UNIT | : SET THEORY 1 | sets eee Syllabus : Review of work done in Class VI — idea of notation, equal sets, equivalent sets, 7 empty set, the universal set, cardinal property of a set, finite and infinite sets. Unio and intersection of sets, disjoint sets, overlapping sets, complement of a set. Examples should be drawn for the number systems with which the pupil is familia and from real life situations; operations on sets should be confined to the universal set and one or two of its subsets or two disjoint or overlapping sets. Set A well-defined collection of objects is called a set. The objects in a set are called its members or elements. By the term ‘well-defined’ we mean that it is defined in such a way that we are able to decide as to which object of the universe is there in our collection and which object is not there in our collection. Example. The collection of all girls in your school is a set. But, the collection of all beautiful girls in your school is not a set, since the term beautiful is vague. Any one girl may be classed as ‘beautiful’ by one person and excluded by the other. Similarly, the collection of tall boys of your class, is not a set, since the term ‘tall’ is not well- defined. However, the collection of all those boys of your class whose height exceeds 145 em, is a set, since all its members can be ascertained for sure by a precise measurement of the heights of all the students of your class. Likewise, honest persons, bad boys, intelligent students, rich persons, coward people, brave men, fat boys, interesting books, difficult sums, etc., do not form sets. Notation of a Set We usually denote sets by capital letters and their elements by small letters. If x is an element of a set A, we write, x € A, which means that ‘x belongs to A’ or that é¢ is an element of A’. If x is not an element of set A, we say that % does not belong to A’, and we write, It is customary to put the clements of a set within braces { }. ‘Thus, if A is the collection of first six odd natural numbers, we may write it as : A= (1, 3,5, 7, 9, 1. Clearly, le ABE A SEA TEA IEA IIE A ‘And, 2¢ A, 10 ¢ A,a A and so on. eA, Representation of a Set ‘There are two methods of representing a set. I. Roster Method (or Tabulation Methed) + Under this method, we just make a list uf the objects in our collection and put them within braces { }.Examples ; © Let A be the set of vowels in English alphabet. Then, A= (a6 4,0. G4) Let B be the set of natural numbers between 3 and 10. Then, B= (4,5, 6,7, 8, 9). Standard Sets of Numbers : @ Set of natural numbers (denoted by N) N=(1,2,3,4,5 1 ) Set of whole numbers (denoted by W) We 0,1,2,3,4,5, 0.) Gd Set of integers (denoted by I or Z) Ts (..,-8,-2,-1,0.1, The dots at any end indie ie that Gi counting goes on endlessly. Bg Rule Method (or Set-builder form) : Under this method, we list the property or Properties satisfied by the elements of a set. We write, ( x | x satisfies the properties P) or { x : x satisfies the Properties P}, which means ‘The set of all those elements x such that each x satisfies the properties P’. Each of the symbols ‘I’ and ‘? stands for ‘such that’. Examples : @ Let A = (81, 37, 41, 43, 47), Clearly, A is the set of all prime numbers between 30 and 50, ‘Thus, in the set-builder form , we write ; A= (x | x is a prime number, 30 x} 8. State in each case whether the given pair consists of equal or equivalent but not equal set or none : @ A = Set of first five whole numbers; B = Set of first five natural numbers (i) P = Set of letters of the word, ‘FLOWER’ Q = Set of letters of the word, ‘FOLLOWER’ (ii) L = Set of letters of the word, ‘OFFICER’ M = Set of letters of the word, ‘PROFESSOR’ (iv) C= | xe N,x#x}andD=(x | xe N,6 B is the set of @ elements which are common to both A and B. Example 1, Let A = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12) and B= (3, 6,9, 12, 15, 18). Find ANB Solution. We have : AOB = (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12} m (3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18) {6, 12} [Set of elements common to both A and B] Example 2, Let M = (x | x is a factor of 12) and N = [x | x is a factor of 16). Find MAN. Solution, Here M = {x | x is a factor of 12) = (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 19}. N = Ix | x is a factor of 16} = (1, 2, 4, 8, 16}. MON = (1, 2, 8, 4, 6, 12) 9 (1, 2, 4, 8, 16} = (1, 2, 4). Example 3. Let P = (x | x is a positive integer, x < 6) and Q = (x | x is a negative integer, x >- 6). Find PAQ. Solution. Here P = {x | x is a positive integer, x.< 6) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and = Q = [x | x is a negative integer, x > — 6} = {-5, 4, -3, -2, -1). PQ = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). 5, -4, -8, -2, -1) = 6. Remark : Whenever P > Q = 6, we say that P and Q are disjoint sets. Difference of Sets : Let A and B be two sets. Then, we define : @ A~B = Set of elements of A which are not in B, (i) B — A = Set of elements of B which are not in A. te 1, Let A= (2, 3,5, 7, 9} and B= (2, 8, 4,5, 6). Find A~ Band B—A. Example *- 7 We have Solution. _B = Set of elements of A which are not in B = (7, 9}. B_A = Set of elements of B which are not in A = (4, 6}. Let M = (3, 6, 9, 12, 15) and N = (6, 12, 18, 24}. Find M - N and N - M. gexample 2 47, have : Solution. M — N = Set of elements of M which are not in N N— M = Set of elements of N which are not in M (3, 9, 15). (48, 24).+] exercise 1¢ 1 Let A = (0, 2, 4, 6), B = (2, 3, 5) and C = (3, 5, 7h Find : @ AUB Gi) AUC (i) Buc Ww) ANB WAAC Wi) Bae 2. Given ; Azle |xisa multiple of 2, x < 20), B= le | xis a multiple of 3, x < 20), C= le | x is prime, x < 20}, D = tx | x is @ perfect square natural number, x < 20). @ Write each one of the sets A, B, C, D in Roster form. (@) Find : @AULB () AUC @AUD @BuC @) BUD QCuD @ ANB (yA OC @BaD @CaD AOD OBC 8. Let P= tx | xisa factor of 18) and Q = {x | x is a factor of 24}. (@® Write each one of P and Q in Roster form. @) Find: (@)PUQ W)PAQ 4. Let A ={a, b, cl, B = (b, d, ¢) and C = le, f gh. Verify that : @® AUB=BUA @AQB=BOA Gi) AUBuC)=(uBUC (vo) (ANB) NC =ANBAO 5. Let P = {1, 2, 8, 4, 51, Q = (2, 4, 6, Tl and R = (1, 3, 4, 6}. Find : @ PQ Gi) PUQOR Gi) P UR) NQUR) (iv) Is PA QUR)=P®AQULPAR? 6. Let A = (b, d, ¢, f1, B= (c,d, g, h) and C= (e, fig, hi). Find: @A-B i B-A ii) (A- B) U(B- A) (iv) B-C (v) C-B (vi) (B= C) UC -B) 7. Let & = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) be the universal set and let A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and B= {3, 5, 7, 8} be its subsets. Find : (i) AUB Wi) ANB Gi) A-B (jv) B-A WAnB Wi) A OB Wii) MOB (iii) A’ UB (x) AUB 8. Let L = (1, 2, 3,4, M= (2, 4, 6) and P = (1, 8, 5). Verify that : (@) LAM=MoaL (i) LUP=PUL ii) LUM) UP =Lu(M uP) (@v) LM) a P= LAMP) 9. Let & = {a, b, & d, e f g} be the universal set and let its subsets be A = (a, b, d, e) and B = (6, g, g). Verify that (@) (A U BY A’OB’ (ii) (A BY = (A’ UB). 10. By choosing an appropriate universal set & and a subset A of it, show that : @ AUA=A G)ANA=A Wii) AN A’ = 06 (iv) AUA=E @WE-A=KN (i) AY =ATHINGS TO REMEMBER 1. A well defined rallectian of abjects 1s called a set 2. There are two methods for describing a set (@) Roster Method (i) Set Builder Method. In Roster method, we just make a list of the objects in ony collection and put them sethin braces { | In Set-builder method, we hist the property or properties satisfied by the elements of a set. A set im which the process af counting of elements sively comes to an end, is called a finite set 4, A set which 1s not finite is called an infinite set 5. A set having no element at all is called an empty set or a null s 6 6. A set coniaiming only one element is called a singleton set. 7. The number of distinct elements contained in a finite set A is called its cardinal number and is denoted by nA} 8. Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent. if they have th we write, Ao R 9. Two sets A and B are said to be equal, if every element of A is in B and every element of B is in 4 and we write, A = B 10. Two sets A and B are called overlapping sets. if they to them, otherwise they are known as disjoint sets 11. If A and B are two sets such that every element of A subset: af set B and we write. Ac B 12, Whenever a set A is a subset of set: B, we say that B 1 2 superset BoA. 138. If A and R are twa sets sii a proper subset: of B and we write, Ac B. 14. A set containing n elements has 2” subsets and (2" 1) proper subsets 15. A set which is the superset of each one of the given sets 1 called @ universal set Tt 1s denoted by U or & 16. If Gis a universal set and A « the complement af 4. denoted hy 4” 17, DE =o fg = & Mii) A and A’ are disjoint sets 18. The nin of twa sets 4 and B, denoted by AU: B is the set of all those elements which are either m A or in Boor wm both A and B 19. The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A> Ris the set of all those elements which are common to both A and B (i) A — B = Set of elements of A whieh ai (ii) B - A = Set of elements of B whieb are not in A. and we denote it by 6 same cardinal number and have at least one element common ism B. then we say that A is a of 4 and we write, ch that A is a subset of Band Ax B, then we sav that A is ~ £, then the set of elements of & which are not m A. 1s called 20. re not in B