Atomic structure

Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that contains protons and neutrons.
Neutrons are neutral, but protons and electrons are electrically charged. Protons have a
relative charge of +1, while electrons have a relative charge of -1.
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number. In the periodic table atoms
are arranged in atomic number order.
Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells, and different energy levels can hold
different numbers of electrons. The electronic structure of an atom is a description of how
the electrons are arranged, which can be shown in a diagram or by numbers. There is a link
between the position of an element in the periodic table and its electronic structure.

The structure of an atom

Although the word 'atom' comes from the Greek for indivisible, we now know that atoms are not the
smallest particles of matter. Atoms are made from smaller subatomic particles.

At the centre of an atom is

a nucleuscontaining protons and neutrons. Electronsare
arranged around the nucleus in energy levels or shells. Make
sure you can label a simple diagram of an atom like this one.

Both protons and electrons have an electrical charge. Both have the same size of electrical charge, but
the proton is positive and the electron negative. The neutron is neutral.
The electrical charge of particles

particle relative charge

proton +1

neutron 0

electron -1

The total number of electrons in an atom is always the same as the number of protons in the nucleus.
This means atoms have no overall electrical charge.
The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number - also called the proton number. Atoms
are arranged in the periodic table in order of increasing atomic number.
Sub-Atomic Particles
A typical atom consists of three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons (as seen
in the helium atom below). Other particles exist as well, such as alpha and beta particles (which
are discussed below). The Bohr model shows the three basic subatomic particles in a simple
manner. Most of an atom's mass is in the nucleus—a small, dense area at the center of every
atom, composed of nucleons. Nucleons include protons and neutrons. All the positive charge of
an atom is contained in the nucleus, and originates from the protons. Neutrons are neutrally-
charged. Electrons, which are negatively-charged, are located outside of the nucleus.

Introduction
The Bohr model is outdated, but it depicts the three basic subatomic particles in a
comprehensible way. Electron clouds are more accurate representations of where electrons are
found. Darker areas represent where the electrons are more likely to be found, and lighter areas
represent where they are less likely to be found.

Particle Electric Atomic Mass (g) Atomic Mass (Au) Spin

Charge (C) Charge

Protons +1.6022 x +1 1.6726 x 10-24 1.0073 1/2

10-19
 Neutrons 0 0 1.6740 x 10-24 1.0078 1/2

Electrons -1.6022 x -1 9.1094 x 10-28 0.00054858 1/2

10-19

 A
u is the SI symbol for atomic mass unit.
 The positive charge of protons cancels the negative charge of the electrons. Neutrons
have no charge.
 With regard to mass, protons and neutrons are very similar, and have a much greater
mass than electrons. Compared with neutrons and protons, the mass of an electron
is usually negligible.
 Spin is associated with the rotation of a particle. Protons, neutrons, and electrons each
have a total spin of 1/2.

Protons
Protons were discovered by Ernest Rutherford in the year 1919, when he performed his gold foil
experiment. He projected alpha particles (helium nuclei) at gold foil, and the positive alpha
particles were deflected. He concluded that protons exist in a nucleus and have a positive
nuclear charge. The atomic number or proton number is the number of protons present in an
atom. The atomic number determines an element (e.g., the element of atomic number 6 is
carbon).

Electrons
Electrons were discovered by Sir John Joseph Thomson in 1897. After many experiments
involving cathode rays, J.J. Thomson demonstrated the ratio of mass to electric charge of
cathode rays. He confirmed that cathode rays are fundamental particles that are negatively-
charged; these cathode rays became known as electrons. Robert Millikan, through oil drop
experiments, found the value of the electronic charge.

Electrons are located in an electron cloud, which is the area surrounding the nucleus of the
atom. There is usually a higher probability of finding an electron closer to to the nucleus of an
atom. Electrons can abbreviated as e-. Electrons have a negative charge that is equal in
magnitude to the positive charge of the protons. However, their mass is considerably less than
that of a proton or neutron (and as such is usually considered insignificant). Unequal amounts of
protons and electrons create ions: positive cations or negative anions.

Neutrons
Neutrons were discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, when he demonstrated that penetrating
radiation incorporated beams of neutral particles. Neutrons are located in the nucleus with the
protons. Along with protons, they make up almost all of the mass of the atom. The number of
neutrons is called the neutron number and can be found by subtracting the proton number from
the atomic mass number. The neutrons in an element determine the isotope of an atom, and
often its stability. The number of neutrons is not necessarily equal to the number of protons.

Identification
Both of the following are appropriate ways of representing the composition of a particular atom:

Often the proton number is not indicated because the elemental symbol conveys the same
information.

Example

Consider a neutral atom of carbon: 126C. The atomic mass number of Carbon is 12 amu, the
proton number is 6, and it has no charge. In neutral atoms, the charge is omitted.

Above is the atomic symbol for helium from the periodic table, with the atomic number,
elemental symbol, and mass indicated.
Every element has a specific number of protons, so the proton number is not always written (as
in the second method above).

 # Neutrons = Atomic Mass Number - Proton Number

o Atomic mass number is abbreviated as A.
o Proton number(or atomic number) is abbreviated Z.
 # Protons = Proton Number or Atomic Number
 In neutral atoms, # Electrons = # Protons
 In ions, # Electrons = # Protons - (Charge)
 Charge is written with the number before the positive or negative sign
o Example, 1+

Note: The atomic mass number is not the same as the atomic mass seen on the periodic
table. Click here for more information.

Other Basic Atomic Particles

Many of these particles (explained in detail below) are emitted through radioactive decay. Click
here for more information. Also note that many forms of radioactive decay emit gamma rays,
which are not particles.

Alpha Particles
Alpha particles can be denoted by He2+,α2+, or just α. They are helium nuclei, which consist of
two protons and two neutrons. The net spin on an alpha particle is zero. They result from large,
unstable atoms through a process called alpha decay. Alpha decay is the process by which an
atom emits an alpha particle, thereby becoming a new element. This only occurs in elements
with large, radioactive nuclei. The smallest noted element that emits alpha particles is element
52, tellurium. Alpha particles are generally not harmful. They can be easily stopped by a single
sheet of paper or by one's skin. However, they can cause considerable damage to the insides of
one's body. Alpha decay is used as a safe power source for radioisotope generators used in
artificial heart pacemakers and space probes.
 Figure: Alpha Decay involves the emission of an alpha particle from the nucleus

Beta Particles
Beta particles (β) are either free electrons or positrons with high energy and high speed;
they are emitted in a process called beta decay. Positrons have the exact same mass as an
electron, but are positively-charged. There are two forms of beta decay: the emission of
electrons, and the emission of positrons. Beta particles, which are 100 times more penetrating
than alpha particles, can be stopped by household items like wood or an aluminum plate or
sheet. Beta particles have the ability to penetrate living matter and can sometimes alter the
structure of molecules they strike. The alteration usually is considered damage, and can cause
cancer and death. In contrast to beta particle's harmful effects, they can also be used in
radiation to treat cancer.

Beta- (β-) or Electron Emission

Electron emission may result when excess neutrons make the nucleus of an atom unstable. As
a result, one of the neutrons decays into a proton, an electron, and an anti-neutrino. The proton
remains in the nucleus, and the electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. The electron is called a
beta particle. The equation for this process is given below:

01n→11p++e−+νe¯10n→11p++e−+νe¯

 n = Neutron
 p+ = Proton
 e- = Electron (beta particle)
 νe = Anti-neutrino

β- Decay
Beta+(β+) or Positron Emission
Position emission occurs when an excess of protons makes the atom unstable. In this process,
a proton is converted into a neutron, a positron, and a neutrino. While the neutron remains in
the nucleus, the positron and the neutrino are emitted. The positron can be called a beta particle
in this instance. The equation for this process is given below:

11p+→01n+e++νe11p+→10n+e++νe

 n = Neutron
 p+ = Proton
 e+ = Positron (beta particle)
 νe = Neutrino

β+ Decay

Outside Links
 Basic Sub-Atomic Particles: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lP57g...eature=related
 Alpha Particles: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha_decay
 Beta Particles: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_particle
 What are Sub-Atomic Particles?: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uXcOqjCQzh8
 Atomic Number and Mass Number: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lDo78hPTlgk

References
1. Petrucci, Ralph, William Harwood, Geoffrey Herring, and Jeffry Madura.General
Chemistry. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentince Hall, 2007.
2. Haskin, Larry A. The Atomic Nucleus and Chemistry; D. C. Heath and Company:
Lexington, MA, 1972; pp. 3-4, 43-53.
3. Petrucci, Ralph, F. Geoffrey Herring, Jeffrey D. Madura, and Carey Bissonnette. General
Chemistry. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc., 2011.
Problems
1. Identify the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in the following atom.

2. Identify the subatomic particles (protons, electrons, neutrons, and positrons) present in the
following:

 C614C614
 αα
 Cl−35Cl−35
 β+β+
 β−β−
 Mg2+24Mg2+24
 Co60Co60
 H3H3
 Ar40Ar40
 10n01n

3. Given the following, identify the subatomic particles present. (The periodic table is required to
solve these problems)

 Charge +1, 3 protons, mass number 6.

 Charge -2, 7 neutrons, mass number 17.
 26 protons, 20 neutrons.
 28 protons, mass number 62.
 5 electrons, mass number 10.
 Charge -1, 18 electrons, mass number 36.

4. Arrange the following elements in order of increasing (a) number of protons; (b) number of
neutrons; (c) mass.

27 Co, when A=59; 56Fe, when Z=26; 11 Na, when A=23; 80

Br, when Z=35; 29 Cu, when A=30;
55
Mn, when Z=25
5. Fill in the rest of the table:

Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons

2 2

23 11

15 16

85 37

53 74

Solutions and Explanations

1. There are 4 protons, 5 neutrons, and 4 electrons. This is a neutral beryllium atom.

2. Identify the subatomic particles present in the following:

 14
6C
o 6 protons, 8 neutrons, 6 electrons
 There are 6 protons in accordance with the proton number in the subscript. There are 6
electrons because the atom is neutral. There are 8 neutrons because 14-6=8. 14 is the
atomic mass number in the superscript.
 α
o 2 protons, 2 neutrons, 0 electrons
 This is an alpha particle which can also be written as 4He2+. There are two protons
because the element is helium. There are no electrons because 2-2 = 0. There are 2
neutrons because 4-2=2.
 35
Cl-
o 17 protons, 18 neutrons, 18 electrons
  This is a chloride ion. According to the periodic table, there are 17 protons because the
element is chlorine. There are 18 electrons due to the negative charge: 17-(-1) = 18.
There are 18 neutrons because 35-17=18.
 β+
o 0 protons, 0 neutrons, 0 electrons, 1 positron
 This is a beta+ particle. It can also be written as e+. "e" represents an electron, but when
it has as positive charge it is a positron.
 β-
o 0 protons, 0 neutrons, 1 electron
 This is a beta- particle, and can also be written as e-. This is a standard electron.
 24
Mg2+
o 12 protons, 12 neutrons, 10 electrons
 This is a magnesium Ion. There are 12 protons from the magnesium atom. There are 10
electrons because 12-2 = 10. There are 12 neutrons because 24-12 = 12.
 >60Co
o 27 protons, 33 neutrons, 27 electrons
 The cobalt atom has 27 protons as seen in the periodic table. There are also 27
electrons because the charge is 0. There are 33 neutrons because 60-27 = 33.
 3
H
o 1 protons, 2 neutrons, 1 electrons
 There is 1 proton because the element is hydrogen. There is 1 electron because the
atom is neutral. There are 2 neutrons because 3-1 = 2.
 40
Ar
o 18 protons, 22 neutrons, 18 electrons
 There are 18 protons from the argon element. There 18 electrons because it is neutral,
and 22 neutrons because 40 - 18 = 22.
 n
o 0 protons, 1 neutrons, 0 electrons
 This is a free neutron denoted by the lower case n.

3. Given the following, identify the subatomic particles present. (The periodic table is required to
solve these problems)

 Charge +1, 3 protons, mass number 6.

o 3 protons, 3 neutrons, 2 electrons
 Charge -2, 8 neutrons, mass number 17.
o 9 protons, 8 neutrons, 7 electrons
 26 protons, 20 neutrons.
o 26 protons, 20 neutrons, 26 electrons
 28 protons, mass number 62.
o 28 protons, 34 neutrons, 28 electrons
 5 electrons, mass number 10.
o 5 protons, 5 neutrons, 5 electrons
  Charge -1, 18 electrons, mass number 36.
o 17 protons, 19 neutrons, 18 electrons

4. Arrange the following lements in order of increasing (a) number of protons; (b) number of
neutrons; (c) atomic mass.

a) Na, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Br

 Z=#protons;
 Na: z=11; Mn: Z=25, given; Fe: Z=26, given; Co: Z=27; Cu: Z=29; Br: Z=35, given

b) Na, Cu, Fe, Mn, Co, Br

 A=#protons+#neutrons, so #n=A-#protons(Z);
 Na: #n=23-11=12; Cu: #n=59-29=30; Fe: #n=56-26=30; Mn: #n=55-25=30; Co: #n=59-
27=32; Br: #n=80-35=45

Note: Cu, Fe, Mn are all equal in their number of neutrons, which is 30.

c) Na, Mn, Fe, Co, Cu, Br

 Na: 22.9898 amu; Mn: 54.9380 amu; Fe: 55.845 amu; Co: 58.9332 amu; Cu: 63.546
amu; Br: 79.904

Note: This is the same order as the number of protons, because as Atomic Number(Z)
increases so does Atomic Mass.

5. Fill in the rest of the table:

Atomic Mass Number of Number of Number of

Number Number Protons Neutrons Electrons

2 4 2 2 2

11 23 11 12 11

15 31 15 16 15
 37 85 37 48 37

53 127 53 74 53

Note: Atomic Number=Number of Protons=Number of Electrons and Mass Number=Number of

Protons+Number of Neutrons.

The Locations of Protons, Neutrons, & Electrons

Within an Atomic Structure
The atom is such an important component of nature that many prominent scientists have theorized
how it is made up. The discovery of subatomic particles -- protons, neutrons and electrons -- did not
settle the matter. In the early 1900s, the "Plum Pudding Model" depicted protons and electrons
evenly distributed throughout the atom. Science experiments and mathematical models have
continually refined the model of the atom and related the important roles of protons, neutrons and
electrons to their locations.

Atomic Structure
The space every atom occupies is divided into two structural components: the nucleus and orbitals. The
nucleus is the center of the atom, and orbitals surround the nucleus. Orbitals are different shapes depending on
their energy; these shapes are calculated using quantum mechanics. A sphere is the most basic orbital shape;
others include rings and teardrops.
Location of Protons
Protons are positively charged particles within atoms. Each atom has at least one proton; in fact, the number of
protons determines the identity of the atom. Protons reside in the nucleus of the atom, which might seem
strange since they are positively charged and thus repel each other. To form an atomic nucleus, however,
protons that are very close to each other exchange even smaller particles called mesons. This process of
exchange helps the protons stick together through the strong nuclear force.
Location of Electrons
Electrons are negatively charged particles, and in a neutral atom, the number of electrons is the same as the
number of protons. They are much smaller than protons but have the same strength charge. Because the charge
of electrons is opposite in sign than protons, the two types of particles attract each other, and this force, known
as the Coulomb force, holds the atom together. Electrons travel around the nucleus in orbitals, but it is
impossible to know both the speed and location of an electron at the same time. This phenomenon is known as
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle and is a famous result of quantum mechanics.
Location of Neutrons
Neutrons are particles that have no charge and are about the same mass as protons. Not all atoms have
neutrons, and the number of neutrons is not usually the same as protons or electrons. Neutrons are located with
protons in the nucleus; they too exchange mesons with protons and with each other to form the strong nuclear
force, but they do not have to overcome the repulsion from Coulomb forces since neutrons are not charged.