments, or coral
fragments) are SEDIMENTARY rock

when rocks are buried, the high temperatures and

pressures experienced by the rock may cause
chemical reactions resulting in a change in
mineralogy and texture

all rocks formed by transformation of pre-existing

rocks in the solid state under the influence of high
temperature and/or pressure are METAMORPHIC
rocks

texture, mineralogy and chemical composition of a

rock reveal its origin

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 2

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 3
 IGNEOUS ROCKS
a temperature of 700°C or more is needed to melt most
rocks

y at depth in the earth, magma is both being

created – by melting; and being
destroyed – by crystallization

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 4

 IGNEOUS ROCKS

intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks distinguished by the

size of the crystals

the assumption is that

y if magma erupts from a volcano
y it cools rapidly and
y there is time only for small crystals to grow – small grains
y extrusive rock - VULKANIT

y if the magma cools slowly within the earth,

y there is enough time for the crystals to continue to grow,
y resulting in large grain size
y intrusive rock - PLUTONIT

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 5

plutonit

intrusive igneous rocks

- are formed by slowly crystallizing magmas that
have intruded into rock masses deep within the
interior of the earth.
- they can be recognized by their large interlocking
crystals that grew slowly as the magma cooled
- magmas cool slowly with the earth as they are
surrounded by rocks which conduct heat very slowly
- e.g. GRANITE

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 6

vulkanit

extrusive igneous rocks

- e.g. BASALT
- formed from rapidly cooling magma
- volcanism

most of the minerals in igneous rocks are silicates

– as silicon is so abundant in ⊕;
– also because few oxides melt at the temperature and
pressure conditions of the ⊕’s crust and mantle

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 7

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
sediments – sand, silt, shells

y sand, silt and pebbles are formed when rocks weather –

that is are broken up into fragments of various sizes
y the fragments of rocks are then transported by erosion
y erosion is the processes that loosen soil and rock and move
them downhill or downstream where they are laid down as
layers of sediment

weathering produces CLASTIC and

CHEMICAL & BIOCHEMICAL sediments

Clastic sediments - physically deposited sedimentary

particles
- grains from weathered rocks clastic
- broken
- laid down by water, wind & ice
- to form sand, silt & gravel

Chemical sediments - new chemical substances

- formed when some of the components of a rock are
dissolved during weathering and are carried away
by rivers – e.g. halite NaCl, calcite CaCO3
CaCO3 – chemical & biochemical

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 8

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
lithification is the process that converts sediments into
solid rock

compaction
grains are squeezed together by the weight of
overlying sediment into a mass denser than the original

cementation
minerals precipitate around deposited particles and
glue them together

sediments are compacted and cemented after burial under

additional layers of sediment
y sandstone forms by lithification of sand particles
y limestone forms by the lithification of shells and other
particles of CaCO3

sediments and sedimentary rocks are characterised by

bedding, the formation of parallel layers by the settling of
particles

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 9

v

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 10

bedding may be due to
y changes in mineralogy or
y differences in texture – e.g. grain size

settling of different grain-sizes of the same mineral

can be due to the effects of wind or water

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 11

 the same process occurs in igneous and
sedimentary rocks as crystals settle out of a liquid
due to the (generally) lower density of the liquid

crystals of smaller radius settle more slowly

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 12

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

although most rocks found on the ⊕’s surface are

sedimentary, they form only a thin layer on the surface,
with most of the crystal being metamorphic or igneous
< 2% of the Earth is sedimentary

the common minerals of clastic sedimentary rocks

are of course silicates
- physically deposited sedimentary particles
y silicates are the dominant minerals in the rocks
which weather to form sedimentary particles

in chemically or biochemically precipitated rocks the

common minerals are carbonates.

calcite – CaCO3 – limestone

dolomite – CaMgCO3 in limestone formed by
precipitation during lithification

gypsum CaSO4.2H2O & halite - NaCl

y form by chemical precipitation as seawater
evaporites

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 13

 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
meta – change

these rocks are formed when high temperatures and/or high

pressures deep in ⊕ cause any kind of rock – igneous,
sedimentary or metamorphic – to change its mineralogy,
texture or chemical composition while maintaining its solid
state

- the temperatures are below the melting point of

the rock (700°C)
- but high enough (250°C) for recrystallization and
chemical reactions to occur

The temperature gradient in the upper 8 km of the crust

has been measured in bore-holes. It is 2-3C per 100 m

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 14

 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

REGIONAL AND CONTACT METAMORPHISM

metamorphism may take place over widespread or
limited area

regional metamorphism – accompanies plate collisions and

the building of mountains and the folding and breaking
of sedimentary layers that were once horizontal -
structural deformation

many regionally metamorphic rocks e.g. schists have foliation

– wavy or flat planes produced when the rock was
structurally deformed into folds

quartz-mica schist

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 15

 METAMORPHIC ROCKS

where high temperatures are restricted to smaller volumes,

such as rocks near and in contact with intruding magma,
rocks are transformed by contact metamorphism

granular textures are more typical of contact metamorphic

rocks, which contain minerals with equant crystals,
y and of some regional metamorphic rocks formed by very
high pressure and temperature

typical minerals of metamorphic rocks are

quartz, SiO2 feldspar, (K,Na,Ca)(Al,Si)1-3O8
mica, (K,Na)2(Al,Mg,Fe2+,Fe3+)4-6(Si,Al)8(OH,F)4
pyroxene (Mg,Fe)SiO3 and
amphibole e.g. NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH)2

the same kinds of silicates which are characteristic of

igneous rocks

several other silicates –

kyanite, Al2(SiO4)O staurolite, (Fe,Mg)2(Al,Fe)9O6-Si4O16,
and some varieties of garnet are characteristic of
metamorphic rocks alone

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 16

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
ROCKS

by convention the chemical composition of a whole rock is

given in terms of the oxides

this convention is followed even though the elements exist

in the form of silicates

also, by convention, everything is given in wt% of the oxide

the 7 major elements – Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K - along with
oxygen make up the bulk of the rocks in ⊕

how does the chemical composition tell us about the origin

of the basalt?

differences of ~0.2 wt% in the major elements tell us

whether the basalt was formed at
a mid-ocean ridge (divergent plates) or at
a subduction zone (convergent plates)

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 17

 Data Calculation Data
component MORB OIB molar MORB OIB MORB OIB
wt% wt% weight mol% mol%
SiO2 48,77 47,52 60,084 81,17 79,09 50,91 53,67
TiO2 1,33 3,29 79,898 1,66 4,12 1,04 2,80
Al2O3 15,90 15,95 101,961 15,59 15,64 9,78 10,61
Fe2O3 1,33 7,16 159,691 0,83 4,48 0,52 3,04
FeO 8,62 5,30 71,846 12,00 7,38 7,53 5,01
MnO 0,17 0,19 70,937 0,24 0,27 0,15 0,18
MgO 9,67 5,18 40,311 23,99 12,85 15,05 8,72
CaO 11,16 8,96 56,079 19,90 15,98 12,48 10,84
Na2O 2,43 3,56 61,979 3,92 5,74 2,46 3,89
K2O 0,08 1,29 94,203 0,08 1,37 0,05 0,93
P2O5 0,09 0,64 141,943 0,06 0,45 0,04 0,31
summe 99,55 99,04 159,44 147,37
moles = wt% moles
molar weight Summe moles

H He
1,008 4,003
Li Be B C N O F Ne
6,939 9,012 10,811 12,011 14,007 15,999 18,998 20,183
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22,990 24,312 26,982 28,086 30,974 32,064 35,453 39,948
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39,102 40,08 44,956 47,90 50,942 51,996 54,938 55,847 58,933 58,71 63,54 65,37 69,72 72,59 74,922 78,96 79,909 83,80
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85,47 87,62 88,905 91,22 92,906 95,94 99 101,07 102,91 106,4 107,87 112,40 114,82 118,69 121,75 127,60 126,90 131,3
Cs Ba L Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132,91 137,34 138,91 178,49 180,95 183,85 186,2 190,2 192,2 195,09 196,97 200,59 204,37 207,19 208,98
Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 18

 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
ROCKS

the amount of water bound into the crystals in the

rocks is also of importance
in igneous rocks this is about 1 wt%,
whereas in sedimentary rocks this is 5%
- due to abundance of clay in the rock

rocks exposed on the surface are outcrops

where bedrock, the rock below the loose surface
sediments is laid bare

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 19

there is large amount of deep drilling all over the world to
look at rocks in the crust

but 12 – 15 km is as deep as it gets so mostly sedimentary

rocks are found and then igneous and metamorphic after
about 6 km

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 20

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 21
 THE ROCK CYCLE

starts with magma deep in the Earth

– all igneous intrusive rocks are plutonic,
whereas igneous extrusive are volcanic

the 3 main sources of igneous rocks are at

Ž convergent and

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 22

 Ž divergent plate margins and at
Ž mantle plumes

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 23

 plutonic rocks which formed at the convergent margin are
uplifted in the mountain building process, and the loose
material - sediments and metamorphic rocks - are eroded
away leaving the igneous rock exposed

plate collision and mountain building is orogeny

the igneous rock then also weathers and chemical changes

take place within it - based on the presence of water

the igneous rock then breaks up and the particles are

transported by water and wind to streams and oceans
where they are deposited as layers of sand and silt and
other sediments formed from dissolved materials e.g.
CaCO3 from shells

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 24

 THE ROCK CYCLE
these sediments in the sea and on land are then covered
by successive layers of sediment and gradually lithify into
sedimentary rock

burial is accompanied by subsidence – a depression or

sinking of the ⊕’s crust due to the added weight of the
sediments
….and then more sediments are deposited on this

as the lithified material is buried more deeply in the crust,

it gets hotter

at a depth of 10 km the temperature is 300°C, and

metamorphism starts to occur with the solid minerals
changing – in the solid state - to new minerals
 the new minerals are more stable at the high
temperatures and pressures

with more heating the rocks may melt to form magma

which will then be the source of new igneous rocks

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 25

pressure must increase with depth because of the weight of
material above;

P = ρgd N m-2

P – pressure
g – acceleration due to gravity
d – depth of overlying material with average density
ρ - density

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 26

 along with our igneous rock in the mountain, both
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks were uplifted and
eroded and deposited as sediments, which may or may not
have been buried deep enough in the crust to melt and
become a magma

the rocks that make up the earth are recycled continuously

the oldest zircon found in a rock is 4.27 Ga

the oldest zircon in a meteorite is 4.56 Ga – this is the age

of the solar system

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 27

 PLATE TECTONICS
plutonism, volcanism, tectonic uplift, metamorphism,
weathering, sedimentation, transport, deposition, burial are
all part of the rock forming process, and they are driven by
plate tectonics

plutonism and volcanism are the result of the interior heat

of the earth – occur in 3 tectonic settings

convergent boundaries – where oceanic plates descend into

the mantle, where they melt at 50-100 km depth
divergent boundaries at mid-ocean ridges where sea-floor
spreading allows basaltic magma to rise from the ⊕’s
upper mantle to form new oceanic crust
mantle plumes or hot spots – where crystalline material rises
through the mantle and pours out as magma at the
surface

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 28

sediment is carried away from mountains and deposited on continents
and ocean floors

metamorphism and uplift occur as continental plates collide at

convergent boundaries - this uplifts mountains and creates the
great pressures and temperatures that metamorphose rocks

mineralogy and texture define a rock

they are determined by the geological conditions and the
chemistry of the rock that is formed

IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY & METAMORPHIC ROCKS 29

 IGNEOUS ROCKS
How are igneous rocks classified?

all rocks were once molten,

and the whole rock forming process is driven by plate
tectonics

classification of rocks by –
y texture
y mineral and chemical composition

All igneous rocks can be divided into two broad textural

classes:
(1) the coarsely crystalline rocks, which are
intrusive and therefore cooled slowly,
plutonic

and

(2) the finely crystalline ones, which are extrusive

and cooled rapidly.
volcanic

igneous rocks 1
 How are igneous rocks classified?

Within each of these broad categories, the rocks are

classified on the chemical basis of their silica content or
by the mineralogical equivalent, the proportions of lighter,
felsic minerals and darker, mafic minerals.

Felsic rocks, such as granite and its corresponding

extrusive, rhyolite, are rich in silica and dominated
by quartz, potassium feldspar, and sodium-rich
plagioclase feldspar.

Mafic rocks, such as gabbro and its corresponding

extrusive, basalt, are poor in silica and consist
primarily of pyroxene, olivine, and calcium-rich
feldspar.

Intermediate rocks are granodiorite and diorite

and their corresponding extrusives, dacite and
andesite.

igneous rocks 2
 TEXTURE
coarsely or finely crystalline
coarse grained rock – granite – has grains seen by eye
fine grained rock – basalt – cannot be seen by eye or with
magnifying glass

photomicrographs of thin sections

hypersthene gabbro – plagioclase and hypersthene (orthopyroxene)

dominate this rock.

by observing lava flows (lava on surface, magma in ⊕),

we know:
y fast cooling results in fine grains or glass, and
y slow cooling results in larger grains

crystals grow by atoms arranging themselves into

repetitive structure

igneous rocks 3
 hypersthene gabbro – plagioclase and hypersthene (orthopyroxene)
dominate this rock.

A diabase is a basaltic rock with grain size more or less transitional

between gabbro (coarse) and basalt (fine). Notice the elongate lath-
shaped plagioclase and the colorful clinopyroxene in this rock.

igneous rocks 4
y atoms must diffuse through the melt to come to the
correct position to form a crystal and to grow on the
surface of the small crystal

y it takes time for the atom to diffuse and the speed at

which an atom can move depends upon temperature, the
lower the temperature the slower the atom diffuses

−E
D = D0 exp m2 s −1
RT

R – gas constant – 8.314 J mol-1 K-1

E – activation energy (J mol-1)
T – absolute Temperature (K)

igneous rocks 5
intrusive igneous rocks (plutonic rocks) are formed from
magma that has forced its way into surrounding rock
and then cooled to form large-grained igneous rock.
The surrounding rock is called country rock

extrusive igneous rocks (volcanic rocks) are formed by

the rapid cooling of a lava and produce fine-grained or
glassy rocks. They form when lava or volcanic material
is ejected from a volcano
lava – volcanic rocks formed from lava range from smooth
and ropy to sharp spiky and jagged. These special textural
qualities give information about how the rocks formed.

igneous rocks 6
igneous rocks 7
pyroclastic rocks – in violent eruptions pyroclasts are
formed when broken pieces of lava and glass are thrown
into the air.

pyroclasts include
crystals that started to form before the explosion,
fragments of previously solidified lava and
pieces of glass that cooled and fractured during the
eruption.

The finest pyroclasts are volcanic ash – extremely small

fragments usually glass that forms when escaping gas
forces a fine spray of magma from a volcano.

volcanic ash accumulates as layers of loose and

uncemented material

volcanic rocks lithified from these pyroclastic materials

are called tuff

igneous rocks 8
Volcanic glass comes in a variety of forms when it is the
only constituent of an igneous rock.

one common glassy rock type is pumice

a frothy mass with a great number of vesicles (air
bubbles) - holes that remained in the glass after
trapped gas escaped from the solidifying melt - made
the same as champagne

reticulite
Reticulite is basaltic pumice in which nearly all cell walls of gas bubbles have burst,
leaving a honeycomb-like structure. Even though it is less dense than pumice,
reticulite does not float in water because of the open network of bubbles.

another glassy volcanic rock is obsidian which is pure glass

y contains no trapped gases and so is solid with no bubbles
y broken obsidian fragments are very sharp and can be
used as a knife or axe

igneous rocks 9
A porphyry has a mixed texture in which large crystals
float in a predominantly fine grained crystalline matrix

rhyolite porphyry

the large crystals are called phenocrysts

y they were formed while the magma was still below the
⊕'s surface
y and the volcanic eruption bought the magma to the
surface before other crystals could grow

igneous rocks 10
 CHEMICAL & MINERAL
COMPOSITION
igneous rocks are sub-divided on the basis of their
chemical & mineral composition as well as texture

Silica (SiO2) is abundant in most igneous rocks and

accounts for 40 to 70 wt% of the rock

historically we refer to rock rich in silica - e.g. granites-

as silicic

igneous rocks 11
today, we group igneous rocks according to the relative
proportions of silicate minerals

the silicate minerals

quartz,
feldspar (orthoclase and feldspar),
muscovite and
biotite micas,
the amphibole and
pyroxene groups and
olivine
form a systematic series

felsic minerals are high in silica – feldspar and silica

mafic minerals are low in silica – magnesium and ferric iron

the adjectives can be applied both to the

rock and to the minerals in the rock

mafic minerals crystallize at higher temperatures

- that is earlier in the cooling history of the magma

than those at which felsic minerals crystallize

igneous rocks 12
some intrusive rocks have the same chemical composition
as extrusive rocks, but different texture

this is the case for

coarse grained gabbro which is formed deep in the ⊕ and

fine grained basalt which cools as a lava on the ⊕'s surface

basalt gabbro

and also
fine grained rhyolite and coarse grained granite

This crystal-rich rhyolite contains Minerals in this rock include quartz,

phenocrysts of quartz, K-feldspar plagioclase, biotite, and K-feldspar.
(sanidine), plagioclase, and biotite in a
fine-grained groundmass.

these rocks have the same mineral content,

but different grain-sizes

igneous rocks 13
CHEMICAL & MINERAL COMPOSITION
y most chemical and mineral compositions can appear either
as extrusive or intrusive rocks

y the sole exceptions to this possibility are the highly

mafic rocks that rarely appear as extrusive igneous
rocks – because the magma crystallizes at very high
temperatures, and the liquid does not reach the surface
before it has all solidified

igneous rocks 14
 FELSIC ROCKS
light coloured, poor in Fe and Mg
but rich in high silica content minerals –
quartz, orthoclase feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar
(which contains both Ca and Na)

igneous rocks 15
 richer in Na near the felsic end
richer in Ca at the mafic end

felsic minerals crystallise at temperatures lower

than those at which mafic minerals crystallise

Ca-rich plag crystallises at higher temperatures

than Na-rich plag

minerals and rocks are light in colour

Granite – the most abundant intrusive rock, felsic with ~70
wt% SiO2
it contains abundant quartz and orthoclase feldspar and a
lesser amount of plagioclase feldspar. These felsic minerals
give granite its pink or grey colour. It also contains small
amounts of muscovite, biotite micas and amphibole.

Rhyolite – is the extrusive equivalent to granite. It is

light brown to grey in colour, more finely grained
and many rhyolites contain glass or are
completely volcanic glass

igneous rocks 16
 INTERMEDIATE IGNEOUS
ROCKS
midway between felsic and mafic
neither as rich in silica as the felsic rocks
nor as poor in silica as the mafic rocks

Granodiorite – looks like granite and has

abundant quartz, but has more plagioclase
than orthoclase

Diorite – less Si, dominated by plagioclase, little

or no quartz. Contain a moderate amount of
mafic minerals biotite, amphibole and
pyroxene. And tend to be darker in colour
than granite or granodiorite.

the volcanic equivalents are dacite & andesite

igneous rocks 17
 MAFIC ROCKS
mafic rocks – high in pyroxenes and olivines which are
relatively poor in silica but rich in Mg and Fe and
therefore these rocks are dark in colour

Gabbro – a dark grey, coarsely grained intrusive

rock with an abundance of mafic minerals, esp.
pyroxene, no quartz and only moderate
amounts of Ca-rich plagioclase.

Basalt - is dark grey to black and is the fine grained

extrusive equivalent to gabbro. It is the most
abundant extrusive igneous rock on the
surface of the earth and on the ocean floors.

ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS
y primarily mafic minerals with less than 10% feldspar and
about 45 wt% SiO2

peridotite coarsely grained dark green rock made up of

olivine with small amounts of pyroxene and amphibole - rarely
found as extrusive rocks (Mg,Fe)2SiO4

y mafic rocks melt at high temperature and felsic at lower

temperatures

igneous rocks 18
igneous rocks 19
igneous rocks 20
igneous rocks 21
 VISCOSITY

Si – network-former increase viscosity

Al – network-former increase viscosity

Na, K – network-modifier decrease viscosity

H2O – network-modifier decrease viscosity

y felsic rocks have more Si and therefore when they melt

their viscosity is higher than mafic composition melts

viscosity – η - resistance to flow – increases with Si

content

σ stress
η= ⇒
ε strain − rate

igneous rocks 22
 HOW & WHERE DO
MAGMAS FORM?

Magmas form at places in the lower crust and

mantle where temperatures and pressures are
high enough for at least partial melting of water-
containing rock.

Basalt can partially melt in the upper mantle where convection

currents bring hot rock upward at mid-ocean ridges.

Mixtures of basalt and other igneous rocks with sedimentary

rocks, which contain significant quantities of water, have lower
melting points than dry igneous rocks. These mixtures therefore
melt when they are heated during subduction into the mantle.

igneous rocks 23
 HOW DO MAGMAS FORM?
seismic waves Î ⊕ is solid down to outer core
volcanoes Î liquid regions within ⊕

igneous rocks 24
 TEMPERATURE & MELTING
a rock of varied mineralogy does not melt uniformly

a partial melt forms first

- because the minerals that compose the rock melt at
different temperatures

olivine melts @ 1890C

Ca-plagioclase melts @ 1550C
pyroxene melts @ 1400C

the ratio of liquid to solid depends upon

the composition and mineralogy of the rock and
the temperature and pressure conditions in the ⊕ which it
experiences

partial melts of basaltic composition in the upper mantle

have about 1% melt

granitic melt composition just before eruption would have

about 10% crystals

igneous rocks 25
 TEMPERATURE & MELTING

as a rock melts, the composition of the rock changes

as the different minerals add to the melt

therefore from the whole rock composition – melt +

crystals in rock and the removed melt composition, one
can estimate what minerals melted and at which
temperatures this occurred, and therefore the depth
at which the rock partially melted

or basaltic magmas at the surface have different

compositions due to the depth at which they formed

igneous rocks 26
 PRESSURE & MELTING

pressure increases in ⊕ due to the overlying rocks

the temperature required to melt a crystal increases with

pressure

a rock that melts at 1000°C on the surface might

need 1300°C at depth in the upper mantle

igneous rocks 27
 WATER & MELTING

there is water in most lavas – 1 wt% or more

melting temperature decreases in the presence of water

which is bound in the crystal or simply in the rock between
crystals

igneous rocks 28
 MAGMA CHAMBERS

density of melt is less than that of the rock (usually)

Ö therefore melt rises within the ⊕

CRYSTAL ρ g cm-3 MELT ρ g cm-3

olivine 3,33 basalt 2,55-2,65
plagioclase 2,70 andesite 2,45
quartz 2,65 rhyolite 2,30
amphibole 3,20 Fe-melt 5,50
pyroxene 3,27 diopside melt 2,61

and forms magma chambers

– magma filled cavities in the lithosphere that form as
melt pushes aside the surrounding rock – the melt is
also at pressure
– may be many km3
– we know they exist because seismology shows them
beneath some volcanoes, but how they form is
questionable, and what happens as melt is forced out
in volcanic eruptions is questionable

igneous rocks 29
TEMPERATURE PROFILE IN THE
EARTH
y in tectonically & volcanically active regions the
temperature at 40 km depth is already 1000°C
y this is almost high enough to melt basalt

y in stable regions the temperature at this depth may be

as low as 500°C

igneous rocks 30
 TECTONIC ACTIVITY
2 types of plate boundaries are associated with magma
formation –

mid-ocean ridges – where the divergence of two plates

causes the seafloor to spread
new rock is formed

and

subduction zones where one plate dives beneath another

old rocks are melted

igneous rocks 31
magmas are labelled in terms of plutonic (intrusive) and
volcanic (extrusive),
y and the magma is also named after the rock group
y rocks can have identical compositions but different
textures

common names:
rhyolite (felsic)
andesitic (intermediate)
basaltic (mafic)

MID-OCEAN RIDGES
y heat in the form of rising convection currents in the
mantle causes the formation of basaltic melt

y this magma forms in the hot upper mantle below mid-

ocean ridges and rises to collect in narrow wedge shaped
magma chambers near the crest of the ridge

y large quantities of this fluid magma flows out of the

rifts and fissures at the mid-ocean ridges producing
abundant basaltic lavas on the seafloor

igneous rocks 32
igneous rocks 33
 SUBDUCTION ZONES
y the magma forms from a mixture of seafloor sediments and
basaltic and felsic crust

y the sediments contain water both in the pore space between

crystals and bound into the crystal structure of the clays which
are present

y sediments become deeply buried as the subducting lithospheric

plate moves into the lower crust

y at about 5 km and 150°C most of the water is released by

chemical reactions

y the rest of the water is released at 15 – 25 km depth

igneous rocks 34
y as the water moves up from the top of the subducting slab it reacts
with the minerals in the mantle wedge and promotes melting in the
plate overlying the subducting plate (water lowers melting
temperature of minerals – chemical effect)

y the composition of the sedimentary, basaltic and felsic magmas that

combine in this process determine the type of igneous rock formed
from the melt

y the igneous rocks formed at subduction zones are generally more

silicic than the basalts of mid ocean ridges, with some andesite and
lesser amounts of felsic rocks

y deep in the crust, beneath the volcanoes, intrusive rocks of

intermediate to silicic compositions - from diorite to granite - are
formed at the same time as the magmas erupt at the earths surface

y these intrusives are added to the base of the crust thickening it by

the process called underplating

MANTLE PLUMES
y basalts similar to those at mid-ocean ridges are
sometimes found distant from plate boundaries
- Columbia & Snake River Basalts
- the Hawaiian Islands are volcanic islands that are not
near a plate boundary

y in such places "plumes" of hot crystalline material rise

from deep in the mantle – perhaps as deep as the
mantle/core boundary
igneous rocks 35
y mantle plumes are hot spots - and responsible for huge
outpourings of basaltic melt

summary
y basaltic magmas form in the upper mantle below mid-
ocean ridges and in the lower mantle beneath intraplate
hot spots

y magmas of varying composition form at subduction zones

– depending upon how much felsic material and water the
rocks overlying the subduction zone contribute to the
melt

igneous rocks 36
 How does magmatic differentiation account
for the variety of igneous rocks?

Minerals crystallize from magmas along two paths:

(1) a continuous reaction series of the plagioclase

feldspars and

(2) a discontinuous reaction series of the mafic

minerals.

PHASE DIAGRAMS

igneous rocks 37
 How does magmatic differentiation account
for the variety of igneous rocks?

NO REMOVAL OF MATERIAL
EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS

In these series, crystals continuously react with the

melt through successive stages of crystallization
and magma composition until they solidify
completely, at which point the final product (rock)
has the same composition as the original magma.

REMOVAL OF MATERIAL
NON-EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS

If there is fractional crystallization, so that the

crystals do not react with the melt, either because
they grow very rapidly or because they are
separated from the liquid, the final product (rock)
may be more silicic than the earlier, more mafic
crystals.

mafic minerals (Si-poor) crystallize at higher temperatures

than Si-rich felsic minerals

igneous rocks 38
 How does magmatic differentiation account
for the variety of igneous rocks?

Bowen's continuous and discontinuous reaction series

explain how fractional crystallization can produce mafic
igneous rocks from earlier stages of crystallization and
differentiation; and felsic rocks from later stages, but
Bowen's theory does not adequately explain the abundance
of granite.

Magmatic differentiation of basalt does not explain the

composition and abundance of igneous rocks.

Different kinds of igneous rocks may be produced by

variations in the compositions of magmas caused by the
melting of different mixtures of sedimentary and other
rocks and by mixing of magmas.

igneous rocks 39
 MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION
a homogenous parent melt may produce rocks of differing
composition

y this is because, as the magma cools and minerals form the

composition of the remaining melt changes - it is depleted in the
chemicals that have been used to form crystals

y the first minerals to crystallise in a cooling melt are those that

were the last to melt in a partial melt

liquidus – marks the temperature above which all is molten

solidus - marks the temperature below which all is solid

igneous rocks 40
continuous and gradual change
the composition of the successively formed plagioclase
feldspars changes continuously and gradually

abrupt and discrete change

mafic minerals e.g. olivine & pyroxene, the composition of
the minerals changes discontinuously
y with one mineral abruptly changing to another at a
particular temperature

igneous rocks 41
 CONTINUOUS REACTION
when a melt of plagioclase feldspar composition is cooled

y the first crystals to form are richer in Ca than the melt is

y this depletes the melt in Ca, and makes it become richer in Na

y the Ca-rich crystals then begin to react with the Na-rich melt
and exchange Ca Ö melt and Na Ö crystal

y as this process continues both melt and crystals become richer in

Na and poorer in Ca

y end up with first crystals being rich in Ca and last rich in Na

igneous rocks 42
 DISCONTINUOUS REACTION
mafic minerals such as olivine, pyroxene, amphibole and
biotite micas display a different process

when a mafic composition melt is cooled

y olivine crystallises first

y however, below 1557°C pyroxene begins to crystallize and the

olivines convert to pyroxene

y at 1543°C, cristobalite begins to crystallise along with the

pyroxene

y with different composition melts, amphibole and then

biotite crystallise at temperatures lower than the
olivine-pyroxene series

Mg2SiO4 MgSiO3 SiO2

igneous rocks 43
igneous rocks 44
 MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION
in the continuous process,
y the crystal structure remains constant but the
y composition changes with decreasing temperature

in the discontinuous series,

y the crystal structure changes

at high temperatures, simple structures crystallise

– olivine has isolated SiO4 tetrahedra,
– pyroxene has single chains of SiO4 tetrahedra,
– while amphiboles have double chains,
– micas have sheets of tetrahedra
The end stages of both reaction types are quartz
and feldspars with 3D frameworks of tetrahedra

igneous rocks 45
 MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION

in the cooling of a natural magma,

both patterns occur simultaneously

with the olivine Ö pyroxene change occurring

alongside the continuous crystallization of
plagioclase feldspar

if you follow this scenario which was derived from

laboratory experiments - each igneous rock should have
only a single plagioclase feldspar corresponding to the
composition of the original melt and a pyroxene – there
should be no olivine and no Ca-rich plagioclase

igneous rocks 46
FRACTIONAL CRYSTALLIZATION

………… the theory of magmatic differentiation needs to

account for the preservation of minerals formed
earlier…………

Bowen (a Canadian) in the 1920’s, looked at plagioclase

feldspars that failed to change composition by reacting
with the remaining melt

proposed that –

if a melt cooled quickly, the Ca-rich crystals

would have time to grow, but only the outer
surfaces of existing crystals would have time
to react with the melt – diffusion of atoms
take time

as a result only the outer layer of each

crystal would change composition

∴ as the temperature decreased and

crystallization continued each outer layer
would become more rich in Na

igneous rocks 47
the end product would be a ZONED CRYSTAL.
– a single crystal of one mineral that has a different
composition in its inner and outer parts

igneous rocks 48
simple theory of magmatic differentiation (Bowen, 1920)
– first formed crystals become segregated from the
melt
– e.g. crystal settling
– therefore the Ca-rich feldspars should settle to the
bottom of the magma chamber and be removed from
the chemical reaction with the melt,
– which would become more Na-rich

fractional crystallization is the term applied

to separation and removal of successive
fractions of crystals formed in a cooling melt

y so you expect olivine at the bottom, pyroxene plus Ca-

rich plagioclase and then Na-rich plagioclase at the top
of a cooled magma chamber

however, reality is not so simple –

igneous rocks 49
igneous rocks 50
theories of fractional crystallization and magmatic
differentiation have difficulties in explaining the
apparently contradictory facts:

(a) the widespread abundance of granites – intrusive

silicic rocks, with Na-rich plag and other low
melting-temperature minerals (felsic)

(b) equally abundant basalt – extrusive mafic rocks,

low silica content Ca-rich feldspars and other
high melting temperature minerals

Bowen’s idea was that basaltic magma would cool and

differentiate by fractional crystallization and erupt (as
the magma evolved) to produce lavas ranging from basaltic
to andesitic to rhyolitic – to produce granite in the late
stages

igneous rocks 51
 BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES
However, back in the laboratory

Áexperimentalists always add reality checks to ravings of geologistsÁ

– olivine crystals take too long to settle to the bottom

of a viscous magma chamber

2 r2 g
ST = (ρxl - ρm ) m s-1
9 η

density (g cm-3) viscosity (Pa s)

basalt melt 2.33 2×104
olivine 3,33

1 mm diameter: time to fall 1 m

in basalt melt
olivine 1.16 years

– convection within the magma chamber usually stirs

the sinking crystals and destroys this simple process

igneous rocks 52
 BOWEN’S REACTION SERIES
to produce a granite intrusion, 10 times as much basalt
melt is needed to start with
therefore, you expect to see huge quantities of
basalt underlying granite intrusions – but do not

starting point is the problem

–Bowen said all granitic rocks form by differentiation of a
starting melt of basaltic composition; but

in reality-
the melting of various source rocks in the crust and upper
mantle is responsible for the variation in magma
compositions

1. rocks in the upper mantle might partially melt to

produce basaltic magmas
2. a mixture of sedimentary and oceanic basaltic rocks
(subduction zone) might melt to form an andesitic melt
3. a melt of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic
continental crustal rock might produce granitic magma

igneous rocks 53
 MAGMATIC DIFFERENTATION
magmatic differentiation does operate but is much more
complex than Bowen’s original proposal

partial melting
– basaltic melt can be formed by 10-15% partial melting
of upper mantle rocks at 100 km depth
– andesitic melt can be formed by partial melting of
water-rich basaltic oceanic crust that heats up as it
descends along a subduction zone
- rhyolitic magma can be formed by partial melting in the
lower crust of a mixture of continental crustal rocks
or andesite

in all of these one can apply Bowen’s reaction series

in reverse to predict the composition of the magma
as it is formed from partial melting

magmas do not cool uniformly, there may exist a wide

range of temperatures within the magma chamber

the differences in temperature may produce differences

in chemical composition

igneous rocks 54
 MAGMATIC DIFFERENTATION
some melt compositions are immiscible – they do not mix
with each other

magma at different temperatures in different parts of

the magma chamber may flow turbulently, crystallizing
as it circulates; crystals may settle and then be caught
up in the flow again

the margins of a magma chamber are usually thought to

be mushy - that is a mixture of crystal and melt

igneous rocks 55
 What are the forms of
intrusive igneous rocks?

Igneous bodies of large size are plutons. The largest

plutons are batholiths, which are thick tabular masses with
a central funnel. Stocks are smaller plutons.

Less massive than plutons are sills, which are concordant,

with the intruded rock, following its layering, and dikes,
which are discordant with the layering, cutting across it.

Hydrothermal veins are formed where water is abundant,

either in the magma or in surrounding country rock.

igneous rocks 56
 FORMS OF MAGMATIC
INTRUSIONS

field work looks at old intrusions – solid rock that

has been deformed and uplifted

seismic waves through current magma bodies –

but resolution is ca. km, so fine detail is lost

deep drill hole – temperature changes in crust –

indicate presence of melt?

plutons, sills, dykes, veins

PLUTONS

PLUTONS – large igneous bodies that formed deep in the

⊕'s crust
y from 1 km3 to 100 km3
y seen after uplift and erosion, or in mines or drill holes
y variety of shapes, sizes and compositions
igneous rocks 57
most magmas intrude at 8-10 km depth
– pressure 300 MPa – 3000 times that at the surface

– this is more than enough pressure to close the cracks

between crystals

– but the upwelling melt is coming from a higher

pressure source and so can force its way between
rocks

MAGMA RISING THROUGH THE CRUST MAKES SPACE

BY:

1. wedging open overlying rock – as magma forces

the rock up, the rock crack horizontally and the
melt flows into the horizontal layer, the rock
above may bulge up in response – rock is brittle
but also plastic

2. breaking off large rock blocks – the block then

sinks through the magma, and may melt to change
the composition of the upwelling melt

3. melting the surrounding rock – melts the walls of

the country rock as the magma chamber rises

igneous rocks 58
 BATHOLITH

- the largest plutons

y coarse grained igneous rock that by definition must be at

least 100 km3

smaller plutons are called stocks

both are discordant intrusions – they cut across the layers

of the country rock that they intrude

batholiths are found in the cores of tectonically deformed

mountain belts

batholith sources may extend 10 to 15 km into the crust,

the coarse grain size indicates slow cooling at depth

igneous rocks 59
 SILLS & DYKES

are smaller than plutons and have a different

relationship to the country rock

SILL
is a sheet of magma that was injected between
parallel layers of bedded country rock – concordant
intrusion –

y boundary of sill lies parallel to the layers of

country rock – independent of whether the
layers are horizontal

y 1 cm to 100 m thick.

they can be differentiated from a lava flow in that they

lack the ropey structure of a lava flow, and there are no
vesicles

they are more coarsely grained than lava flow rocks

rocks above and below the sill show the effects of being
heated by the magma – contact metamorphism

sills do not overly older flows, or soils

igneous rocks 60
DYKE
- major route of magma transport in the crust
- they are layers – like sills - but cut across bedded
country rock
- they usually form by cracking open the country
rock due to the pressure of the melt - magmatic
injection
- width cm to m

in some dykes you can see xenoliths – fragments of the

broken country rock that float in the magma

rarely occur alone – dyke swarms – 100 or more in region

that has been deformed by large igneous intrusion

textures of dykes and sills vary as a function of whether

they invaded country rock near the Earth's surface (fine
grained) or deep in the crust (coarse grained)

igneous rocks 61
VEINS

y deposits of minerals found within a rock fracture that

are foreign to the host rock

y tubes or sheet shaped veins branch off the sides and

tops of many intrusive bodies

y mm to m in width and m to km long e.g. gold veins

veins of very coarse grained granite cutting

across fine grained country rock are pegmatites
y they crystallized from a water-rich magma in the
late stage of solidification
y pegmatites provide ores of many rare elements –
Li, Be

igneous rocks 62
VEINS

some veins contain minerals with water in the crystal

structure
– crystallised from hot water solution
– crystallize at 250 – 350 °C –
– hydrothermal veins
–
a lot of water was present – some from the magma itself
- some from underground water in the cracks and pore
spaces of the intruded country rock

groundwater is due to rainwater seeping into soil and

surface rocks

hydrothermal veins are common along mid-ocean ridges as

the sea water infiltrates cracks in the basalt and
circulates into hotter regions of the basalt ridge emerging
at the hot vent on the sea floor in the rift valley between
the spreading plates

igneous rocks 63
igneous rocks 64
 How are igneous rocks related to
plate tectonics?

The two major sites of magmatic activity are mid-ocean

ridges, where basalt wells up from the upper mantle, and
subduction zones, where a series of differentiated
magmas produces both extrusives and intrusives in island
or continental volcanic arcs as the subducting oceanic
lithosphere moves down into the deep crust and upper
mantle. Large volumes of basalt are produced at oceanic
islands and on landmasses that overlie mantle plumes.

batholiths are found in the cores on many mountain ranges

that were formed by tectonic process – the convergence
of 2 plates ∴ there is a connection between plutonism,
mountain building and plate tectonics

igneous rocks 65
 IGNEOUS ACTIVITY & PLATE
TECTONICS

the major sites of IGNEOUS ROCK FORMATION are

divergent zones – mid-ocean ridges

- at these sites, basaltic magma derived from partial

melting of the mantle wells up along rising
convection currents

- magma is extruded as lava, fed from the magma

chambers below the ridge axis - at the same time
gabbroic intrusions are emplaced at depth

igneous rocks 66
 subduction zones - where one plate dives below another -
are MAJOR SITES OF ROCK MELTING

y the top of the subducting lithospheric plate includes oceanic

crust which is largely basalt originally formed at a mid-ocean
ridge

y this plate also carries water and soft ocean sediment which it
accumulated in its trip form the mid-ocean ridge to the
subduction zone

y as the plate move downwards, the increasing temperature and

pressure converts the sediments to sedimentary rocks and then
to metamorphic rocks, and then to magma - releasing water as
this all happens

y the presence of water lowers the melting temperature

y the magma and water then rise from the top of the subducting
slab – they may melt some of the rock in the overlying wedge of
mantle material and change their composition

y at the same time the magmas may differentiate by fractional

crystallization

y the result is a range of igneous rocks both extrusive and intrusive

y volcanoes over the deeper parts of the subduction zone where

melting is occurring produce basaltic, andesitic and rhyolitic lavas
with pyroclasts – a wide range of different melt compositions

igneous rocks 67
y formation of islands oceanic volcanic arcs – island arc
– Aleutian Islands of Alaska, Japan

y when subduction takes place beneath a continent, the volcanoes

join together to form a mountainous arc on land

y subduction of an off shore plate has formed such an arc – Mount

St. Helens

looking at the magmas above the subducting zone, we may

try to estimate the composition of the parent magma and
the depth of the descending slab from which it came - to
figure out what happened millions of years ago

magmatic differentiation

the process by which a uniform composition parent magma

forms rocks of different compositions

Different minerals crystallize at different temperatures.

During such crystallization, the composition of the magma

changes as it is depleted of the chemical elements taken
away to form the crystallizing minerals.

igneous rocks 68
 fractional crystallization

the crystals formed in a cooling magma are separated from

the magma

HOW CAN WE CREATE MELT

IN THE UPPER MANTLE?

(@ ~ 100 km depth)

convection currents at mid-ocean ridge & hot-spot

add heat plumes

decrease adiabatic rise of material at mid-

pressure ocean ridges & hot-spots

add water melt mantle wedge at subduction

zone

igneous rocks 69
 Phase diagram for aluminous
4-phase lherzolite:
Al-phase =
λ Plagioclase
Φ shallow (< 50 km)
λ Spinel
Φ 50-80 km
λ Garnet
Φ 80-400 km
λ Si → VI coord.
Φ > 400 km

igneous rocks 70

Figure 10-2 After Wyllie, P. J. (1981). Geol. Rundsch. 70, 128-153.

 How does the mantle melt??
1) Increase the temperature

igneous rocks
Figure 10-3 71
2) Lower the pressure
Φ Adiabatic rise of mantle with no conductive heat loss
Φ Decompression melting could melt at least 30%

igneous rocks 72
 3) Add volatiles (especially H2O)

igneous rocks 73
igneous rocks 74
igneous rocks 75