Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contents
1. Introduction 346
2. Distribution and Characteristics of Oxisols 350
3. Beneficial Effects of Liming 352
3.1. Neutralizing soil acidity and improving supply of calcium
and magnesium 353
3.2. Reducing phosphorus immobilization 355
3.3. Improving activities of beneficial microorganisms 356
3.4. Reducing solubility and leaching of heavy metals 358
3.5. Improving soil structure 360
3.6. Improving nutrient use efficiency 360
3.7. Controling plant diseases 361
3.8. Mitigating nitrous oxide emission from soils 362
4. Disadvantages of Overliming 363
5. Factors Affecting Lime Requirements 364
5.1. Quality of liming material 365
5.2. Soil texture 366
5.3. Soil fertility 367
5.4. Crop rotation 368
5.5. Use of organic manures 369
5.6. Conservation tillage 370
5.7. Crop species and genotypes within species 371
5.8. Interaction of lime with other nutrients 372
6. Criteria to Determine Liming Material Quantity 375
6.1. Soil pH 376
6.2. Base saturation 377
6.3. Exchangeable aluminum, calcium, and magnesium levels 379
* National Rice and Bean Research Center of EMBRAPA, Caixa Postal 179, Santo Antônio de Goiás,
GO, CEP. 75375-000, Brazil
{
USDA-ARS-Sustainable Perennial Crops Lab, Beltsville, Maryland 20705-2350
345
346 N. K. Fageria and V. C. Baligar
Abstract
The greatest potential for expanding the world’s agricultural frontier lies in the
savanna regions of the tropics, which are dominated by Oxisols. Soil acidity and
low native fertility, however, are major constraints for crop production on
tropical Oxisols. Soil acidification is an ongoing natural process which can be
enhanced by human activities or can be controlled by appropriate soil manage-
ment practices. Acidity produces complex interactions of plant growth-limiting
factors involving physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. Soil
erosion and low water-holding capacity are major physical constraints for
growing crops on tropical Oxisols. Calcium, magnesium, and phosphorous
deficiencies or unavailabilities and aluminum toxicity are considered major
chemical constraints that limit plant growth on Oxisols. Among biological
properties, activities of beneficial microorganisms are adversely affected by
soil acidity, which has profound effects on the decomposition of organic matter,
nutrient mineralization, and immobilization, uptake, and utilization by plants,
and consequently on crop yields. Liming is a dominant and effective practice to
overcome these constraints and improve crop production on acid soils. Lime is
called the foundation of crop production or ‘‘workhorse’’ in acid soils. Lime
requirement for crops grown on acid soils is determined by the quality of liming
material, status of soil fertility, crop species and cultivar within species, crop
management practices, and economic considerations. Soil pH, base saturation,
and aluminum saturation are important acidity indices which are used as a basis
for determination of liming rates for reducing plant constraints on acid soils.
In addition, crop responses to lime rate are vital tools for making liming
recommendations for crops grown on acid soils. The objective of this chapter
is to provide a comprehensive and updated review of lime requirements for
improved annual crop production on Oxisols. Experimental data are provided,
especially for Brazilian Oxisols, to make this review as practical as possible for
improving crop production.
1. Introduction
Soil acidity is one of the most yield-limiting factors for crop production.
Land area affected by acidity is estimated at 4 billion ha, representing 30%
of the total ice-free land area of the world (Sumner and Noble, 2003).
About 16.7% of Africa, 6.1% of Australia and New Zealand, 9.9% of
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 347
Europe, 26.4% of Asia, and 40.9% of America have acid soils (Von Uexkull
and Mutert, 1995). They cover a significant part of at least 48 developing
countries located mainly in tropical areas, being more frequent in Oxisols
and Ultisols in South America and in Oxisols in Africa (Narro et al., 2001).
In tropical South America, 85% of the soils are acidic, and 850 million ha
of this area is underutilized (Fageria and Baligar, 2001). Acid and low
fertility Oxisols and Ultisols cover about 43% of the tropics (Sanchez and
Logan, 1992). Most of the central part of Brazil is tropical savanna, known as
the cerrado, and covers about 205 million ha or 23% of the country. Most of
the soils in this region are Oxisols (46%), Ultisols (15%), and Entisols (15%),
with low natural soil fertility, high aluminum saturation, and high P fixation
capacity (Fageria and Stone, 1999). Although low fertility is characteristic of
acid soils, these vast areas have a large proportion of favorable topography for
agriculture, adequate temperatures for plant growth throughout the year,
sufficient moisture availability year round in 70% of the region, and for 6–9
months in the remaining 30% of the region (Narro et al., 2001). When the
chemical constraints are eliminated by liming and using adequate amounts
of fertilizers, the productivity of Oxisols and Ultisols is among the highest in
the world (Sanchez and Salinas, 1981).
Theoretically, soil acidity is quantified on the basis of hydrogen (Hþ) and
aluminum (Al3þ) concentrations of soils. For crop production, however,
soil acidity is a complex of numerous factors involving nutrient/element
deficiencies and toxicities, low activities of beneficial microorganisms, and
reduced plant root growth which limits absorption of nutrients and water
(Fageria and Baligar, 2003a). In addition, acid soils have low water-holding
capacity and are subject to compaction and water erosion (Fageria and
Baligar, 2003a). The situation is further complicated by various interactions
among these factors (Foy, 1992). The components of the soil acidity complex
have been thoroughly discussed in various publications (Foy, 1984, 1992;
Kamprath and Foy, 1985; Tang and Rengel, 2003).
Soils become acidic for several reasons. The most common source of
hydrogen is the reaction of aluminum ions with water. The equation for this
reaction in very acid soils (pH<4.0) is:
Al3þ þ H2 O , AlðOHÞ2þ þ Hþ
The species of aluminum ions present vary with pH. Potassium chloride
extracted Al and Al saturation has an inverse relationship with pH (Chartres
et al., 1990; Kariuki et al., 2007). Increased soil acidity causes solubilization
of Al, which is the primary source of toxicity to plants at pH below 5.5
(Bohn et al., 2001; Carson and Dixon, 1979; Ernani et al., 2002; Kariuki et al.,
2007; Parker et al., 1989). The forms of aluminum are mostly exchangeable
Al3þ under very acidic conditions (pH<4.5) to aluminum-hydroxyl ions at
higher pH (4.5–6.5) (Carson and Dixon, 1979). In general, the net positive
348 N. K. Fageria and V. C. Baligar
Al3þ þ H2 O , AlðOHÞ2þ þ Hþ
Al3þ þ 2H2 O , AlðOHÞ þ
2 þ 2H
þ
þ
Al3þ þ 5H2 O , AlðOHÞ 2
5 þ 5H
NHþ
4 þ 2O2 , NO3 þ H2 O þ 2H
þ
in regions dominated by acid soils (Yang et al., 2004). The greatest potential
for expanding the world’s agricultural frontier lies in the tropical savanna
regions dominated by acid, infertile soils classified mainly as Oxisols and
Ultiosls (Sanchez and Salinas, 1981). Furthermore, about 95% of the current
population growth has taken place in tropical regions; therefore, a continuing
increase in food production is required to meet this demand (Hartemink,
2002). Liming is the most important and most effective practice to ameliorate
soil acidity constraints for optimal crop production (Haynes, 1984). The
practice of well-planned and execution of liming under these situations is
fundamental for increasing crop yield on acid soils. The magnitude of the soil
acidity problem of Oxisols in many areas around the world, and the potential
that these soils offer in increasing the production of food and fiber, provides a
focus for the objectives of this review, that is, to review the nature, causes,
and management of Oxisols acidity in order that crop productivity on these
acid soils might be improved for the benefit of humankind.
Total area of
Country Area (106 ha) the country (%)
Brazil 572.71 68
Colombia 67.45 57
Peru 56.01 44
Venezuela 51.64 58
Bolivia 39.54 57
Guiana 12.25 62
Surinam 11.43 62
Paraguay 9.55 24
Equador 8.61 23
French Guiana 8.61 94
Chile 1.37 2
Argentina 1.28 0.4
Source: Cochrane (1978).
(1998), Baligar et al. (2004), Van Wambeke (1991), and Von Uexkull
and Mutert (1995) have reported extensively on the distribution, nature,
and properties of acid soils.
Oxisols are also referred to as latosols, laterite, Ferralsols, and red earths.
Oxisols are defined as mineral soils having an oxic horizon which is
characterized by the virtual absence of weathering primary minerals or 2:1
layer silicate clays, the presence of 1:1 layer silicate clays and highly insoluble
minerals such as quartz sand, the presence of hydrated oxides of iron and
aluminum, and the absence of water-dispersible clay (Soil Science Society of
America, 1997). Oxisols are highly weathered acidic soils, having low basic
cation and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC). The cation exchange
capacity (CEC) refers to the value obtained with 1 M NH4OAc (pH 7), and
ECEC is the sum of exchangeable cations (Al3þ, Ca2þ, Mg2þ, Kþ, and
Naþ) (Sumner and Noble, 2003). These soils have good physical properties
(except low water-holding capacity and susceptibility to erosion) and have
uniform distribution of clay with increasing depth. On average, these soils
have clay contents of more than 300 g kg1. However, the clays are of low
activity and have a limited capacity to hold basic cations. These soils are very
low in plant-available phosphorus and due to high concentration of iron and
aluminum oxides having high P fixation capacity; selected chemical proper-
ties of Brazilian Oxisols are presented in Tables 3 and 4.
Organic Mg
pH in matter P K Ca (cmolc
Value H2O (g kg1) (mg kg1) (mg kg1) (cmolc kg1) kg1)
Minimum 4.8 8 0.6 12 0.54 0.22
Maximum 6.3 31 14.8 73 3.42 2.42
Mean 5.5 21.5 4.12 31.6 1.77 0.84
S.D. 0.28 5.1 2.93 13.7 0.70 0.40
Source: Compiled from Fageria and Breseghello (2004).
Values are averages of 43 soil samples collected from the State of Mato Grosso.
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 353
Base Al Ca Mg K
saturation saturation Saturation saturation saturation
Value (%) ((%) (%) (%) (%)
Minimum 9 0 5 2 0.25
Maximum 60 26 34 25 1.64
Mean 28 8 18 9 0.82
SD 10.78 6.33 7.36 4.03 0.31
Source: Compiled from Fageria and Breseghello (2004).
acidity amelioration, and its success is well documented (Conyers et al., 1991;
Haynes, 1982; Kaitibie et al., 2002; Scott et al., 2001). Application of lime at
an appropriate rate brings several chemical and biological changes in the soil,
which are beneficial or helpful in improving crop yields on acid soils.
Adequate liming eliminates soil acidity and toxicity of Al, Mn, and H;
improves soil structure (aeration); improves availabilities of Ca, P, Mo, and
Mg, pH, and N2 fixation; and reduces the availabilities of Mn, Zn, Cu, and Fe
and leaching loss of cations. These beneficial effects are discussed in the
following section.
Soil moisture and temperature and quantity and quality of liming material
mainly determine the reaction rate of lime. To get maximum benefits from
liming or for improving crop yields, liming materials should be applied in
advance of crop sowing and thoroughly mixed into the soil to enhance its
reaction with soil exchange acidity. Selected soil chemical properties influenced
by applied lime in a Brazilian Oxisols are presented in Table 5.
Highly weathered tropical soils such as Oxisols have very low levels of
exchangeable Ca, and crops grown on such soils exhibit Ca deficiency
when exchangeable Ca is <1 cmol/kg (Cregan et al., 1989; Kamprath,
1984). Application of limestone (calcium carbonate) and dolomitic lime
(Ca and Mg bicarbonate) increases soil-exchangeable Ca and Ca and Mg,
respectively. Plant growth improvement in acid soil is not due to addition of
basic cations (Ca, Mg), but because of increasing pH reduces toxicity of
phytotoxic levels of Al and Mn. Increasing concentration of Ca2þ, Kþ, and
Hþ in the soil decreases plant Mg uptake due to competitive inhibition
(Clark, 1984; Marschner, 1995).
The liming acid soils result in the release of P for plant uptake; this effect
is often referred to as ‘‘P spring effect’’ of lime (Bolan et al., 2003). Bolan et al.
(2003) reported that in soils high in exchangeable and soluble Al, liming
might increase plant P uptake by decreasing Al, rather than by increasing
356 N. K. Fageria and V. C. Baligar
30
20
Y = - 1.5594 + 4.9585X
10 R 2 = 0.5417**
Mehlich-1 extractable P (mg kg-1)
0
10–20 cm Y = - 5.3937 + 3.9288X
30 R 2 = 0.4032**
20
10
0
0–10 cm
60
50
40
30
20 Y = - 3.5026 + 5.7293X
R 2 = 0.4462**
10
0
5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
Soil pH in H2O
P availability per se. This may be due to improved root growth where Al
toxicity is alleviated, allowing a greater volume of soil to be explored (Friesen
et al., 1980b).
Nurlaeny et al. (1996) found that liming increased shoot dry weight, total
root length, and mycorrhizal colonization of roots in soybean and corn
grown on tropical acid soils. These authors also reported that mycorrhizal
colonization improved P uptake and plant growth. Furthermore, coloniza-
tion of the roots with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi can increase plant uptake
of P and other nutrients with low mobility, such as Zn and Cu (Marschner
and Dell, 1994). Uptake of P by mycorrhizal plants is usually from the same
labile soil P pool from which the roots of nonmycorrhizal plants take up P
(Morel and Plenchette, 1994). However, the external hyphae can absorb
and translocate P to the host from soil outside the root depletion zone of
nonmycorrhizal roots (Johansen et al., 1993). Thereby, under conditions
where P and other nutrients’ diffusion in soil is slow and root density not
very high, more immobile nutrients are spatially available to mycorrhizal
plants than to nonmycorrhizal plants (Nurlaeny et al., 1996). Furthermore,
mycorrhizal plants may utilize organic soil P due to surface phosphatase
activity of hyphae (Tarafdar and Marschner, 1994, 1995), enhanced activity
of P-solubilizing bacteria in the mycorrhizosphere (Linderman, 1992;
Tarafdar and Marschner, 1995), or reduced immobilization of labile P in
organic matter (Joner and Jakobsen, 1994). Additionally, soil pH affects
arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization (Mamo and Killham, 1987; Wang et al.,
1985), species distribution (Porter et al., 1987), and effectiveness of the
mycorrhizal symbiosis with plant species (Hayman and Tavares, 1985).
Table 6 Influence of base saturation on DTPA extractable soil Mn and Fe after harvest
of a common bean crop grown on Brazilian Oxisols
Table 7 Influence of base saturation on DTPA extractable soil Zn and Cu after harvest
of common bean crop grown on Brazilian Oxisols
definitions deal with nutrient uptake and utilization by plants in dry matter
production. In a simple way, efficiency is output of economic produce divided
by fertilizer input. This means that a crop species or genotypes of the same
species producing higher dry matter yield with low nutrient application rate or
accumulation are called efficient plant species or genotypes. According to the
Soil Science Society of America (1997), a nutrient-efficient plant is one
that absorbs, translocates, or utilizes more of a specific nutrient than another
plant under conditions of relatively low nutrient availability in the soil or
growth medium. Fischer (1998) reported that rice cultivars released in 1965
produced less than 40 kg of grain per kilogram of N taken up by the plants.
However, cultivars released in 1995 produced almost 55 kg of grain per
kilogram of N take-up, resulting in a more than 35% increase in N efficiency
(Fischer, 1998).
Nutrient use efficiency (recovery efficiency) seldom exceeds 50% in most
grain production systems (Fageria and Baligar, 2005a; Westerman et al.,
2000). Worldwide, N recovery efficiency for cereal production [rice,
wheat, sorghum, millet, barley, corn, oat, and rye is 33% (Raun and
Johnson, 1999]. The low nutrient use efficiency is associated with the use
of low input crop management technology. Such management practices
include use of low rate of fertilizers and lime, water deficiency, inadequate
control of insects, diseases, and weeds, and planting of inefficient plant species
or genotypes of the same species (Fageria, 1992). Low nutrient use efficiency
in crop production systems is undesirable, both economically and
environmentally.
Soil acidity is also responsible for low nutrient use efficiency by crop
plants. Fageria et al. (2004) reported that liming of Oxisols improved the use
efficiency of P, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn by upland rice genotypes. Efficiency of
these nutrients was higher under a pH of 6.4 than with pH 4.5. The
improvement in efficiency of these nutrients was associated with decreasing
soil acidity, improving their availability, and enhanced root system
(Fageria et al., 2004).
4. Disadvantages of Overliming
Adequate lime rate is essential not only for maximum economic return
but also for maintaining appropriate nutrient balance for crop production.
Overliming effects are more pronounced on coarse-textured soils than on
fine-textured soils. Fine-textured soils have high buffer capacity; hence,
changes in chemical properties due to liming are not as pronounced as for
coarse-textured soils. Overliming can create deficiencies of micronutrients
like Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B. These nutrients are usually adsorbed onto
sesquioxide soil surfaces. Table 8 summarizes important changes in micro-
nutrient concentrations as influenced by soil pH and consequent acquisition
by plants. Table 9 shows acquisition of Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn by upland rice
grown at various soil pH levels on Brazilian Oxisols. Uptake of these
micronutrients has been significantly decreased at higher pH levels. Iron
deficiency in upland rice in Brazilian Oxisols is commonly observed with
pH higher than 6.5 (Fageria, 2000; Fageria et al., 1994, 2002). Similarly,
shoot dry matter, grain yield, and number of panicles in upland rice were
significantly decreased with increasing pH in the range of 4.6–6.8 in
Brazilian Oxisols (Table 10).
The reaction responsible for the reduced solubility of Fe with increasing
pH is well understood. It results in the precipitation of Fe (OH)3 as the
concentration of OH ions is increased as indicated by the following reaction:
Table 9 Influence of soil pH on acquisition of Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn by upland rice grown
in an Oxisol of Brazil
Zn Cu Fe Mn
Soil pH (mg plant1) (mg plant1) (mg plant1) (mg plant1)
4.6 1090 75 4540 11,160
5.7 300 105 1860 5010
6.2 242 78 1980 4310
6.4 262 64 1630 3610
6.6 163 61 1660 2760
6.8 142 51 1570 2360
R2 0.98** 0.89* 0.97** 0.99**
*,** Significant at 5 and 1% probability levels, respectively.
Source: Fageria (2000).
Table 10 Influence of soil pH on shoot dry weight, grain yield, and panicle number of
upland rice grown on Oxisols
sand content by weight is 85% or more, the silt group has a silt content of
80% or more, and the clay group includes those whose clay content is 40%
or more (Soil Science Society of America, 1997). Soil texture determines
the buffering capacity of a soil, which refers to the ability of the solid phase
soil materials to resist changes in ion concentrations in the solution phase.
For liming purposes, the resistance of the soil solution to changes in pH is a
main component of soil buffer power. Oxisols contain predominantly iron
and aluminum oxide minerals and kaolinite and have characteristically low
to moderately low cation exchange capacity, but they also have high
buffering capacity. Hence, Oxisols require large amount of liming materials
to raise soil pH to a desired level for maximum crop yields. Maximum
legume grain yield (common bean, soybean) is achieved at a pH of about 6.5
in Brazilian Oxisols (Fageria, 2001b, 2006; Fageria and Stone, 2004). Data
in Fig. 2 show that to raise a pH from 5.3 to 6.5 in Oxisols, a lime rate of
about 7 Mg ha1 is needed.
7.0
6.5
Soil pH in H2O
6.0
Y = 5.2809 + 0.2181X - 0.0061X 2
R 2 = 0.9656**
5.5
5.0
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Lime applied (Mg ha-1)
Table 12 Influence of liming on base saturation and exchangeable Caþ and Mg2þ at
0–20 cm depth in an Oxisols
field crops (Fageria and Baligar, 2005b). High fertility soils in terms of
exchangeable Ca2þ, Mg2þ, and Kþ require less lime than do those with
lower soil fertility. When Ca2þ, Mg2þ, and Kþ contents are higher, a lower
lime rate is required, because of higher levels of these basic cations in the
soil, meaning relatively higher base saturation and higher pH than with
lower levels of these cations (Table 12).
factor in Oxisols, and in the Central Great Plains of the United States, crop
rotations have been reported to improve P-use efficiency (Bowman and
Halvorson, 1997). However, there are some disadvantages in adopting crop
rotation. One such disadvantage is soil acidification, a serious form of land
degradation associated with crop rotation (Coventry et al., 2003). In crop
rotations, the N cycle and C cycle contribute most to the acid input
(Coventry and Slattery, 1991; Helyar et al., 1997). Acidification of soil
can also result from increasing addition of crop residues due to crop rotation
(Poss et al., 1995). It is reported in several studies in southern Australia that
in the wheat-based crop rotation, the rates of acidification can be 0.16–3.6
Hþ ha1 year1 for pastures (Loss et al., 1993; Ridley et al., 1990) and
1.0–7.5 Hþ ha1 year1 for cereal–legume rotations (Coventry and Slattery,
1991; Dolling, 1995; Moody and Aitken, 1997). The rate of acidification in
intensive cropping systems is also associated with removal of large amounts of
calcium and magnesium in the grains. In addition, acidification in the tropical
rainforest such as the cerrado region of Brazil is also associated with the
replacement of perennial vegetation with shallow-rooted annual pastures
and crops. With this change, more water has drained through the soil profile,
which leads to removal of bases (Coventry et al., 2003). The rates of acidifi-
cation are generally more pronounced in higher rainfall areas and soil pH
in the range of 4.8–5.5 (CaCl2) is likely to be more susceptible to rapid
acidification (Coventry et al., 2003; Haynes, 1983).
Table 13 Grain yield and panicle number of six upland rice genotypes at two soil
acidity levels in Brazilian Oxisols
yield had significant positive correlations with soil Al and H þ Al, confirming
that upland rice genotypes were tolerant to soil acidity. Fageria (1989)
reported stimulation of growth of Brazilian rice cultivars at 10 mg Al3þ L1
in nutrient solution compared with a control (no Al) treatment. Okada and
Fischer (2001) suggested that the mechanism for the genotype difference of
upland rice for tolerance to soil acidity is due to the relationship between
regulation of cell elongation and legend-bound Ca at the root apoplast.
A substantial number of plant species of economic importance are
generally regarded as tolerant to acid soil conditions of the tropics
(Sanchez and Salinas, 1981). In addition, there are cultivars within crop
species that are tolerant to soil acidity (Fageria et al., 2004; Garvin and
Carver, 2003; Yang et al., 2004). Yang et al. (2005) reported significant
differences among genotypes of rye, triticale, wheat, and buckwheat to Al
toxicity. These crop species or cultivars within these species can be planted
on tropical acid soils in combination with reduced rates of lime input.
Combination of legume–grass pasture and agroforestry system of man-
agement are the other important soil acidity management components
useful in tropical ecosystems. For example, Pueraria phaseoloides is used as
understory for rubber, Gmelina arborea or Dalbergia nigra, plantations in
Brazil, presumably supplying nitrogen to the tree crops (Sanchez and
Salinas, 1981) A detailed discussion of combination of legume–grass pasture
and agroforestry in tropical America is given by Sanchez and Salinas (1981).
These authors reported that when an acid-tolerant legume or legume–grass
pasture is grown under young tree crops, the soil is better protected, soil
erosion is significantly reduced, and nutrient cycling is enhanced. Some
important annual food crops, cover or green manure crops pasture species,
and plantation crops tolerant to tropical acid soils are listed in Table 14. Acid
soil tolerant crops are useful to establish low input management systems.
Table 14 Some important crop species, pasture species, and plantation crops tolerant
to soil acidity in the tropics
due to lime will have a more marked effect on Zn than Cu uptake, mainly
because Cu is more complexed and protected from precipitation by soluble
organic matter (Robson and Pitman, 1983). The second form of interaction
is between ions whose chemical properties are sufficiently similar that they
compete for site of adsorption (soil components, cell walls), absorption,
transport, and function on plant root surfaces or within plant tissues. Such
interactions are more common between nutrients of similar size, charge,
geometry of coordination, and electronic configuration (Robson and
Pitman, 1983).
Generally, three types of interactions occur among essential nutrients in
plants, and these interactions are known as synergistic, antagonistic, and
neutral. If upon addition of two nutrients, an increase in plant growth or
yield that is greater than that achieved by adding only one occurs, the
interaction is synergistic or positive. Similarly, if adding the two nutrients
together produced less plant growth or yield as compared to individual
ones, the interaction is negative or antagonistic. When there is no significant
change in plant growth or yield with the addition of two nutrients, there is
no interaction (Sumner and Farina, 1986). Data in Table 15 show that lime
and P fertilization have positive as well as negative interactions depending
on crop species. In the case of upland rice and wheat, shoot dry weight
yields were higher at zero level of lime compared with 2 and 4 g lime kg1
of soil. Hence, interaction between lime and P in this case was negative.
Whereas, shoot dry matter yield of common bean and corn increased with
increasing lime as well as P rates, indicating that interaction between lime
and P in this case was synergistic. An increasing response to applied P with
374 N. K. Fageria and V. C. Baligar
Table 15 Dry matter yield of shoots of upland rice, wheat, common bean, and corn as
affected by lime and phosphorus applied to a Brazilian Oxisols
Common
Lime rate P rate Rice Wheat bean Corn
(g kg1) (mg kg1) (g pot1) (g pot1) (g pot1) (g pot1)
0 0 0.72 0.17 1.25 1.10
0 50 15.08 5.83 8.30 4.93
0 175 18.63 8.40 10.60 8.73
2 0 0.73 0.20 1.30 1.43
2 50 15.23 5.20 9.00 7.13
2 175 13.23 6.50 10.60 11.47
4 0 0.33 0.20 1.70 1.10
4 50 10.20 4.90 10.50 6.60
4 175 13.20 5.97 12.00 9.93
Source: Compiled from Fageria et al. (1995).
increasing rates of added lime has been attributed to either an improved rate
of supply of P by the soil or an improved ability of the plant to absorb P
when Al toxicity has been eliminated (Friesen et al., 1980b). Liming also
improves the microbiological activities of acid soils, which, in turn, can
increase dinitrogen fixation by legumes and liberate N and other nutrients
from incorporated organic materials (Fageria et al., 1995).
Nutrient interaction is also evaluated by studying the influence of
increasing nutrient concentrations on the uptake of other nutrients and
corresponding plant growth. When plant uptake of a given nutrient
decreased and corresponding plant growth also decreased, interaction is
negative. However, if plant growth and nutrient concentration increased
with increasing nutrient supply, the interaction is positive.
Liming of acid soils is mainly to supply Ca and Mg to plants and
neutralize phytotoxic levels of soil Al3þ. Hence, interaction of Ca2þ,
Mg2þ, and Al3þ with other elements is an important aspect for nutrient
interaction discussion. Although absolute Ca requirements for plant growth
and metabolism are low, it has great significance in providing balance for
levels of other plant nutrients, maintaining membrane integrity, and reduc-
ing potential for toxicity of other elements (Wilkinson et al., 2000). Potas-
sium, Al3þ, Mg2þ, Mn2þ, and Hþ and heavy metals can reduce Ca uptake
by binding at the exterior surface of plasma membrane which increases the
Ca requirement (Marschner, 1995). Fertilization with NO3 generally
enhances Ca and Mg concentrations in plants driven by the need for
cation–anion balance (Wilkinson et al., 2000). Lime and P interactions are
mainly associated with Al toxicity, which limits root growth and prolifera-
tion, and nutrient uptake. Aluminum absorbed by roots can also precipitate
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 375
vary with soil type, soil fertility, plant species, and crop genotypes within
species (Fageria and Baligar, 2003a). In addition, crop response
curves related to lime rate and yield is another criterion that can be used
to define lime requirement for any given crop species. Crop response curves
to lime levels should be determined for each crop species under different
agroecological regions to make liming recommendations effective and
economical.
6.1. Soil pH
Soil pH or hydrogen ion activity is the most common acidity index used
in soil testing program for assessing lime requirements of crops grown on acid
soils. Weaver et al. (2004) reported that soil pH buffering capacity, since it
varies spatially within crop production fields, may be used to define sampling
zones to assess lime requirement, or for modeling changes in soil pH when
acid-forming fertilizers or manures are added to a field. The pH is defined as
the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration or activity. It is
determined by means of a glass, quinhydrone, or other suitable electrode or
indicator at a specified soil to solution ratio in a specified solution, usually
distilled water, 0.01 M CaCl2, or 1 M KCl (Soil Science Society of America,
1997). In soil testing laboratories of Brazil, a soil to solution ratio of 1:2.5 is
commonly used to determine soil pH (EMBRAPA, 1997).
The pH measured in the soil solution represents the active acidity of the
soil. Hydrogen and aluminum ions adsorbed by the soil, as well as other soil
constituents that generate hydrogen ions, constitute the reserve acidity. The
active acidity is neutralized by the addition of lime where more hydrogen ions
from the reserve pool go into solution. This results in the resistance of soil to
changes in the pH of the soil solution. This is termed ‘‘buffering capacity.’’
The pH of acid soils is lower than 7.0, that of neutral soils is equal to 7.0,
and that of alkaline soils is above 7.0. At neutrality, the concentrations of
OH ions and Hþ ions are equal, since these ions are derived in equal
quantities from the ionization of water. The pH of most agricultural soils is
in the range of 4.0–9.0 (Fageria et al., 1990, 1997). Soil acidity is classified
into several groups based on soil pH. Slightly acid soils have a pH range of
6.0–7.0, moderately acid soils pH range from 5.5 to 6.0, strongly acid soils
pH from 4.5 to 5.0, and extremely acid soils have a pH range below 4.5
(Fageria and Gheyi, 1999). These acidity classifications are arbitrary, and
care should be taken when defining adequate pH for crop yields, particu-
larly the extractant used could make a difference. Soil pH in water is higher
than that in CaCl2 solution.
Soil pH measurements not only indicate the acidity level of a soil but also
be used as an initial basis for the prediction of the chemical behavior of soils,
particularly in relation to nutrient availability and the presence of toxic
elements. Most plant-essential nutrients in soil reach maximal or near-maximal
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 377
availability in the pH range 6.0–7.0, and decrease both above and below this
range (McLean, 1973). Optimal pH values for annual crops cultivated on
Brazilian Oxisols are given in Table 16. A curve showing the relationship
between lime rate and pH change of a Brazilian Oxisol is presented in Fig. 2.
Oxisols with application of lime 0–18 Mg ha1 increase pH significantly and
quadratically. Figure 3 shows the relationship between pH of an Oxisol and
shoots dry weight and grain yield of common bean. Maximum shoot dry
weight and grain yields were obtained at a pH of 6.4. Improvement in grain
yield was associated with increasing numbers of pods, grains per pod, and
weight of 100 seeds when pH was increased from 5.3 to 6.4 (Fig. 4).
Table 16 Optimal soil pH for important crop species grown on Brazilian Oxisols
Shoot Grain
2000 a a
1000
0
5.3 6.4 6.8 5.3 6.4 6.8
Soil pH in H2O
Figure 3 Relationship between soil pH and shoot dry weight and grain yield of
common bean grown on a Brazilian Oxisol (Fageria and Santos, 2005).
a a
a a 4 c b a
300
Number of grains (pod−1)
b b
Number of pods (m−2)
3 30
200
2 20
100
1 10
0
5.3 6.4 6.8 5.3 6.4 6.8 5.3 6.4 6.8
Soil pH in H2O
Figure 4 Relationship between soil pH and yield components of common bean grown
on Brazilian Oxisols (Fageria and Santos, 2005).
P
ðCa; Mg; K; NaÞ
Base saturationð%Þ ¼ 100
CEC
where CEC is the sum of Ca, Mg, K, Na, H, and Al expressed in cmolc
kg1.
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 379
Table 17 Optimal base saturation for important annual crops grown on Brazilian
Oxisols
of the soil are taken into account to determine the rate of lime required for
a crop grown on an Oxisol. The equation used for lime rate determination
is (Fageria et al., 1990; Raij, 1991):
where values of Al3þ, Ca2þ, and Mg2þ are expressed in cmolc kg1.
If values of Ca2þ and Mg2þ cations are more than 2 cmolc kg1, only Al
multiplied by factor 2 is considered. This criterion was originally suggested
by Kamprath (1970) for tropical soils and is still largely used for liming
recommendation for Brazilian acid soils (Paula et al., 1987; Raij, 1991; Raij
and Quaggio, 1997). Alvarez and Ribeiro (1999) recommended that the
factor used to multiply Al should be varied according to soil texture. These
authors suggested that in sandy soil with clay content of 0–15%, the factor
0–1 should be used; for medium-texture soils with clay content of 15–35%,
a factor 1–2 should be used; for clayey soil with clay content of 35–60%,
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 381
100
80
Base saturation (%)
60
40
0 3 6 9 12 18
Lime rate (Mg ha-1)
Figure 5 Relationship between lime rate and base saturation of Brazilian Oxisols.
a factor 2–3 should be used; and for heavy clayey soil with clay content of
60–100%, a factor of 3–4 should be used.
Average of two
soil depths
3000
2000
0
10–20 cm
Grain yield (kg ha-1)
3000
2000
0
0–10 cm
3000
2000
0 20 40 60 80
Base saturation (%)
Figure 6 Influence of base saturation on grain yield of dry bean (Fageria, 2008).
where 1 M KCL extracts Al, Ca, and Mg and concentrations are expressed
in cmolc kg1 and TAS is target Al saturation, which varied from crop
species to species.
Critical Al saturation values for important plant species are given in
Table 18. These values can be used as a reference guide to calculate
the lime rate for different crop species. This approach is very useful where
lime is difficult to obtain and rather costly and Al-tolerant cultivars are
available.
Critical Al
Crop Type of soil saturation (%)
Cassava Oxisols/Ultisols 80
Upland rice Oxisols/Ultisols 70
Cowpea Oxisols/Ultisols 55
Cowpea Oxisols 42
Peanut Oxisols/Ultisols 65
Peanut Oxisols 54
Soybean Oxisols 19
Soybean Oxisols 27
Soybean Oxisols/Ultisols 15
Soybean Not given <20
Corn Oxisols 19
Corn Oxisols/Ultisols 29
Corn Oxisols/Ultisols 25
Corn Oxisols 28
Mungbean Oxisols/Ultisols 15
Mungbean Oxisols/Ultisols 5
Coffee Oxisols/Ultisols 60
Sorghum Oxisols/Ultisols 20
Common bean Oxisols/Ultisols 10
Common bean Oxisols/Ultisols 8–10
Common bean Oxisols/Ultisols 23
Cotton Not given <10
Source: Compiled from various sources by Fageria et al. (1997).
384 N. K. Fageria and V. C. Baligar
3500
Grain yield (kg ha-1)
3000
2000
Y = 2205.7970 + 187.5253X - 7.7712X 2
R2 = 0.8688**
1000
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
Lime rate (Mg ha-1)
Figure 7 Relationship between lime rate and soybean grain yield grown on Brazilian
Oxisols.
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 385
Ca2þ
Lime rate (Mg ha1) pH in H2O (cmolc kg1) Mg2þ (cmolc kg1)
0–20 cm soil depth
0 5.6 1.9 1.0
4 6.0 2.3 1.1
8 6.2 3.0 1.2
12 6.4 3.1 1.2
16 6.5 3.3 1.3
20 6.8 3.8 1.4
20–40 cm soil depth
0 5.5 1.7 0.9
4 5.9 1.9 1.0
8 6.1 2.3 1.1
12 6.2 2.4 1.1
16 6.3 2.6 1.2
20 6.7 3.3 1.3
Source: Fageria (2001a).
386 N. K. Fageria and V. C. Baligar
lime material is greater than with finer lime material because large lime
particles react slowly with soil acidity and tend to remain in the soil longer.
Liming material should be mixed thoroughly in the soil as deeply as
possible to improve crop-rooting systems in acid soils. However, with
currently available machinery, it is generally mixed to a depth of 20–
30 cm. A depth greater than 30 cm required more powers and became
more costly in terms of labor and energy. Timing of lime application is
important in achieving desirable results. Lime should be applied as far in
advance as possible of planting of crop to allow it to react with soil colloids
and to bring about significant changes in soil chemical properties. Soil
moisture and temperature are determining factors for lime to react with
soil colloids. In Brazil, most of the published work shows that liming should
be done 3 months in advance of sowing a crop. However, other studies
carried at the National Rice and Bean Research Center have shown that in
Brazilian Oxisols significant chemical changes can take place 4–6 weeks
after applying liming materials if soil has sufficient moisture (Fageria, 1984,
2001a). Hence, to obtain desirable results, it is not necessary to wait for a
longer period of time after applying lime.
8. Conclusions
The increasing acidification of agricultural soils, as a result of natural
processes, industrial pollution, and agricultural practices, is adversely affect-
ing crop production worldwide on significant levels. Highly weathered acid
soils cover about two-thirds of tropical America and are of great ecological
and economical importance. Soil order Oxisols make up the largest propor-
tion of acid soils of this region. Soils of this order are acidic with low
fertility. Most soil acidity problems can be managed successfully, without
economic and environmental disruption. Among management factors for
acid soils, perhaps most important is supplying sufficient lime initially to
correct the majority of growth-limiting factors. Hence, adequate liming and
fertilization can reduce the adverse effects of soil acidity and improve crop
yields. The central part of Brazil, locally known as the cerrado region,
contains predominantly Oxisosls. Modern agricultural practices, including
liming and fertilization, could help to achieve economic yields on these
acidic and infertile soils. On these soils, the amount of lime needed for
maximum yield varies with crop species and cultivar within species. Exper-
imental findings have shown that maximum economic yield for most annual
crops on Oxisols can be obtained with application of 4–6 Mg ha1 of lime.
Initially, liming acid soils not only improves crop yields but also helps to
maintain environmental quality and consequently improves animal and
human health. Overliming, however, can significantly reduce the
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 387
Table 20 (continued)
bioavailability of micronutrients (Zn, Cu, Fe, Mn, B), which decreases with
increasing pH (Fageria et al., 2002). This can produce plant nutrient
deficiencies, particularly that of Fe.
Planting acid-tolerant crop species and genotypes within species is another
most cost-effective and environmentally sound approach to improve crop
production on acid soils. Some high soil acidity-tolerant crop species like
millet, rice, cassava, and cowpea could be produced with minimum input of
lime. In addition, some pasture grass and legume species have high tolerance
to soil acidity and these could be used in developing sustainable cropping
system for Oxisols. Some plantation crops also have high tolerance to soil
acidity and could be used effectively in acid ecosystem cropping systems,
along with annual crops. Low to medium acidity-tolerant crop species such as
soybean, sorghum, and peanut are suitable crops for low input farming
systems. High acidity-tolerant grasses, such as brachiaria and andropogon
and plantation crops such as rubber and oil palm, are suitable crops for
extremely acidic soils. In addition, soil acidity can be managed successfully
by adopting practices that maximize the biological activities in the soil, such as
nutrient mineralization and cycling, biological nitrogen fixation, and mycor-
rhizal symbiosis.
In areas where limestone quarries and transportation systems are well
developed, lime is almost always inexpensive and typically provides a very
high rate of return on investment. However, in some areas, transportation
costs have made lime very costly. In any case, lime should be viewed as an
investment in improving the production potentials of acid soils. Because of
the long-lasting residual effects of lime applications, the cost of liming may
be amortized over several crops. Common and scientific names of crop
species cited in the text are listed in Table 20.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We thank Dr. C. D. Foy for his critical review and valuable suggestions for improving this
manuscript.
Ameliorating Soil Acidity 389
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