The skeletal system

Types of joints
Joints may be classified functionally based upon how much movement they allow.
 A joint that permits no movement is known as a synarthrosis. The sutures of the skull and the
gomphoses that connect the teeth to the skull are examples of synarthroses.
 An amphiarthrosis allows a slight amount of movement at the joint. Examples of amphiarthroses
include the intervertebral disks of the spine and the pubic symphysis of the hips.
 The third functional class of joints is the freely movable diarthrosis joints. Diarthroses have the
highest range of motion of any joint and include the elbow, knee, shoulder, and wrist.
Joints may also be classified structurally based upon what kind of material is present in the joint.
 Fibrous joints are made of tough collagen fibers and include the sutures of the skull and the
syndesmosis joint that holds the ulna and radius of the forearm together.
 Cartilaginous joints are made of a band of cartilage that binds bones together. Some examples of
cartilaginous joints include joints between the ribs and costal cartilage, and the intervertebral disks of
the spine.
 The most common type of joint, the synovial joint, features a fluid-filled space between smooth
cartilage pads at the end of articulating bones. Surrounding the joint is a capsule of tough dense
irregular connective tissue lined with synovial membrane. The outer layer of capsule may extend into
thick, strong bands called ligaments that reinforce the joint and prevent undesired movements and
dislocations. Synovial membrane lining the capsule produces the oily synovial fluid that lubricates
the joint and reduces friction and wear.
There are many different classes of synovial joints in the body, including gliding, hinge, saddle, and ball and
socket joints.
 Gliding joints, such as the ones between the carpals of the wrist, are found where bones meet as flat
surfaces and allow for the bones to glide past one another in any direction.
 Hinge joints, such as the elbow and knee, limit movement in only one direction so that the angle
between bones can increase or decrease at the joint. The limited motion at hinge joints provides for
more strength and reinforcement from the bones, muscles, and ligaments that make up the joint.
 Saddle joints, such as the one between the first metacarpal and trapezium bone, permit 360 degree
motion by allowing the bones to pivot along two axes.
 The shoulder and hip joints form the only ball and socket joints in the body. These joints have the
freest range of motion of any joint in the body – they are the only joints that can move in a full circle
and rotate around their axis. However, the drawback to the ball and socket joint is that its free range
of motion makes it more susceptible to dislocation than less mobile joints.

Words that collocate with injury:

John had an operation yesterday to treat a shoulder injury he sustained while cycling nearly two years ago.
He now has his right arm in a sling and won’t be able to drive for at least two weeks. He will need to have
physiotherapy to regain full arm and shoulder movement. Luckily, he is left-handed and will still be able to
do most things.

Here are some other verbs and adjectives that collocate with injury:

1. Jason picked up a nasty ankle injury at football yesterday.

2. Even though it’s a minor injury, it’s going to take at least six months to recover from it.
3. Before every marathon, runners should do a good warm-up to avoid/prevent any serious injuries.
4. The accident was serious but luckily the injuries he sustained are not life-threatening.
5. Ever since my sporting accident ten years ago, I have suffered from this recurring knee injury.
6. I have never been able to understand how some people can inflict such horrific injuries on animals.
7. The drivers of the vehicles managed to escape serious injury in the road collision.
8. Despite falling off her bike, Sally incurred slight injury to her arms.
9. I have been nursing this nagging injury for such a long time that I am really fed-up.
10. The victims suffered multiple injuries in the fire. In fact, some of the injuries could be crippling.
Fill in with the missing word:
A woman walks into the pharmacy to buy some …………………… medicine for her toddler. The sales
assistant first wants to ………… he pharmacist ……………….. the situation.
The woman has to wait a little as the pharmacist is just busy ………………………… a prescription. She is
angry and rather ……………………. the pharmacist first because she doesn’t like to be kept
…………………….. .
Finally the pharmacist suggests her some ………………….. but warns her if the baby doesn’t
…………………….. in a day, the cough may…………………… something bad.
The customer then decides to stay at home and ……………………her child, even though her company
greatly …………………………on her work.
consult cough mixture get better hanging on look after making up on over the counter
relies on short with turn into

Translate into English:

Bichat a efectuat o clasificare mai mult fiziologică a articulaţiilor, împărţindu-le în articulaţii mobile şi
imobile. Acestea au fost denumite de Galien diartroze, respectiv sinartroze. Alături de aceste două clase mai
întîlnim şi articulaţii cu mobilitate foarte redusă, pe care Winslow (înaintea lui Bichat) le-a numit articulaţii
semimobile sau amfiartroze.
Adoptînd clasificarea funcţională, împărţim articulaţiile după gradul lor de mobilitate în:
a) Articulaţii fixe sau sinartroze, în care oasele nu pot executa nici o mişcare sau fac mişcări foarte reduse.
Aceste tipuri de articulaţii le întîlnim la oasele cutiei craniene şi la articulaţiile cutiei toracice.
Legătura dintre oasele care alcătuiesc o sinartroză poate fi făcută prin ţesut cartilaginos, ţesut conjunctiv
fibros sau chiar osos.
b) Amfiartrozele sînt articulaţii cu mişcări ceva mai ample, deci semimobile. Ele se găsesc în organism la
coloana vertebrală, unde legătura dintre corpul vertebrelor se face printr-un disc fibrocartilaginos.
c) Diartrozele sunt articulaţiile mobile cele mai răspândite în organism. Caracteristica lor generală o con-
stituie prezenţa unei cavităţi articulare, în care se găseşte o mică cantitate de lichid sinovial, o capsulă
articulară, căptuşita în interior de membrana sinovială şi cartilajul hialin articular.
Datorită acestor elemente anatomice, diartrozele sînt articulaţii mobile. Mobilitatea lor variază însă în func-
ţie de forma pe care o prezintă suprafeţele articulare ale oaselor, ce determină şi diferitele tipuri de diartroze.
Suprafeţele articulare ale diartrozelor pot avea diferite forme: sferice, eliptice, cilindrice sau plane. De
obicei, aceste suprafeţe articulare sînt net delimitate prin şanţuri sau margini proeminente.
Diartrozele pot fi clasificate şi după forma şi gradul lor de mobilitate:
Articulaţiile sferice (enartroze) prezintă o suprafaţă articulară sferică şi alta concavă, care se numeşte
cavitate glenoidă. Din punct de vedere al conformaţiei oaselor, ele pot fi de mai multe feluri:
— artrodie, cînd capul articular este mai mic decît o jumătate de sferă (de exemplu, articulaţia
scapulohumerală);
— enartroză, cînd capul articular este mai mare decît o jumătate de sferă (de exemplu, articulaţia
coxofemurală).
Ginglimul (trohleartroza) prezintă una din suprafeţele articulare sub formă de trohlee (asemănătoare unui
mosor), iar cealaltă de formă concavă, pentru a primi trohleea (articulaţia cotului).
Articulaţiile elipsoidale (condilartroze) au una din suprafeţele articulare ca un elipsoid mai mult sau mai
puţin prelungit, iar cealaltă ca o cavitate glenoidă (de exemplu, articulaţia radiocarrpială şi atlantooccipitală).
Articulaţia în şa prezintă suprafeţele articulare de formă concavă într-un sens şi de forma convexă în alt
sens, concavitatea uneia răspunzînd convexităţii celeilalte (articulaţiile între oasele carpiene).
Articulaţiile în pivot (trohoide) prezintă suprafeţele articulare constituite dintr-un cilindru osos, conţinut într-
un inel osteofibros (articulaţia radioulnară proximală).
Diartrozele planiforme au suprafeţele articulare plane (articulaţiile între apofizele articulare ale vertebrelor
toracale).