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Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the

student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.

Saqib imran.

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Building Construction Notes

Building Construction

Construction
Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction
differs from manufacturing in that manufacturing typically involves mass production of
similar items without a designated purchaser, while construction typically takes place on
location for a known client.

Building construction
Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. The vast
majority of building construction projects are small renovations, such as addition of a
room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer,
paymaster, and design team for the entire project.

Key Components of Confined Masonry Building

The key features of structural components of a confined masonry building are discussed below:

Masonry walls
Masonry walls transmit the gravity load from the slab(s) above, down to the foundation (along
with the RC tie-columns). The confined masonry walls are made up of solid clay bricks and act as
bracing panels, which resist horizontal earthquake forces acting in-plane. The walls must be
confined by RC tie-beams and tie-columns and should not be penetrated by significant openings
to ensure satisfactory earthquake performance.

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Confining elements
RC tie-columns and RC tie-beams are effective in improving stability and integrity of masonry
walls for in-plane and out-of-plane earthquake effects. These elements prevent brittle seismic
response of masonry walls and protect them from complete disintegration even in major
earthquakes. Confining elements, particularly tie-columns, contribute to the overall building
stability for gravity loads.

Floor and roof slabs

Floor and roof slabs transmit both gravity and lateral loads to the walls. In an earthquake, floor
and roof slabs behave like horizontal beams and are called diaphragms. The roof slabs are typically
made of reinforced concrete.

Plinth band
Plinth band transmits the load from the walls down to the foundation. It also protects the ground
floor walls from excessive settlement in soft soil conditions and the moisture penetration into the
building.

Foundation
Foundation for confined masonry walls consist of 2" thick plain cement concrete (P.C.C), 9"
thick reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C) which supports stepped brick wall at it's base.
Foundation transmits the loads from the structure to the ground and prevents the structure from
overtopping during lateral shaking from earthquakes.

History, Design and Construction of Taj Mahal

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History & Background

History "A white marble tomb built in 1631-48 in Agra, seat of the Mugal Empire, by Shah Jehan
for his wife, Arjuman Banu Begum, the monument sums up many of the formal themes that have
played through Islamic architecture. Its refined elegance is a conspicuous contrast both to the
Hindu architecture of pre-Islamic India, with its thick walls, corbeled arches, and heavy lintels,
and to the Indo-Islamic styles, in which Hindu elements are combined with an eclectic assortment
of motifs from Persian and Turkish sources."

Taj Mahal is regarded as one of the eight wonders of the world, and some Western historians have
noted that its architectural beauty has never been surpassed. The Taj is the most beautiful
monument built by the Mughals, the Muslim rulers of India. Taj Mahal is built entirely of white
marble. Its stunning architectural beauty is beyond adequate description, particularly at dawn and
sunset. The Taj seems to glow in the light of the full moon. On a foggy morning, the visitors
experience the Taj as if suspended when viewed from across the Jamuna river.

Taj Mahal was built by a Muslim, Emperor Shah Jahan (died 1666 C.E.) in the memory of his
dear wife and queen Mumtaz Mahal at Agra, India. It is an "elegy in marble" or some say an
expression of a "dream." Taj Mahal (meaning Crown Palace) is a Mausoleum that houses the grave
of queen Mumtaz Mahal at the lower chamber. The grave of Shah Jahan was added to it later. The
queen’s real name was Arjumand Banu. In the tradition of the Mughals, important ladies of the
royal family were given another name at their marriage or at some other significant event in their
lives, and that new name was commonly used by the public. Shah Jahan's real name was Shahab-
ud-din, and he was known as Prince Khurram before ascending to the throne in 1628.
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Design & Construction of Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal was constructed over a period of twenty-two years, employing twenty thousand
workers. It was completed in 1648 C.E. at a cost of 32 Million Rupees. The construction
documents show that its master architect was Ustad ‘Isa, the renowned Islamic architect of his
time. The documents contain names of those employed and the inventory of construction materials
and their origin. Expert craftsmen from Delhi, Qannauj, Lahore, and Multan were employed. In
addition, many renowned Muslim craftsmen from Baghdad, Shiraz and Bukhara worked on many
specialized tasks.

The mausoleum is a part of a vast complex comprising of a main gateway, an elaborate garden, a
mosque (to the left), a guest house (to the right), and several other palatial buildings. The Taj is at
the farthest end of this complex, with the river Jumna behind it. The large garden contains four
reflecting pools dividing it at the center. Each of these four sections is further subdivided into four
sections and then each into yet another four sections. Like the Taj, the garden elements serve
like Arabesque, standing on their own and also constituting the whole.

The minarets have an octagonal base and cylindrical body tapering to an eight-sided open
pavilion. The body of the minarets is sectioned by three balconies which create shadows and
interest in an otherwise plain design. An exquisite band of marble inlay and geometric patterns
sporting the chevron design encircle the minaret below the top balcony. The summit of the gold
gilded finial perched on the top of the dome of the Taj Mahal reaches two hundred and twenty
feet [67 meters] above the ground. At the top sits a lotus bud and under this is a water pot. This
arrangement was adapted to the Islamic domain from the 12th century. Its function is purely
decorative, accompanying the form of the dome.

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Selection of Stones for Building Construction

Once a stone has been selected on aesthetic basis, it is important than to ensure whether it exhibits
the necessary physical properties and durability to remain in working condition for a long
time. Confirm the traditional name of the stone and test it in the field for properties like streak,
color, hardness etc.

Identification of stone
Quality & quantity & of stone available
It is better to confirm whether the amount and quality of stone required by you is available in the
quarry or not?

Use and purpose of stone in the building

The specific use or purpose of the stone should be known at an earlier stage because each use may
require different properties of stone and to have different properties different stones are used.

Climatic conditions of the building

In areas of hard wear, severe exposure, atmospheric pollution and repeated wetting, as well as for
areas of carved or moulded work stones with higher strength and intense durability are required.
Physical properties such as density, compressive strength and porosity are measured in order to
determine its durability.

Method adopted for the construction of stones

The machinery available for the cutting, installing and polishing stones affects the selection of
stones as harder stones need sharp and heavy machinery and vice versa.

Allowance for conditions afterwards:

Differential movement caused by thermal expansion/ contraction can occur between the structural
frame or wall
backing and the stone cladding, and due attention needs to be given to the methods of mixing in
order to avoid failures.

How to Build a Stone Wall?

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Step 1:

To assist in your stacking, sort the stone by size; setting aside the smallest pieces to use as shims
(these will help level unsteady larger stones). Prepare for this activity by stretching well and always
lift using your arms and legs, not your back Shims (shown far right), or smaller stones, help level
unsteady larger pieces.

Step 2:

Map out the design by digging a trench about 6" deep and as wide as your largest stone.

Step 3:

Pack down and level earth. Cut filter fabric at least 3 feet wider than the trench. Lay down filter
fabric inside trench so that excess is on the backside of trench. Filter fabric keeps dirt from
migrating while allowing water to drain through your wall.

Step 4:

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Place a thin layer of crushed stone (1"-2") in the trench to help level stones and assist drainage.

Step 5:

Start with the largest stones first. Lay them flat from one end of the trench to the other. Continue
to stack stones, working back and forth, one level at a time.

Step 6:

As you stack your wall, make sure that it slopes back slightly to ensure stability. Position stone
tightly together, mixing small and large pieces. Stagger joints between stones to create more
stability.

Step 7:

As you build up, fill in the area behind the wall with crushed stone, and then fill dirt, compacting
as you go. Keep your filter fabric between the fill and stonewall.

Step 8:

When wall is stacked to desired height, fold the filter fabric back over the fill dirt area and finish
with your choice of top soil, mulch, gravel, etc. Run water to settle dirt behind the wall and into
its service.

Differences between stone and brick masonry

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Stone and brick masonry are two very different types.

First of all, in brick masonry, brick is the smallest structural unit and in stone construction stone is
the smallest structural unit.

Stone masonry is usually used in rural areas and its best kind, which is very costly can be used for
very strong construction

In brick masonry the size and shape of the brick matters a lot but not in stone masonry.

The discontinuity of joints is important in both types.

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Structural Elements of Reinforced Concrete Buildings

Slab:
Slabs are horizontal slab elements in building floors and roof. They may carry gravity loads as
well as lateral loads. The depth of the slab is usually very small relatively to its length and width.

Beams:
Long horizontal or inclined members with limited width and height are called beams. Their main
function is to transfer loads from the slab to the columns.

Column:
Columns are vertical members that support loads from the beam or slabs. They may be subjected
to axial loads or moments.

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Frames:
Frames are structural members that consists of combination of slab, beams and columns

Footings:
Footings are pads or strips that support columns and spread their load directly to the soil.

Walls:
Walls are vertical plate elements resisting gravity as well as lateral loads e.g retaining walls,
basement walls. etc

Structural & Non Structural Defects in Building Construction

Concrete is very versatile material. It can be cast in place with or without reinforcement. It can
also be precast or prestressed in order to achieve the required strength. In order to achieve the
required strength there is the need of proper understanding of its behavior and constituents that
are making the concrete. Any type of negligence in any of its phase like placement, design &
maintenance can lead towards its deterioration and finally it will not be able to perform its
intended functions. Some of the factors that can cause the deterioration of concrete are:
1. Accidental loading
2. Chemical reaction like sulfate attack, alkali carbonate reactions, alkali silica reactions etc
3. Corrosion of steel reinforcement
4. Poor construction detailing
5. Erosion
6. Freezing and Thawing
7. Shrinkage
8. Settlement
9. Fire and weathering

Defects in Building Design:

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Inadequate structural design means that concrete is exposed to flexural and shearing stresses that
are greater than its design strength. All that leads towards spalling and cracking of concrete. Any
abrupt change in cross section of any member can cause the increase in stress concentration in
that member which will be ultimately resulted into cracking of concrete. Deflection is one of the
major parts in structural design. If there is any problem in its consideration during design, that
can lead towards the cracking of concrete. Inadequate provision of drainage and expansion joints
during the design also becomes the cause of deterioration and spalling of concrete.

Defects During Construction:

Defects during building construction can range from improper mixing, placing and curing of
concrete. Removal of shoring & formwork is another cause of production of cracks in concrete.
If additional water is added in concrete in order to increase the workability of concrete, it
increases the water cement ratio that leads towards the strength reduction. Improper alignment of
formwork causes erosion of concrete.

Structural Defects in Building Construction:

Structural defects in buildings can be categorized as:

 Cracks in foundation (substructure)

 Cracks in floors and slabs (superstructure)
 Cracks in Walls (superstructure)

These building defects can be caused by following factors:

 Improper soil analysis

 Improper site selection
 Use of defective materials
 Substandard work

Most of the structural problems can be avoided by proper design and planning.

Non Structural Defects in Building Construction:

Non structural defects include:

1. Defects in brick work

2. Dampness in old structures
3. Defects in plaster works

It can be concluded that design and construction defects at the least can cause minor cracking or
spalling leading to concrete deterioration and may become a source of a major structural failure.
Therefore a great deal of attention and care is required in designing, detailing and construction of
concrete structure.

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Reasons to Keep Factor of Safety in Building Construction

Factor of Safety in buildings or other construction is kept so that to compensate any uncertainty
in the design process. The uncertainty could come from anywhere in the design process
including calculations, material strengths, environmental conditions, natural phenomenons, duty
of the structure and last but not the least quality of materials used. Though there exist some
difference when viewed in technical perspective but factor of safety can also be termed as
Margin of safety or even Reserve strength.

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Following are some key points

1. Actual loads may differ from those assumed

2. Actual loads may be distributed in a manner different from that assumed
3. Actual structural behavior may differ from that assumed, due to lack of knowledge or
experience
4. Actual member dimensions may differ from that specified
5. Reinforcement may not be in proper position
6. Actual material strength may differ from that specified
7. Effect of previous construction, drainage, unskillful labor etc

Definition:
The ratio of Strength of material to the load it is designed for.

Safety Factor Formula / Equation:

Types and Classification of Bricks

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Tests for Bricks

 Compression Test
 Soundness Test
 Water Absorption Test
 Efflorescence Test
 Dimensional Tolerance

Composition of a Brick
Normally, brick contains the following ingredients by weight:

Ingredient % age by Weight

Silica (Sand) 50% to 60%
Alumina (Clay) 20% to 30%
Lime 2% to 5%
Iron oxide Less than 7%
Magnesia Less than 1%

Classification of Bricks
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 Based on Quality
 Based on uses
 Based on Composition
 Based on Manufacturing Process
Classification of Bricks Based on Quality
 First Class Bricks
 Second Class Bricks
 Third Class Bricks
Types of Bricks Based on Uses
 Facing Bricks
 High Temperature Resisting Bricks (Forsterite Bricks)
 Acid-Resisting Bricks (Silicon Carbide Bricks)
 Light Weight Clay Bricks
 Engineering Bricks
Types of Bricks Based on its Composition
There are various types of bricks used in masonry:
 Common Burnt Clay Bricks
 Fire Clay Bricks
 Fly ash Clay Bricks
 Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
 Concrete Bricks
Based on Manufacturing Process
 Sun Dried Bricks
 Fired Bricks
Design of Formwork for Building Loads

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Loads on Falsework<
Loads on Falsework are any combinations of the following:

 Dead loads,
 Imposed loads,
 Environmental loads,
 Incidental loads during erection and operation, and
 Lateral pressure

Differential Load Data

 Self load shall be determined by either actual measurement or in accordance with IS 875
(Part I) the unit weight of wet concrete including reinforcement shall be taken as 26
kN/m². However, in absence of the data, load may be assumed as 500 N/M2 for the
purpose of initial calculations .
 Loads during constructional operation shall constitute the imposed loads [see IS 875 (Part
2 ) Where allowance has only to be made for access and inspection purposes, a loading of
750 N/m² should be adequate
 The lateral pressure due to fresh concrete depends on the temperature of concrete as
placed, the rate of placing of concrete and the concrete mix proportion
 Wind loads should be taken for design in accordance with IS 875 (Part 3 ) subject to a
minimum horizontal load equal to 3 percent of the vertical loads at critical level.
 Snow loads should be assumed in accordance with IS 875(4) . The maximum density of
ice may be assumed to be 900 kg/m³.
Reinforced Concrete Building Elements

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1st Floor
It is the floor that has 1 storey height above ground.

Basement Floor
The floor of the basement of the building. It is also called cellar. The basement floor is either
completely or partially below the ground floor. A basement can be used in almost exactly the
same manner as an additional above-ground floor of a house or other building. However, the use
of basements depends largely on factors specific to a particular geographical area such as
climate, soil, seismic activity, building technology, and real estate economics.

The concrete floor in most basements is structurally not part of the foundation; only the
basement walls are. Since warm air rises, basements are typically cooler than the rest of the
house. In summer, this makes basements damp, due to the higher relative humidity.

Basement Wall
The wall surrounding the basement floor is called the basement wall. The basement walls can be
regarded structurally as part of the foundation. The basement walls are shear walls which can

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resist lateral laods as well. Moreover, these walls are meant to be higly non-porous and water
resistant.

Column Bracket
Column Bracket is protrusion from the column also used for hanging or attaching lamps, bulbs or
other accessories to it like road signs.

Column Capital
Column capital is an architectural element used for aesthetic purposeswhich forms the topmost
member of a column.

Drop Panels
Drop panels are used to thicken the slab around the column in flat slabs to avoid punching shear.
Since flat slabs have no stirrups shear is resisted by thickening the slab around the column to
increase the concrete in shear. Beams can also be used, but generally drop panels are preferred to
avoid conflicts with the electro-mechanical works of the structure.

Exterior Columns
The columns supporting the main structure of the building. Usually in frame structures the
exterior columns are of extreme importance and bear the load of the building as well as resist
environmental factors like wind, rain, and other physical factors.

Flat Plate
Slabs connecting to columns directly. Flat plate system is widely adopted by engineers as it
provides many advantages . The system can reduce the height of the building, provide more
flexible spatial planning due to no beams present, and further reduce the material cost. However,
the main problem in practice is the brittle failure of flat plate under punching shear. Due to the
relatively small floor loading and the close column spacing, flat plate construction is preferred.
For heavier loading and larger column spacing, column capitals are required, and for even larger
spans to reduce the self-weight, waffle slabs are used.

Flat Slab
The flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system utilizing a slab of uniform
thickness, the simplest of structural shapes. The flat slab is a two-way reinforced structural
system that includes either drop panels or column capitals at columns to resist heavier loads and
thus permit longer spans. Construction of flat slabs is one of the quickest methods available.
Lead times are very short as this is one of the most common forms of construction.

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Interior Columns
Interior columns in a frame structure support the slab and beams internally. They are not as
susceptible to buckling and environmental effects as the external ones but still are extremely
important considering the safety and stability of the building. Interior columns can also serve
aesthetic and architectural purposes.

Pedestal
An architectural support or base, as for a column or statue.

Roof
A roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. A roof protects the building and its
contents from the effects of weather and the invasion of animals. Structures that require roofs
range from a letter box to a cathedral or stadium, house buildings being the most numerous.

The elements in the design of a roof are:

 the material
 the construction
 the durability &
 Serviceability

Spread Footing

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To distribute the load of the foundation on the soil, spread footings are installed below the
building's foundation. This type of footing is continuous below the perimeter of the house walls
and may be thickened or widened at the points where concentrated loads are applied e.g.
columns. These components are constructed from concrete and are often reinforced with rebar or
steel to add additional support. Depending on the size and configuration of the building, the
footers can be buried just below ground level or several feet below the surface. In cold climates,
they are always placed below the frost line to minimize problems with concrete heaving that
occurs during freeze/thaw cycles. This type of footer design is highly beneficial to builders and
homeowners. Since they transfer the weight of the building over a large area, they have little risk
of failure

Upturned Beam
Through the use of upturned concrete T-beams, designers created a naturally ventilated work
space that employs the thermal mass of an exposed concrete ceiling. This concrete absorbs heat
during the day and is purged at night by cool breezes. The term is usually used in concrete
construction, in parking structures, but here is how it works:

The beam is above the floor it supports, or a combination. Take a parking structure, there is the
required barrier wall, so if you turn the beam up it acts as support and the barrier. Think of your

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simple beam diagram with a uniform load on it. The beam supports this load, so it doesn't matter
if the load is applied at the bottom (simply, other than there are the compression/tension face)

This also works well in buildings, rather than have a large beam under the floor, the beam is cast
above and below the floors, acts as bearing and shear tension and compression face
reinforcement will be some what different, but beam cross section area will stay the same.

Steps in Construction of Multi Storey Buildings

Design of building component

1. Formwork design
2. Staircase design
3. Deep Beams
4. Slabs
Excavation, Layout and Foundation
 Excavation is a process of making trenches by digging up of earth for the construction of
foundations and basements.
 Excavation level at escape site is 219.825 mm
 Excavation is done by the JCB on the hourly basis
 After the excavation the surface is leveled called surface dressing
 Layout is done on the PCC poured over leveled surface.
 Column and foundation (raft ) steel is then laid as per drawings.

Points to be taken care of:

1. Layout should be checked properly.

2. Check any difference between architectural and structural drawings regarding location of column.
3. After excavation check the stability of temporary structures built near the excavated ground.
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4. Before laying raft reinforcement, shuttering wall which is mainly brick wall should be built and
should be filled with soil on other side.
5. Check the direction of chair bars in the raft

Column Casting
 On the raft the column layout is done.
 Layout for starter.
 The column ties and link bars are provided as per column reinforcement drawings and general
specifications.
 Displacement of main bars should be provided with L bar
 The plumb of formwork should be checked.
 Height of cast should be calculated accurately.
 Avoid caps as far as possible.

Links and Ties for column Formwork

Slab, Beam, Shuttering and Casting

 Beam bottom is first laid on the column and then slab formwork is laid.
 After the reinforcement, the slab is checked for steel as per drawings and level required.
 A camber of 5 mm in provided in the center of slab.
 Casting of slab should be discontinue at l/3 from the support.

Important Components in Building Construction

 Key in Columns
 Expansion joint
 Water bar
 Binding materials
Key in Columns
 Since the height of column is very large, hence it is not possible to cast the column at one time, to
cast the column later the key is made at the junction so that the proper bond between the old concrete
and new concrete is formed.
 The key is only a small depression left on the concrete surface
Expansion Joint
 Since concrete is subjected to volume change. Provision must be made to cater for the volume
change by way of joint to relieve the stresses produced.
 Expansion joint is function of length
 Buildings longer than 45 m are generally provided with one or more expansion joints.
 Material used as expansion joint material is armor board whose thickness is 25 mm.
Water Bar
 Water bar is provided in the retaining wall so that the moisture can't move from the soil to the
joint.
 Water bar is basically provided at the constructions joints of retaining wall of two different
towers

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Binding Materials
 Since the thermal expansion of concrete is different from that of masonry. The interface between
the concrete and the masonry is liable to crack. To avoid this crack the chicken wire mesh is used
to avoid the crack and also provides the better grip for Masonry with concrete.
 Similarly when the drainage pipes are laid along with the outer wall then again the connection
between the pipe and the wall has different coefficient of temperature change hence they are joint
to the concrete by lead keys.
 In the toilets and kitchen sunken portion the joints in any case are packed by water proof and non
shrinkable material.

Water Proofing
 Water proofing has remained as an unsolved complex problem. Use of plasticizes, super
plasticizes, air-entraining agents helps in reducing the permeability of concrete by reducing the
requirement of mixing water, hence can be also be regarded as waterproof material.
 Some of approved water-proofing compound by the company are: pidilite, cico, fosroe,
baushimine, unitile.

Water-proofing cement paint:- super snowcem

Water Proofing in garden area

 For water proofing in garden area the soil is first leveled and then rammed to achieve the
maximum density
 The PCC (Plain Cement Concrete)is then laid down mixed with tape Crete (a water proofing
compound)
 After PCC the plaster of fibrous material is done.
 The bituminous sheets are laid by heating it with the welder. On those sheets the drainage pipes
are laid down with suitable slope and these pipes are covered with geo-fabric sheets.
 Again the plaster is done. On the plaster the 40 mm aggregates are laid.
 On the aggregate the geo-fabric sheets are laid down on which the sand is placed & on the sand
the soil, along with fertilizers, is placed on which the gardening is done for the non tower area.
ACI Building Code Requirements and Safety Provisions

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ACI Code Safety Provisions for reinforced buildings

Structural members must always be proportioned to resist loads greater than service or actual loads,
in order to provide proper safety against failure. In the strength design method, the member is
designed to resist the factored loads which are obtained by multiplying the factored loads with live
loads.

Different factors are used for different loadings. As dead loads can be estimated quite accurately,
their load factors are smaller than those of live loads, which have a high degree of uncertainty.
Several load factor conditions must be considered in the design to compute the maximum and
minimum design forces. Reduction factors are used for some combinations of loads to reflect the
low probability of their simultaneous occurrences. Now if the ultimate load is denoted by U, the
according to the ACI code, the ultimate required strength U, shall be the most critical of the
following:

Basic Equation U = 1.2D + 1.6L

In addition to the load factors, the ACI code specifies another factor to allow an additional reserve
in the capacity of the structural member. The nominal strength is generally calculated using
accepted, analytical procedures based on statistics and equilibrium. However, in order to account
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for the degree of accuracy within which the nominal strength can be calculated and for adverse
variations in materials and dimensions, a strength reduction factor Phi should be used in the
strength design method. Values of the strength reduction factor (Phi) are:

For flexure of tension controlled sections Phi = 0.9

For shear and torsion Phi = 0.75

For compression members with spiral reinforcement Phi = 0.70

For compression members with laterla ties Phi = 0.65

Nominal strength
Actual strength from the material properties is called the nominal strength.

Nominal x Phi = Design strength

As safe design is achieved when the structural strength obtained by multiplying the nominal
strength by the reduction factor phi , exceeds or equals the strength needed to withstand the
factored loads.

where Design process is the reverse of

loading. Design starts from the
Mu, Vu and Pu equals external factored moments, shear forces foundation , unlike the load
and axial forces. which transfers to the foundation
only at the end.
Mn, Vn and Pn equals the nominal moment, shear and axial
capacity of the member respectively

Types of Floors and Methods of Construction of Floors

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Floors Definition
A floor is the bottom surface of a room or vehicle. Flooring is the general term for a permanent
covering of a floor, or for the work of installing such a floor covering.

Types of Floors
Following are some of the major types of floors:

1. Mud Floor:

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Suitability:

These floors are not prepared in commercial or professional buildings but only in residential
buildings in rural areas.

2. Brick floor:
The floor whose topping is of brick. These are easy to construct and repair. but the surface resulting
from these is not smooth and is rough, hence, easily absorbs and retains moisture which may cause
dampness in the building.

Method of construction of Brick Floor:

For constructing a brick floor, the top surface of earth or murram filling is properly consolidated.
Over this compacted earth, a layer of clean sand about 10 cm thick is evenly spread. Then a layer
of lime concrete (1:4:8) or lean cement concrete (1:4:16) is laid, compacted and cured. Over this
base concrete well soaked bricks are laid in cement mortar (1:4) in any suitable bond. In case
pointing is to be done, the minimum thickness of joints should not exceed 2 mm and and the mortar
in joints is struck off with a trowel. When the pointing is to be done, the minimum thickness of
joints is kept 6mm and the pointing may be done.

Suitability:

The floors are suitable for stores, godowns etc.

3. Tile floor:
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The floor whose topping is of tiles is called tile floor. The tiles used may be of any desired quality,
color, shape or thickness.

Method of construction of Tile Floor:

For constructing a tile floor, the base course is prepared in the same manner as in case of brick
flooring.Over the base course thus prepared, a thin layer of lime or cement mortar is spread with
the help of screed battens. Then the screeds are properly leveled and fixed at the correct height.
When the surface mortar has hardened sufficiently, the specified tiles are laid on a 6 mm thick bed
of wet cement mortar.(1:5). The surplus mortar which comes out of the joints is cleaned off. After
3 days, the joints are well rubbed a carborundum stone so as to smoothen the surface, specially the
edges.

Suitability:

These floor are used for paving courtyard of buildings. Glazed tiles floors are used in modern
buildings where a high class building is desired.

4. Flagstone floor:

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The floors whose topping consists of stone slabs is called flagstone floor. The stone slabs used
here may not be of the same size but should not be more than 75 cm length and not less than 35
cm in width and 3.8 cm in thickness.

Method of construction of Flagstone Floor:

For constructing a flagstone floor, the same method is applied as in case of tile floor. The slabs are
soaked well in water at least one hour before laying. They should be evenly and firmly bedded in
mortar. The thickness of joints should not exceed 4mm and they should be struck off with a trowel
while laying.

Suitability:

These type of flooring are suitable in go-downs, motor sheds, stores, pavements etc.

5. Cement concrete floor:

The floors whose topping consists of cement concrete is called cement concrete floor or
conglomerate floor. These floors consists of 2.5 cm to 5cm thick concrete layer laid over 10 cm
thick base concrete and 10 cm thick clean sand over ground whose compaction and consolidation
is done. These floors are commonly used these days.

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Following are the advantages of concrete floors:

1. They are hard & Durable

2. Provide a smooth & non absorbent surface
3. They are more fire resistant
4. They provide more sanitary surface as they can be cleaned & washed easily.
5. They are economical as they require negligible maintenance cost
6. They can be finished with a pleasing appearance.

Types of cement concrete floors:

1. Non-Monolithic or bonded floor finish floor

2. Monolithic floor finish floor

Terrazzo floor

Properties of a Good Sealant for Joints

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Properties of a good sealant

1. A good sealant must be able to be overpainted.
2. It should be chemically inert, non-corrosive in nature and provide protection to the
underlying surface from environmental and biological effects.
3. A good joint sealant should be durable and long-lasting.
4. It's co-efficient of volumetric expansion must be less so that it does not expand a lot
when exposed to heat.
5. A good sealant should have a very good adhesion to most construction materials.
6. It should provide air tightness and sound insulation.
7. Must be flexible, elastic and of softer grade and not stiff.
8. Good wetting behavior
9. Must be able to absorb thermal as well as vibrational stresses

Reinforced Cement Concrete Design - Concepts and Theories

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Concrete:
Concrete is a stone like substance obtained by permitting a carefully proportioned mixture of
cement, sand and gravel or other aggregate and water to harden in forms of the shape and of
dimensions of the desired structure.

Reinforced cement concrete:

Since concrete is a brittle material and is strong in compression. It is weak in tension, so steel is
used inside concrete for strengthening and reinforcing the tensile strength of concrete. The steel
must have appropriate deformations to provide strong bonds and interlocking of both materials.
When completely surrounded by the hardened concrete mass it forms an integral part of the two
materials, known as "Reinforced Concrete".

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Advantages and disadvantages of reinforced concrete

Flexural Strength of Concrete
Reinforced Concrete is a structural material, is widely used in many types of structures. It is
competitive with steel if economically designed and executed.

Advantages of reinforced concrete

 It has relatively high compressive strength
 It has better resistance to fire than steel
 It has long service life with low maintenance cost
 In some types of structures, such as dams, piers and footings, it is most economical
structural material
 It can be cast to take the shape required, making it widely used in pre-cast structural
components
 It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection
 Yield strength of steel is about 15 times the compressive strength of structural concrete and
well over 100 times its tensile strength
 By using steel, cross sectional dimensions of structural members can be reduced e.g in
lower floor columns

Disadvantages of reinforced concrete

 It needs mixing, casting and curing, all of which affect the final strength of concrete
 The cost of the forms used to cast concrete is relatively high
 It has low compressive strength as compared to steel (the ratio is about 1:10 depending on
material) which leads to large sections in columns/beams of multistory buildings Cracks
develop in concrete due to shrinkage and the application of live loads

Factors affecting the joint performance of steel and

Concrete
Reinforced cement concrete Design philosophy & concepts of RCC
Design

The design of a structure may be regarded as the process of selecting proper materials and
proportioned elements of the structure, according to the art, engineering science and technology.
In order to fulfill its purpose, the structure must meet its conditions of safety, serviceability,
economy and functionality.

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Strength design method

It is based on the ultimate strength of the structural members assuming a failure condition, whether
due to the crushing of concrete or due to the yield of reinforced steel bars. Although there is
additional strength in the bar after yielding (due to Strain Hardening), this additional strength in
the bar is not considered in the analysis or design of the reinforced concrete members. In the
strength design method, actual loads or working loads are multiplied by load factor to obtain the
ultimate design loads. The load factor represents a high percentage of factor for safety required in
the design. The ACI code emphasizes this method of design.
Serviceability: No excessive
deflection, no excessive
deformation and no cracking
or vibrations No excessive
reinforcement. Must be able to
perform the function, it is built
for.

Working stress design

This design concept is based on elastic theory, assuming a straight line stress distribution along
the depth of the concrete. The actual loads or working loads acting on the structure are estimated
and members are proportioned on the basis of certain allowable stresses in concrete and steel. The
allowable stresses are fractions of the crushing strength of concrete (fc') and the yield strength (fy).
Because of the differences in realism and reliability over the past several decades, the strength
design method has displaced the older stress design method.

Limit state design

It is a further step in the strength design method. It indicates the state of the member in which it
ceases to meet the service requirements, such as, loosing its ability to withstand external loads or
local damage. According to limit state design, reinforced concrete members have to be analyzed
with regard to three limit states:

1. Load carrying capacity (involves safety, stability and durability)

2. Deformation (deflection, vibrations, and impact)
3. The formation of cracks

The aim of this analysis is to ensure that no limiting sate will appear in the structural member
during its service life.

Fundamental assumptions for Reinforced Concrete's Behavior

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Reinforced concrete's sections are heterogeneous, because they are made up of two different
materials - steel and concrete. Therefore, proportioning structural members by ultimate stress
design is based on the following assumptions:

1. Strain in concrete is the same as in reinforcing bars at the same level, provided that the
bond between the concrete and steel is adequate
2. Strain in concrete is linearly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
3. Modulus of elasticity for all grades of steel is taken as Es = 29 x 106 psi. The stress in the
elastic range is equal to the strain multiplied by Es.
4. Plane cross sections continue to be plane after bending.
5. Tensile strength of concrete is neglected because:
o Concrete's tensile strength is about 1/10 of its compressive strength.
6. Cracked concrete is assumed to be not effective Before cracking, the entire cross section is
effective in resisting the external moments.
7. The method of elastic analysis, assuming an ideal behavior at all levels of stress is not
valid. At high stresses, non-elastic behavior is assumed, which is in close agreement with
the actual behavior of concrete and steel.
8. At ultimate strength, the maximum strain at the extreme compression fibers is assumed to
be equal to 0.003 by the ACI code provisions. At the ultimate strength, the shape of the
compressive stress distribution may be assumed to be rectangular, parabolic or trapezoidal.

Loads

Structural members must be designed to support specific loads. Loads are those forces for which
a structure should be proportioned. Loads that act on structure can be divided into three categories.

1. Dead loads
2. Live loads
3. Environmental loads

Dead Loads:
Dead loads are those that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the lifetime
of the structure. It includes the weight of the structure and any permanent material placed on the
structure, such as roofing, tiles, walls etc. They can be determined with a high degree of accuracy
from the dimensions of the elements and the unit weight of the material.

Live loads:
Live loads are those that may vary in magnitude and may also change in location. Live loads
consists chiefly occupancy loads in buildings and traffic loads in bridges. Live loads at any given
time are uncertain, both in magnitude and distribution.

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Environmental loads:
Consists mainly of snow loads, wind pressure and suction, earthquake loads (i.e inertial forces)
caused by earthquake motions. Soil pressure on subsurface portion of structures, loads from
possible ponding of rainwater on flat surfaces and forces caused by temperature differences. Like
live loads, environmental loads at any given time are uncertain both in magnitude and distribution.

ACI Code Safety Provisions

Structural members must always be proportioned to resist loads greater than service or actual loads,
in order to provide proper safety against failure. In the strength design method, the member is
designed to resist the factored loads which are obtained by multiplying the factored loads with live
loads.

Different factors are used for different loadings. As dead loads can be estimated quite accurately,
their load factors are smaller than those of live loads, which have a high degree of uncertainty.
Several load factor conditions must be considered in the design to compute the maximum and
minimum design forces. Reduction factors are used for some combinations of loads to reflect the
low probability of their simultaneous occurrences. Now if the ultimate load is denoted by U, the
according to the ACI code, the ultimate required strength U, shall be the most critical of the
following

Basic Equation U = 1.2D + 1.6L

In addition to the load factors, the ACI code specifies another factor to allow an additional reserve
in the capacity of the structural member. The nominal strength is generally calculated using
accepted, analytical procedures based on statistics and equilibrium. However, in order to account
for the degree of accuracy within which the nominal strength can be calculated and for adverse
variations in materials and dimensions, a strength reduction factor (Ø) should be used in the
strength design method. Values of the strength reduction factor Ø (Phi) are:

For flexure of tension controlled sections Ø = 0.9

For shear and torsion Ø = 0.75

For compression members with spiral reinforcement Ø =

0.70

For compression members with lateral ties Ø = 0.65

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Nominal strength
Actual strength from the material properties is called the nominal strength.

Nominal x Ø = Design strength

As safe design is achieved when the structural strength obtained by multiplying the nominal
strength by the reduction factor Ø, exceeds or equals the strength needed to withstand the
factored loads.

Dampness in Buildings and DPC

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Definition:
The access and penetration of moisture content into building through its walls, floor, roof etc. is
called dampness in buildings.

Effects of dampness in buildings:

1. Causes rotting of wood.
2. Causes corrosion of metallic fixtures.
3. Deteriorate electric installations.
4. Deteriorate carpet & furniture’s.
5. Causes spots on the floors and walls.
6. Causes petting off and removal of plaster.
7. Causes bleaching and blistering of paints.
8. Causes efflorescence in bricks, tiles and stones
9. Dangerous for the health of occupants.
10. Reduces the life of structures
11. Promotes growth of termites

Causes of dampness in buildings

1. Rain penetration
2. Level of site
3. Drainability of soil
4. Climate condition
5. Defective orientation of building
6. Moisture entrapped during construction
7. Defective construction e.g. joints
8. Use of poor quality bricks which ultimately absorb a lot of water.
9. Use of Poor quality of concrete (permeable concrete)

Methods of preventing dampness in buildings

1. By providing DPC ( Damp proof course )
2. By surface treatment i.e. by providing damp proof paint
3. By integral water proofing method
4. By special devices i.e. by providing chajjas & by providing cavity walls etc

Corbels
This is provided in internal side of roofs

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 For decoration
 For preventing dampness

DPC - Damp proof course

It is continuous layer of impervious material applied to prevent moisture transmission. A common
example is polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab to prevent the concrete from gaining
moisture through capillary action. A DPM may be used for the DPC.

Rising damp is caused by capillary action drawing moisture up through the porous elements of a
building's fabric. Rising damp, and some penetrating damp, can be caused by faults to, or the
absence of a damp-proof course (DPC) or damp-proof membrane (DPM).

 For internal wall we only provide horizontal DPC ( 175 kg/cm 2 standard pressure for bitumen )
 Three layers of bitumen is provided
 You should provide a mortar layer before DPC

Types of DPC
There are two types of DPC

1. Flexible DPC: It is DPC when load doesn’t crack e.g. Polythene and Bitumen
2. Rigid DPC: It is DPC when loaded; it cracks e.g. Rich cement concrete 1:2:4
Three layers
1. Bitumen mastic: Bitumen mix with fine sand
2. Bitumen felt: It is available in the form of rolled sheets
3. Hard laid bitumen
4. Metal sheets
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e.g. Lead, copper, aluminum is provided with mortar, to avoid rusting.

Rigid DPC: It is DPC when loaded; it cracks e.g. Rich cement concrete 1:2:4

Types of Stone Masonry - Rubble Masonry and Ashlar

Masonry

Definition:
The art of building a structure in stone with any suitable masonry is called stone masonry.

Types of Stone Masonry

Stone masonry can broadly be classified into the following two types:

1. Rubble Masonry
2. Ashlar Masonry

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Rubble Masonry:
The stone masonry in which either undressed or roughly dressed stone are laid in a suitable mortar
is called rubble masonry. In this masonry the joints are not of uniform thickness. Rubble masonry
is further sub-divided into the following three types:

Types of Rubble Masonry

1. Random rubble masonry

2. Squared rubble masonry
3. Dry rubble masonry

Random rubble masonry:

Random Rubble Masonry

Rubble masonry is the type of stone masonry in which either undressed or hammer dressed stones
are used is called random rubble masonry. Further random rubble masonry is also divided into the
following three types:

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Un-coursed random rubble masonry:

The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid without forming courses is known as un
coursed random rubble masonry. This is the roughest and cheapest type of masonry and is of
varying appearance. The stones used in this masonry are of different sizes and shapes. before lying,
all projecting corners of stones are slightly knocked off. Vertical joints are not plumbed, joints are
filled and flushed. Large stones are used at corners and at jambs to increase their strength. Once
"through stone" is used for every square meter of the face area for joining faces and backing.

Suitability: Used for construction of walls of low height in case of ordinary buildings.

Coursed random rubble masonry:

The random rubble masonry in which stones are laid in layers of equal height is called random
rubble masonry. In this masonry, the stones are laid in somewhat level courses. Headers of one
coursed height are placed at certain intervals. The stones are hammer dressed.

Suitability: Used for construction of residential buildings, go downs, boundary walls etc.

Squared rubble masonry:

The rubble masonry in which the face stones are squared on all joints and beds by hammer dressing
or chisel dressing before their actual laying, is called squared rubble masonry.
There are two types of squared rubble masonry.

Coursed Square rubble masonry:

The square rubble masonry in which chisel dressed stones laid in courses is called coarse square
rubble masonry. This is a superior variety of rubble masonry. It consists of stones, which are
squared on all joints and laid in courses. The stones are to be laid in courses of equal layers. and
the joints should also be uniform.

Suitability: Used for construction of public buildings, hospitals, schools, markets, modern
residential buildings etc and in hilly areas where good quality of stone is easily available.

Un coursed square rubble masonry:

The squared rubble in masonry which hammer dressed stones are laid without making courses is
called un coursed square rubble masonry. It consists of stones which are squared on all joints and
beds by hammer dressing. All the stones to be laid are of different sizes.

Suitability: Used for construction of ordinary buildings in hilly areas where a good variety of
stones are cheaply available.
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Dry rubble masonry:

The rubble masonry in which stones are laid without using any mortar is called dry rubble masonry
or sometimes shortly as "dry stones". It is an ordinary masonry and is recommended for
constructing walls of height not more than 6m. In case the height is more, three adjacent courses
are laid in squared rubble masonry mortar at 3m intervals.

Ashlar Masonry:
It is the type of stone masonry in which finely dressed stones are laid in cement or lime mortar is
known as ashlars masonry. In this masonry are the courses are of uniform height, all the joints are
regular, thin and have uniform thickness. This type of masonry is much costly as it requires
dressing of stones.

Suitability: This masonry is used for heavy structures, architectural buildings, high piers and
abutments of bridges.

Ashlars masonry is further sub divided into the following types:

Types of Ashlar Masonry

i. Ashlars fine or coarse ashlar masonry
ii. Random coarse ashlars masonry
iii. Rough tooled ashlar masonry
iv. Rock or quarry faced ashlars masonry
v. Chamfered ashlars masonry
vi. Block in coarse masonry
vii. Ashlar facing

Ashlar fine or coursed ashlar masonry:

In this type of stone masonry stone blocks of same height in each course are used. Every stone is
fine tooled on all sides. Thickness of mortar is uniform through out. It is an expensive type of stone
masonry as it requires heavy labor and wastage of material while dressing. Satisfactory bond can
be obtained in this type of stone masonry.

Random coursed ashlar masonry:

This type of ashlar masonry consists of fine or coursed ashlar but the courses are of varying
thicknesses, depending upon the character of the building.

Rough tooled ashlar masonry:

This type of ashlar masonry the sides of the stones are rough tooled and dressed with chisels.
Thickness of joints is uniform, which does not exceed 6mm.
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Rock or quarry faced ashlar masonry:

This type of ashlar masonry is similar to rough tooled type except that there is chisel-drafted
margin left rough on the face which is known as quarry faced.

Chamfered ashlar masonry:

It is similar to quarry faced except that the edges are beveled or chamfered to 450 for depth of 2.5
cm or more.

Block-in course masonry:

It is the name given to a class of ashlar masonry which occupies an intermediate place between
rubble and ashlars. The stones are all squared and properly dressed. It resembles to coursed rubble
masonry or rough tooled ashlar masonry.

Ashlar facing:
Ashlar facing is the best type of ashlars masonry. Since this is type of masonry is very expensive,
it is not commonly used throughout the whole thickness of the wall, except in works of great
importance and strength. For economy the facing are built in ashlars and the rest in rubble.

How Bond Strength can be Increased?

Definition:
The pulling out of steel bars from concrete is resisted by the gripping action of concrete known as
bond and the resulting stress is called bond stress. The resistance offered to slipping of bars is due
to three factors:

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1. The chemical adhesion between the two materials

2. The friction due to natural roughness of bars
3. The mechanical anchorage of the closely spaced rib-shaped deformation made on the bar
surface.

The bond strength can be increased by:

1. Providing rough surface of steel deformed bars
2. By providing sufficient cover
3. Providing rich mix concrete

Advantages & Disadvantages of Bricks

Masonry structures are the oldest structures. These are structure built by using masonry units with
mortar. The masonry units may be:

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 Clay Bricks
 Concrete Blocks
 Structural Clay Tiles
 Stone

Bricks
Brick is a solid unit of building having standard size and weight. Its history traces back thousand
years (almost 7500 BCE). Clay bricks made of fired clay. The composition of clay varies over a
wide range. Usually clays are composed mainly of silica (grains of sand), alumina, lime, iron,
manganese, sulfur, and phosphates, with different proportions. Clay bricks have an average
density of 125 pcf. Bricks are manufactured by grinding or crushing the clay in mills and mixing
it with water to make it plastic. The plastic clay is then molded, textured, dried, and finally fired.

Bricks are manufactured in different colors, such as dark red, dark brown, or dull brown,
depending on the fire temperature during manufacturing. The firing temperature for brick
manufacturing varies from 900°C to 1200°C (1650°F to 2200°F).

Uses of Bricks
1. As a Structural Unit

Since the clay bricks or burnt bricks are strong, hard, durable, resistive to abrasion and fire,
therefore, they are used as a structural material in different structures

 Buildings
 Bridges
 Foundations
 Arches
 Pavement (Footpath, Streets)
2. As an Aesthetic Unit/Surface Finish

Bricks can be used in different colors, sizes and orientations to get different surface designs. As
an aesthetic material bricks can be used:

 In Pavements
 As Facing Brick
 For Architectural Purposes
3. As a Fire Resistant Material

Advantages of Bricks
 Economical (Raw material is easily available)
 Hard and durable
 Compressive strength is good enough for ordinary construction

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 Different orientations and sizes give different surface textures

 Very low maintenance cost is required
 Demolishing of brick structures is very easy, less time consuming and hence economic
 Reusable and Recyclable
 Highly fire resistant
 Produces less environmental pollution during manufacturing process

Disadvantages of Bricks
 Time consuming construction
 Cannot be used in high seismic zones
 Since bricks absorb water easily, therefore, it causes fluorescence when not exposed to air
 Very Less tensile strength
 Rough surfaces of bricks may cause mold growth if not properly cleaned
 Cleaning brick surfaces is a hard job
 Color of low quality brick changes when exposed to sun for a long period of time.
Constants in Building Design & Analysis

Constants in Building Design and

Analysis
Component or System ASD Load Combinations LRFD Load Combinations

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Foundation wall D+H 1.2D + 1.6H

(gravity and soil lateral loads) D + H + L + 0.3 (Lr+S) D +
2
1.2D + 1.6H + 1.6L2 +
F[ + (Lr or S) + 0.3L" 0.5(Lr + S)
1.2D + 1.6H + 1.6(Lr or S) +
0.5L2
Headers, girders, joists, D + L“ + 0.3 (Lr or S) D + 1.2D+ 1.6L2 + 0.5 (Lr or S)
interior load- bearing walls (Lr or S) + 0.3 L~ 1.2D+ 1.6(Lr or S) + 0.5 L2
and columns, footings
(gravity loads)
Exterior load-bearing walls Same as immediately above Same as immediately above
and columns (gravity and plus D + W plus 1.2D + 1.5W
transverse lateral load) D + 0.7E + 0.5L + 0.2S
2 4
1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L2 + 0.2S4
Roof rafters, trusses, and D + (Lr or S) 0.6D + Wu D 2
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S) 0.9D +
beams; roof and wall +W 1.5WU5 1.2D+ 1.5W
sheathing (gravity and wind
loads)
Floor diaphragms and shear 0.6D + (W or 0.7E) 0.9D + (1.5W or 1.0E)
walls (in-plane lateral and
overturning loads)
Presumptive Load-Bearing Value (psf) Soil Description
1.500 Clay, sandy clay, silty clay, clayey silt, silt, and sandy silt
2.000 Sand, silty sand, clayey sand, silty gravel, and clayey gravel
3.000 Gravel and sandy gravel
4.000 Sedimentary rock
12.000 Crystalline bedrock
In Situ Consistency, N Loose2 (5 to 10 Firm (10 to 25 Compact (25 to 50
blows per foot) blows per foot) blows per foot)
Non Gravel 4.000 (10) 8.000 (25) 11.000 (50)
Cohesive Sand 2.500 (6) 5.000 (20) 6.000 (35)
Soils Fine sand 1.000 (5) 3.000(12) 5.000 (30)
Silt 500 (5) 2.000(15) 4.000 (35)
Insitu Consistency, N1: So ft (3 to 5
3
Medium (about 10 Stiff (> 20 blows
blows per foot) blows per foot) per foot)
Cohesive Clay. Sand. 2.000 (3) 5.000 (10) 8.000 (20)
Soils Gravel
Mixtures
Sandy or Silty 1.000 (4) 3.000 (8) 6.000 (20)
Clay
Clay 500 (5) 2.000 (10) 4.000 (25)

Definition and Uses of Joint Fillers

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Concrete Joint Fillers, expansion joint filler, concrete expansion joint filler

Definition
Joints fillers are the strips of some compressible material which is used to fill the expansion
joints in different structure.

Uses:
Joint filling is an important process in many structures such as Buildings, Masonry Walls. A
joint filler for use in joints between structural elements comprising at least one layer of a
substantially non-compressible, moisture blocking material; at least two layers of a compressible
and resilient, moisture blocking material, each layer being in surface to surface contact with a
layer of non-compressible material; the layers of material are combined to form a strip of
interleaved compressible and non-compressible layers, and in an uncompressed state thicker than
a joint.

Types of Concrete Joints in Buildings and their Characteristics

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Expansion Joints
These are structural separation between building elements that allow independent movement
without damage to the assembly. An expansion joint is used in concrete and steel. An expansion
joint allows the concrete or steel to expand or contract with daily temperature variations. If you
don’t allow this, you may get buckling, or spalling, or total failures. They are commonly
provided in bridges, railway tracks, piping systems, and other structures.

Contraction Joints or Control Joints

A control joint or contraction joint is a joint that is put in the concrete to control
cracking. Control Joints (often confused with expansion joints) are cuts or grooves made in
concrete or asphalt at regular intervals. These joints are made at locations where there are
chances of cracks or where the concentration of stresses are expected, so that when a concrete
does crack, the location will be known to you. In such a way concrete will not crack randomly
but in a straight line (i.e. control joint). In other words Contraction or Control Joints are Pre-
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Planned Cracks. The cracks may be due to temperature variations or drying shrinkage or other
reasons.

Joints depth should be 25% of the depth of the slab. For instance a 4" thick slab should have 1"
deep cut. Joints Interval (taken in feet) should not be more than 2 - 3 times the slab thickness (in
inches). Let say a 6" slab should have joints 2 x 6=12 to 3 x 6 = 18 feet apart. For fresh concrete
grooving tools are used while saw is used for hardened concrete.

Construction Joints

A construction joint occurs when there are multiple concrete placements. It can occur between
different days of concrete placements.

In mega projects there are starting and stopping points. The entire concrete work may not be
done at once, hence concrete pouring needs to be stopped causing a joint in element known as
Construction Joint. Construction joints are placed at points of ending and beginning of
construction for provision of a smooth transition between pours. These joints are formed between
successive building element parts during construction work, in which one part is allowed to
harden before the next is placed. These joints may be intentional or unintentional. Reasons for
intentionally providing construction joints are;

 Certain time of a day i.e. Labour Hours ( e.g. 8:00 am to 6:00 pm)
 Certain day of a week (e.g. Sunday, or Friday)
 Certain Months of an year (e.g. extreme weather in Winter or Summer)
 Religious Holidays etc (e.g. Eid or Christmas etc)

Unintentional provision may occur due to

 Unexpected shortage of material

 Equipment Failure
 Bad weather
Steps for How to Construct a Stone Wall
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How to construct a stone wall:

Step 1: To assist in your stacking, sort the stone by size; setting aside the smallest pieces to use as
shims (these will help level unsteady larger stones).

Prepare for this activity by stretching well and always lift using your arms and legs, not your back
Shims (shown far right), or smaller stones, help level unsteady larger pieces.

Step 2: Map out the design by digging a trench about 6" deep and as wide as your largest stone.

Step 3: Pack down and level earth. Cut filter fabric at least 3 feet wider than the trench. Lay down
filter fabric inside trench so that excess is on the backside of trench. Filter fabric keeps dirt from
migrating while allowing water to drain through your wall.

Step 4: Place a thin layer of crushed stone (1"-2") in the trench to help level stones and assist
drainage.

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Step 5: Start with the largest stones first. Lay them flat from one end of the trench to the other.
Continue to stack stones, working back and forth, one level at a time.

Step 6: As you stack your wall, make sure that it slopes back slightly to ensure stability. Position
stone tightly together, mixing small and large pieces. Stagger joints between stones to create more
stability.

Step 7: As you build up, fill in the area behind the wall with crushed stone, and then fill dirt,
compacting as you go. Keep your filter fabric between the fill and stonewall.

Step 8:When wall is stacked to desired height, fold the filter fabric back over the fill dirt area and
finish with your choice of top soil, mulch, gravel, etc. Run water to settle dirt behind the wall and
into its services.

Problems in construction of buildings with stones:

Overall, it can be stated that the improved element performed better than the traditional element
in the series of earthquake simulations. This statement is based on an assessment of the risk of
causing injury posed by each structure. The walls of the traditional corners were independent and
unstable.

Any additional force, such as another tremor or a strong wind or impact, could cause either wall
to topple over, in an inward or outward direction. This represents an unacceptable level of risk.
These buildings are one of the most deficient building systems from earthquake-resistance point
of view. The main deficiencies include excessive wall thickness, absence of any connection
between the two withes of the wall, and use of round stones.

Factors to be considered in stone construction

1. Important buildings were once designed and put together by master masons who knew how
to work with stone, and understood the advantages and limitations of the material. Stone
structure should be a combination of structural firmness, technical commodity and
aesthetic delight.
2. Ensure proper wall construction. The wall thickness should not exceed 450mm.
3. Round stone boulders should not be used in the construction! Instead, the stones should be
shaped using chisels and hammers.
4. Use of mud mortar should be avoided in higher seismic zones. Instead, cement-sand mortar
should be 1:6 (or richer) and lime-sand mortar 1:3 (or richer) should be used.
5. Ensure proper bond in masonry courses: The masonry walls should be built in construction
lifts not exceeding 600 mm.

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6. Through-stones (each extending over full thickness of wall) or a pair of overlapping bond-
stones (each extending over at least ¾ this thickness of wall) must be used at every 600mm
along the height and at a maximum spacing of 1.2m along the length.
7. The stone masonry dwellings must have horizontal bands roof and gable bands). These
bands can be constructed out of wood or reinforced Concrete, and chosen based on
economy. It is important to provide at least one band (either lintel band or roof band) in
stone masonry construction.
8. Care should be taken to ensure that the fixing method adopted for the construction is
appropriate to the type of stone being used.

The energy needed to collapse a structure comes from the structure itself. The high frequencies
can cause high vertical inter-stone vibrations that result in irreversible relative displacements of
the stones, which is mainly due to the non required shape of the stones, thus stone walls mainly
crumble under their own weight.

Shuttering removal time of different structural members

Shuttering is the set of forms required to keep the concrete in place until it sets. In case
you want to know about shuttering and how it is provided ? Click on this link.

How shuttering is provided ?

Shuttering removal time of different structural members is given below:

Shuttering removal time with ordinary Portland cement

used
 Beam sides, walls and columns required 2-3 days.
 Slab sides required 3 days.
 Complete slab shuttering should be removed after 10 days.
 Beams removal of sheeting required 8 days.
 Beams and arches complete removal of shuttering required 14 days.
 If beams and arches are of span more than 6 meter, then shuttering removal time
should be 21 days.

Shuttering removal time with Rapid hardening cement used

 Beam sides, walls and columns required 2 days.
 Slab sides required 3 days.
 Complete slab shuttering should be removed after 5 days.
 Beams removal of sheeting required 5 days.
 Beams and arches complete removal of shuttering required 5 to 8 days.
 If beams and arches are of span more than 6 meter, then shuttering removal time
should be 8 to 10 days.

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Specifications of First class brickwork

Specifications of First class brickwork

 All of the bricks used should be of first class.
 Soaking of bricks should be done by submerging in a tank before use.
 Soaking should be continue until the air bubbles are ceased.
 Soaking should be for a period of 12 hour before use.

Mortar specifications for first class brickwork

 Material of mortar should be of standard specifications.

 For mortar, cement should be fresh ordinary Portland cement of standard specifications.
 Sand should be sharp and free from organic and foreign particles.
 If we want to make rich mortar, sand should be coarse or medium.
 For weak mortar, local fine sand may be used.
 Cement sand ratio of mortar should be 1:3 to 1:6 as specified.
 To get the required proportion, materials of mortar should be measured with the measuring
box.
 Materials of mortar should be first mixed dry to have a uniform color.
 The platform should be clean for mortar mixing.
 Mixing should be done at least three times.
 Then water should be added gradually for workable consistency.
 Mortar should be freshly mixed.
 Old mortar should not be used.
 Mortar should be mixed with water for one hour work so that mortar may be used before
setting.

Lime Surkhi mortar

 If specified lime surkhi mortar, should be mixed in 1:2 to 1:3 ratio as specified, by grinding
in mortar mill for at least three hours to use on the same day.
 Lime should be fresh and should be screened.
 Fresh mixed mortar should be used.
 For small work, hand mixing may be allowed just as in the case of cement sand mortar.

Laying of first class brickwork

 Bricks should be laid in English bond unless otherwise specified.

 Every course of brick should be horizontal.
 Wall should be truly in plumb.
 Vertical joints of consecutive brick layer should not come on each other.
 Vertical joints of alternate brick layer should come directly over one another.
 Closers should be of clean cut bricks.
 Closers should be placed at the end of the walls but not at the other edge.
 Best shaped brick should be used for face work.
 Mortar joints should not exceed 6 mm or 0.5 inch in thickness.
 Joints should be fully filled with mortar.
 Bricks should be laid with frogs upwards except in the top brick layer.
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 In the top course of brickwork, frog should be laid downward.

 Brickwork should be done for 1 meter or 3 feet height at a time.
 When one part of the wall has to be delayed then stepping should be done at an angle of
45 degree.
 Projections where made should not be more than 1/4th of the brick in one course.
 All joints should be raked and faces of wall should be cleaned at the end of every day’s
work.

Curing of First class brickwork

 Brickwork should be kept wet for the period of at least 10 days.

 Top of the walls should be flooded with water at the end of the days work by making small
weak mortar edging to contain at least 2.5 cm or 1 inch deep water.

Other considerations for first class brickwork

 Brickwork should be protected from the effect of sun, rain, frost etc., during the
construction.
 Suitable Scaffolding should be provided to facilitate the construction of brickwork.
 Scaffolding should be strong enough to withstand all the expected loads to come upon
them.

Measurement of First class brickwork

 Brickwork should be measured in cubic meter or cubic feet.

 Different kinds of brickwork with different mortar should be taken under separate item.
 Thickness of wall should be taken as multiple of half brick.
 For example half brick wall thickness is taken as 10 cm or 4.5 inch.
 Full brick wall thickness is taken as 9 inches or 20 cm and so on.
 Rate should be for the complete work including scaffolding and all tools and plants used.

Properties of first class bricks

Properties of first class bricks

 All bricks should be of first class of standard specifications.
 Bricks should be made of good earth completely burnt.
 Bricks should be of deep cherry red or copper color.
 Bricks should be regular in shape.
 Edges of bricks should be sharp.
 On being struck, bricks should emit clear ringing sound.
 Bricks should be free from cracks, chips, flaws and lumps of any kind.
 Bricks should not absorb water more than one sixth of its weight after one hour of
immersing in water.
 Bricks should have a minimum crushing strength of 105 kg per square meter ( 1500
lbs per square inch).

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How much Curing of Concrete should be done ?

Curing of Concrete
When concrete has begun to harden after about two hours of laying, then it should be
kept wet by covering with wet gunny bags or wet sand for 24 hours. It is called curing of
concrete.Concrete is cured to complete the hydration process, and to gain strength of
concrete.
After 24 hours, concrete is cured by:

 making mud walls of 3 inch or 7.5 cm high.

 covering with wet sand or earth and kept damp continuously for 15 days.
 It can also be done by covering with special type of water proof paper so that water
may not escape through evaporation.

Definition of Formwork or Shuttering | How it is provided ?

Formwork or Shuttering
Formwork or shuttering may be defined as the set of forms provided to keep the
concrete in position until it sets.

How formwork or shuttering is provided ?

1. Formwork or shuttering is provided as per standard specifications.
2. Inner surface of the shuttering plates should be oiled to prevent concrete sticking to
it.
3. Before concrete is laid, Base and formwork should be watered by sprinkling water
over its surface.
4. In general, shuttering should not be removed before 14 days.
5. 4 days for R.C.C. columns, 10 days for roof slab, and 14 days for beams.
6. However sides can be removed after 3 days of concreting.
7. Shuttering should be removed slowly and carefully without disturbing and damaging
concrete.
8. Centering and shuttering should be made with timber or steel plate.
9. These plates should be close and tight to prevent any leakage of concrete.
10. Gap between these plates should be filled with necessary props, bracings and
wedges.
11. Formwork should be sufficiently strong and stable enough and should not yield on
laying concrete.
12. They should be removed gradually without disturbing the concrete.
13. A coat of oil should be applied or paper should be spread to have a smooth and
finished surface.
14. Oil is applied to prevent adherence of concrete.
15. For slab and beam, small camber should be given in centering.
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16. For example, for 2.5 meter or 10 feet. 1 cm or half inch camber should be provided
with the maximum of 4 cm or 1.5 inch.

Definition of Amalgamation | Alteration and Apartment

Amalgamation of plots
Amalgamation may be defined as:

The joining of two or more adjoining plots to make a single plot for the building
purposes. Amalgamation means to combine two or more units to make one single unit.

Alteration in building
Alteration means any change in structure after the approval of building plan without
violating bylaws of concerned authority.

Alteration also includes land use change brought about after the approval of building plan.

Apartment
Apartment may be defined as:

A separate unit located in a multi-storey building for the residential purposes.

Apartment building
Apartment building may be defined as:

A multi-storey building consists of more than two apartments with common stair case or
lifts.

Why Termite Control is necessary ? | How Termiticide works ?

Why Termite Control is necessary ?

Termites are the most destructive wood pests. They cause damage to wooden structures
by feeding on them. They feed on wooden structures like door frames, wooden paneling,
floor parquet, cupboards and books.

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Termite live in large interdependent colonies, especially in dark, moist conditions such as
soil, growing trees or rotting wooden remains in the vicinity of your home. These colonies
can vary from 2.5 lac to 6 million termites. At the center of the colony, there is a queen
whose main purpose is reproduction. The worker termites have one major role to bring
food – cellulose materials, especially wood. Thus it is important to prevent termite to enter
your home if you have not done proper anti termite proofing.

How termiticide or anti termite helps in Termite Control ?

When it is applied to the soil, Termiticide provides a complete treated zone around your
house against attacking termites through lateral soil movement. Termites cannot detect
the treated zone, so they enter it and are immediately affected. Termites stop feeding,
grooming and becomes disoriented.

When termiticide is applied to the soil, it disorientate termites and cause them to cease
their natural grooming behavior. Grooming is very important for termites. Grooming them
against pathogenic soil fungi. When termiticide or anti termite chemical is applied, then
naturally occurring fungi in the soil attack and kill the termites. Termiticide makes fungi
10000 times more dangerous to termites.

Termites feed each other by passing food from mouth to mouth. They groom each other.
They contact each other as they forage for food. Once a termite has ingested or contacted
termiticide, it becomes carrier. Every other termite it contacts will be infected, which in
turn infects every other termite it contacts. Termiticide should work slowly letting termites
contact many other before dying themselves.

Qualities of a good Termite control chemical

Lateral soil movement is important when you consider how persistent termites can be.
When they come to a typical barrier termites may find a small break and forage through.
Even the strongest concentration of a traditional termiticide will prove to be ineffective if
it does not make a complete barrier in the soil.

With lateral soil movement, effective concentrations of termiticide or anti termite chemical
should be distributed throughout the treated zone, even in the areas furthest from the
injection points. It should be effective for a wide range of soil conditions. Termiticide
should be non repellent. Termites should not see it, feel it. They should not know its there,
so that they forage freely in the treated area.

How to use Termiticide for termite control ?

Termite proofing of building should be done by spraying anti termite liquid with water by
spraying 1 liter chemical mixed with 40 liter water and spraying this mixture over an
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area of 175 square foot using anti termite chemical of good quality. This should be
applying with pressure pump.

Definition of Lean Concrete | Normal Concrete | Rich concrete

Definition of Lean Concrete

Lean concrete is called if the cement content used in concrete is less than about 10% of
the total contents.

 It is widely used in floors and foundations.

 P.C.C.(1:4:8) and P.C.C.(1:6:12) are the examples of lean concrete.
 In PCC (1:4:8) cement content is almost 7% while it is 5% in P.C.C.(1:6:12)

Normal concrete
If the cement content is more than 10 and less than 15%, the concrete is called normal
concrete.

 For example P.C.C.(1:2:4) is normal concrete.

 Cement content in this concrete P.C.C.(1:2:4) is almost 14%.
 Normal concrete is used in D.P.C. , R.C.C. and floor finishes.

Rich concrete
If the cement content in concrete is more than about 15%, then it is known as rich
concrete.

 For example P.C.C.(1:1.5:3) is rich concrete.

 Cement content in P.C.C.(1:1.5:3) is almost 18%.
 It is used for R.C.C. when smaller structural members are used to support heavier
loads for architectural reasons.

Definition of Shoring | Inclined, Horizontal and Vertical shores

Shoring
Shoring is the Construction of a temporary structure required to support an unsafe
existing structure. Temporary structure is known as shores.

Shores are of following types:

Raking or inclined shores

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In this method, inclined members which are called rakers, used to give temporary lateral
support to an unsafe wall. That is why it is called inclined shoring as the temporary
support is inclined.

Flying or horizontal shores

When horizontal temporary support is provided to two adjacent, parallel walls of the two
buildings, Where the intermediate building is to be demolished and then rebuilt. This
type of temporary support is flying or horizontal shore.

Dead or vertical shores

When vertical support is provided to roofs and floors etc. then this system is known as
dead or vertical shores. These are provided when the lower part of the wall has to be
removed for the purpose of providing an opening in the walls. Dead or vertical shores
are provided to the roof when there is a purpose of changing the dimensions of the
rooms under that roof.

Shallow foundation | Spread, Combined, Strap and Raft foundation

Shallow foundation
Shallow foundation may be defined as:

Foundation whose depth is equal to or less than its width.

Types of shallow foundation

1.Spread footing
Spread footings as the name suggest, spread the super imposed loads of the structure
over a large area.

Spread footing may be of many types such as

 Single footing for a column.

 Stepped footing for a column.
 Sloped footing for a column.

The base for these types of footings is made of concrete.

 Wall footing without steps and with steps.

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 Grillage foundation

When heavy structural loads of a column are required to be transferred to the soil of low
bearing capacity, the most economical foundation is grillage foundation. Depth of such a
foundation is limited to 0.9 to 1.6 meter.

2.Combined footing
The footing which is constructed for two or more columns is called combined footing.

Shape of combined footing is so proportioned that the center of gravity of the supporting
area is in line with the center of gravity of the two column loads. Its shape is either
rectangular or trapezoidal.

A combined rectangular footing is provided where both the columns carries equal load
or interior column carries greater load. A combined trapezoidal footing is provided under
any conditions of loading.

3.Strap footing
When two or more footings are connected by a beam, it is known as strap footing.
It is provided if the distance between the columns is so great that a combined
trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments.

4.Mat or Raft foundation

A thick reinforced concrete slab covering the complete area of the bottom of the
structure is known as mat or raft foundation.
Mat or raft foundation is provided where

 When the soil underneath is of low bearing capacity and the building loads are
heavy.
 When the combined area of individual footing is more than half of the total area of
the structure, then it is economical to use mat or raft foundation.

Damp proof course DPC | Causes of dampness in a building

Damp proof course

A continuous water proof layer is provided above the ground level to prevent moisture to
come up which is called damp proof course or DPC. Damp proof courses are provided

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at various levels of entry of damp into a building. Provision of DPC prevents of entry of
moisture from walls floors and basement of a building.

Causes of dampness
 Rising of moisture from the ground.
 Rain travel from wall tops.
 Heavy rain shower on external walls.
 Poor drainage, imperfec t orientation, imperfect roof slope, defective construction
etc.
 Bricks have a porous structure. The pores of bricks are interconnected to form
capillaries. That is why bricks suck dampness from soil underneath and pump it to
upper parts of the building due to capillary force.

Harmful Effects of dampness

 With dampness cement sand mortar destroy and concrete also deteriorate
reducing the strength of the structure.
 After some time plaster falls down and surface treatments such as white washing,
painting or wallpapers are damaged. This caused the unpleasant appearance.
 Further this dampness causes insect and germ growth and is not good for health
of inhabitants.

If there is direct contact between the underneath brickwork and brickwork of the super
structure whole of the building will be affected.

Materials used for damp proofing

DPC thickness varies from 1.5 inch for residential buildings to 3 inch for official
construction. It is a layer of P.C.C.(1:2:4) over which two coats of hot bitumen are
applied. For load bearing walls, polythene sheet is also provided. The top of DPC
should be at the same level as that of floor top of the building.

D.P.C is provided on all the walls which are continuous above plinth level.

Characteristics of ideal damp proofing material

 It should be perfectly impervious.
 It should be durable.
 It should be strong and capable of resisting superimposed loads on it.
 It should be flexible so that it can accommodate structural movements without any
fracture.
 It should remain in its position when applied.
 It should not be costly.

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General principles while providing D.P.C.

 It may be horizontal or vertical.
 Horizontal D.P.C. should cover full thickness of walls excluding finishing.
 At junctions and corners of walls, horizontal damp proof course should be laid
continuous.
 Mortar bed supporting damp proof course should be levelled and free of
projections so that DPC may not be get damaged.
 D.P.C. should not be exposed on walls surface, because it may get damaged
during finishing work.
 When a horizontal DPC is continued to a vertical face, a cement concrete fillet of
about 75 mm radius should be provided at the junction.

Building Demolition
Demolition Methods and Process for Building
Structures
Demolition of buildings and structures are required for various reasons.
Demolition methods and processes for buildings and other structures are
described.

As we know that every design of a building or a structure has a lifespan know as

design life. The building is designed considering a span of life, say 80 -100
years. When this design life of the building is over, the structure is not safe for
living and neighboring buildings.

There can be more reasons for demolition of a building, old structures are to be
replaced by new ones. The structure lost its stability or having any structural
damage. Small structures are demolished to build big structures etc.

Definitions

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Demolition: The word demolition means destruction, breaking down or

removal. Demolition of building is the process of dismantling or destroying of a
structure after its life of serviceability by pre-planned and controlled methods.

Implosion: When explosives are used in the demolition of a building, it is

termed as Implosion.

Building Demolition Process

Different steps are involved in the process of demolition of building structures
which are:

1. Surveying
2. Removal of hazardous materials
3. Preparation of plan
4. Safety measures

Surveying of Buildings for Demolition

Surveying means study of different parameters of the structure and its

surroundings. There are two types of surveying are mainly conducted. They are

1. Building surveying
2. Structural surveying

1. Building Surveying

In survey of buildings for demolition, following process are carried out:

 Types of construction material used

 Usage of building prior and present during demolition.
 The presence of wastewater, hazardous materials, matters arising from
toxic chemicals, flammable or explosive and radioactive materials, etc.

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 Drainage conditions and possible problems on water pollution,

flooding and erosion.
 Shared facilities with adjoining building, including common staircases,
partition walls.
 Adjoining pedestrian and vehicular traffic conditions
 The sensitivity of neighborhood with respect to noise, dust, vibration
and traffic impact.

2. Structural Surveying

In structural survey, following process are involved in demolition:

 The method of construction

 The structural system and structural conditions of basements,
underground tanks or underground vaults.
 The original structural system employed in the design.
 The condition of the building.

Removal of Hazardous Materials

If hazardous materials like asbestos minerals, petroleum contamination, and

radioactive metals are found in the investigation of site for demolition.
Specialized personals are called for the removal of the hazardous materials from
the site prior to the demolition of structure.

Preparation of Demolition Plan for Structures

A detailed demolition plan is made which illustrates the different process

involved and they are:

 The location of the building to be demolished.

 The distances from the building to be demolished to its adjacent
buildings, streets, structures and significant street furniture.

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 The structural support systems of the building.

 A plan showing the procedure for the demolition of the building;
detailed sequence of demolishing structural members; and the method
of demolition to be adopted.
 A plan showing all precautionary measures for the protection of the
public including hoardings, covered walkways, catch platforms, catch
fans, scaffolding, protective screens and safety nets.
 Method of handling demolished building debris.
 Time required for the complete demolition process etc.

Safety Measures during Demolition of Building Structures

All the workers, site supervisors and engineers including plant and equipment
operators are briefed with the potential hazards and process of demolitions.

All goods that are flammable are removed from the site unless it is used in the
work involved. All the flammable materials like wood, timber, fuels etc. are
stored in proper storage facilities. Firefighting appliances are stationed in the
demolition site till the process is completed.

Due to the demolition of structure, many problems are faced by the workers,
such as. exposure to dust, chemical exposure, heat stress and ventilation, noise
exposure, medical and first aid facilities, sanitation and occupational diseases.
To overcome these problems suitable measures are undertaken.

Demolition Methods for Buildings and other

Structures
There are two types of demolition methods used for buildings and structures

1. Non-explosive demolition
2. Explosive demolition.

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1. Non-Explosive Demolition Method

It means the demolition of a structure done with some equipment without the
use of any explosive. Different equipment’s used for the demolition activity are

a) Sledge hammer

It is a small handheld hammer used for the demolition of small wall or single
column.

b) Excavators and Bulldozers

These are big machines uses to demolish building of small sizes. They are used
for excavation of soil or transferring of debris to trucks etc.

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c) Wrecking Balls

The building with the greater height up to (6-7 story) cannot be demolished
with the help of excavators or bulldozers. In such cases crane with wrecking
balls are used to perform the demolition activity. The wrecking ball crack is
crack attached with a huge steel ball hanging from a steel rope.

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The steel ball is pulled and released towards the building. The steel ball with
force strikes the building and the part of the building is demolished. This
method is not recommended as the trajectory of the steel ball cannot be
controlled after it strikes the structure.

d) High Reach Excavators

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High Reach Excavator machines are used in the demolition of tall building where
demolition by explosion is not possible. The building of height up to 300ft can
be demolished by this type of machine.

High reach excavators can be used for different use by doing some attachments
such as:

 Excavators with shear attachments – excavators with shear

attachments.
 Hydraulic hammers – Hydraulic hammers and remove steel
reinforcement.

Explosive Demolition Method for Building Structures

Implosion Method of Building Demolition

Implosion is the process of demolition of a building using explosives. If the

supports of the building are removed, the structure collapses.

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Using implosion technique, the main supports of the buildings such as column’s,
beams and slab are fixed with explosives. When these explosives are detonated,
the column collapse and so is the structure.

Depending how the structure falls, there are two types of implosion:

a) Falling like a tree

In this type of implosion, the building is made to fall like a tree to the sideward.
This is the commonly used type of implosion. When free space is available
besides the building, this type of demolition is prescribed.

If the free space is available on the left side of the building, the explosives are
set on the lower level of the building on the left side columns. As the explosives
are detonated, the columns bursts, the building tends to falls towards the left
side. Steel cables are tied to the building to control the falling direction of the
building.

b) Falling into its own footprint

When the free spaces are not available around the building and the structure
around the building are to be protected. This type of demolition is used. In this
type of demolition, explosives are set in the floor below the middle part of the
building.

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These explosives are to be heavy as the explosion must demolish the building at
once. If one part blast and followed by another. Then the building falls towards
the first blasted part. So only less companies in the world are experienced in
this type of demolition.

As the explosions are detonated, the upper part of building destroys and falls
upon the lower building. Due to the heavy load and force the lower part of the
building also collapses and falls on its own footprint.

Methods of Demolition of Building Structures

Demolition means destruction, tearing down, breakup, removal of the whole parts
of building, normally demolition is done when the life of building is over or to
construct a new structure by replacing the older one, also it is carried out when
the structure lost its stability or having any structural damage.

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Demolition techniques
Non Engineering Demolition
 Manual Demolition
Engineering Demolition
 Mechanical Method
 Implosion
 Deconstruction Method
Non Engineering Demolition
Manual Demolition: This is normally carried out by contractors using manual
tool which is portable, tools used are Sledge Hammer, Jack Hammers and Drillers.

Jack Hammer
Drill

Sledge Hammer
Engineering Demolition
Mechanical Method:
1. Wrecking Ball Method
2. Pusher Arm technique
3. Thermic Lance Technique
4. Non – Explosive Demolition
5. Concrete Sawing Method
6. Deliberate Collapse Method
7. Pressure Jetting

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Wrecking Ball Method: A Steel ball anti spin device which is suspended by a
steel rope and swung by a drag rope, the weight of the ball is around 500 to 1000
Kg used with suitable fittings attached to a crane of adequate capacity, the
building is dismantled by making the steel ball to hit the structure this method is
much faster than manual method

 Pusher Arm Technique: A Hydraulically powered pusher arm machine is

mounted on tracked or wheeled chassis, this method is not recommended for
large building but it is good for small masonry structure, the building is
demolished by using the pusher arm.

 Thermic Lace Technique: Flame is produced by having supply with pure oxygen
with a temperature of 2500 degree centigrade to melt the reinforcement.

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Non- Explosive Demolition: A Number of holes is drilled along the desired line
of separation and are filled with slurry which is a special material when the slurry
is filled in the holes water is poured into the drilled holes after few hours the
slurry expands as a result cracking will appear on the structures which help in
easy demolition of structure.
Concrete Sawing Method: Using the concrete saw the structure is been
demolished which works on a high power supply helps in destruction of structure
in an easy way.

Deliberate Collapse Method: The Collapse is usually achieved by either by

removing key structural elements (e.g. with explosive charges) or by wire rope
pulling at a high level of overturn this method is not suitable for pre stressed
concrete structures.
Pressure Jetting: The Jet heads are generally small and so action of jet is mainly
to loosen the aggregate by washing out softer mortar (water with high pressure).

Implosion: Collapsing the structure inward, gravity makes the structure to

collapse. If the supporting structure of a building at a certain point is removed
the building may get damaged and the structure can be easily demolished. The
procedure is followed by analysing the blue print of the building and the
explosives is used on the key components of the building at different level from
bottom to top i.e. from explosion should take place from lower level internal
component then step by step to the top level by sequential order which result in
demolition of building.

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Deconstruction Method: A slow and careful process that is almost the reverse
process of construction.
Non Structural Method: Dismantling of doors, windows, flooring etc.

Structural Method: Dismantling of beams, Columns, Floors, walls.

DEMOLITION OF BUILDING
ABSTRACT
Demolition of a building means tearing down or falling down of a building with
the help of equipments or explosives. This seminar report deals with how a
demolition work is to be performed safely and also elaborates different steps
involved before and during the execution of a demolition process. The various
steps involved before the demolition process includes surveying, removal of
hazardous materials, preparation of demolition plan, stability report and the
precautionary safety measures to be taken. The main equipments used for these
demolition activities are sledge hammer, excavators, bulldozers, wrecking balls

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etc. and main explosives used are dynamites and RDX. When explosive are used
for the demolition, it is known as Implosion.

1. INTRODUCTION

We know every structure is designed for a life period. The existence of the structure after
the service life period is very dangerous to its occupants and surrounding buildings .The
building act usually contains provisions that enable local authorities to control demolition
works for the protection of public safety and to ensure adjoining premises and the site are
made good on completion of the demolition. A notice of conditions is issued that require
certain works to be undertaken to achieve these aims. Where demolition of a building
takes place, the owner must inform the council. Greenhouses, conservatories,
prefabricated garages and sheds do not require permission to be demolished. Usually if
the building to be demolished has a volume of less than 1750 cubic feet (49.56 cubic
meters), then permission is not required to knock it down.

2. DEMOLITION

Demolition is the process of tearing down or falling down of a building after its life period
with the help of some equipments or any other method. When explosives are used for
this then the demolition process are called as an implosion. Every civil engineering
structure is designed for a life period. After that the existence of a structure is very
dangerous. So removal of such structures with proper safety measures has got great
importance. There are different steps involved before and during the time of a demolition
activity. They are described as follows.

3. STEPS BEFORE DEMOLITION

The different steps before the execution of a demolition process are:

1. Surveying

2. Removal of hazardous materials

3. Preparation of plan

4. Stability report

5. Safety measures

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3.1 Surveying

Surveying means study of different parameters of the structure and its surroundings.
There are two types of surveying are mainly conducted. They are

A. Building surveying

B. Structural surveying

A. Building surveying
It includes,

(a) Record Drawings

Prior to the Building Survey, the existing record plan, including layout plan showing
adjoining properties, pedestrian walkway, roads and street, etc. shall be retrieved.

(b) Survey Items

The Building Survey shall cover the following:

(1) The construction materials;

(2) The existing use and, if possible, the past uses of the building prior to demolition;

(3) The presence of wastewater, hazardous materials, matters arising from toxic
chemicals, flammable or explosive and radioactive materials, etc. and possible presence
of materials which can contribute to air pollution and soil contamination;

(4) Potential dangerous areas, e.g., abnormal layouts, presence of enclosed voids, and
non- ventilated light wells which may trap obnoxious gas at the bottom;

(5) Adjoining properties and site conditions, such as the existence of slope and retaining
wall, wall supporting ground, illegal structures, bridges, underground railway and its
above ground structures, including entrances, vent shafts, distribution substations,
traction substations, plant rooms, overhead railway structures, surface track sections,
overhead cables or guy wires, and other utility Service connections;

(6) Drainage conditions and possible problems on water pollution, flooding and erosion,
especially on sloping sites and water receiving bodies;

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(7) Shared facilities with adjoining building, including common staircases, party walls, and
possible effect on it, such as self-enclosed walls to the adjoining buildings, during
demolition;

(8) Hoarding and covered walkway requirements;

(9) Adjoining pedestrian and vehicular traffic conditions;

(10) Available headroom, clear spaces and distance of building from lot boundary which
may affect the loading operation and transportation of building debris during demolition;

(11) The sensitivity of neighborhood with respect to noise, dust, vibration and traffic
impact.

(12) Available site area to allow on-site sorting of building debris; and

(13) Street furniture such as fire hydrant, parking space/meters, street light, street sign
and hawkers’ stalls which could be affected by the demolition project.

(c) Hazardous Materials

(1) Unless the Building Survey reviews that no obvious hazardous material is present in
the building, the Authorized Person shall cause proper sampling and testing for the
hazardous materials;

(2) In the case when hazardous materials e.g., asbestos containing materials, or
petroleum, are present, they shall be removed and cleaned/disposed of according to the

statutory requirements administered by the Environmental Protection Department, Fire

Services Department, Labour Department and any other Government Departments.

(3) In the case when the site has previously been used to store chemicals, and other
dangerous goods, soil contamination assessment shall be required at pre-demolition
stage and/or post-demolition stage; and

(4) In the case when the site has previously been used to store explosives, special
procedures to ensure no explosives remain on site will be required.

B. Structural surveying
(a) Record Drawings

Prior to the Structural Survey, the existing record layout, structural framing
plans and structural details shall be studied. The Registered Structural Engineer shall
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check the presence of unusual detailing that may cause abnormal structural behavior
during demolition, e.g., upward anchor of tensile reinforcement in cantilevered structures.
If existing record plans are available, these plans shall be used as reference and
preferably be brought along with the Structural Survey.

(b) Survey Items

The Structural Survey shall cover the following:

(1) The structural materials used;

(2) The original structural system employed in the design;

(3) The method of construction;

(4) Any dilapidation and degree of deterioration on any structural elements;

(5) The structural conditions of adjoining structures and its shoring which may be affected
by the proposed demolition work;

(6) The presence of continuous structures that may be truncated by the demolition;

(7) The structural system and structural conditions of basements, underground tanks or
underground vaults;

(8) The presence of exposed bracing or possible presence of covered bracing;

(9) The nature of walls, whether it is block wall, reinforced concrete walls, load bearing
walls or partition walls;

(10) Cantilevered structures such as canopies, balconies, or other forms of architectural

features; and

(11) Any fixtures to the building such as signboard, sun-shading devices.

(c) Special Structures

The Structural Survey shall review the following:

(1) The correctness of structural information available;

(2) The presence of any unconventional structural elements which may require special
attention and well-defined modification procedures;

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(3) The possibilities of structural modification to enable efficient demolition traffic during
demolition; and

(4) Any limitation on shoring and other temporary supports.

(d) Investigation and Testing

In the case when no structural details are available, the structural survey shall include on
site measurement and retrieve any structural framing as much as practicable, performing
tests and exposing some key structural elements to facilitate checking on existing
structure. This will allow the development of procedures that ensure the stability of the
building at all stages during demolition.

3.2 Removal of hazardous materials

If hazardous materials, such as asbestos containing materials, petroleum contamination

and radioactive contamination, exist in the building, further investigation and removal of
such hazardous material or contamination by specialist shall be referenced.

Asbestos Containing Material

Specialists shall be employed to take samples and cause such samples to be tested for
asbestos containing material. In the case when asbestos containing material are
discovered, specialist contractor shall be employed to remove such asbestos containing
material. The asbestos waste should be handled, stored and disposed of as chemical
waste in accordance with the Waste Disposal Ordinance and Waste Disposal (Chemical
Waste) (General) Regulation.

Soil Contamination Material

In the case when possible soil contamination material is present, specialist shall be
employed to prepare soil contamination test proposal and submit such proposal to the
Environmental Protection Department for comment. Upon agreement by the
Environmental Protection Department, and completion of the tests, a Soil Contamination
Assessment shall be submitted to the Environmental Protection Department for
acceptance. In the case when remedial works are required, the remedial proposal shall
be submitted to the Environmental Protection Department for approval prior to
implementation of such remedial works.

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3.3 Preparation of plan

A Demolition Plan shall include the following:

(1) A plan showing:

(a) The location of the building to be demolished;

(b) A detailed topography of the site and its surrounds together with ground level contours
and sections of the slopes and ground supported by the building where appropriate;

(c) Details of ground removal and/or backfilling; and

(d) The distances from the building to be demolished to its adjacent buildings, streets,
structures and significant street furniture.

(2) A layout plan of all floors of the building to be demolished, with adequate sections,
showing:

(a) The occupancy usage of the floors;

(b) The structural support systems;

(c) Principal materials of construction;

(d) The condition of the building e.g. the degree of deterioration; and

(e) The relationship of the building to be demolished with neighboring properties affected
by the demolition, which include all adjoining buildings and unauthorized structures,
shared staircases, party walls, truncating continuous frames, slopes, retaining wall,
overhead cables, guy wires and underground utility services.

(3) A plan showing the structural arrangement and construction of all unconventional
structural elements, such as prestressed concrete structures, precast concrete members,
stressed skin structures, steel framed structures, hangers, hanging ties, trusses or
Vierendeel girders, deep beams, long span beams (greater than 10m), arches, transfer
plates, transfer girders, earth retaining or basement structures, buildings which also act
as earth-retaining structures supporting adjacent ground, flat slabs, hollow block ribbed
slabs and large cantilevered structures;

(4) A plan showing the procedure for the demolition of the building; detailed sequence of
demolishing particular structural members; and the method of demolition to be adopted
including the restrictions on the use of any particular type of equipment;

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(5) In the case when powered mechanical plants and equipment are used, a plan showing
the route of movement of powered mechanical plants and equipment including the
method of lifting mechanical plant, where necessary, onto the top floors of the structure;
any structural alterations required to

suit the demolition, e.g. temporary strengthening to suit early removal of any ground
floor/or cockloft structure to facilitate vehicular movement at ground floor, or strengthening
of deteriorated key structural members; and any shoring, temporary supports and/or floor
propping required;

(6) A plan showing all precautionary measures for the protection of the public including
hoardings, covered walkways, catch platforms, catch fans, scaffolding, protective screens
and safety nets;

(7) A plan showing the proposed shoring and precautionary measures for all affected
adjacent buildings, slopes, retaining structures and services at each stage of the
demolition works;

(8) A plan showing the proposed shoring and temporary support to be provided to the
building to be demolished;

(9) A plan or descriptive notes on the proposed methods for handling and disposal of
debris including

(a) The permissible temporary accumulation of building debris at upper floors and at
ground floor;

(b) Method of handling demolished building debris;

(c) The routing and movement of debris from each floor to on grade holding area prior to
leaving the site;

(d) Means of transportation of debris off the site;

(e) Time and frequency of debris disposal off site;

(f) Record scheme on the tonnage of each truck load, truck license plate, driver’s name,
trip tickets and location of dump site;

(g) The site supervisory personnel responsible for the debris management system; and

(h) A temporary parking layout for mobile machines and trucks, if necessary;

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3.4 Stability report

According to Building (Administration) Regulation, the Demolition Plan must be

accompanied by a Stability Report with supporting calculations. The Stability Report shall
include the following parts:

(1) A report on the stability of the building to be demolished during all stages of demolition;

(2) In the case when powered mechanical plants or equipment are used, a report on the
stability of the building with supporting calculations to demonstrate that the use of the
plants and equipment will not render inadequate the margin of safety of, or cause damage
to any building, structure, street, land and services;

(3) In the case when powered mechanical plants or equipment are used, structural
calculations for all temporary supports and bracings;

(4) A report on the stability of neighboring buildings, adjoining properties.

(5) In the case when temporary or permanent supports are required to these neighboring
buildings, adjoining properties, and party walls, structural calculations for these temporary
and permanent supports; and

(6) A report with calculations demonstrating that the demolition work will not render
inadequate the margin of safety of, or cause damage to any building, structure, street,
land and services.

3.5 Safety measures

Training and Communication

Demolition workers, including plant or equipment operators, shall go through proper job
safety training and be informed of the potential hazards by attending training sessions as
well as on-the-job training. At present, the Construction Industry Training Authority has
organized relevant training courses for site supervisors/foremen and plant or equipment
operators.

Equipment Maintenance

All equipment shall be tested and examined before use. They shall be properly stored
and maintained. The equipment shall be inspected daily and results of the inspection shall

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be recorded accordingly. A detailed safety instruction shall be provided to cater for

specific situations of the project, if necessary.

Electrical Safety

A properly connected power source from a local electric utility supplier or a mobile
electricity generator shall be utilized in demolition sites. The safety requirements given in
the Factories and Industrial Undertakings (Electricity) Regulations shall be adhered to.

Fire

All flammable goods shall be removed from site unless they are necessary for the works
involved. Any remaining flammable goods shall be stored in proper storage facilities. All
furniture, timber, doors, etc. shall be removed before any welding work is performed. Fire
fighting appliances shall be provided and maintained in working conditions. The
Construction Site (Safety) Regulations require the contractor to maintain in good condition
and free from defects all fire fighting appliances provided in such construction site.

Occupational Health

The health of workers on site shall be properly protected in accordance with the relevant
subsidiary regulations of the Factories and Industrial Undertakings Ordinance and the
Occupational Safety and Health Ordinance with particular attention to the following areas:

(A) Exposure to Dust;

(B) Chemical Exposure;

(C) Heat Stress and Ventilation;

(D) Noise Exposure;

(E) Medical and First Aid Facilities;

(F) Sanitation; and

(G) Occupational Diseases.

Emergency Exit Requirements in Demolition Sites

Emergency exits shall be provided during building demolition. In case of any emergency
evacuations, the emergency exit will serve as a lifeline for transportation of injured
workers. A minimum of one exit route shall be maintained and designated as the
emergency exit at all times during the demolition. Adequate lighting and fire extinguishing
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equipment shall be provided. Emergency exit shall be properly protected, free of

obstruction, and properly marked with exit signs or other indications to clearly show the
route. All workers shall be informed about the exit route.

Vibration

Demolition work will cause vibration to neighboring buildings or structures to various

extents, depending on the method of demolition. The most serious vibration is caused by
implosion. The effect of vibration caused by implosion is categorized as follows:-

1. Permanent ground distortion produced by blast-induced gas pressures;

2. Vibratory settlement of foundation materials;

3. Projectile impact (i.e. blast fly rock); and

4. Vibratory cracking from ground vibration or air blast. These effects will have to be dealt
with specifically in the method statement for implosion. For other mechanical demolition
methods, the vibration effect is usually less than some other construction processes, such
as percussive piling and blasting. In some cases, the traffic vibration caused by heavy
duty tractors is more significant than that caused by mechanical demolition. In order to
identify the actual cause and effect of vibration, Registered Specialist Contractors
(Demolition) are advised to carry out vibration monitoring during demolition. As a general
guideline, the peak particle velocities at any adjoining structure shall not exceed
15mm/sec for prolonged vibration caused by mechanical demolition.

Environmental Precautions

The general requirements to minimize environmental impacts from construction sites can
also be applied to demolition processes. The following sections contain some of the
procedures to be adopted:

(a) Air Pollution

Concrete breaking, handling of debris and hauling process are main sources of dust from
building demolition. Dust mitigation measures complying with the Air Pollution Control
(Construction Dust). Regulations shall be adopted to minimize dust emissions. Burning
of waste shall not be allowed. Diesel fumes generated by mechanical plant or equipment
shall be subject to the control of the Air Pollution Control (Smoke) Regulations .

(b) Noise

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Noise pollution arising from the demolition works including, but not limited to, the use of
specified powered mechanical equipment (SPME), powered mechanical equipment
(PME), such as pneumatic breakers, excavators and generators, etc., scaffolding,
erection of temporary works, loading and transportation of debris, etc. affects the workers,
and the sensitive receivers in the vicinity of the demolition site. Silent type PME shall be
used to reduce noise impact as much as practicable. Demolition activity shall not be
performed within the restricted hours as established by EPD. Currently under the Noise
Control Ordinance, noise from the use of SPME and PME within restricted hours is
governed by a Construction Noise Permit (CNP) system.

(c) Water

The discharge of wastewater from demolition sites requires a valid discharge license from
the EPD and the application of such a license shall be made under the Water Pollution
Control Ordinance (WPCO). Effluent shall be treated to the standards as stipulated in the
license before discharge.

(d) Hazardous Materials

If removal of asbestos containing material is needed, an Asbestos Investigation Report

(AIR) shall be submitted to EPD. An Asbestos Abatement Plan (AAP) shall be submitted
at least 28 days before the asbestos abatement work commences. The asbestos
abatement works shall be carried out in accordance with the Air Pollution Control
Ordinance (APCO) and the Factories and Industrial Undertakings (Asbestos) Regulations
before demolition. Other materials such as LPG cylinders in domestic flats, toxic and
corrosive chemicals for industrial undertakings, and any other hazardous materials have
to be identified and properly handled and removed prior to the commencement of the
demolition of the building. The management of waste must fully comply with the Waste
Disposal Ordinance. Additionally, management of waste which is classifiable as a
chemical waste must also comply with the Waste Disposal.

4. METHODS OF DEMOLITION

There are two types of demolition

1. Non explosive demolition

2. Explosive demolition.

4.1 Non explosive demolition

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It means the demolition of a structure done with some equipment without the use of
any explosive. Different equipments used for the demolition activity are

a. Sledge hammer

A sledge hammer, equipment used for removing a stone wall or a single column. It
consists of a long stem with a metallic head. It is used to give impacts on the surfaces
and that cause the demolition of structure. It cannot be used for removal of large buildings.

Fig 1. Sledge hammer

b. Excavators and Bulldozers

Fig 2. Excavator
Hydraulic excavators may be used to topple one-or two-story buildings by an undermining
process. The undermining process means, erode the base or foundation, i.e., dig or
excavate beneath the foundation so as to make it collapse. The strategy of excavation is
to undermine the building while controlling the manner and direction in which it falls. The
demolition project manager will determine where under mining is necessary so that the
building is pulled into the desired manner and direction. Safety and cleanup

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considerations are also taken into account in determining how the building is undermined
and ultimately demolished.

Fig 3. Bulldozer
Loaders or bulldozers may also be used to demolish a building. They are typically
equipped with “rakes” (thick pieces of steel that could be an I-beam or tube) that are used
to ram building wall. Skid loaders and Loaders will also be used to take material out and
sort steel.

c. Wrecking balls

Fig 4. Crane with wrecking ball

In case of buildings have greater heights (5 to 6 story) normal excavators and bulldozers
are not sufficient. In such cases crane with wrecking balls are used to perform the
demolition activity. The wrecking balls are steel balls hanging from a steel rope which is
attached to the crane. This method is more effective only for high rise masonry structures
because of the uncontrolled backward movement of steel ball after the impact on the wall

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surface. Now this method not commonly used because of this uncontrolled behavior of
wrecking balls.

d. High reach excavators

Fig 5. High reach excavator

High reach demolition excavators are more often used for tall buildings where explosive
demolition is not appropriate or not possible. These excavators are used to demolish up
to a height of 300 feet. These excavators with some attachments are also provided for
some specific purposes. For example excavators with shear attachments are typically
used to dismantle steel structural elements. Hydraulic hammers are often used for
concrete structures and concrete processing attachments are used to crush concrete to
a manageable size, and to removing reinforcing steel.

4.2. Explosive demolition

The basic idea of explosive demolition is quite simple. If we remove the support
structure of a building at a certain point, the section of the building above the point will fall
down on the part of the building below that point. If this upper section is heavy enough, it
will collide with the lower part with sufficient force to cause significant damage. The
explosives are just trigger for the demolition. It’s gravity that brings the building down.

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Demolition blasters or blasting expert (“Blasting expert” means a person who

is the holder of a valid mine blasting certificate.) load explosives on several different levels
of the building so that the building structure falls down on itself at multiple points. When
everything is planned and executed correctly, the total damage of the explosives and
falling building material is sufficient to collapse the structure entirely, so cleanup crews
are left with only a pile of rubble.

The main challenge in bringing a building down is controlling which way if falls. There are
mainly two ways to implode a building,

1. felling like a tree

2. falling into its own footprint Felling like a tree

1. Felling like a tree

In this the blasting crew will be able to tumble the building over on one side, into a parking
lot other open area. This sort of blast is the easiest to execute, and it is generally the
safest way to go. Tipping a building over is something like felling a tree. For example to
topple the building to the north, the blasters detonate explosives on the north side of the
building first , in the same way you would chop into a tree from the north side if you wanted
it to fall in that direction . Blasters may also secure steel cables to support columns in the
building, so that they are pulled a certain way as they crumble.

2. Falling into its own footprint

Sometimes, though, a building is surrounded by structures that must be preserved. In this

case, the blasters proceed with a true implosion, demolishing the building so that it
collapses straight down into its own footprints (that means the total area of building is
removed into the base of the building). This feat requires such skill that only a handful of
demolition companies in the world will attempt it.

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Fig 6. Demolition of a chimney in Germany (falling into footprint)

Blasters approach each project a little differently, but the basic idea is to think of the
building as a collection of separate towers. The blasters set the explosives so that each
“tower” falls toward the centre of the building, in roughly the same way that they would
set the explosives to topple a single structure to the side. When the explosives are
detonated in the right order, the toppling towers crash against each other, and all of the
rubbles collect at the centre of the building. Another option is to detonate the columns at
the centre of the building before the other columns so that the building’s sides fall inward.

According to Brent Blanchard, an implosion expert with the demolition consulting

firm Protec Documentation Services, virtually every building in the world is unique. And
for any given building, there are any number of ways a blasting crew might bring it down.
Blanchard notes the demolition of the Hayes Homes, a 10-building housing project in
Newark, New Jersey, which was demolished in three separate phases over the course of
three years . “A different blasting firm performed each phase,” Blanchard says, “and
although all of the buildings were identical, each blaster chose a slightly different type of
explosive and loaded varying numbers of support columns. They even brought the
buildings down in different mathematical sequences, with varying amounts of time
factored in between each building’s collapse.”

Explosives used

Blasters use different explosives for different materials, and determine the amount of
explosives needed based on the thickness of materials. For concrete column, blasters
use traditional Dynamite or similar explosive materials. Dynamite is just absorbent stuffing
soaked in a highly combustible chemical or mixture of chemicals. When the chemical is
ignited, it burns quickly, producing a large volume of hot gas in a short amount of time.
This gas expands rapidly, applying immense outward pressure (up to 600 tons per square
inch) on whatever is around it. Blasters cram this explosive material into narrow boreholes
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drilled in the concrete columns. When the explosives are ignited, the sudden outward
pressure sends a powerful shock wave busting through the column at supersonic speed,
shattering the concrete into tiny chunks.

Demolition of steel column is a bit more difficult, as the dense material is much stronger.
For buildings with a steel support structure, blasters typically used the specialized
explosive material Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine, called RDX for short. RDX – based
explosive compounds expand at a very high rate of speed, up to 27,000 feet per second
(8,230 meters per second) . Instead of disintegrating entire column, the concentrated,
high velocity pressure slices right through the steel, splitting it in half. Additionally blasters
may ignite dynamite on one side of the column to push it over in a particular direction.

5. CONCLUSION

Type of demolition method depends upon various factors such as site condition, type of
structures, age of building, height of building and economy. Anyway controlled demolition
of building is necessary to ensure safety. Explosive demolition is the preferred method
for safely and efficiently demolishing the larger structures. Almost all major building
implosions in the world are handled by 20 well-established companies, blasting is passed
on from generation to generation.

Stability of Slopes for Excavations in Different

Soil Types
Stability of slopes in open excavation in different soil condition along with the
factors that control slope stability in open excavation are discussed.

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Fig.1: Various Excavation Condition

Factors Affecting Slope Stability in Open

Excavation
 Types of soil
 Time during which the excavation is required to be open
 Allowable degree of risk of slipping which is determined based on the
existing structures and new constructed buildings around the
excavation area.

If the surrounding facilities are significant, then it is mandatory to eliminate

slippage danger since it could deteriorate structures close to the excavated

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area. However, a certain degree of slippage danger can be adopted if the

surrounding structures are not important.

Excavation Slope Stability in Cohesive Soils

In this section, slope stability in open excavation in different types of cohesive
soil will be discussed:

Slope Stability in Normally Consolidated Soils

It is theoretically proven that, open excavations in ordinary compacted soil with

vertical wall can stand without the need for any supports provided that the
excavation wall height does not surpass critical height.

In the case of exceeding the critical height, the stability of the soil would vary
with time due to variations in pore water pressure behind the face of the
excavation wall after release of lateral pressure.

The critical height of an open excavation is calculated by dividing four times un-
drained shear strength of soil over its density.

If it is required to have stable excavation in normally consolidated soft

to firm clay for considerably long time, then the safety factor is specified based
on the severity of the risk that imposed by major slip.

The use of low safety factor would be adequate unless the major slip of the
excavation wall leads to the loss of life and damaging properties at the vicinity
of the construction site.

For deep excavations, it is specified to take the expense of removing

considerable mass of slipped clay from the excavated area into consideration
while the safety factor of the excavation is evaluated.

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Finally, it is recommended to place the soil, which removed from excavation,

away from the top of the slope since it could increase the possibility of the
slippage. Therefore, this factor is also required to be considered while the safety
of the excavation is analyzed.

Slope Stability in Stiff Clay

It can stand almost vertically with small soil mass fall due to erosion and frost
damage from sandy lenses in the clay. However, if pocket lenses of water
bearing sand and gravel are present in clay or when the excavation is dug
steeply and cuts fissures in the clay, then a major risk would be highly likely
and hence the excavation is massively unstable.

It is proven that, the spread of fissures in stiff clay would pose serious issues to
the stability of slope in excavations. This is because the pore water pressure
variations cannot be anticipated when the overburden pressure is removed.

The slope slippage in stiff fissured clay is either small falls due to crumbling or
slipping along fissure plan or rotational shear slide of sizable mass of clay soil.
When the slipping does not impose server risks to the surrounding structure,
then it would acceptable to use a slope of 1:0.5.

This slope will not eliminate the risk of slippage completely but the fallen soil
mass should be smaller and clearing operation should not be difficult. If the
slipping creates serious risks to the structures close to the excavation area,
then a slope of 1:2 to 1:2.5 should be adopted or the face of excavation wall
should be supported using suitable techniques.

Finally, if the excavation is not open for long time, then it is advisable to use a
sheet layer such as polyethylene or tarpaulin to the steeply excavated face to
prevent the penetration of water into the trench wall and destabilize the
excavation.

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Excavation Slope stability in Cohesionless or

Partially Cohesive Soil
In this section, the slope stability of excavations in various types of soil such as
dry sand and gravel, dump sand, sandy gravel, water bearing sand, water
bearing sandy soil, silt and silty sand, dry silt, and wet silt.

Dry sand and gravel

They are cohesion less soil that able to stand at a slope equal to their angle of
repose disregard of the excavation depth.

Damp sands and sandy gravel

These are partially cohesive soil that able to stand vertically for a period of less
than a month.

The slope stability in this type of soil may be kept through the use of protective
layer like cement mortar to the surface.

Factors such as erosion due to surface water and wind or degradation die to
construction works are the sources of instability of steep slopes in such soil.

Water bearing sand

As far as water bearing sand is concerned, open slope excavation in such soil is
substantially unstable specifically steep slope in which water seeps from the
excavation wall face at the toe and soil would collapse at the wall upper part till
the stable angle is realized which ranges from 15-20 degree.

The stability of water bearing sand is more problematic when thin layer of silt or
clay are present.

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This is because clay or silt layer may bleed from the face and consequently
jeopardize the stability of other strong layers.

Dry silt soil

It can stand vertically and the depth of excavation of more than 15m with slight
cementing on the face can be achieved.

If such slopes are not cemented, then vibration would easily disturb their
stability. Another undesired factor that lead to destabilize slopes in silt is the
erosion due water.

So, stability of slopes in wet silt is considerably difficult because erosion due to
water lead to the collapse of the excavation until a stable angle is reached.

Excavation Slope Stability in Rocks

The stability of vertical slopes in rocks is not free from problems since it is
dependent on the angle of bedding plane and the extent of shattering of
shattered or deteriorated rocks.

If the bedding plane slope is steep and toward the excavation area, then the
slope would be unstable especially in the presence of ground water that
lubricator rock planes and hence facilitate slipping.

However, if the slope of bedding plane is away from the excavation area or
horizontal, then vertical slope of the excavation wall would be stable.

With regard to shattered rocks, it could lead to the collapse of the excavation
wall. For example, of the disintegrated rock falls, then the intact rock rest on
the shattered one would fall as well and eventually total collapse are likely to
occur.
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Structural Systems for Construction of Multistory

Building
There different types of structural systems which are used in the construction of
multistory buildings. These systems for multi storey buildings can provide
resistance to earthquake forces.

Details of these structural systems are discussed in the following sections.

Structural Systems for Construction of

Multistory Buildings
 Moment resisting frames
 Shear wall systems
 Frame-wall or dual systems
 Flat slabs combined with shear walls and frames
 Tube systems
 Mega core systems

1. Moment resisting frames

As it may be noticed from Figure 1, moment resisting frame consist of plane

frames configured in two directions perpendicular to each other.

Such system possesses high redundancy, sufficient torsional rigidity,

regularities, and structural ability to withstand horizontal forces in any direction
and the force may act.

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Fig.1: Moment resisting frames

Another feature of this system is that column and beams sections should be
enlarged since bending moments, shear forces, and axial forces would get
larger at the lower storeys.

Moreover, the system is claimed to be suitable for about 20 storeys and the
joints between columns and beams should be detailed properly since it would
become a weak point of the structure during earthquake.

Finally, if the above required joint detailing is failed to obtain, then soft storey
would occur which is not desirable. Therefore, moment resisting system should
not be used if proper design especially at joints cannot be produced.

2. Shear Wall Systems

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Due to that fact that the wall takes most of shear base when walls and columns
are used in moment resisting buildings, that is why it is named as shear wall
system.

Shear wall is another type of structural systems used in the construction of

multistory buildings. For the same cross-section, it provides superior stiffness
compared with columns. As a result, the lateral deflection of the structure is
much smaller in comparison to that occurs in the cause of using columns.

Moreover, it is demonstrated that the ability of shear walls to handle bending

moments is better than columns. Shear wall system is suitable for buildings
with 20 storeys and it has shown considerably satisfactory behavior during
earthquakes. It should however be known that it has lower redundancy
compare with framed ones.

Fig.2: Buildings with shear wall systems

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3. Frame-Wall or Dual Systems

Dual wall systems are the combination of shear walls with frame systems. Not
only does it offer the benefits of both systems together but also eliminate their
drawbacks.

Generally, frames are placed around the perimeter of the building and shear
walls are placed at the center of the structure around staircases or lifts.

Added to that, it is necessary to place shear wall at the perimeter of the

structure when the wall that placed at the middle of the structure does not
coincides with the center of mass of the structure.

Moreover, when frames at the center of the structure is connected to the

perimeter columns, not only does gravity load carrying capacity of slabs would
increase but also the stiffness of the system increases and consequently
structural displacement due to earthquakes would decline substantially.

The height of structures in which this system is used can be reach up to 50

storeys.

Finally, such system has two line of defense against earthquake effects the first
one is the formation of plastic hinges at the base of the wall and the second one
is the moment resisting frames that play its role after plastic hinges has been
formed.

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Fig.3: Dual wall system in multistory structure

4. Flat Slabs Combined with Shear Walls and Frames

It is composed of two-way flat slabs resting on columns, shear walls at the

perimeter or core of the buildings, and moment resisting frame at the perimeter
of the structure. Such system is suitable for up to 10 story structures.

It should be known that, the flat slab column joint has low ductility and
therefore flat slab strip and column frame is suitable only for gravity loads. So,
flat slab-column frame should be used as a secondary structural member.

Finally, this structural system framework is simple and cost effective and
provides clear storey height.

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Fig.4: Flat slab combined with shear walls and frames

5. Tube Systems

It is a developed version of moment resisting frames which is described as three

dimensional rigid frames that able to withstand lateral loads due to
earthquakes. Or it is a strong cantilever place perpendicular on the ground.

The structural rigidity of tube system can be improved by decreasing the

spacing between perimeter columns, increase spandrel beam depth, and
combining more than one tube.

6. Mega core systems

Mega core system consists of reinforced concrete or composite shear walls with
much cross sections that conventional shear walls extended continuously
throughout the full height of the structure.

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Mega core structural system is able to withstand both lateral loads due to
earthquakes and wind, and vertical loads and suitable for a structure with 50
storeys.

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