II Industrial Instrument

GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
LDRP INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & RESEARCH-GANDHINAGAR
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
LAB MANUAL
FOR
Industrial Instrumentation
NAME: _________________________________________________________
SEM:_________ BRANCH : ELECTRICAL DIV :________
ROLL NO:_______________ ID NO:__________________

_CERTIFICATE_
This is to certify that the practical/term work carried out

in the subject of INDUSTRIAL INSRUMENTATION (EE-605)
recorded in this journal is the bonafied work of
Mr./Ms._____________________________________
Enrollement No:____________ ID No: ___________
of B.E. IIIRD Year, semester VIth in the Branch of Electrical
Engineering during academic year 2019-2020 within the four walls
of the institute.
Faculty Incharge Date Head Of Department

LDRP‐ITR, GANDHINAGAR
INDEX
Sr. Page
Date Sign.
No. No.
Measurement and control of temperature
1
using RTD.
Measurement and control of temperature
2
using thermocouple.
To perform and measure the pressure by using
3
the pressure transducer.
To study the operation of synchro transmitter
4
and receiver.
To perform strain measurement using strain
5
gauge.
To study and perform the linear variable
6
differential transducer (LVDT)
To study and perform analog to digital
7
converter.
To study and perform digital to analog
8
converter.
To study angular displacement by using
9
electrical transducer.
10 To study various types of liquid flow meters.
INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION 1
Experiment No: 1
DATE:
Aim: Measurement & control of temperature using RTD
Appartus:
a. Adtron’s trainer kit
b. Adtron’s heater unit
c. Digital multimeter
Theory:
RTD are generally used in conjunction with other electrical

components and circuitry for most of application. The resistance temperature
detector (RTD) is based on the principle that resistance of metal changes
with the change in their temperature. Generally platinum and nickel are used
as metal in RTD’s. The relation between temperature change and metal
resistance is given by
Rt = R0 (1 + α0 Δt)
Where R0 = Original resistance

Rt = Resistance when a temperature difference Δt is applied
α0 = temperature coefficient of metal
Generally Platinum (-190 to 660 0C) and Nickel (0 to 325 0C) are used
as metal resistance wire diameter varies from 0.002 to 0.06cm depending
upon the range. The wire is tested for purity and wound on a framework to
form a coil. Different framework are chosen for different kinds of
application .for instance ,a mica cross is used general purpose application
whereas for the surface temperature measurement a strain gauge type mesh
may be used. In case of measurement of temperature of flowing liquid layer
a self supporting helical form is more useful as shown in figure.
The RTD’s are the most accurate of all the temperature transducers.
An accuracy of 0.000/ 0C can be achieved by these transducer and these are
very convenient for small temperature differences. However they have
inherent drawbacks of heat loss i.e. self heating error (=12 RT) thermo EMF
and requirement of separate power packs.
Procedure:
1. Connect the RTD probe to the RTD input jack provided on the panel.
2. Connect RTD in the bridge at points A&B respectively.
3. Also connect the heater unit to the main unit by the connecter
provided
4. Now connect the required supply and switch ON the unit.
5. Put switch S1 in the set temperature position.
6. Adjust with the Potentiometer P, the set temperature to the required
temperature say 35 0C.
7. Now keep the switch S1 in the actual temperature position and
observe the actual process temperature. We will observe that if the
actual temperature is say about 30 0C then the relay ON LED lows and
power delivered to the temperature increase and reaches temperature
approaches the set temperature the relay becomes ON & OFF to
maintain the error between the ser value and actual value to the
minimum.
8. Repeat the experiment with different set say 40 0C, 50 0C, 60 0C etc.
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 2
DATE:
Aim: Measurement & control of temperature using Thermocouple.
Apparatus:
1. Adtron’s triner kit
2. Adtron’s heater unit
3. Digital multimeter.
Theory:
Thermocouples are most important temperature transducer in the
industry application. They work on the See back’s principle of thermo EMF
that “when two dissimilar metal are joined as shown in fig with metal are
joined as shown in fig with the junctions J1& J2 at temperature T1 & T2
respectively, then an EMF is generated causing a current to flow in the
circuit”. The reflection between output voltage (in mv) & junctions
temperature has been found empirically as
E = Σk 1/n * α* tn
n=1
The term ‘t’ is the hot junction temperature when the cold junction is
maintained at 0 0C. In practice K=3 is found to be sufficient .The constant α
depends on the materials of the thermo elements (metals)
Type J thermocouples are useful in the environment where there is

alack of free oxygen. Unprotected type J thermocouple may be used 290
0
C.Heavier wire & protection wells should be useful for 540 0C to 870 0C
temperature.
Type K on the other hand is suitable for oxidizing is present.
Type R & SIO thermocouple are called Nobel metal thermocouples

and are used for higher temperature ranges. These should be protected by
impervious tube when used at temperature above 5400C.Industrial
thermocouples have junctions hot which is connected to the process. The
cold or self junction is at the ambient temperature .This requires

compensation the assumption that the cold junction is at constant
temperature does not hold in the compensation and is called junction
compensation.
Following are the most commonly used industrial thermocouples:
Sr.
Type Combination Temperature Range
No.
Advantages of thermocouple:
1. Rugged construction
2. Inexpensive
3. Simpler to use than thermometer
4. Extremely wide temperature range 2700C to 28000C
5. Absence of need for bridge circuit
6. Good Accuracy
7. Electrical output adaptable to a variety of read out and control devices
8. High response speed compared to filled system thermometer
9. Calibration checking made easy
10. 0Good reproducibility
Disadvantages of thermocouple:
1. Limited us in temperature spans of less than about 330C of relatively

small change in junction voltages with temperature
2. Extension leads must be housed in metal conduit as low junction
voltage can cause the device to pickup stray electrical signals
3. The need to hold reference junction temperature constant or

compensation for any deviations.
4. Non linearity of temperature voltage relationship.
5. Chances of stray voltage pickups.
6. Temperature spans not being as narrow as filled system or resistance
thermometers.
7. Require much of an amplifier for many applications.
8. Need for exposure accessories for application.
Procedure:
1. Connect the thermocouple probe to the thermocouple input jack

provided on the panel.
2. Also connect the heater unit to the main supply unit by the connecter
provided.
3. Now connect the required supply switch on the unit.
4. Put switch S1 in the set temperature position.
5. Adjust with potentiometer P1,then sit temperature to the required
temperature say 350C.
6. Now keep the switch S1 in actual temperature position & observe the
actual process temperature. You will observe that if the actual
temperature is 30◦C then the relay on the LED glows a power
delivered to the heater unit is turned also as actual temperature
increases & reaches about 35◦C the relay is de-energized & heater is
turned OFF. Again as the actual temperature relay becomes ON &
OFF to maintain the error between the set value & actual value to
maintain.
7. Repeat the experiment with different set temperature say 400C, 500C,
600C etc.
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 3
DATE:
Aim: To perform and measure the pressure by using pressure

transducer.
Apparatus:
1. Adtron Kit
2. Pressure developing system
Theory:
A change in the resistance of an electrical conductor can be brought

about by subjecting it to increase it the external pressure excited from
directions very high pressure is needed to change in the resistance. The bulk
modules of the materials of the conductor and the geometrical shape of the
conductor may be used to determine the change in the dimension and
therefore change in resistance. If this dimension changes due to bulk
compression effect are considered it should always result in an increase in
the resistance of the conductor.
But, the experiment studies reveal a decrease in the resistance in the

case of conductor of Aluminum, Copper, Iron, Carbon & Constantan and an
increase in the case of conductor of Antimony, Bismuth and Lithium &
Manganin. In the case of cesium the resistance falls first and then increases.
It is considered that the resistivity of material is also affected by the
application of pressure.
The net change in the resistance of the conductor is given by
(Rp – Ro) = Δ R = Ro β ΔP
Where Ro, Rp = Resistance value at normal pressure P0 and at (P0 + ΔP)

respectively.
ΔP = Increase in the pressure from the normal pressure P0
β = Pressure coefficient of resistance of the material of the conductor.
It is the direct effect of the pressure on the resistance of an Electrical

conductor that distinguishes the resistive conductor of resistive pressure
transducer place the role of a primary transducer whereas a primary

Mechanical transducer for the measurement of a non electrical quantity.
Electrical (strain gauge) Pressure transducer:
An electrical transducer consists of three elements:
1. Pressure sensing element such as diaphragm bellow or burden tube.

2. Primary conversion element such as Resistance or a voltage
3. Secondary conversion element
Strain Gauge is passive type resistance pressure transducer whose

electrical resistance changes when mechanically strained. It can be attached
to a pressure sensing diaphragm so that when diaphragm flexes due to
process pressure applied on it the stain stretches or comprises. The
deformation of the strain gauge causes the variation in it’s length and cross
sectional area due to which it’s resistance also changes. The deflection of the
diaphragm generally follow a linear variation with differential pressure P =
P2 – P1.
The resistance change of a strain gauge is usually converted into voltage

by connecting one, two or four similar gauges to form a balanced wheat
stone bridge (strain gauge bridge) and applying excitation to the bridge. The
bridge output voltage is then measure the pressure sensed by the strain
gauges.
WORKING:
Figure 1A shows a bridge circuit with four strain gauges Rsg1, Rsg2,
Rsg3 and Rsg4. Two strain gauges Rsg1 and Rsg4 are mounted so that
increasing pressure decreases their resistance. A change in temperature
affects all the four strain gauges in the same way resulting in no change in
the pressure direction.
At balance when there is no pressure, no current flows through the

external circuit and hence there will be no indication on panel meter. As
pressure applied, the strain gauge stretches or compresses accordingly the
bridge circuit is an balanced due to change in resistance of strain gauges.
Thus a current flows in the external circuit which is measured by
galvanometer or panel meter connected with amplifying circuit.
If we change the input (applying variable) pressure to transducer

which changes the resistance of bridge and further we get variable output on
the meter. The output is calibrated in the terms of pressure measurement.
Additional element for adjustment of sensitivity, zero balance and thermal
effects are added to ensure accurate and durable operation over a suitable
range.
Observation table:
Pressure Voltage
Advantages of pressure transducers:
1. Small and easy to install

2. It has a good accuracy
3. It has a good stability
4. Easier to maintain
5. Good shock and vibration characteristics
6. Readily adoptable to electronic systems
7. Fast speed of response
Disadvantages:
1. Moderately high cost.

2. It requires constant voltage supply.
3. Temperature compensation required due to problem presented by
temperature variation.
Procedure:
1. Connect the pressure transducer to the outlet of pressure developing

system.
2. Connect the connector plug (electrical outlet) of the pressure
transducer to the input socket of trainer kit.
3. Switch on the unit and the supply LED glows or not.
4. With no pressure applied the indicator shows 00.00, which is done by
adjusting zero adjustment potentiometer.
5. Apply pressure from the pressure developing system.
6. The digital meter will show the applied pressure.
7. Repeat the above procedure for various applied pressure and note
down the voltage at different pressure. Draw relevant graphs applied
pressure and electrical output.
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 4
DATE:
Aim: To study the operation of Synchro Transmitter & Receiver.
Apparatus:
1. Synchro transmitter
2. Synchro receiver (control transformer)
Theory:
A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert

an angular position of a shaft into an electric signal.
The basic synchro unit is usually called a synchro transmitter. Its

construction is similar to that of a three phase alternator. In rotor is dumbbell
shaped and mounted with concentric coil. The stator is a three phase winding
spaced 120 apart in space from each other. It is of laminated silicon steel and
is slotted of accommodate a balanced three phase winding which is usually
concentric coil type and is star connected the stator winding is not directly
connected to A.C. supply. Their excitations supplied by the A.C. magnetic
field produced by the rotating past of a machine (rotor).
The rotor is given single phase A.C. supply through two slip rings.
The resultant current produces a magnetic field and by transformer action
induced voltage in the stator coil depends upon the angular position of the
coil’s axis with respect to rotor axis.
Synchro can be subdivided into two basis groups, the torque units and
the signal transmitter units. Torque synchros do not amplify torque. This
type of transmitter is analog to mechanically driving a load through a
flexible shaft. Being open loop torque synchro transmitter suffers from
reduced accuracy and reduced sensitivity.
In contrast the signal transmitter unit develops on output error voltage

proportional to the noises alignment between the shaft of the receiving
component and the shaft of the transmitting component. This error voltage is
amplified and used to drive a motor that restores input output adjusted to as
high a value as desired depending upon the capacity of the driving used.
The output of the synchro transmitter is applied to the stator winding

of a synchro control transformer. The control transformer is similar in
construction to a synchro transmitter except for the fact that the rotator of the
control transformer is made cylindrical in shape so that the air gap is
practically uniform.
The system (transmitter-control transformer pair) acts as an error

detector circulating current of the same phase but of different magnitudes
flow through the two sets of stator coils. The result is the establishment of an
identical flux pattern as the voltage drops in resistance and leakage reactance
of he two sets of stator coils are usually small. The control transformer flux
axis thus being in the same position as that synchro transmitter rotor the
voltage induced in the control transformer rotor is proportional to the cosine
of the angle between the two rotors and is given by
E (t) = K' Vr COSØ SIN ωct
Where Ø is the angular displacement between the two rotors when

Ø = 90° i.e. the two rotors are at right angles then the voltage induced in the
control transformer rotor is zero. This position is known as the electrical
zero position. In figure 4 the transmitter and control transformer rotor are
shown in these respectively electrical zero position. Let the rotor of the
rotate through an angular an angle θ in the direction indicated and let the
control transformer rotor rotate in the same direction through an angle α
resulting in a net angular separation of a θ = (90°- θ + α) between the two
rotors the voltage at the rotor terminals of the control transformer.
E (t) = K' Vr SIN (Ø – α) SIN ωct

Thus synchro transmitter control transformer pair acts as an error
detector of position sensor.
Procedure:
1. Arrange power supply synchro transmitter and synchro receiver to

each other.
2. Connect power supply output to R1R2 terminals of the transformer
and receiver.
3. Short S1-S1, S2-S2 and S3-S3 winding of transmitter and receiver
with the help of patch chord.
4. Switch on the unit supply neon lamp will glow on.

5. As the power is switch on transmitter and receiver shaft will come to
the same position on the dial.
6. Vary the shaft position of the transmitter and observe the
corresponding change in the shaft position of the receiver.
7. Repeat the above steps for different angles of the shaft of the
transmitter you should have observe that the receiver shaft move b an
equal amount of a transmitter.
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 5
DATE:
Aim: To perform strain measurement by using strain gauge.
Apparatus:
Digital multimeter patch chords different weights (from 100 gm to 1 kg)
Theory:
When regular bodies are subjected to stress strains developed can be

measured electrically and relationships between the forces responsible for
stress and the resulting electrical output signals can be established. The
resistive gauge element is one such device that plays the role of a secondary
transducer in sensing the tensile or compressive strain in a particular
direction at a point on the surface of body or structure strain gauges are
passive transducers which use the variation in electrical resistance of wire to
sense the strain produced by the force on the wires strain is defined as the
measured of elongation or compression per unit length of the conductor.
Strain can be easily measured by using variable resistance transducer.
Strain gauge work on the piezo resistive effect.If a metal conductor is

stretched or compressed its resistance changes due to changes in its length
and cross sectional area. Positive strain measures the length. Cross sectional
of the conductor proportionally resistivity of the conductor increases and
vice versa. This change in the resistance can be properly calibrated to give
proportional stresses and hence the force can be measured.
Types of Strain Gauge:
1. Wire Strain Gauge:

Resistive wire strain gauge consists of grid of fine resistance
wire of 5 mm in diameter or less. The grid of fine wire may be thin
sheet of Paper Bakelite or Teflon. The wire is covered on the top of
thin material so that it is not damaged mechanically.
2. Foil Strain Gauge:

These types of strain gauges are only extension of resistance
wire strain gauge. The strain is sensed with help of metal foil. The
metal and alloys are used for foils. Foil gauge have much greater
dissipation capacity than wire wound gauges on amount of their
surface area for the same volume. That is why they are being used for
higher temperature range.
3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge:
They are used where gauge factor is required for higher

sensitivity gauge factor is defined as the ratio of change in resistance
to that of the fractional change in length. A high GF means relatively
higher resistance change which can easily measure with good
capacity. They have a GF 50 times as high as wire strain gauge. They
depend for their action upon the piezo resistive effect.
Gauge Factor = (ΔR/R) / (ΔL/L)
Characteristics of Strain Gauge:
1. Strain gauge should have high value of GF for greater sensitivity.

2. The resistance of strain gauge should be as high as possible since this
minimizes the effect of undesirable resistance in the measurement.
3. The strain gauge should have high temperature coefficient. This is
essential to minimize errors on account of temperature variations.
4. Strain gauges should not have high hysteresis effect in its response.
5. In order to minimize consistency calibration over entire should be
linear.
Types of Wire Strain Gauge:
1. Un-bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:
It consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulting

medium such as air. The wires are kept under tension so that there is
no sag and so force vibrations. Strain gauge wires are connected in a
bridge circuit. The bridge is balanced with no load applied. When an
external load is applied the resistance of the strain gauges which
causes unbalance in the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage
that is proportional to the strain.
2. Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:
A fine wire element 25 nm or less in diameter is looped back

and forth on a base or mounting plate. The spreading of the wire
permits uniform distribution of the stress. The base is then bounded to
the member being studied. This permits a good transfer of strain from
base to wire and thereby increase its length and decrease in its cross
sectional area. The combined effect is a measure in the resistance of
the wire. Bonded strain gauges have assumed great importance for
application in situation including both static and dynamic
measurement of string.
Sources of Error in Strain Gauge:
Sources of error in strain gauge are mainly due to following:
 Lead wire used in connecting the strain gauges in the measuring

circuits.
 Environment factor like moisture temperature etc.
 Effects of change in the ambient temperature.
Compensation Technique:
Gauge element and their leads should be properly soldered or welded

as any variation in the constant resistance between them is thought to be due
to strain more so if the variation occurs during the period of measurement.
Repeated cycles of strain may cause fatigue of the joint and contort may be
lost finally. Hence dual lead gauge are provided for gauge which are
provided for gauges which are used for long term measurement. The gauge
may be located for away fro the circuit arrangement in which case
compensation for the variation in the resistance of the long lead form the
gauge should be produced as is the case of thermometer circuitry.
Moisture absorption by paper backing and the cement used for

bonding can change the resistance of the element and the insulation
resistance between the gauge element and the test surface that series as
ground the volume change of the current may also strain the element and
cause errors in the measurement for the long term stability of gauge
adhesives and cement used should be non hygroscopic and should not
become brittle (breakable) in course in time.
To provide temperature compensation generally a dummy gauge and

the other an active gauge in a unity ratio Wheatstone bridge circuit is
provided. The dummy gauge is connected to the surface of an identical
structure kept free from any mechanical stress when both structure are under
stress free conditions and at the same temperature the bridge is balanced. An
equal rise in temperature or both the structure raises equally the resistance
values of both the active and dummy gauge and the bridge still remains
balanced.
Procedure:
1. Connect the trainer kit to the mains supply and switch ON.
2. Connect the strain gauge transducer to the input socket of the kit.
3. Connect the output of instrumentation amplifier to the digital
indicator.
4. Now adjust the zero adjustment potentiometer to get zero reading on
the indicator.
5. Now place the weight of 100 gm at the centre or near the border of the
pan fitted on the strain gauge cantilever arrangement.
6. Observe and note down reading.
7. Place and weight from 100 gm to 500 gm (1 kg maximum) in such a
way that maximum stress is applied at the cantilever arrangement. Put
the weight near the border of the pan. Note the reading of amplifier
output for each increment of 100 gm.
8. Draw the graph of weight v/s output in micro-volt.
Observation table:
Sr. Weight Output voltage

No. ( gm ) ( μv )
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 6
DATE:
Aim: To study and perform the linear variable differential transducer

(LVDT)
Apparatus:
Patch cords and LVDT trainer kit
Theory:
The most commonly used inductive to translate the linear motion into
electrical signal is the linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) the
basic construction consists of a signal primary winding P1 and two
secondary winding S1 & S2 wound on a cylindrical former. The secondary
windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on either
side of primary winding. The primary winding is connected to an alternating
current source. A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former. The
displacement to be measured is applied to an arm attached to the soft iron
core. In practice the core is made up of nickel iron alloy which is scatted
longitudinally to reduce eddy current source. When the core is in its normal
(null) position equal voltage arc induced in two secondary winding. The
frequency of the A.C. applied to primary may be between 50Hz to 20 Hz.
The output voltage of secondary S1 is Es1 and that of secondary is Es2.

In order to convert the output from S1 and S2 into a single voltage signal the
two secondaries are connected in series opposition as shown in figure 2.
Thus the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two
voltages of its secondaries (E0 = Es1 – Es2).
When the core is at its normal (null) position the flux linking with
both the secondary winding is equal and hence equal emf’s are induced in
them. Thus at null position Es1 – Es2. Since the output voltage of the
transformer is the difference of the two voltages the output E0 is zero at null
voltage. Now if the core is moved to the left of the null position more flux
links with winding S1 and less with winding S2 i.e. Es1 > Es2. The magnitude
of the output voltage is thus Es1 – Es2 and output voltage of the secondary
winding.
The amount of the voltage change in either secondary winding is

proportional to the amount of movement of the core. Hence we have an
indication of amount of linear motion. By noting which output voltage is
increasing or decreasing we can determine the direction of motion. By
noting which in linear word any physical displacement of the core causes the
voltage of one secondary winding to increase while simultaneously reducing
the voltage in other secondary winding. The difference of two any physical
position of core and hence the displacement as the core is moved in one
direction from null position differential voltage i.e. the difference of two
secondary voltage will increase while maintaining are in phase relationship
with the null position the differential voltages will also increase but will be
180° out of phase with the magnitude and phase of the output (differential)
voltage is increasing with that of the source by comparing the magnitude and
phase of the output. The output signal may also be applied to a recorder or to
a controller that can linear function of the core displacement within a limited
range of motion say about 5 mm from null position. Figure 3 shows the
variation of the voltage against displacement (up to about 5 mm as
mentioned above). Beyond this range of displacement the curve starts to
deviate from the straight line.
Figure 4 shows the core of LVDT at different position. In figure the

core is at 0 when the core is moved left in figure 4.a and is A Es1 more the
Es2 and so Es0 is position. When core is moved to the right towards B as
shown in figure 4.c Es2 is greater voltage which is obtained when the core is
moved to the left.
Disadvantages of LVDT:
1. Relatively large displacement arc required for appreciate different

output.
2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic field but shielding is possible.
This done by providing magnetic shield with longitude slots.
3. Many a time the transducer’s performance is affected by vibration.
4. The receiving instrument must be selected to operate on A.C. signal or
a demodulator network must be used if a D.C. output is required.
5. The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of core
and electrical by the frequency of applied voltage. The frequency of
the carrier should be at least ten times the highest frequency
components to be measured.
6. Temperature affects the performance of the transducer. But when

temperature effects arc expected to affect the performance managing
wire mat be used instead of copper wire. Unfortunately managing coil
has a high resistivity and therefore its use results in the loss of
sensitivity. The sensitivity with managing coil may be as low as 1/5 of
with copper coils. Temperature also causes phase shifting effects
which may be minimized by using a capacitor across the secondary
winding.
Use of LVDT:
The uses of LVDT are numerous some of the major applications of

LVDT are mentioned are listed below:
1. The LVDT can be used in all application where displacement ranging

from fractions of a millimeter or few a has to be measured. The LVDT
acting as a primary transducer concerts the displacement directly into
a electrical output proportional to displacement. This is a function
conversion i.e. the mechanical variable (displacement in this case) is
directly concerted into an analogous signal (voltage in this case) in
one stage only. In contrast the strain gauge requires the assistance of
some form of a material act as a primary transducer to connect the
mechanical displacement from a strain gauge which in term is into a
electrical signal conversion arc involved in strain gauge while there is
only one in case of LVDT when displacement is being measured.
2. Acting as a secondary transducer it can be used as a device to measure

force weight and pressure etc. The force measurement can be done by
using a load cell as the primary transducer while field pressure can be
measured by using Bourdon tube while acts as a primary transducer.
The force the pressure is connected into a voltage using LVDT. In
these is a major attraction.
Procedure:
1. Connect the trainer kit to main supply and switch ON.

2. Now observe the output of the sine wave oscillator on the first channel
of the dual trace CRO it should be observed that the sine wave of 4
kHz with adjustable output of 10 V peak to peak be used.
3. Set the amplitude of 4 Hz oscillator to get maximum output.
4. Connect the output signal to output of LVDT transducer primary.

5. Short the secondary terminal of LVDT. Shown by the dotted lines.
6. Refer the figure 1 and observe the output of LVDT on the second
channel of the CRO (between A & C). It should be observed that the
same becomes 180° out of phase with that of the primary. This is the
output observed when LVDT shaft is not displaced.
7. Now slowly shift the position of LVDT shaft as per the observation
table and record the output for all the position. Observe null point and
180° of LVDT to 100 mm by adjusting the output potentiometer of the
detector circuit.
8. Now connect output of LVDT point A, B & C at the LVDT detector
circuit with the help of patch chord. Refer figure 2 calibrate the output
of LVDT to 10 mm by adjust the output potentiometer of the detector
circuit.
9. Connect the output of LVDT detector circuit to the displacement
indicator digital meter.
10. Observe the record the output of LVDT and plot the graph of
displacement in mm v/s output in D.C. mill volts and verify the
linearity of LVDT.
Observation Table:
Displacement Output in
Sr. no.
in mm D.C. mill volts
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 7
DATE:
Aim: To study and perform analog to digital converter.
Appartus:
A/D converter kit
Patch cords
Theory:
An analog to digital converter (abbreviated ADC or A to D) is an

electronic integrated circuited which convert continuous signal to discrete
digital number. Typically an ADC is an electronic device that converts an
input analog voltage (or current) to a digital number. The digital number
output may be using different coding schemes such as binary and two
complement binary. However some non electric or only partially electronic
device such as rotatory encoders can also be considered ADCs. The
resolution of the converter indicates the number of discrete values it can
produce over the range of analog values. The values are usually expressed
electronically in binary from so the resolution is expressed in frits. In
consequence the number of discrete values available or levels is usually a
power of two. The rate of new values is called the sampling rate or sampling
frequency of the converter.
A continuously varying band limited signal can be sampled (that is the

signal values at interval of time T the sampling time arc measured and
stored) and then the original signal can be exactly reproduced from the
discrete time values by an interpolation formula. The accuracy is however
limited by quantization error. However this faithful reproduction is only
possible if the sampling rate is higher than twice the highest frequency of the
signal this essentially what is embodied in the Shannon Nyquil sampling
theorem.
Since a practical ADC can not make an instantaneous conversion the
input value must necessarily be held constant during the time that the
converter perform a conversion (called the conversion time). An input circuit
called a sample and hold perform this task in most cases by using a capacitor
to store the analogue voltage at the input and using an electronic switch or
gate to disconnect the capacitor from the input. Many ADC integrated
circuits include the sample and hold sub system intently.
Resolution:
Resolution can also be defined electrically and expressed in volt. The

voltage resolution of an ADC is equal to its overall voltage measurement
range divided by the number of discrete interval. Most ADCs arc of a type
known as linear although analog to digital conversion is an inherently non
linear process (since the mapping of a continues space to a discrete space is
a non invertible and therefore non linear operation).
Accuracy:
An ADC has several sources of errors quantization error and

(assuming the ADC is intended to be linear) non linearity is intrinsic to any
analog to digital conversion. There is also a called aperture error which is de
to a clock fitter and is revealed. When digitizing a signal (not a signal value).
Sampling Rate:
The analog signal is continuous in time and it is necessary to connect

this to a flow of digital values. It is therefore required to define the rate.
Over Sampling:
Usually signals are sampled at the minimum rate required for

economy with introduced is white noise spread over the whole pass band of
the converter. If a signal is sampled at a rate much higher than the Nyquil
frequency and then digitally filtered to limit it to signal bandwidth the signal
to noise ratio due to quantization noise will be higher than if the whole
available band rod has been used. With this technique it is possible to obtain
an effective resolution larger than that provided by the converter alone.
Circuit Description:
Block diagram of a 4 bit A/D converter is shown in figure. On the

right side of the panel a voltmeter (0-15) is provided to measure analog input
voltage. Below this meter a potentiometer is provided to vary the input
voltage continuously from 0-1V. This analog voltage is fed to the
comparator through an alternator. On the bottom of the right hand side of the
panel a toggle switch marked as START on its and STOP on its bottom is
provided when this switch is kept in STOP position counter will be reset to
0. When this switch is moved to START position one shot will be triggered
and this will set the output of control flip flow to 1 level. Simultaneously the
START position of this switch will also make the counter start counting.
Two seven segment displays are provided to read the analog voltage
in decimal code directly. Another switch marked as ‘C’ and ‘P’ is provided
the clock pulse manually and automatically.States of the important point
displayed by LED to make clear understanding of A/D conversion.
Procedure:
1. Put the power ON-OFF switch to ON position JEWEL light will glow
on to indicate the instrument is ready to use.
2. Put the switch marked ‘C’ to ‘P’ position if you want to feed the clock
pulse internally. Put this switch to p position if you want to give
manual pulse from pulsar switch.
3. Set the analog input voltage to desired values with the help of
voltmeter provided on the panel. D.C. voltage can be varied from
0-15V by marked as ANALOG input.
4. Put the START-STOP switch to START.
5. Not the binary display on 4 lads provided at the output of counter or
the digital display on two seven segment display.
Observation Table:
Analog input voltage Digital output T segment display
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 8
DATE:
Aim: To study and perform digital to analog converter.
Appartus:
D/A converter kit
Patch cords
Theory:
A digital to analog converter (DAC to or D to A) is a device for

converting a digital (usually binary) code to an analog signal (current,
voltage or electric charge). Digital to analog converter are interfaces
between the abstract digital world and analog real life.
An analog to digital converter (ADC) performs the reverse operation.

A DAC usually only deal with pulse code modulation (PCM) encoded
signals. The job of converting various compressed forms of signals to PCM
is left to codes.
The DAC fundamentally converts finite precision number (usually

fixed point binary number) into a physical quantity usually an electrical
voltage. Normally the output voltage is a linear function of the input number
usually these number are written to the DAC sometimes along with a clock
signal that causes each number to be latched in sequence at which time the
DAC output voltage changes
Rapidly from the previous value to the value represented by the
currently latched number. The effect of this is that the output voltage is held
in time at current value until the next input number is latched resulting in a
piecewise constant output. This is equivalently a zero order hold operation
and has an effect on the frequency response of the reconstructed signal.
DAC Types:
The most common type of electronics DACs are:

The pulse width modulator the simplest DAC type. A stable the
current or voltage is switched into a low pass analog filter with a duration
determined by a digital input code. This technique is often used for electric
motor speed control and is now becoming common in high fidelity audio.
Over sampling DACs such as the delta signal DAC type. A stable current or
voltage is switched into a low pass analog resolution DAC internally.
The primary weight DAC, which contains one resistor or current

source for each bit of the DAC connected to a summing point.These precise
voltage or current sum to the correct output value. This is one of the fastest
conversion methods but suffers from poor accuracy because of the high
precision required for each individual voltage or current sources are
expensive. So this type of connector is usually limited to 8 bit resolution or
less.
The R2-2R ladder DAC that uses a repeating cascaded strutted of

resistor values R & 2R. This improves the precision due to the relative case
of producing equal valued matched resistors (or current) sources. However
wide converters perform slowly due to increasingly large RC constants for
each added R-2R link.
The segmented DAC which combines the thermometer coded

principle for the most significant bits and the binary weighted prim for the
least signerncant bits. In this way a compromise is obtained between
precision (by the use of the thermometer coded principle) and number of
resistors or current sources (by the use of the binary weighted principle). The
full binary weighted design means 0% segmentation the full thermometer
coded design means 100% segmentation.
Hybrid DACs which uses a combination of the above techniques in a

single converter. Most DAC techniques integrated circuited are of this type
due to the difficulty of getting low cost high speed and high precision in one
device.
Circuit Description:
Complete D/A converter is shown on the panel. In top row of the

panel there are four input state switches to keep the four. When this switch is
kept towards 0 positions corresponding ‘D’ input of the register will be at
digital ‘0’ level i.e. at 0 volts and when this switch is kept towards ‘1’
position corresponding ‘D’ input of the register will be digital ‘1’ level i.e. at
5 volt in this case. A press switch marked as clock is provided to transfer the
data ‘D’ input of he flip flops to ‘Q’ input. Another press switch as CLEAR
is provided to CLEAR the register flip flops when this switch is pressed
momentarily all the D flip flop will be cleared off.
The four flip flops form the register necessary for storing the digital
information. The flip flops on the right represent the LSB and the flip flop
on the left represents the MSB. Each flip flop is 0 the simple D type and its
truth table is given below:
D Clock Q
0 1 0
1 1 1
Level amplifiers work in such a way that when the input from a flip
flop is high the output of the amplifier is at 5V when the input of resistive
ladder network analog output is 0 volts.
Output of level amplifiers are fed to the from inputs of resistive ladder
network analog output of D/A converter can be seen with the help of a
voltmeter provided at the left hand side of panel voltage at different points of
the ladder network can also be seen on the voltmeter.
Procedure:
1. Put the power ON-OFF switch ON position Jewel light will glow on
to indicate the instrument is ready to use.
2. Press the CLEAR switch to clear the output of all flip flop of storage
register.
3. Keep the input state switches at desired binary number.
4. Press the CLOCK switch to transfer desired input stated to the output
Q to each flip flop or at input amplifier.
5. Output of level amplifier will be at 5V for 1 level and 0 volt for 0
levels. LEDs are provided to indicate these stages at the input of
ladder network. LEDs will glow for 1 level and it won’t glow for 0
levels.
6. Connect the output V to positive and ground to negative terminal of
voltmeter to vad the corresponding analog output voltage.
Observation Table:
Digital Input Analog Output
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 9
DATE:
Aim: To measure angular displacement using electrical transducer.
Apparatus:
Adtron kit
Multimeter
Theory:
Angular displacement transducer measures the displacement of

moving mechanical parts. Real time displacement measurement lets you
intercept actuation points for other cause during the stroke as well as
efficiency control acceleration and declaration ramps. Thereby reducing
machine cycle time. Angular displacement transducers are built with robust
materials for use in most industrial application even under extremely harsh
condition displacement sensors are based on the classic potentiometer
conductive track of military.
They are based on different technologies rotary variable differential

transducer (RVDT) rotary inductance synchro machine magneto restive
effect. Capacitive Hall Effect optical potentiometer (conductive plastic wire,
wound hybrid).
Application:
Angular displacement sensors or angle sensors can be used in
laboratory or industrial environment to measure or control angular
displacement the position of a moving body its rotary speed. The different
application for angular displacement sensors are online monitoring, safety,
tests macaronis etc.
Other Application Are:

 Value position
 Textile roller dancer control
 Web tension control
 High voltage switchgear monitoring
 Life time testing machinery
 Marine stabilizers and water jet control Hydraulic value control
Procedure:
1. Connect the unit to the main unit by the connector provided.

2. Now connect the required supply and switch ON the unit.
3. Now adjust the zero adjustment potentiometer to get zero reading on
the indicator.
4. Now adjust the span adjustment potentiometer to get appropriate span
of readings.
5. Now rotate the given scale to give angular displacement to the
transducer.
6. Observe the output signal according to the variation into the angular
displacement.
7. Draw the graph of angular displacement v/s output.
Observation Table:
Angular
Voltage(mV)
Displacement(θ)
Conclusion:
Experiment No: 10
DATE :
Aim: To study various types of liquid flow meters.
THEORY :
A universal flow meter for all applications is not available and
probably never will be. There are, in fact, more ways of measuring flow than
of measuring pressure and temperature.
Flow can be measured by flow rate or flow volume:
Flow rate is the integrated velocity of the individual stream lines
making up the total velocity profile across the conduit.
 Flow volume is the total volume of the fluid which has passed
through the conduit over a given period.
Flow measurement can be classified as under:
FLOW RATE FLOW VOLUME
Diff. Pressure Variable Area Positive Turbine Flow

Displacement meter
Electromagnetic Dual Function
Vortex meters Ultrasonic meters
PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL FLOW METERS:

The pressure differential method depends on the change of
pressure energy occurring when a fluid flows through a conduit (pipe or
duct) of varying cross-section. The law of energy (Bernoulli) gives a definite
relationship between the pressure energy and the flow energy. In order to
produce a variation of cross-section, some form of restriction of throttling
device, known as the primary element, is located in the conduit: this causes
the conversion of a portion of the pressure energy into kinetic energy as the
fluid accelerates when passing through the restriction.
The pressure difference system consists of:
 The primary element that forms the restriction in the conduit.
 Impulse pipe work and associated valves connected to the
tapping points.
 A device to measure the differential head produced across the
restriction.
The various pressure differential devices available are Orifice
Plates, Nozzles, Venturi tubes etc.
ADVANTAGES :
1. Simple, no moving components.
2. A wide range of sizes and constructions are available.
3. Suitable for most liquids and gases.
4. Well proven and widely used.
5. Very good repeatability.
6. The long term stability is very good, where used in accordance

with the standards.
7. Standard differential pressure measuring devices are readily
available, with designs to meet varied requirements.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The system has a square root head / flow relationship. This
limits the accuracy of flow measurement at the lower part of the
range.
2. Flow range is limited to 4: 1.
3. Accuracy is low, typically  3 % .
4. The primary element is subjected to damage and wear.
5. Accuracy is affected by density and flow profile.
6. Use of restriction device in the pipeline results in unrecoverable
pressure loss.
7. Viscosity affects the flow range.
8. Installation can be time consuming, and sometime difficult.
 PITOT TUBE :
The pitot tube is mainly an open-ended tube, positioned so that
the opening faces the flow stream of the fluid being measured.
This results in an impact pressure being produced in the tube,
which is derived from the loss of kinetic energy of the stream
striking it.
ADVANTAGES:
1. No moving components.
2. Unless made excessively large in relation to the size of the
pipeline, it produces very little pressure loss.
3. It can be inserted into pipe through comparatively small holes.

4. Arrangements can be made for insertion without the necessity
for shutting down the main.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The differential produced is far smaller, and also less steady,
than that obtained with orifice plates, nozzles and venturi tubes.
2. Under laminar flow conditions, true average readings can not be
taken without making a number of measurements across the
pipe.
3. The accuracy is poorer than for the other types of difference
measuring devices.
 VARIABLE AREA FLOW METER :

The variable area flow meter operates on the same principle as
the differential pressure system, except that the area of the restriction
changes and the differential pressure remains constant as the flow changes,
in contrast to the differential pressure meter, where the size of the restriction
is constant and the differential pressure changes with flow.
The variable area flow meter consists of a vertical tapered tube,
containing a free float. The tube tapers out from the bottom to the top and
the flow direction through the meter is from bottom to top. As the flow
through the meter increases, a float rises in the tube and the annular space
around it increases until the lifting force, produced by the differential
pressure developed across the upper and lower float surfaces, equalizes. The
equilibrium height reached by the float in the tube gives a direct indication
of the flow rate.
ADVANTAGES :
1. Simple, can measure very low flows, low cost and easy
installation.
2. Flow rate can be read directly from a linear scale.
3. Substantially unaffected by approach pipe work.
4. No power supply is required for the glass tube meter.
5. The pressure loss due to the meter is low and constant.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The glass tube meter is not suitable for high pressure, which
depends on the tube diameter.
2. Their capacity for maximum flow is limited.
3. The meters must be mounted in the vertical position.
4. Only clean fluids can be used with the glass tube type. Any
build-up of dirt on the glass surface makes the reading difficult.
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS:

The positive displacement flow meter operates by trapping a
known volume of fluid at an inlet point and passing it to an outlet point. As
each swept volume occurs, the number of rotations are counted, usually by a
pulse generator, either optical or electromagnetic, to transmit the reading to a
remote location. It is extremely accurate and repeatable.
The four basic types of displacement flow meter are Rotary

piston type, Oval rotor type, Sliding vane type and Reciprocating type. They
are widely used where the fluid being measured have a high viscosity.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Good accuracy over a wide range and very good repeatability.
2. Suitable for high viscosity fluids and can accommodate large
viscosity changes.
3. Local or remote readout is available.
4. Wide flow range.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. The close tolerance required for the moving components makes
them susceptible to wear.
2. Frequent maintenance is required.
3. They are not suitable for dirty, non-lubricated or abrasive
liquids.
4. For the large sizes, they are bulky.
5. They develop a high unrecoverable head loss.
6. Installation is difficult and time consuming.
7. They are expensive, especially for the larger sizes.
 TURBINE FLOW METER :
A turbine flow meter is basically a rotor fitted with a number of
blades: it is mounted in the centre of a pipeline with its axis parallel to the
flow. The blades rotate when the fluid impinges on them; the angular
velocity is proportional to the fluid velocity, which in turn is proportional to
the flow rate.
An electrical pick-up coil is fitted to the outside of the body and

senses each blade as it passes the coil. The output signal is a pulse train with
each pulse representing a small discrete quantity of the fluid. The signal
from the detector is conditioned by an electronic unit which provides an

output corresponding to the total flow rate or volumetric flow, and which
can compensate automatically for changes in temperature.
Although the concept of the turbine flow meter is simple, its performance
depends on:
 The hub ratio (ratio of rotor hub to pipe bore diameters).
 The number of blades, and their angle, shape and thickness.
 The clearance between the blade tips and the pipe bore.
 The bearing design and the design of the upstream cone.
 The design of the flow straightener.
ADVANTAGES:
1. High accuracy and very good repeatability.
2. Capable of operating under high pressure conditions, and over a
wide temperature range.
3. Output signal is linear and digital.
4. Fast response and fairly easy to install.
5. Wide flow range.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Not suitable for high velocity fluids.
2. Individual calibration is required.
3. Damage can occur due to over-speeding or gassing. Moving
parts are subject to wear and damage.
4. Affected by upstream flow conditions. Filtration is needed.
5. Secondary readout is required.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER :

The electromagnetic flow meter operates on the principle laid
by Faraday, that the emf induced in a conductor moving through a magnetic
field is proportional to the velocity of that conductor.
An electromagnetic flow meter consists of a non-magnetic
stainless steel pipe line with insulating material. A magnetic field is
produced across the pipe by exciting coils or by a permanent magnet
arranged on the outside the pipe. The conducting fluid is passing through the
flow meter acts as the conductor. Two small electrodes, mounted opposite
each other and flush with the lining of the pipe wall, detect the induced emf.
which is very small in a value and has high source impedance.
The electromagnetic flow meter has no projections into the pipe
bore and therefore offers no obstruction to the flow, and the pressure loss
through the meter is no greater than an equivalent length of straight pipe.
ADVANTAGES:
1. No moving parts and completely unobstructed pipe bore.
2. Can be used with virtually any chemical.
3. Can be used with abrasive liquids, slurries and non--lubricating
media.
4. Extensive range of sizes and flow rates.
5. Unaffected by viscosity, pressure, temperature and density.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. Fluid must be electrically conductive (Not suitable for gases).
2. Subject to drift and therefore requires frequent checking.
3. Sensitive to asymmetric flow profile.
4. Maximum operating temperature is limited by the materials

used in construction.
5. Individual calibration required.
6. Expensive, particularly in small sizes.
 VORTEX FLOW METERS:

Vortex flow meters use the natural phenomenon known as '
vortex shedding ' which occurs when fluid flows past an obstruction.
Boundary layers of slow moving viscous fluid form along the outer surfaces
of the obstruction and, if the obstruction is unstreamlined i.e., a ' bluff '
body, the flow can not follow the contours of the obstacle on the
downstream side. These separated boundary layers become detached and roll
themselves into vortices in the low pressure region behind the bluff body -
this is known as the 'drag effect'. Vortex shedding alternates from side to
side of the bluff body and the frequency of the shedding is directly
proportional to the fluid velocity.
As the vortex sheds on the one side of the bluff body, the
velocity on that side increases and causes a drop in the pressure. At the same
time, the opposite effect occurs on the other side, the velocity decreases and
the pressure increases. Therefore, the velocity and pressure distribution
around the bluff body changes at the frequency as the shedding frequency.
Either the pressure or the velocity changes can be measured by various
methods.
A potential difficulty is that most of the frequency sensors are
affected by vibration and some of them, particularly the capacitive type, can
be blocked and possibly damaged by dirt. Stream flow measurement with
this type of meter raises problems because of the fluid film that tends to
mask all sensors.
 ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS :

Ultrasonic flow meters measure the velocity of the fluid flow
by utilizing the interaction of an interrogating sound wave and the fluid, or
by sensing vibrations generated by the flow.
The majority of ultrasonic flow meters use piezo-electric
crystals to generate sound waves of high frequency and the flow is measured
by Doppler Shift or by time of flight.
The Doppler Shift meter transmits the sound waves into the
fluid and monitors the sound waves reflected back by discontinuities
travelling with the process fluid. A shift in the frequency occurs in the
reflected sound relative to the transmitted sound and this shift is proportional
to the fluid velocity.
The Time of flight meter projects an ultrasonic beam from a

transmitter transducer across a pipe at an acute angle, typically between 20
to 60, towards a receiver transducer on the opposite side of the pipe. The
transmit time is measured and stored and the transducer roles are reversed,
with the beam now being transmitted in the opposite direction. The
difference in the transit time is proportional to the flow rate.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Contains neither moving part nor components affected by the
measured medium.
2. Complete no -obstruction of the pipe bore.
3. The Doppler system can be used with abrasive liquids and

slurries.
4. Clamp on or bonded transducers make for easy installation.
DISADVANTAGES:
1. For the Doppler system the measured medium must contain
particles capable of reflecting sound waves.
2. The position of particles the flow profile the size of particle and
the relative velocities of particle and fluid all affect the Doppler
meter performance.
3. Maximum operating temperature is limited.
4. The claims for the accuracy and repeatability differ widely
from the proven values obtained from field mounted equipment.
The difference has been found to be greater for the Doppler
meter than the 'Time of Flight' meter.
RELEVANT IS:
1. IS 10189 (PT 2/SEC 1) : 1993 Industrial process control
valves : Part 2 Flow capacity, section 1 sizing equations for
incompressible fluid flow under installed condition.
2. IS 10189 (PT 2/SEC 2) : 1993 Industrial process control
valves : Part 2 Flow capacity, section 1 sizing equations for
compressible fluid flow under installed condition.
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Enlist the various solid and gas flow meters. Explain working
of each in brief with principle, diagram, advantages and
disadvantages.
 Prepare a comprehensive note on Liquid Level Measurement and
answer the following:
1. List various level measurement methods with its principle of

working and field of applications
2. Illustrate the variable resistance method to measure the level of
liquids or water.
3. Can a principle of capacitor be used to measure the level of
liquid? If yes, Illustrate with neat diagram.
4. Illustrate one method of automatic control of water in an
overhead tank.

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GUJARAT TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

LDRP INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & RESEARCH-GANDHINAGAR

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SEM:_________ BRANCH : ELECTRICAL DIV :________

ROLL NO:_______________ ID NO:__________________

This is to certify that the practical/term work carried out

Faculty Incharge Date Head Of Department

10 To study various types of liquid flow meters.

Aim: Measurement & control of temperature using RTD

RTD are generally used in conjunction with other electrical

Where R0 = Original resistance

Aim: Measurement & control of temperature using Thermocouple.

Type J thermocouples are useful in the environment where there is

Type K on the other hand is suitable for oxidizing is present.

Type R & SIO thermocouple are called Nobel metal thermocouples

cold or self junction is at the ambient temperature .This requires

Following are the most commonly used industrial thermocouples:

1. Limited us in temperature spans of less than about 330C of relatively

3. The need to hold reference junction temperature constant or

1. Connect the thermocouple probe to the thermocouple input jack

Aim: To perform and measure the pressure by using pressure

A change in the resistance of an electrical conductor can be brought

But, the experiment studies reveal a decrease in the resistance in the

The net change in the resistance of the conductor is given by

Where Ro, Rp = Resistance value at normal pressure P0 and at (P0 + ΔP)

It is the direct effect of the pressure on the resistance of an Electrical

transducer place the role of a primary transducer whereas a primary

Electrical (strain gauge) Pressure transducer:

An electrical transducer consists of three elements:

1. Pressure sensing element such as diaphragm bellow or burden tube.

Strain Gauge is passive type resistance pressure transducer whose

The resistance change of a strain gauge is usually converted into voltage

At balance when there is no pressure, no current flows through the

If we change the input (applying variable) pressure to transducer

Advantages of pressure transducers:

1. Small and easy to install

1. Moderately high cost.

1. Connect the pressure transducer to the outlet of pressure developing

Aim: To study the operation of Synchro Transmitter & Receiver.

A synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert

The basic synchro unit is usually called a synchro transmitter. Its

In contrast the signal transmitter unit develops on output error voltage

The output of the synchro transmitter is applied to the stator winding

The system (transmitter-control transformer pair) acts as an error

E (t) = K' Vr COSØ SIN ωct

Where Ø is the angular displacement between the two rotors when

E (t) = K' Vr SIN (Ø – α) SIN ωct

1. Arrange power supply synchro transmitter and synchro receiver to

4. Switch on the unit supply neon lamp will glow on.

Aim: To perform strain measurement by using strain gauge.

Digital multimeter patch chords different weights (from 100 gm to 1 kg)

When regular bodies are subjected to stress strains developed can be

Strain gauge work on the piezo resistive effect.If a metal conductor is

Types of Strain Gauge:

1. Wire Strain Gauge:

2. Foil Strain Gauge:

3. Semiconductor Strain Gauge:

They are used where gauge factor is required for higher

Gauge Factor = (ΔR/R) / (ΔL/L)

Characteristics of Strain Gauge:

1. Strain gauge should have high value of GF for greater sensitivity.

1. Un-bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge:

It consists of a wire stretched between two points in an insulting

SEM:_ BRANCH : ELECTRICAL DIV :

ROLL NO:_ ID NO:____