FUCTIONAL GRAMMAR

GROUP AND PHRASE COMPLEXES

Members :
OPIDA NENGSIH (23170)
RAHMA WAHIDHA (2317077)
SUCI RAMA NISA (2317051)

LECTURE :
Mrs. AFDALENI

STATE ISLAMIC INSTITUTE OF BUKITTINGGI

FACULTY OF TARBIYAH AND TEACHER TRAINING
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
 PREFACE

First at all, give thanks for Allah love and grace for us. Thanks to Allah for helping us
and give us chance to finish this. And we would like to say thank you to the lecturer
that always teachesus and give much knowledge.

This paper is the one of English task that composed of Practical English Usage
English As TEFL realized this assighment is not perfect. But we hope it can be useful
for us. Critics and suggestion is needed here to make this assighment be better.

Hopefully we as a student can work more professional by using English as the

TEFL whatever we done. Thank you.
 BAB I

INTRODUCTION

Ordering is a very important aspect of the grammar of any language. As an

important feature, ordering has influence on the syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, and
even phonological impression of statements, groups, and words. English language
users cannot do without mastery of the ordering of the nominal group. The nominal
group has both simple and complex structures (Halliday, 1985; Akande, 2002).
In the magazines and newspapers examined for this study, different writers used
a lot of complex nominal phrases. The study shows as observed by Quirk, Greenbaum,
Leech, and Svartvik (1985) in relation to variety, that on the whole, the number of
simple nominal groups is more than the complex ones in the general writings of English
language users. While the simple nominal groups may be easy to understand, language
users are more likely to encounter difficulty with the complex ones (Jimba, 2000).
Therefore, this study examines some of the problems which users of English as a
second language have in understanding, interpreting, and using complex nominal
groups. Based on the findings, the authors recommend some ways language users can
overcome such problems, drawing insight from the contributions of functional
grammarians.
 BAB II

DISCUSSION

1. Overview of complexing at group/phrase rank

Group and phrase complexes are formed out of series of nexuses just as clause
complexes are formed out of series of clause nexuses. Groups and phrases form nexuses
in the same way that clauses do, by a combination of parataxis or hypotaxis with some
type of logicosemantic relation;. Only elements having the same function can be linked
in this way. Typically this will mean members of the same class: verbal group with
verbal group, nominal group with nominal group, and so on. But it also includes other
combinations, especially: adverbial group with prepositional phrase, since these share
many of the same circumstantial functions in the clause; and nominal group with
prepositional phrase, as Attribute (e.g. plain or with cream).

2. Parataxis: groups and phrases

Groups and phrases can be linked paratactically by apposition and by coordination. As

with paratactic clauses the former are elaborating in function, the latter extending.
Instances of the enhancing type are less common, since the meanings are too specific
to be readily expressed as a relationship between units smaller than clauses; but they
do occur. There are no paratactic group/phrase complexes linked by projection, except
for nominal group complexes such as the examiner’s assessment, ‘a brilliant work’,
seems hard to justify, which lie on the borderline of elaborating parataxis.
a. Ellaborating
The elaborating group/phrase may restate or particularize; restatements include
naming, explanatory glossing and shifts in perspective:a number of the themes
of elaborating clause complexes are replayed on a smaller scale.
 Example:
 verbal group
(Unfortunately she) got killed, got run over, (by one of those heavy lorries).
Yes, yes you can; || but then I think || emotion has to be – should be, anyhow –
shaped by thought. [Text 135]
 nominal group
“Too often, human rights in the US are a tale of two nations – rich and poor,
white and black, male and
female.” [Text 2]
... it’s because we, the elites, are so great [[ that we carried through the changes]
 adverbial group/prepositional phrase
(I couldn’t have done it) alone, without help.
This has just been when? – over the last few days? [Text 34]
Aesthetically, in terms of the vision in your head, what is the relationship
between the fiction and the nonfiction? [Text 7]
In an elaborating nominal group complex, the secondary nominal group may be used
to include an embedded clause as Qualifier:
||| Near the San Diego Freeway interchange is the huge Shell Chemical Company plant,
part of an industrial
district [[[ that was established || before the plain became almost covered with tract
housing]]] . |||

b. Extending

This is the traditional category of ‘coordination’. Here the semantic relationship

is one of‘and, or, nor, but, but not’, as in the following examples:
  verbal group
(I) neither like nor dislike (it).
America can – and should – be proud of its soldiers, sailors, airmen, and
marines. [Text 115]
There are, and can be, no general answers. [Text 212]

 nominal group
All the King’s horses and all the King’s men (couldn’t put Humpty Dumpty
together again).
Bruce and Philip were friends, || Jane and I were friends || and then you and –
[Text 82]
Either you or your head (must be off, and that in about half no time).

 [adverbial group/prepositional phrase:]

Swiftly and without a moment’s hesitation (he leapt into the fray).
And the French author Voltaire gained, among his many honors, the reputation
[[ for being the first writer of
note [[ to earn his keep by his own words – and by some speculation on the
market]] ]] . [Text 122]

c. Enhancing
Here the semantic relationship involves a circumstantial relationship;
this was not recognized as a distinct type in traditional accounts. As noted
above, enhancing relationships are essentially between figures as a whole, and
only rarely can they be interpreted as holding between particular elements of a
figure. Examples are typically instances of time or cause:
 verbal group
(He) tried, but failed, (to extract the poison). ‘although he tried, he failed’ –
concession
  nominal group
- All those on board, and hence all the crew, (must have known that
something was amiss).
- Film hadn’t been important until the Italians with realism and Rossellini
and De Sica, then the French nouvelle vague. [Text 119]
 adverbial group/prepositional phrase
- (She took it) calmly enough, although not without some persuasion.
- I imagined my framed survey of Xitu hanging above the fire for a few years,
then being moved to the spare room, then into the bathroom, then finally
being confined to the attic. [Beneath the Mountains]
- From this crossroads town follow the main road south through increasingly
arid landscapes towards Rembitan, a pretty little village claiming a 17th-
century mosque, then Sade, where tall, thatched lumbung (rice-barns)
climb the slopes. [Text 142]

3. Hypotaxis: nominal group

When groups and phrases are linked hypotactically, they are given unequal
status, one serving as the dominant element (α) and the remainder as dependent ones
(β γ δ ...). Hypotactic verbal group complexes involve either expansion or projection
(see below), but hypotactic nominal group complexes and hypotactic adverbial
group/prepositional phrase complexes are based only on expansion.
a) Elaborating.

We saw in Chapter 6 that a nominal group can have as Postmodifier not only
an embedded clause (‘defining relative’ clause) but also an embedded prepositional
phrase, as in the man = [ in the moon ]. There is the same contrast between embedding
and hypotaxis with a phrase as there is with a clause. Parallel to
(a) || (this is) my new house, = || β which Jack built ||
(b) || (this is) the house = [[ that Jack built ]] ||

we have

(c) (have you seen) | my new hat, = | β with the feather in

(d) (have you seen) | my hat = [ with the feather in] |
b. Extending.

In exactly the same way as with elaboration, a nominal group may be extended
hypotactically by a prepositional phrase, the preposition having the same sense as when
used to introduce a non-finite extending clause (see Chapter 7, Table 7-9) – (1) addition
(positive): as well as, in addition to; (2) variation, replacement: than, unlike; (3)
variation, subtraction: except for. Examples:

Its four levels include a sculpture garden, contemporary collections of

Australian and European prints and drawings, 20th century British and
European art, an impressionist exhibition as well as a new coffee shop and
theatre space. [Text 22]

We have pursued a number of initiatives in recent years || to enhance the

capabilities of both our forces forward-deployed on the peninsula and our
reinforcing elements, as well as the forces of our South Korean Allies. [Text
115]

4. Hypotaxis : Adverbial Group/Prepositional Phrase

Adverbial groups and prepositional phrases can be linked hypotactically:

the tactic relationship is based on identity in function rather than difference in internal
structure. Hypotaxis is used to construe spatial and temporal paths and to construe
gradual
narrowing of the specification of a location. It combines with (i) elaborating, (ii)
extending
and (iii) enhancing relations.

i. Elaborating . this is the relationship that is found in sequences such as:

she remained in lincoln from 1911 until 1919 when she moved owing to the
illness of her father , one time archdeacon of leicester,and later canon of
peterborough, and settled in kettering.

Here the hypotactic complex construes a path through time or space, including abstract
space. Note the difference between these, which have two prepositional phrases in
hypotactic relation, and phrases with between, which consist of one prepositional
phrase
with two paratactic nominal groups as Complement:
(he stood) between [ the door + | 2 and the window ]

ii. Extending . the hypotactic extension of adverbial gropus/prepositional

phrases is essentially the same as that for nominal groups, with as well
as, instead of, rather than, etc, :

In government g as well as in commerce, obviously, power was being defined

as wealth, the accumulation of economic resources (by which to live more comfortably
|| and to command more authority).

iii. Enhancing : with prepositional phrases and adverbial groups of place

and time there is also a hypotactic relation of enhancement, with the
special semantic features of “narrowing” , as in tomorrow before lunch.
Example:
you know what’s happening tomorrow at five o’clock, don’t you?
 5.Hypotaxis: verbal group,expansion (1) : general

Like a paratactic verbal group complex and a simple verbal group, a hypotactic
verbal
group complex, e.g. tried to do, serves only one set of functions in the clause (and only
in
the clause, since it cannot be embedded on its own): it is the Process in the experiential
transitivity structure, and the Finite (...) Predicator in the interpersonal modal structure.
For example:
we tried to open windows to escape.
In 1960 began to travel.

5.1. elaborating a process: phrase

Here the verb in the primary group is a very general one of the ‘intensive:
ascriptive’ class, and it is elaborated by the verb in the secondary verbal group. The
semantic relation between the two is one of PHASE.
The basic notion is ‘be (intensive) + do’, using ‘do’ to stand for any process. The
two dimensions of phase are time-phase and reality-phase. (i) The reality-phase, or
realization, system is based on the contrast between ‘apparent’ (seems to be) and
‘realized’ (turns out to be); both are perfective, the first being unreal, the second unreal
emerging into real.
a. Witnesses said the sand dredger seemed to go past the marchioness but
suddenly smashed into the side and went right over it.
b. this offensive appears to be a sign of their strength, but their position is highly
contradictory.
There is a variant of the ‘realized’ which is imperfective, e.g. she turns out knowing all
about it; this is looking at it from the ‘real’ end, as reality emerging from appearance.
We can also relate the passive voice to this general meaning, with its original sense of
‘is (in a state of) having been realized’.
The time-phase system has split into two. The original opposition is doing/gg
is to do (meaning, in modern terms, ‘keeps doing’ and ‘will do’) has disappeared, since
both have turned into grammatical categories of the verbal group). The former has
evolved into tense, defined along the dimension of future/present/past. Thus the be ...
ing form, as in g he is doing, which was originally two verbal groups like moderngg
keeps doing, is now the secondary present tense form within the one group, meaning
‘present eg in ...’; e.g. is doing ‘present in present’,g was doing ‘present in past’will
have been doing ‘present in past in future’, was going to be doing ‘present in future in
past’, etc. The latter, the be to ... form, as in he is to do, similarly turned into a secondary
future; but here there has been a further change: is to has now turned into a modal form,
and its function as secondary tense has been taken over by is going to.
a. I keep telling them
b. The line needs to keep being shut down
c. Meanwhile, the women back in the mangroves had started to hear the cries of
the children.

There is also an inceptive-durative ‘start to go on’, as in they’ve taken to coming in

at the back door instead of the front.

At the deepest level time-phase and reality-phase are the same thing: both are
concerned with the stages of becoming. A process is something that emerges out of
imagination into reality, like the rising of the sun. Before dawn, the sun shines only in
the future, or only in the imagination – as future turns into present, imagination turns
into reality. The two categories of phase are related to modality and tense; but whereas
modality and tense are interpreted as subcategorizations of one process (they are
grammatical variants within one verbal group), phase is interpreted as a hypotactic
relation between two processes: a general one of becoming, that is then elaborated by
the specific action, event, mental process or relation that is being phased in or out. The
analysis of one of the examples above is given (Note that just like finite simple verbal
groups, the primary verbal group splits into Finite and Predicator: Finite ‘did’ +
Predicator ‘seem’. The Predicator then extends to include the secondary verbal group:
‘seem’ + ‘to go’.

5.2 extending a process: conation

Here the basic notion is that of ‘have (possession) + do’; in other words,
success. The semantic relation between the primary and the secondary verbal group is
one of conation: trying, and succeeding (for illumination of conation through
comparison with Chinese (The verb of the primary verbal group is usually one that can
serve in a ‘behavioural’ clause, This too has provided the resources for another tense
form and another modality .Examples:

a. Aware of his child’s ignorance of indian life, the indian parent tries to cram into
the child’s little head all possible information during an ‘excursion fare’ trip to
the mother country.
b. You try and do something responsible for your children and and you get
forgotten.
c. I always tried to avoid tearing her web and save her repair work.

Again, there are two dimensions: there is the potential, and the actual. The potential
means having, or alternatively not having, the ability to succeed. The actual means
trying, or not trying; and succeeding, or not succeeding. The form with have has
evolved like the forms with be above. Originally two verbal groups, it is now either (i)
+ done, a secondary tense form ‘past in’, e.g. has done ‘past in present’, will have done
‘past in future’, was going to have done ‘past in future in past’ and so on; or (ii) + to
do, a modal form (of the ‘modulation’ type; see Chapter 10, Section 10.3), e.g. has to
do ‘must do’. In other words, ‘possessing’ a process, if combined with past/passive,
means past (success); if combined with ‘unreal’, it means (future) obligation.

The other form that has turned into a finite element within the verbal group is
the potential form can, in the sense of ‘have the ability to’; it is cognate with know, so
‘know how to’. This is now also a modal form, again of the modulation type – in this
case not obligation but readiness (inclination/ability).

Of the remainder of this type, most take the perfective form of the secondary
verbal group, as in try to do. The imperfective occurs only (i) with the negative terms
avoid, and (with in) fail:avoid doing,gg fail in doing; and (ii) withgg succeed (again
with d in). The difference between manage to do and succeed in doing is slight; the
former implies attempt leading to success, the latter success following attempt. For try
+ imperfective (‘do as a means to an end’), e.g.y try counting sheep, see the next
subsection.

Once again these forms are related to tense and modality, the hypotactic verbal
group complex being intermediate between the simple verbal group, as in has done,
has to do, and the clause complex, as in, say, by trying hard Alice reached the key.

5.3 enhancing a process : modulation

Here the basic notion is that of ‘be (circumstantial) + do’, e.g. help to do ‘do
being-with(someone)’. As with all instances of enhancement, there are a number of
different kinds;
Examples:
a. Yeah, I think a good many writers tend to open their books and groan.
 b. Well that would be my contention but let me hasten to add that since the first
Speaker was also the first Member for Wakefield I’m not that anxious to
emulate the first Speaker.
c. They don’t really own them, you see, they just happened to be lying around in
the same place as these things.

6. HYPOTAXIS: Verbal group,expansion(2) : passives

A clause containing a verbal group complex is still a single clause, and
represents a single process. It has only one transitivity and voice structure. If it is a
paratactic complex, this process consists of two happenings – two actions, events or
whatever. If the verbal group complex is hypotactic, on the other hand, there is only
one happening. Thus in a paratactic complex each verbal group has a definite voice,
although the voice must be the same in each case; but in a hypotactic complex only the
group that expresses the happening, the secondary group, actually embodies a feature
of voice. The primary group is active in form, but there is no choice involved.The
different types of hypotactic complex have different potentialities as regards the
passive. If the secondary verbal group is passive, the meaning of the categories of phase
is unaffected; but there is an effect on the interpretation of conative forms. We will
discussthe three types in turn, starting with phase.

6.1 elaborating : phrase

 Here the transitivity functions remain the same whether the clause is passive or
active; there is an exact proportion ants are biting me: I’m getting bitten by ants ::s ants
keep biting me: I keep getting bitten by ants:
compare:
no one seems to have mended the lights yet
the lights don’t seem to have been mended yet
when will they start printing the book?g
when will the book start being printed ?

6.2 extending : conation

Here the relation of passive to active is different, because a conative verb,
although not constituting a separate happening, does in fact represent a behavioural
process, and it retains its behavioural sense when the clause is passive. Thus an
elaborating active/passive pair such as people started to accept her/rr she started to be
accepted// is not paralleled by the corresponding extending pair.

He tried to be pleased at the idea.

There is no need in the analysis to tie these structurally to the primary verbal
group; but it is useful to specify their function, by labelling them as ‘conative Adjunct’.

6.3 enhancing : modulation

Many of the ‘enhancing’ verbal group complexes are simply inappropriate in
the passive; the characterize an approach or attitude to the process, and this is likely to
apply to an Actor but not to a Goal – it does not make much sense to say she hastened
to be reassured, or your word ventures to be doubted. Others, such as happen and tend,
are impersonal and so indifferent to the selection of voice; e.g.

The house happened to have been built facing the wrong way.
 1. Hypotaxis : verbal group, expansion (3) : causative
The hypotactic verbal group complexes we have looked at so far are, in
principle, confined to features of the Process itself – features of phase, conation and
modulation. But we have noted that conative hypotactic verbal group complexes with
verbs of behaviour in the primary verbal group tend to add the role of Behaver to the
experiential interpretation of the Subject, as is brought out by the contrast in voice. We
shall now turn to hypotactic verbal group complexes of expansion that also include a
feature of causation. Such complexes are involved in the realization of the transitivity
system of AGENCY For example, John rolled the ball can be interpreted either as
‘John (Actor) did something to the ball (Goal)’ or as ‘John (Agent) caused the ball
(Medium) to do something’. We can always express this agency analytically, by saying
John made the ball roll, where made ... roll is a hypotactic verbal group complex. Here
the causative verbal group complex is thus an alternative realization of the feature of
‘effective’ agency: an additional participant is introduced into the clause through the
expansion of the verbal group realizing the Process. In the ergative analysis this looks
the same as John rolled the ball; but in the transitive it does not, and this enables us to
interpret the difference between them: in John rolled the ball, he acted directly on it,
whereas in John made the ball roll he may have done so by leverage, psychokinesis or
some other indirect force
Further examples, with make, compel, get, have and let as causative verbs are
as follows:
 Stanley has a love affair with Oliver Platt, too,
 who makes him laugh. didn’t make him laugh,
 I madehim cry.
 You’re made to think
 the only thing
 that’s going to save you
 is that specialness.
 When the evidence on aggression and the systematic bombardment of the
entire population of Vietnam becomes known to the public,
 we are in no doubt
 that all men of integrity [[ who examine this evidence]] will be compelled to
reach the same conclusions.
realized: John turns out to be responsible (caus.)
 that proves John to be responsible
Elaborating : PHASE (a) Reality-phase. It would be possible to recognize
causative forms of reality-phase, as follows: (1) apparent: John seems to be responsible
(caus.) Mary considers John to be responsible Hypotaxis: verbal group, expansion (3)
: causative 581 (2) realized: John turns out to be responsible (caus.) that proves John
to be responsible
Extending : CONATION (a) Conation. There is no causative form of the
conative – that is, no word meaning ‘make ... try’; this can, of course, be expressed
analytically, for example (she) | α made | (him) | ×β try | +γ to eat | (it) The causative
of the reussive has help, and perhaps enable: reussive: John managed to open the lock
(caus.) Mary helped John to open the lock
Enhancing: MODULATION Only one or two modulations have causative
equivalents; e.g. John remembered to do it (caus.) Mary reminded John to do it with
the sense of ‘John did it according to attention’ and ‘Mary caused John to do it
according to attention’ (cf. Chapter 5, Footnote 24 on the different senses of remind).
However, there is a special set that exist only as causatives, where the meaning is
simply that of agency: make, cause, force, require, let, allow, permit, etc. These admit
of three degrees of modulation:
(high:) this made (forced, required) them (to) accept our terms
(median:) this had (got, obliged) them (to) accept our terms
(low:) this let (allowed, permitted) them (to) accept our terms.
2. Hypotexis : verbal group, projection .
We pointed out in the previous subsection that a hypotactic verbal group
complex of the ‘expansion’ type represented a single happening. Thus, there is only
one time reference; if the reference is to tomorrow, then the tense of the primary group
will be future:
(i) phase: he’ll start to do it tomorrow (not: he starts)
(ii) conation: he’ll try to do it tomorrow (not: he tries)
(iii) modulation: he’ll help to do it tomorrow (not: he helps)
An expression such as want to do looks at first sight very similar to these; but
whereas we can say he’ll want to do it tomorrow, it is also quite normal to say he wants
to do it tomorrow. The wanting and the doing have distinct time references. We can
even say yesterday I wanted to do it tomorrow – but not yesterday I started to do it
tomorrow. The relation between want and to do is one of projection. A projection of
do it, as in wants to do it, is a meaning, and thus does not imply ‘does it’ – whereas an
expansion, such as tries to do it or starts to do it, does imply ‘does it’, even though the
doing may be partial or unsuccessful . If the Subject of the projection is the same as
that of the mental process clause, the proposal is an offer, as in she wants to do it; if the
two are different, then the proposal is a command, as in she wants you to do it. In the
first type, the Subject is not repeated, but is carried over from the desiderative clause.
Causing something to be done means that it is done, with ‘external agency’ as
a circumstantial feature. Wanting something to be done means that it is envisaged, or
projected, but may or may not happen: its status is that of a metaphenomenon, not a
phenomenon. But the line between the two is fuzzy. In general, if the relationship can
be expressed by a finite that clause, as in she wished that he would come, then in
principle it is a projection; but in this respect too there is a ‘grey’ area: she wanted that
he should come is possible, but uncommon, whereas she allowed that he should come
is uncommon, but possible
projection is, as we have pointed out, a different kind of relationship from
expansion. It is always, in fact, a relationship between processes – between a mental or
verbal process on the one hand, and another process (of any kind) that is mentalized or
verbalized (projected) by it. Nevertheless it is not inappropriate on grammatical
grounds to treat some projections as verbal group nexuses, on the analogy of the types
of expansion to which they are somewhat similar in meaning.
3. Logical organization : complexes at clause and group / phrases structure ,
and groups
A verbal group nexus is intermediate between a clause nexus and a verbal
group: a verbal group construes a single event, and a clause nexus construes two
distinct processes; but a verbal group nexus construes a single process consisting of
two events. These different options are available to speakers and writers when they
construe their experience of the flow of events. They choose whether they construe a
given experience as a process consisting of a single event, as a process consisting of a
chain of two (or more) events, or as a chain of two (or more) processes.
The pattern is
[clause:] approach
[clause:] impact
[clause:] sinking
[clause:] passing over
This pattern is created by the serial structure of the clause complex, one clause
nexus at a time. The clause complex thus makes it possible to construe the flow of
events as an unfolding series of processes. These processes are all single events realized
by simple verbal groups – with the exception of one: the hypotactic verbal group
complex seemed to go past . This is a phased process, consisting of two events together
representing the barge’s apparent, rather than actual, passage. This is related to the only
simple verbal group that is ‘modal’ rather than ‘temporal’ – would go; but this verbal
group occurs within a clause that is projected. We can thus recognize the three options
here: it went past us – it seemed to go past us ~ I thought it would go past us.
1. From above’: be going to do represents a single event, whereas be required
to do represents two. Thus it is possible to vary be required lexically, since
require is a lexical verb representing an event in its own right: be obliged to
do, and also be permitted/allowed to do and be forced to do; but it is not
possible to vary be going lexically – there is no be walking to do, be running
to do, be sauntering to do, because going is no longer a form of the lexical
verb of motion go. Instead, there is a grammatical variant of be going to do
(rather than a lexical one): be about to do.
2. From around’: be going to do operates as a single verbal group, whereas be
required and to do operate as two separate verbal groups. Thus be going to
do is the domain of a single series of tense selections, whereas be required
to do is of two. For example, while we cannot say is going to be going to
do since two secondary future tenses cannot be selected in succession, we
can say is going to be required to be going to do since is going to be required
and to be going to do are two distinct verbal groups.
3. From below’: going in be going to do can be phonologically non-salient and
going to may be reduced to gonna. In contrast, required, obliged in be
required/obliged to do are salient. (But be supposed to do has its own
phonology – /s(ə)poustə/; and (as noted above) want to is often reduced to
wanna with interactant Subject.)
 BAB II
CONCLUSION

The works of linguists who have earlier discussed the English nominal phrase
spread through different grammar groups (Allen, 1972; Allerton, 1979; Berry, 1975;
Blake, 1988; Butler, Hidalgo, Lavid, & Downing, 2007). This is the reason for the use
of the terms “phrase” and “group” interchangeably, since some of the linguists use the
former (Chomsky, 1965; Hudson, 1973; Gleason, 1961) while some others use the
latter (Bloor & Bloor, 2004; Boadi, Grieve, & Nwankud, 1968; Halliday &
Matthiessen, 1999). According to Boadi et al. (1968), group is a term applied to a
sequence of words used together. Where one of the words in the group (basically the
essential word—head) can be used in the place of the group without changing the
grammatical structure of the words, then the sequence makes up a group.
 REFERENCE

Halliday, M. A. K., & Matthiessen, C. M. I. M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar. London:

Arnold.