Romanian Journal of Oral Rehabilitation

Vol. 10, No. 2, April - June 2018

THE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Cristina-Maria Gavrilescu¹, Cringuța Paraschiv¹*, Paloma Horjinec¹, Diana-Maria

Sotropa¹, Roxana-Mihaela Barbu¹

¹ “Gr.T.Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, Romania, Faculty of Medicine

Corresponding author*: Cringuța Paraschiv, lecturer, PhD

cringutap@yahoo.com

Abstract
Nanomaterials are natural or manufactured objects that have at least one of their external dimensions in the
a o a ra o - a a p r a ar a o r a r a ³. They are called
nanoparticles when they have all three dimensions in the nanoscale. Intrinsic properties of engineered nanomaterials,
designed for a specific purpose, provide unique functions to these nano-objects, whose manufacture and use are
exponentially increasing. Nanotechnology offers an explosion of techniques, methods, and products that bring huge
advantages for medicine, industry, information, communication or agriculture. Dentistry benefits of nanotechnology
in disease prevention and diagnosis, in bone regeneration, restaurative dentistry, dental implants and tissue
regeneration. As in every human domain, evidence begins to point to the fact that along with the positive changes
brought by nanotechnologies, they may also cause toxic effects for human health and for the environment security.
The mechanisms of nanotoxicity are not yet completely understood, but toxic effects produced by nanoparticles
have been recognized for pulmonary, reproductive, cardiac, digestive, cutaneous and immune levels. Nanomaterials
can also cause air, water and most important a soil persistent form of pollution, which is too small to be detected
easily, making nanopollution another manmade unwanted environmental impact, with uncertain effects in the long
term. Larger and multicenter studies are needed to determine the human reactivity and the fate of the
nanoparticles in the environment before large-scale nanotechnology is completely settled.

Key words: nanotechnology, dentistry, nanotoxicity, nanopollution

Nanotechnology or nanoscience represents dimensions in the nanoscale (in the range of 1-

the research and derived applications
developed at ,, a o” . The prefix
nano, derived from the Greek wor ,, a o ”
(meaning "dwarf"), points to dimensions of
literally 1 billionth of a meter. Considering
that the size of the hydrogen atom is 0.25 nm,
the area of nanotechnology is in fact the
molecular and atomic level [1]. According to
definition adopted by EU in 2011,
nanomaterials are natural or manufactured
objects that have at least one of their external
100 nm) and a specific surface area by volume
gr a r a ³ [2,3].
It was in 1959, when the physicist Richard
Feynman, winner of the Nobel Prize, had a
speech titled “ r p roo a
o o ” or the American Physical Society, in
which he first projected this dimension of
discoveries at a billionth meter scale [4]. But
the history of the term nanotechnology started
in 1974, when Norio Taniguchi described this
new technology as “ pro o,

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separation, consolidation and deformation of
materia o a o or o o ” [5].
Nanotechnology offers ideas and solutions for
many fields of activity, such as medicine,
industry, information, communication or
agriculture. Nanotechnology represents a
direct manipulation of materials at the
nanoscale, or an ambitious set of procedures
that offers almost complete control of the deep
structure of matter [6]. The engineered
nanomaterials are specifically designed for
certain purposes or functions that make them
unique and offer advantages that are non-
achievable by any other form or chemical
state of the same material [7].
There are two most important pathways in
nanotechnological research. The first one (the
bottom-up approach) is dealing with the
projection and development of new materials
or devices, so that the produced
nanostructures are assembled and organized
into higher macroscale structures by principles
of molecular recognition. Forms of particles in
the nanoscale are: nanorods, nanotubes,
nanopores, nanoshells, nanospheres,
nanodrives, nanobelts, nanorings, quantum
dots, fullerenes, liposomes, nanocapsules,
dendrimers. In the top-down approach the
existing materials are miniaturized into the
nanoscale, then the molecules rearranged to
achieve the desired properties [8,9,10]. Nano-
scale tiny machines were invented, and they
were designed to be controlled by a computer
in order to perform specialized jobs. They are
called nanoassemblers, are smaller than a cell
nucleus and extremely useful in performing
tasks hardly possible by hand or with any
other technology, such as destroying oral
bacteria that cause dental caries, or repair
decay spots on the teeth. The three powerful
molecular technologies used as
nanotechnologies are:
-Nanomaterials and devices designed for
advanced diagnosis and biosensors, smart
drugs and targeted drug delivery.
-Molecular medicine with application for
genomics, proteomics and microbial robots
-Medical nanorobots that offer instant
diagnosis and treatment and improvement of
natural physiological function.
So the basic medical applications for
nanotechnology are: diagnosis, drug delivery
and tissue engineering [1]. The explosion of
achievements in biomaterials and
biotechnology developed a new field called
nanomedicine, which is the science of
preventing, diagnosing and treating disease
using nanosized particles [11,12]. The new
field of nanodentistry is the consequence of
the exponentially increasing manufacture and
use of nanotechnology in dental medicine. The
applications developed by nanodentistry,
using nanomaterials and biotechnologies such
as nanorobots and tissue engineering, will
clear the way to a nearly perfect oral health
[13].Just to mention some of the most
important benefits of nanodentistry, it
enriches:
1. Prevention: by using nanosized
particles in dentifrices and
mouthwashes
2. Disease diagnosis: by using nanosized
quantum dots based on
immunofluorescence, that enable the
labelling of specific bacteria and thus
eases their identification and removal.
3. Restorative dentistry: by using
nanofillers that reduce the
polymerization shrinkage and thermal
expansion, and enhance the polishing
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ability, hardness, and wear resistance
of composites
4. Regenerative dentistry: concerning
bone grafting, guided tissue
regeneration, tissue engineering, nerve
regeneration
5. Rehabilitative dentistry: dental
implants that use implant surface
nanotextured with titanium [8].
6. Nanoanesthesia by using nanorobots
7. Treatment of oral cancer with
nanoshells and nanoparticle-coated,
radioactive sources placed close to or
within the tumor [1,14].
Face to so wonderful promises, there are
voices that consider nanotechnology as having
been inflated, and taken as almost
synonymous for all things that are innovative.
A series of questions, doubts and inquiries
arise... I a ’ a a r o
or w a ro “ o ”… E
knowledge and applications seem so tempting,
nanotechology, like any other technology, is
also prone to disadvantages. The engineered
nanomaterials gain new physicochemical
properties that create previously undescribed
mechanisms of injury and toxicological
effects, caused by the interactions between the
nanomaterials with biological systems and the
environment [15].
Humankind has been exposed to airborne
nanosized particles throughout their
evolutionary stages, but only with the
industrial revolution such exposures have
increased dramatically because of
anthropogenic sources (internal combustion
engines and many other sources of
thermodegradation). The expanding field of
nanotechnology increases the number of
sources for human exposures to nanoparticles
by different routes: inhalation (respiratory
tract), ingestion (gastrointestinal tract), dermal
(skin) and injection (blood circulation) [16].
There are some common exposure routes of
humans to engineered nanoparticles present in
consumer products. Regarding the dermal
route invasion by nanoparticles there are
involved sunscreen lotions, skin care lotions,
paints and coatings, sealants, air freshners
(spray). The lungs can be invaded by
nanomaterials from inhaling paints and
coatings, skin care sprays, sunscreen sprays,
food additives and colourings. The
gastrointestinal tract can be a host for
nanoparticles from food supplements, health
supplements, food packaging [17].
A new science was born, nanotoxicology,
defined as the evaluation of the safety of
engineered nanostructures and nanodevices
[16]. The workers occupied in
nanotechnology activities may be the first
persons involved. Researchers, technicians,
cleaners, workers involved in production,
transport or storage, emergency responders to
disasters of nanomaterials and possibly
medical staff involved in the filed may be
exposed to these potential xenobiotics [18].
Epidemiologic studies on workers handling
nanomaterials found a depression of
antioxidant enzymes and increased expression
of cardiovascular markers [19].
Because nanotechnology is new and
nanotoxicology even newer, for the moment
the knowledge on the side effects of
nanomaterials is just gathering , and their
mechanisms are not perfectly described.
Evidence are that the toxic behavior of
nanomaterials differ from their bulk
counterparts, while the differences in toxicity
depend upon the same properties that also
offer their qualities: small size, shape, specific
surface area [20].
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The size of the nanoparticles selects the place
of their vital impact in the body; in humans,
large
inhalable materials with particle size above
2.5 μ w o po o a
throat, but nanoparticles locate in deeply into
the respiratory tract, and can pass through the
lungs into the bloodstream and reach
potentially susceptible sites such as the liver,
spleen, kidney, brain and heart. There were
also found unwanted influences because of the
dissolution of nanoparticles in body fluids
such as in the environment of the stomach,
blood and airways [17,21]. The migration of
the nanoparticles to distant sites is very
important regarding their toxicity. Because the
kidney is very exposed to xenobiotics, more
studies are needed to examine the impact of
nanomaterials on the glomerular structures
and tubular epithelial cells [22].
As mentioned before, the biological activity is
affected as well by the shape of the
nanoparticles, eg Silver nanoparticles were
proved to have a shape-dependent interaction
with E. coli [23].
Other important factors for nanotoxicity are
the surface charge and particle composition
[24]. The proinflammatory action of the
nanomaterials is connected mainly to the
surface reactivity and composition , while
apoptosis is dependent on particle size [17].
Experts are making efforts to find out the
toxicity-determining characteristics of
nanomaterials in order to determine the risk
assessment [25].
Because of the increased exposure to
nanoparticles, which practically have the same
dimensions as biological molecules, and
because of so many controversies regarding
the most important characteristic in stating the
dose-response relationship for each type of
nanomaterial, the concerns for the health risks
is also increasing [26].
A brief image of the health effects on
nanoparticles shows that they may impact the
lungs, the skin, the digestive system, the
blood, the cardiovascular and the nervous
system [17].
The American Heart Association found out
that even short-term exposure to elevated
particulate matter concentrations in outdoor
air was accompanied by a significant increase
in acute cardiovascular mortality, particularly
in certain at-risk subsets of the population. In
the same time long-term exposure to air
pollution increases the risk of mortality from
coronary heart disease. The respiratory
exposure may lead to inflammatory reactions,
to release of pro-coagulatory cytokines into
the circulation, affecting the endothelial
function, fibrinolysis, and thrombogenesis and
producing cardiovascular effects [22].
Epidemiological studies found out that
exposure to small particles such as
combustion-generated fine particles are
associated with lung cancer, heart disease,
asthma and/or increased mortality [27, 28].
Nanoparticles can produce: apoptosis,
increased oxidative stress, decreased cell
viability, retarded or arrest of cell growth and
sometimes cell death, chromatin condensation,
free radical formation, alterations of the
immune response, altered cell signaling, cell
necrosis, fibrosis, carcinogenic effects [17].
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All toxicological studies conclude that there
exist health risks following exposure to
nanomaterials. The toxicity is much increased
when a given substance is of nanometric
dimensions than when it is of greater
dimensions (even micrometric). Even greater
threaten may prove to be the genetic effect; it
can influence the organism ontogeny and
multi-generational life histories [29].
There are too many unknown data regarding
nanoparticles and their potential health effects,
so that prevention procedures are important
and necessary for exposed people. For the
moment there are no accepted standards for
assessment of exposure to nanomaterials, and
the required techniques are mainly in an
experimental state. The biggest challenge is
the practical impossibility of measuring
a opar ’ exposure on mass basis, as
these exposures are so small that seem
negligible [22].
Although less studied than effects on human
health, there are also concerns regarding the
environmental impact of nanotechnology.
Researches are concentrated in areas such as
nanopollution, ecotoxicology or
environmental chemistry. More than 60
countries have already launched national
nanotechnology programs, but the future of
nanotechnology will depend on addressing
environmental issues. Responsible Research
and Innovation offers the framework to judge
the ethical qualities of innovation processes
[17]. Nanoecotoxicology defines dangerous
exposure by taking into consideration the
entry routes (air/water/soil-via food) and the
circuit of nanomaterials in the abiotic and
biotic environment [30]. It also studies the
interactions of nanomaterials with biota that
alters the normal function of the living cells
and influence populations, community
structure and function. The information are
used to evaluate the risk of nanomaterial use
in a certain environment. The potential impact
of nanomaterials on the environment is
manifested as: 1.direct effect on invertebrates,
fish, micro-organisms, and other species; 2.
interaction with other types of pollutants, that
modifies the bioavailability of toxic
compounds and nutrients; 3. influence on non-
living environmental structures [31].
A map of the different processes that can
potentially lead to releasing of a nano-enabled
product, shows that release to soil can occur in
different stages of the nano-enabled product
life cycle.
During some phases, but mainly in the end-of-
life stages in a product life cycle, some nano-
enabled products may present a real threat for
soil [32]. This is a matter of increasing
concern, as models suggest that soil is a major
receptor of nanoparticles, even more than air
or water. The nanoparticles enter the soil
through industrial spills, landfill sites or when
sewage sludge is used as a fertilizer, or they
can be used to clean the soil (in a process
known as bioremediation). Many
nanoparticles, specifically those containing
silver, copper or zinc, have anti-microbial
properties. These could be beneficial for
certain medical applications, but their
presence into the natural environment could be
a great threat to beneficial microbial
communities (bacteria, fungi and archaea),
such as those found in soil. It is of utmost
importance that potential adverse effects on
the biota are detected early, as soil
microorganisms provide essential ecosystem
services, including nutrient cycling, crop
production and climate regulation [33].
In conclusion, evidence begins to point to the
fact that along with the positive changes
brought by nanotechnologies, they may also
cause toxic effects for human health and for
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the environment security. The health effects
of nanopollution are not yet completely
understood, but toxic effects have been
recognized for pulmonary, reproductive,
cardiac, digestive, cutaneous and immune
levels. Nanomaterials can also cause air, water
and most important a soil persistent form of
pollution, which is too small to be detected
easily, making nanopollution another
manmade unwanted environmental impact,
with uncertain effects in the long term. Larger
and multicenter studies are needed to
determine the human reactivity and the fate of
the nanoparticles in the environment before
large-scale nanotechnology is completely
settled.

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