FOSI BeritaSedimentologi BS41 September 2018

Berita Sedimentologi
Number 41
09/2018
SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS: ESTABLISHING THRESHOLD TEMPERATURE AND

DEPTH OF POROSITY DETERIORATION, PENYU BASIN AND TENGGOL ARCH,
OFFSHORE PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
THE EFFECT OF METEORIC PHREATIC DIAGENESIS AND SPRING SAPPING ON

THE FORMATION OF SUBMARINE COLLAPSE STRUCTURES IN THE BIAK BASIN,
EASTERN INDONESIA
Published by
The Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (FOSI)

Number 41 – September 2018 The Sedimentology Commission - The Indonesian Association of Geologists (IAGI) Page 1 of 39
Editorial Board Advisory Board
Minarwan Prof. Yahdi Zaim

Chief Editor Quaternary Geology
Bangkok, Thailand Institute of Technology, Bandung
E-mail: minarwanx@gmail.com
Prof. R. P. Koesoemadinata
Herman Darman Emeritus Professor
Deputy Chief Editor Institute of Technology, Bandung
Indogeo Social Enterprise
Jakarta, Indonesia Wartono Rahardjo
E-mail: herman_darman@yahoo.com University of Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Rahmat Utomo
Bangkok, Thailand Mohammad Syaiful
E-mail: tomi_geologi04@yahoo.com Exploration Think Tank Indonesia
Ricky Andrian Tampubolon F. Hasan Sidi

Lemigas, Jakarta
Woodside, Perth, Australia
E-mail: rickyandriantampubolon@gmail.com
Mohamad Amin Ahlun Nazar Prof. Dr. Harry Doust

University Link Coordinator Faculty of Earth and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit
Jakarta, Indonesia De Boelelaan 1085
E-mail: m.amin.an@gmail.com 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
E-mails: harry.doust@falw.vu.nl;
harrydoust@gmail.com
Rina Rudd
Reviewer
Dr. J.T. (Han) van Gorsel
Husky Energy, Jakarta, Indonesia
6516 Minola St., HOUSTON, TX 77007, USA
E-mail: asharinar@gmail.com
www.vangorselslist.com
E-mail: jtvangorsel@gmail.com
Visitasi Femant
Treasurer, Membership & Social Media Coordinator
Dr. T.J.A. Reijers
Pertamina Hulu Energi, Jakarta, Indonesia
Geo-Training & Travel
E-mail: fvisitasi@yahoo.com
Gevelakkers 11, 9465TV Anderen, The Netherlands
E-mail: tjareijers@hetnet.nl
Yan Bachtiar Muslih Dr. Andy Wight

Pertamina University, Jakarta, Indonesia
formerly IIAPCO-Maxus-Repsol, latterly consultant
E-mail: bachtiarmuslih@yahoo.co.id
for Mitra Energy Ltd, KL
E-mail: yah1wight@yahoo.co.uk
Cover Photographs:
Top: Grain to grain contact in Well J-1 at 3320 m
ahbdf (credit: Franz Kessler & John Jong)
Bottom: Thin section photographs in plane

polarised light of cement textures and fabrics
observed in Biak Basin (credit: David Gold)
• Published 3 times a year by the Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (Forum Sedimentologiwan Indonesia, FOSI), a commission of the
Indonesian Association of Geologists (Ikatan Ahli Geologi Indonesia, IAGI).
• Cover topics related to sedimentary geology, includes their depositional processes, deformation, minerals, basin fill, etc.
Number 41 – September 2018 Page 2 of 39

A sedimentological Journal of the Indonesia Sedimentologists Forum
(FOSI), a commission of the Indonesian Association of Geologist (IAGI)
From the Editor

Dear Readers, priority conflicts have been takes place on the 5th-6th of
unavoidable. September in Grha Sabha
Berita Sedimentologi No. 41 is Pranama, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
finally available for your reading, Nevertheless, we received two high This seminar is a jointly-organized
much later than the publication quality research papers to be event between FOSI, UGM, IAS
date that we originally estimated. considered for publication in the and SEPM. The seminar is
This unpunctuality has been current volume and both of them supported by PT Geoservices
caused by the constant challenge have received high commendation (Ltd) as the Platinum Sponsor
that we have to overcome prior to from our international reviewers. and LEMIGAS as a supporting
publishing many editions of Berita These manuscripts are about sponsor.
Sedimentologi to date, namely the Sandstone Diagenesis in the
lack of quality manuscript Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch, We hope you enjoy reading this
submitted to us and the lack of offshore Peninsular Malaysia and publication and as always, if you
manpower for lay out process. As The Effect of meteoric phreatic would like to share your ideas and
you’re probably aware, Berita diagenesis and spring sapping on knowledge through our
Sedimentologi is a non-profit the formation submarine collapse publication, please contact one of
scientific publication managed by structure in the Biak Basin. our editors.
a group of volunteers with various
other commitment, therefore This early September, FOSI will
have its 3rd regional seminar that
Warm regards,
Minarwan
Chief Editor
INSIDE THIS ISSUE
SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS:
ESTABLISHING THRESHOLD
TEMPERATURE AND DEPTH OF
POROSITY DETERIORATION, PENYU
BASIN AND TENGGOL ARCH, 5
OFFSHORE PENINSULAR MALAYSIA –
F.L. Kessler & J. Jong
THE EFFECT OF METEORIC PHREATIC

DIAGENESIS AND SPRING SAPPING ON
23
THE FORMATION OF SUBMARINE
COLLAPSE STRUCTURES IN THE BIAK
BASIN, EASTERN INDONESIA – D.P. Gold
Call for paper BS #42 –
to be published in December 2018

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SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS: ESTABLISHING THRESHOLD

TEMPERATURE AND DEPTH OF POROSITY DETERIORATION,
PENYU BASIN AND TENGGOL ARCH, OFFSHORE PENINSULAR
MALAYSIA
Franz L. Kessler 1* and John Jong2
1 Goldbach Geoconsultants, O&G and Lithium Exploration, Germany
2 JX Nippon Oil and Gas Exploration (Deepwater Sabah) Limited
*Corresponding Authors –franzlkessler32@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
A review of clastic sandstone reservoirs from the Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch area has
revealed that the deepest, stratigraphically oldest and potentially overpressured reservoirs are
affected by diagenetic alteration of reservoir mineral components. There is a marked
discrepancy between measured reservoir temperature and calculated reservoir temperature
based on vitrinite reflectance data in several investigated wells. Assuming a relatively constant
temperature gradient in the basin during the Pliocene to recent time, quartz cementation started
at a paleo-depth of ca. 2000m tvdss or 105°C, and porosity was mostly destroyed at a depth
of ca. 3000m tvdss and 130°C. This said, there is a strong stratigraphic correlation between
pre-Oligocene sediments with high vitrinite reflectivity readings, and a strongly elevated
contemporaneous temperature gradient. Therefore, the scope for deep oil and gas drilling maybe
reduced in at least some parts of the basin, where oil is found locked in diagenetically altered
pore spaces. In addition, geological data also suggest that the Penyu Basin is very complex
and may have stronger affiliation with pull-apart rather than with rift basins.
Key words: diagenesis, inclusions, Penyu Basin, quartz cementation, Tenggol Arch, vitrinite
reflectance
INTRODUCTION highs. Therefore, in a less explored basin or frontier

basin, more effort is often invested to demonstrate
The Penyu Basin lies south-west of the Malay Basin the presence of hydrocarbons, as proof of a key
and straddles the Malaysia-Indonesia maritime component of a working petroleum system.
boundary (Figure 1). The stratigraphic summaries
of the Penyu and Malay basins are illustrated in Quality of reservoir is (perceived as perhaps) one of
Figure 2, and the former is subdivided into the most important risk factors in any exploration
lithostratigraphic units such as the Penyu, Pari and and appraisal campaign. Oil companies spend
the Pilong formations; with age ranging from the significant money in studying reservoir
Early Oligocene to the Pleistocene, and sometimes environments, and related statistics for porosity and
described in terms of syn-rift to post-rift sequences permeability distributions of various depositional
separated by erosional unconformities. A seismic settings. Unfortunately, reservoir diagenesis data
type section for the basin is illustrated in Figure 3. are often either forgotten, neglected or the available
data are not thoroughly studied by licensed
In a rich and productive basin, hydrocarbon charge operators. In a previous paper by Maga et al. (2015),
and migration may be inferred from the spatial the authors highlighted fluid inclusions in quartz as
distribution of discovered accumulations and by indicators of oil migration timing and reservoir
assuming the presence of a kitchen down dip of the diagenesis, and that oil migration came along with
accumulations. However, rarely is the hydrocarbon mineral brines. Here, we focus on analysis of
migration phenomenon observed or physically reservoir temperatures as determined by logs
demonstrated by well data without further detailed (present-day basin temperature regime) and vitrinite
fluid inclusion investigation. In general, the reflectance data (historical basin temperature
generative source rocks are seldom penetrated by regime). Both have important implications for
the wells, which are commonly drilled on structural assessing the optimum depth of exploration targets
in the Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch area.

Figure 1: Structural framework map of the Malay and Penyu basins, offshore Peninsular
Malaysia. The study area covering the Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch area is outlined in
dashed red line (after IHS Energy, 2010). Blue dots annotate locations of well investigated by
Maga et al. (2015), where quartzes with fluid inclusions are reported.

.
EXPLORATION HISTORY AND PETROLEUM pulses of the Malay Basin to the north by the
SYSTEM intervening saddle of the Tenggol Arch until Early
Miocene time (Figure 3). Post-Early Miocene, the
The Penyu basin-filling sediments are of terrestrial Penyu and the Malay basins practically formed a
and fluvio-lacustrine origin, and punctuated by united sedimentary system of mainly fluvio-
marine sediments from the occasional periods of terrestrial and shallow marine deposits sourced
ingression (Figures 2 and 3). A number of source from the north culminating in a major inversion
rock intervals have been identified (from Late episode in the study area.
Oligocene to Early Miocene sequences of equivalent
Groups K and L in the Malay Basin, and
questionable Eocene), and there are at least two GEOLOGICAL SETTING
pulses of oil migration observed (e.g., Tan, 2009).
The main reservoirs in the Penyu Basin are The Penyu Basin and the more well-known Malay
siliciclastic, deposited mainly in fluvial-lacustrine Basin are part of a system of the Cenozoic
channels and deltas, with varying grain sizes from sedimentary basins developed along a major zone
(rarely) coarse, middle to fine sands. that stretches from the Gulf of Thailand to the
Natuna region. Different geological and tectonic
As summarised by Maga et al. (2015), the basin has models have been proposed to explain the origin of
been explored since 1968 (pre-PSC days) when the basins, as discussed recently by Tan (2009). The
Conoco was given a concession that once covered basins are considered to have originated either in a
the entire basin. To-date, there have been more back-arc setting (Kingston et al., 1983; Mohd Tahir
than 20 exploration wells drilled, mainly on Miocene et al., 1994), or as a pull-apart basin developed
(post-rift) inversion structures. So far exploration along a major strike-slip fault (Tapponier et al.,
efforts have resulted in one oil discovery at Rhu-1 in 1982), or through thinning of continental crust
1991 in late “syn-rift” sediments in basement-drape (White and Wing, 1978). Other tectonic models
structure (Madon and Azlina Anuar, 1999), and involve crustal extension over a hot spot (Hutchison,
uneconomic discoveries/reasonable shows and in a 1989; Khalid Ngah et al., 1996), extensional
few other wells (e.g., A-1, J-1; Figures 3 and 4). subsidence along a major left-lateral shear zone
Recent exploration drilling in the Cherating Half (Madon and Watts, 1998; Md Yazid et al., 2014) and
Graben had confirmed the presence of abundant live as a failed rift arm of a triple junction above a mantle
oil in the mid “syn-rift” section despite the apparent hot spot (Tjia, 1999). Morley and Westaway (2006)
dearth of good reservoir rocks (C-1, J-1; Figure 4). proposed a geodynamic model of the Malay Basin,
The Rhu-1 well encountered oil in fluvial Oligocene involving lower-crustal flow in response to post-rift
“syn-rift” sandstones. The Rhu oil is light (API 35°), sedimentation.
moderately waxy and of high pour point (44 °C).
With Oligocene-Miocene levels only marginally Most of these models are regional in nature and were
mature for oil, charge is inferred to stem from crafted without the benefit of offshore data.
Eocene-Oligocene age isolated pods of lacustrine However, in recent years we have seen widespread
source with potential contribution from coal and acquisition of Tensor gravity and 3D seismic data,
coaly shale layers. as well as marine gravity data. The data show a
thoroughly sheared crust with basement (granite,
The Rhu discovery is evidence of a functioning metamorphic rocks, and basalts) forming elongated
petroleum basin (Tan, 2009), where in the case of slivers along a number of strike-slip faults,
Rhu-1, a clear case of vertical oil migration can be particularly at the edges of the Tenggol Arch (Ng,
made. Some oils trapped in reservoirs and fluid 1987; Figures 1 and 5). Accordingly, we believe that
inclusions are low-gravity, suggesting oil migrated the basins were originated as pull-apart basins on
through the conduits at low temperatures, implying top of a highly sheared continental crust, which
limited rock overburden, and likely early migration started to subside at the end of the Eocene.
during the Early Miocene. The Rhu-type light oils According to this model, there may not have been
probably originated during a secondary, later any extension in the sense of pure rifting as such,
migration pulse, and the relatively high reservoir but instead pulses of basement shear that resulted
temperatures have prevented biodegradation. in elongated sag basins (Maga et al., 2015).
Hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs in the Penyu Basin The Penyu Basin is tectonically complex and has
are (with the exception of Rhu) of mostly poor quality seen at least two phases of major strike-slip
and are located in the Oligocene and pre-Oligocene tectonism and inversion; the older and very
sections. A recent sequence stratigraphic study by widespread inversion occurred intra-Oligocene, with
Barber (2013) suggests that the depositional system a weaker and localized one in the Miocene. This may
of the Penyu Basin is mainly composed of restricted have had the effect that originally channelized
fluvio-lacustrine facies up to Base Miocene level, reservoir bodies were compartmentalized even
and was isolated from the fluviatile sedimentary further.

Figure 2: Comparison
of Penyu and Malay
basins stratigraphy
modified after Tan
(2009), originated from
Madon and Azlina
Anuar (1999, Penyu
Basin) and Madon et
al. (1999, Malay
Basin).

Figure 3: Penyu Basin regional seismic section illustrating mapped sequence boundaries (SB) and related depositional facies; yellow = sandy facies, green =
lacustrine shales, purple = meta-sediments. The depositional system of the Penyu Basin comprises mainly restricted lacustrine facies up to Base Miocene, near
Top L event and was isolated from the fluvial sedimentary pulses of the Malay Basin until this time, from Maga et al. (2015) and after Barber (2013).

Figure 4: Exploration wells and structural elements of the Penyu Basin (well status from IHS Energy). Wells MB-1, J-1 and A-1 as highlighted in
red were investigated for porosity and temperature versus depth relationships (modified after Maga et. al., 2015).
Number .41 – September 2018 Page 10 of 39

Figure 5: Base Tertiary (Top Basement) map over the Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch showing strike-
slip faulting at the southern edge of the latter. Purple zones represent half-grabens and depocentres and
indicate the land-locked nature of the basin at the time. Inset is a SW-NE seismic section that illustrates
the basement faulting over the Tenggol fault zone (from Maga et al., 2015).
INVESTIGATION METHODOLOGY – assumed that the heat flow history of the area had
RESERVOIR PETROGRAPHY AND been stable over time, and that the present-day
SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS borehole temperatures represent the fluid
. temperatures at the time of cementation.
Fluid inclusions in authigenic cements can be
measured directly from thin sections. Unfortunately, There are only few studies conducted on the
to the best of our knowledge none of the oil depositional histories of sediments in the Penyu
companies that operated in the study area carried Basin, with little published information available on
out micro-thermometry on any sample. its diagenetic history whereas most studies were
Alternatively, an indirect method is used whereby focused on the Malay Basin instead (e.g., Nik Ramli,
the depth of occurrence of both quartz cements and 1986, 1988; Ibrahim and Madon, 1990; Chu, 1992;
fluid inclusions is recorded and compared with Madon, 1994). Chu (1992) carried out a
borehole temperature and vitrinite reflectance data. comprehensive basin-wide petrographic study of
Vitrinite reflectance is correlated with temperature sandstones in the Malay Basin, using 241 samples
using the formula by Barker and Pawlewicz (1995). and established the main porosity reduction
If there is no significant difference between the mechanism to be mechanical compaction down to a
measured borehole temperature (which is derived depth of about 1200m tvdss (see also Madon, 1994).
from various sources, in the order of descending Beyond this depth, chemical processes took over,
quality: DST, MDT, wireline log headers) and including cementation by quartz or, more rarely,
vitrinite-derived maximum temperature, it can be calcite, siderite, pyrite and clay minerals (Figure 6).

Uplift and erosion in some parts of the Malay Basin increasing with age and depth of burial too (Chu,
(especially in the south) resulted in secondary 1992), and also appear more prevalent in “clean”
porosity by dissolution of framework grains, sandstones (Madon, 1994).
including feldspar. These are recognised from the
presence of oversized pores left by dissolution of
framework grains (Nik Ramli, 1986; Ibrahim and DATABASE
Madon, 1990). Hence, more secondary porosity is
expected to occur in sandstones with moderate The study area covers the main Penyu Basin and the
percentage of lithic/feldspathic grains compared to Tenggol Arch area (Figure 1), previously operated by
“clean” quartzose sandstones. This is ultimately tied PETRONAS Carigali, Conoco, Texaco and more
to the provenance and depositional environments of recently Lundin Petroleum and JX Nippon
the sandstones (Ibrahim and Madon, 1990). partnership. The database for this study consists of
12 exploration wells previously investigated by Maga
Madon (1994) studied the sandstones in Jerneh et al. (2015; Figure 7), where wireline logs, cuttings
Field in northern Malay Basin, and observed evaluation, fluid inclusion stratigraphy (FIS), and
increase in quartz overgrowths with depth, from an thin-section petrographic analyses are available.
average of 1% at 1270m tvdss to 7% at 1940m tvdss. The latter two studies were provided mostly by Fluid
Quartz overgrowths begin at about 90 – 100 °C. The Inclusion Technologies, Inc. (Tulsa) and Corelab
amount of quartz cementation appears to be (Kuala Lumpur), respectively.
Figure 6: Diagenetic sequence in the Malay Basin, based on Madon (1994).

Figure 7: Locations of investigated wells and occurrence of oil inclusions as summarised by Maga et al. (2015). Blue areas denote Penyu depocentre,
with depth contour map (in second TWT) of the Oligocene “K” shale level shown (modified after Maga et al., 2015).

POROSITY, QUARTZ CEMENTATION AND thought that a deep overpressured formation

WELL TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP might have preserved porosity, albeit with the
associated reduction in permeability by
Lander and Walderhaug (1999) had established chemical compaction, which would have
kinetic models of quartz cementation in which likely continued, independently of
quartz cementation starts at an effective threshold overpressure, of these deep reservoirs (e.g.,
temperature of around 70 – 80 °C. Oelkers et al. Mohammad Jamaal, 2003).
(2000) suggested that cementation is a continuous
process, with cement developing as a function of The stratigraphy of the Penyu Basin (Figure 2) is
both temperature and quartz surface area, and with characterized by a varying thickness of pre-
most cement precipitating between 100 - 120°C. Oligocene strata, and a mighty Oligocene section
Harwood et al. (2013) performed isotope analyses on covered by a blanket of Neogene in the order of some
sandstone from the Jurassic Ness Formation from 1200m thickness. There was mild tectonism during
the North Sea to reveal the growth history of single the Miocene, with a locally prominent, Serravallian
quartz overgrowths to a resolution of 2 µm. tectonic inversion along a number of fault lines
Measured δ18O (cement) range from +28 to +20‰ V- (Maga et al., 2015). In the Rhu area, the well data
SMOW in early to late cement and are consistent indicate a temperature gradient of between 3.3 and
with quartz cementation models that propose the 4.0°C/100m (Figure 9). The temperature gradient is
bulk of quartz precipitates as a continuous process fairly uniform throughout the borehole but
beginning at 60 – 70°C. increases in the bottom hole (Oligocene) section of
the wells; most likely as a result of higher formation
A comparison of three Penyu wells (MB-1, A-1 and density and thermal conductivity. This uniformity is
J-1), shows different porosity decline patterns broken by, a very important jump in vitrinite
(Figure 8). Most likely, the observed porosity decline readings from 0.7 to 1.0 VRM in the bottom hole
is strongly shaped by quartz cementation. In the section of wells A-1 and J-1 with calculated
Penyu Basin, there are two important diagenesis sediment removal of more than 1000m, indicating
boundaries: an important unconformity (Figure 12). Sandstone
samples (cuttings) of the J-1 bottom-hole sequences
(i) Beyond the porosity-reducing mechanism of show strongly welded quartz and feldspar grains
mechanical compaction, the onset of (Figure 13). The heat gradient in the bottom hole
destructive diagenesis starts with mineral section (6°C/100 m) is also strongly elevated in
cementation, in particular quartz cement. respect to the shallower (Oligo-Neogene) sequence
This boundary is found in the Malay Basin at with 3°C/100m only. Figure 14 shows a gridded
around 1200m tvdss (Chu, 1992; Madon, depth map, a compilation of the temperature
1994) and in the Penyu Basin between 1800 gradients calculated from the borehole temperature
and 2000m ahbdf (along hole below derrick measurements in the Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch
floor with DFE of 20m, Figure 9). Depending area. The gradients range from 2.7 to 6°C/100m.
on the temperature gradients in these basins, Recently drilled deep wells (> 4000m, J-1 and A-1)
these depths correspond to temperatures in the Cherating Half-Graben, however, recorded
ranging from 105 – 130°C in Penyu Basin these anomalously high bottom hole section
(Figure 9), and 90 - 100 °C in the Malay Basin gradients of 5-60C/100m. The cause of these high
(Madon, 1994). Below this depth, diagenetic gradients is yet unknown but maybe the
processes appear to have affected consequence of the wells being located in a “hotspot”
permeability more than porosity, as the pore area.
throats and smaller pores are occluded by
quartz and clay cements. In larger pores, In respect to oil migration and reservoir diagenesis,
fluids (occasionally oil) may be preserved but it is possible or even likely, that pulses of hot water
these are no longer mobile. A similar pattern brines flushed carrier beds together with oil or
of diagenesis is observed in most of the alternated with the latter. Sections of the bottom
studied wells (Figure 10). hole sequence in wells J-1 and A-1 presented strong
oil shows with reasonable porosity preservation
(ii) The depth at which permeability destruction (Figure 11). However, there was evidence of low
is deemed complete is at around 2800-3000m permeability: oil appeared to be locked in
tvdss. At this depth, authigenic cements have diagenetically secluded pore space and could not
occluded the pore spaces and only some escape from the reservoir fabric. This may also
isolated porosity remains. In clean explain the overpressures observed in hydrocarbon-
sandstones, most of the permeability is bearing intervals. The process is shown
destroyed by quartz cementation, and clay schematically in Figure 15.
minerals such as kaolinite, especially in clay-
or feldspar-rich intervals (Figure 11). Based on the temperature/geothermal gradient
However, as observed in Figure 8, where an data, and our understanding of quartz cementation
increase in porosity values is noticed in J-1 and its relationship with temperature gradient, a
and A-1 wells located in the Cherating Half- spatial distribution of porosity destruction by quartz
Graben at depth around 3250m ahbdf, it is cements is shown in Figure 16. Ultimately, these

temperature gradients and porosity threshold maps Discovery of oil-bearing but tight reservoir rock is
are indicative of the exploration risk that oil regarded as technical success, but economic
companies are facing when exploring deep reservoir success depends to a large extent on reservoir
targets. permeability, as well as reservoir continuity.
Figure 8: Porosity comparison at depth (in meters along hole below derrick floor) between three
Penyu Basin exploration wells; MB-1, J-1 and A-1. See Figure 5 for well locations.
Figure 9: In the study area, quartz overgrowth starts at a depth > 1800 - 2000 m ahbdf, depending
on the respective temperature gradient rather than on stratigraphic unit (from Maga et al. 2015).
Page 15 of 39
. 41 – September 2018
Number
Figure 10: Common patterns

of diagenesis affecting
reservoir rock at increasing
depth, temperature, and
pressure. Mobilized quartz
builds up layers of cement,
with the outcome that
permeability in sandstone
reservoirs is destroyed
gradually (from Maga et al.,
2015).
Figure 11: Miscellaneous cuttings from well J-1, show a strong recrystallization, leading
to the occasional growth of authigenic quartz crystals. There is little or no reservoir
potential present in these samples (from Maga et al., 2015).

Figure 12: Well J-1 temperature, VRM and depth relationship. Borehole temperatures and vitrinite
reflectivity data, converted to °C using the Barker and Pawlewicz formula (1995) are well aligned on the
bottom hole section of the well (> 2500m tvdss) with a much higher temperature gradient than the upper
hole section, which belongs arguably to a much older (? Mesozoic) stratum. This observation points to a
significant stratigraphic gap of some 1000 - 2000 m missing sediment.
Figure 13: Grain-to-

grain contact in Well J-
1 at 3320m (ahbdf).
The cuttings show
strongly welded quartz
and feldspar grains,
with hardly any
cement being visible.

Figure 14: Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch - temperature gradients (°C/100m) calculated from
borehole measurements, DST and wireline temperatures (from Maga et al., 2015).
Figure 15: A schematic summary of oil migration and reservoir diagenesis. a) Pre-diagenetic stage < 80
°C - moderately saline water fills pore spaces between clastic grains. b) Oil migration and salty brine ca.
100 °C - saline water with oil enters pore spaces. Mixing of salty brine with porefill water, and oil forms
bubbles (green) in the centre of pore spaces. c) Destructive diagenesis ca. 120 °C - quartz and kaolinite
(yellow) grow along the margins of the clastic grains (= syntaxial overgrowth). Oil is trapped, there is no
permeability left, and porosity is strongly reduced. Oil bubbles were pressurised and shrank.

Figure 16: Penyu Basin and Tenggol Arch - porosity is largely annihilated by quartz
cement/overgrowth, below indicated depth levels (m tvdss), @ 130 °C (modified after Maga et al
2015).
DISCUSSION a result of tectonic collisions and strike-slip shear of

the Southeast Asia continental slabs, as the Indian
Temperature and vitrinite reflectivity comparisons Plate collided into Eurasia, and subsequent
indicate, that the Penyu Basin may be far more extrusion of lithospheric blocks towards Indochina:
complex than previously thought. In particular, we
notice the effect of repeated strike-slip movements, “The Sunda Block epicontinental earliest rift
having affected the basin possibly during pre- margins were manifested by the Palaeogene W-E rift
Oligocene, and confirmed during Oligocene and, valleys, which formed during NW-SE sinistral shear
somewhat less so, in Neogene time. Therefore, the of the region. Later Eocene NW-SE dextral shear of
Penyu Basin may constitute a pull-apart basin, (2nd order) Indochina Block against East Malaya
rather than a rift basin. Furthermore, a comparison Block rifted open a 3rd order Malay Basin.
between the wells: MB-1, J-1 and A-1 and Rhu-1 Developed within it is a series of 4th order N-S en-
points to the presence of an older remnant, a pre- echelon ridges and grabens. The grabens and some
Oligocene sediment sequence, located in the centre ridges, sequentially, host W-E trending 5th order
of the basin, and displaying high vitrinite reflectivity folds of later compressional episodes. The Malay
values. This sequence is poorly dated but may Basin Ridge and Graben Model explains the multi-
contain Eocene and perhaps even Cretaceous strata. phased structural deformation which started with
Most likely, this part of the basin has seen removal the, a) Pre-Rift Palaeo/Mesozoic crystalline/
of pre-Oligocene sediments of more than 1000m. metamorphic Basement, b) Syn-rift phase during
This may point to pre-Oligocene uplift, followed by Paleogene, c) Fast Subsidence from Late Oligocene
Early Oligocene drowning. This invokes to Middle Miocene, d) Compressional inversion of
comparisons with parallel observations of the first Sunda fold during Late Miocene, and e) Basin
Sarawak margin evolution on north-western Borneo Sag during Plio-Pleistocene with mild compressional
(Kessler and Jong 2016). episodes. The subsequent Mio-Pliocene folding
history of Malay Basin is connected to the collision
Further evidence of strike-slip tectonism in the of Sunda Block against subducting Indian-
Malay Basin is given by Md Yazid et al. (2014), the Australian Plate”.
authors described the basin was developed partly as

Adding to the above model, strike-slip tectonism is thank past and present authors who contributed to
also observed in the Tenggol Arch area, which the ideas presented in this paper, and to whom we
separates the southern edge of the Malay Basin from are indebted. However, any mistakes or
the Penyu Basin, and also in the small Naga Hitam shortcomings remain the responsibility of the
pull-apart graben offshore Pahang. Further west, authors. Fruitful discussions with Dr. Mazlan
however, we see areas of the Peninsula Malaysia Madon, our colleagues in PETRONAS Carigali,
rising at least since the Oligocene, and shedding Lundin Petroleum and JX Nippon are gratefully
sediment into both the Malay and Penyu basins. The acknowledged. Our gratitude is extended to our
boundary between Oligocene pull-apart basins reviewers for offering constructive comments, which
(Malay, Penyu, Naga Hitam) and Oligocene uplift help to improve the quality of this paper.
(Peninsula Malaysia), however, appears difficult to
pinpoint.
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THE EFFECT OF METEORIC PHREATIC DIAGENESIS AND

SPRING SAPPING ON THE FORMATION OF SUBMARINE
COLLAPSE STRUCTURES IN THE BIAK BASIN, EASTERN
INDONESIA
David P. Gold*
SE Asia Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham,
Surrey, TW20 0EX, United Kingdom
*Corresponding author: david.patrick.gold@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The islands of Biak and Supiori, situated in the Bird’s Head region of New Guinea, comprise
predominantly Neogene age carbonate units that extend offshore into the adjacent Biak Basin.
Unusual geomorphologic features including pockmarks, headless canyons and semi-circular
collapse structures identified in multibeam bathymetric imagery occur on the southern margin
of the Biak Basin. These features have a bathymetric expression distinct from strike-slip faults
of the Biak Fault Zone which bound the eastern margin of the basin. The Biak Fault Zone
comprises several seismically active, segmented and parallel fault strands. Seismicity along
the Biak Fault Zone is responsible for the shedding of mass transport deposits into the basin,
however these are absent from the geomorphologic features along the southern margin of the
basin. Instead, these features appear isolated and unrelated to activity of the Biak Fault Zone
and are interpreted to have formed as a result of ‘spring sapping’ by submarine aquifers. Rapid
uplift during the Pliocene caused exposure and karstification of carbonates from onshore Biak
which extend into the offshore Biak Basin, providing conduits for a freshwater lens to develop
within older Miocene strata. Diagenetic cement textures and fabrics indicate that many Miocene
carbonates were subjected to meteoric diagenesis within freshwater aquifers that overprinted
burial cements. This is supported by stable isotope analyses of diagenetic cements which
record negative δ18O values.
Keywords: Spring sapping, meteoric diagenesis, carbonates, aquifer
INTRODUCTION Yapen Island (Figure 1). The Biak Basin is bounded

on its eastern margin by the Biak Fault Zone, a
The islands of Biak and Supiori are situated in the series of parallel, NW-SE trending strike-slip faults
Indonesian province of Papua on the Pacific island that form the linear west coast of Supiori and Biak
of New Guinea. These islands form part of a small (Gold et al., 2017). These faults also form clearly
archipelago of islands north of Cenderawasih Bay, a expressed lineaments on the seafloor that are readily
large embayment to the west of New Guinea (Figure observed in multibeam bathymetric data (Gold et al.,
1). Biak is the largest island within this archipelago, 2017; Figure 1).
with the island of Supiori located to the northwest.
The islands of Biak and Supiori are separated by the Several unusual geomorphologic collapse features
Sorendidori Fault (Figure 1), an oblique normal fault are observed along the southern margin of the
that downthrows younger Neogene sediments of the offshore Biak Basin (Figure 1). This study aims to
island of Biak to the SE from Early to Middle test whether these features are fault-controlled or
Miocene carbonates of the island of Supiori to the diagenetic in origin by examining the bathymetric
NW (Gold et al., 2017). Neogene sediments from Biak expression of structural features of the basin using
and Supiori are predominantly carbonates that multibeam imagery and the burial history of
extend SW into the offshore Biak Basin, which is analogous outcrop samples collected from
situated south of Biak and Supiori, and north of formations that extend offshore. This paper

Figure 1: ASTER digital elevation and bathymetric multibeam data provided by TGS of the Biak Basin
and islands of Biak and Supiori displaying key structural and bathymetric features (MTDs - Mass
transport deposits).
contributes to the understanding of geomorphologic approximately 4 Ma (Decker et al., 2009). This

and diagenetic responses to regional tectonic events unconformity is related to rapid uplift of the Misool-
in a frontier basin of Eastern Indonesia through Onin-Kumawa ridge, an arcuate anticline sub-
application of laboratory techniques to identify the parallel to what is now the Seram Trough (Pairault
sedimentary processes that control geomorphologic et al., 2003). The collision of the Banda Arc with the
features. Australian margin in the Timor area caused large
scale surface deformation across the Bird’s Head
and Banda Arc from slab-mantle decoupling
NEOGENE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY (Spakman and Hall, 2010). The rapid isostatic uplift
resulting from this decoupling caused the formation
During the Early to Middle Miocene, carbonate of this unconformity and the rapid exhumation of
platforms flourished across much of the Bird’s Head the Neogene sediments.
and are recorded in outcrop and the Salawati,
Bintuni, and Biak Basins. These carbonates form The Biak Fault Zone is interpreted to be a young
part of the ‘New Guinea Limestone Group’ which feature as it incises Pliocene strata (Gold et al.,
includes several contemporaneous carbonate 2017). Recent sedimentation within the Biak Basin
formations found across much of western New is controlled by activity along the Biak Fault Zone
Guinea (Visser and Hermes 1962; Pieters et al., (Bertoni and Garcia 2012; Memmo et al., 2013).
1983; Brash et al., 1991; Gold et al., 2017). From
the Middle to Late Miocene, a reduction of carbonate
accumulation rates due to environmental INVESTIGATION OF OFFSHORE FEATURES
deterioration which were outpaced by the rate of
relative sea-level rise led to the drowning of the New ‘Pock marks’, headless canyons and semi-circular
Guinea Limestone Group platform beneath deep- collapse features observed in bathymetric
water strata (Gold et al., 2017). multibeam data occur several kilometres offshore
south-west of the island of Biak (Figure 1). In
Rapid uplift of New Guinea, validated by fission multibeam data, a narrow ‘Y-shaped’ headless
track ages of metamorphic units, is recorded from canyon-oriented NW-SE is approximately 10 km in
10 Ma, and in many areas since 5 Ma (Hill and length and 700 m wide (Figure 1). Approximately 20
Gleadow, 1989). This culminated in the formation of km east of this structure, a semi-circular collapse
the regional ‘intra-Pliocene unconformity’, dated feature is approximately 7 km in diameter (Figure 1).
within the Salawati basin to have occurred at
The potential for these structures to be fault- identified in multibeam bathymetry (Figure 2).
controlled or diagenetic in origin was examined. Lobate mass transport deposits (MTDs) are common
along strands of the Biak Fault Zone, indicating the
Active faulting on the Biak margin shedding of material during fault movement (Figure
2), however they are absent from the collapse
The ‘Y-shaped’ canyon and semi-circular collapse structures on the southern margin of the Biak
structure are situated west of NW-SE striking Basin. The ‘Y-shaped’ canyon displays no evidence
segments of the Biak Fault Zone which forms a for seismicity within the last 40 years, nor is it
transtensional flower structure to the east of the associated with any MTDs (Figure 2). The semi-
Biak Basin (Figure 1). The orientation of the ‘Y- circular collapse structure is associated with an
shaped canyon’ and semi-circular collapse earthquake that occurred on 24th November 1990
structures is also NW-SE and are parallel to the at a depth of 15 km, however this may be related to
strike of the Biak Fault Zone (Figure 1). Recent the slumping of overlying material into the collapse
earthquake CMT focal mechanisms in the Biak and feature.
Supiori region plotted between 1st January 1976
and 1st January 2018 show that the Biak Fault The surface expression of the ‘Y-shaped’ canyon and
Zone is currently seismically active (Figure 2). Focal semi-circular collapse feature is markedly different
mechanisms indicate that presently principal to that of the Biak Fault Zone (Figures 1 & 2).
displacement along the Biak Fault Zone has a Segments of pure strike-slip often appear as straight
dextral strike-slip component along a NW-SE or wavy faults of modest topographic expression (Le
striking plane parallel to the orientation of the faults Pichon et al., 2001). This is clearly shown along the
Figure 2: Recent earthquake CMT focal mechanisms in the Biak and Supiori region plotted from the
International Seismological Centre catalogue using MIRONE software in between 1st January 1976 to
1st January 2018. Focal mechanisms are plotted over ASTER DEM and multibeam bathymetric imagery.
Mass transport deposits (MTDs) are common along strands of the Biak Fault Zone (Biak F.Z.) which
exhibit a predominantly dextral strike-slip component along computed fault planes that are parallel to
structures observed in multibeam bathymetry. MTDs are absent from the collapse structures on the
southern margin of the Biak Basin. The ‘Y-shaped’ canyon displays no evidence for seismicity within the
last 40 years, nor is it associated with any MTDs. The circular collapse structure is associated with an
earthquake that occurred on 24th November 1990 at a depth of 15 km displaying oblique slip with either
a dextral N-S component, possibly relating to the Biak F.Z., or a sinistral E-W component. However, this
earthquake may also have been related to the collapse of overlying material into an undercut cavity.

principal strands of the Biak Fault Zone which are transported away leading to slumping of overlying
laterally continuous, with evidence for displacement material. It has been suggested that this process
and high relief fault scarps between minor faults may be the most significant mechanism for causing
parallel to the main strands of the transtensional slope failure leading to the development of headless
flower structure (Figure 1). In contrast, the ‘Y- canyons (Johnson, 1939; Sangrey, 1977).
shaped’ canyon is observed in low relief except for a
deep narrow incision along its central course. Due to the isolated nature of the collapse features,
Neither the ‘Y-shaped’ canyon nor the semi-circular and their tendency to form headless canyons, the
collapse feature display evidence for displacement or potential for these structures to be created through
lateral continuity. It is, therefore, interpreted that a process of submarine spring sapping was
these structures are isolated and are not fault- examined. Carbonate units that are exposed on the
controlled by activity of the Biak Fault Zone. islands of Biak and Supiori are interpreted to extend
into the offshore Biak Basin (e.g. Gold et al., 2014).
Submarine spring sapping Therefore, samples were collected from Biak and
Supiori to determine whether evidence for meteoric
The erosional undercutting of a slope results in diagenesis is observed onshore in units interpreted
mass wasting of overlying material (Orange and to be present in the subsurface of the Biak Basin
Breen, 1992) and is known by a variety of terms
including ‘seepage erosion’ (Hutchinson, 1968),
‘artesian sapping’ (Milton, 1973) and ‘spring MATERIAL AND METHODS OF ONSHORE
sapping’ (Johnson, 1939; Small, 1965; Bates and ANALOGUE ANALYSES
Jackson, 1980; Robb, 1990). In this article the term
submarine spring sapping is favoured. There are Fieldwork was conducted in 2011 and 2013 on the
many examples of where spring sapping has islands of Biak and Supiori. Carbonates were
resulted in the formation of submarine canyons described in the field and sampled for analysis at
worldwide (e.g. Johnson, 1939, Robb, 1984; Paull Royal Holloway, University of London. In total 47
and Neumann, 1987; Paull et al, 1990; Robb, 1990; samples were selected for petrographic analyses
Orange and Breen, 1992; Orange et al., 1994; using thin section petrography to determine their
Dugan and Flemings, 2000; 2002; Green et al., post-depositional burial history. Cement types
2007; Flemings et al., 2008; Bratton, 2010). observed during petrographic analysis were divided
into those that form in meteoric waters, the marine
Lateral migration of meteoric water within marine realm, and shallow and deep burial environments
basins is well documented (Wu and Chafetz, 2002; based on features described by Tucker and Wright
Bratton, 2010). Bratton (2010) defined three spatial (1990) and Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle (2003), and
scales of submarine groundwater discharge: 1) depicted in Figure 3.
nearshore – 0-10 m offshore, 2) embayment – 10 m
– 10 km offshore, 3) shelf – width of the entire Nine samples (Biak 1-5, Supiori 1-4) deemed
continental shelf. Fresh water has been reported in representative of the varying diagenetic cement
a well 100 km off shore Florida in the Gulf of Mexico, types identified through thin section petrography
10 km offshore of Saudi Arabia and offshore Bahrain were later selected for bulk-rock stable isotope (δ18O
in the Persian Gulf, and beneath the continental and δ13C) analyses to determine the presence of
shelves of the North Atlantic (Kohout, 1966; Fetter, meteoric cements. Samples were milled to extract
1980; Chafetz et al., 1988; Chafetz and Rush, 1995; powdered calcite specifically from areas in which
Edmonds, 2001; Wu and Chafetz, 2002; Person et cements were abundant, avoiding bioclastic grains
al., 2003; Fleury et al., 2007). Meteoric diagenesis to ensure bulk isotope values indicative of diagenetic
of ancient carbonates through lateral flow of fresh cement. Carbon dioxide was extracted from samples
water in palaeoaquifers is also well-documented by reacting the milled powder with phosphoric acid
(Grover and Read, 1983; Dorobek, 1987; Niemann using the procedure described by McCrea (1950).
and Read, 1987; Wu and Chafetz, 2002; Moore and Three standards were used to fix the calibration
Wade, 2013). curve, NBS19, LSVEC, and RHBNC. RHBNC is the
Royal Holloway standard taken from Iceland spar
Submarine spring sapping results in headward which forms at low temperatures. One standard was
erosion and slope undercutting that leads to used for NBS19 and LSVEC, and three samples of
repeated slope failure and the formation of gullies RHBNC were used as a control to monitor the run.
and/or canyons (Orange and Breen, 1992). Orange Analytical precision, based on the RHBNC standard,
and Breen (1992) attribute the cause of spring was less than 0.05‰ for both oxygen and carbon
sapping to be seepage induced slope failure ratios (Table 1). Consistency of results was achieved
controlled by critical pore pressure gradients by comparing laboratory standards against NBS19
whereby flow through a porous medium exacts a using the calibration curve. The stable isotope data
force on grains greater than the frictional or cohesive are recorded in relation to the heavier isotope (δ18O
force holding the grains in place and material is and δ13C), and Peedee Belemnite (VPDB) standard.
Number 41 – September 2018

Figure 3: Features of carbonate cement fabrics and textures observed within different diagenetic environments: φ- Porosity; LMC - Low
Magnesian Calcite; HMC - High Magnesian Calcite; PPL - Plane Polarised Light (after Tucker and Wright, 1990; Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle, 2003
Page 27 of 39
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS calcite micro- or pseudospar (Figure 4). This fabric

is later cross cut by the development of secondary
The diagenetic features of the samples including mouldic porosity (Figure 4).
porosity forming episodes, cross cutting
relationships, and overgrowth of cements was Interpretation
examined (Figure 4). Different carbonate cement
textures and fabrics form within different diagenetic Samples from the relatively young Pleistocene age
environments relating to the chemistry of the waters sediments of the Mokmer Formation are interpreted
they are bathed in, saturation with respect to to have been deposited in a reefal environment on
carbonate, and levels of oxygen upon burial (Figure the reef crest and reef front. These environments are
2). home to photosynthetic organisms and high
hydrodynamic energies that act to remove CO2 away
Description from the site of deposition. This increases alkalinity
and encourages precipitation of early marine
Samples Biak 1 of the Pleistocene age Mokmer cements such as fibrous fringes that often do not
Formation and Supiori 1 of the Early Miocene age fully occlude interparticle pore space (Figures 3 & 4).
Wainukendi Formation are classified as grainstones
which contain inclusion-rich fibrous fringes and Sediments influenced by meteoric phreatic
botryoidal cements, with intervening primary diagenesis are characterized by pervasive
interparticle porosity (Figure 4). The remainder of calcitization of aragonite, extensive dissolution with
the samples which are Pliocene age or older (Biak 2- well-developed mouldic porosity, and the occurrence
5, Supiori 2-4) contain abundant isopachous or of isopachous bladed and pore-filling equant calcite
uneven bladed calcite cements fringing grains, pore- cements (Quinn, 1991; Figures 3 & 4). Meteoric
filling inclusion-free equant calcite cements and a diagenesis is often responsible for aggressive
packstone fabric undergoing aggrading dissolution and porosity enhancement due to
neomorphism of originally aragonitic micrite to undersaturation of meteoric waters with respect to
Figure 4: Thin section photographs in plane polarised light of cement textures and fabrics observed
during petrographic analysis of samples. Different cement textures and fabrics are observed to be
characteristic of the marine, shallow burial and meteoric phreatic diagenetic realms.
calcite and the development of secondary mouldic oxygen cross plots of the analysed samples are
porosity (Tucker and Wright, 1990). These shown in Figure 6.
characteristics are observed in samples from
Pliocene and older sediments, with the exception of The results of the stable isotope analysis indicate
sample Supiori 1 of the Wainukendi Formation. It is that the majority of the cements show a trend from
therefore interpreted that onshore samples from precipitation in normal shallow marine waters to
Biak and Supiori were subject to pervasive precipitation in the meteoric phreatic diagenetic
overprinting by meteoric cements which is likely to realm, supporting observations made through
extend into the offshore. This supports Hendardjo petrographic analysis (Figure 6). Meteoric cements
and Netherwood’s (1986) observations from the have negative δ18O values as fresh water is more
nearby Salawati Basin where most offshore samples enriched with the lighter 16O isotope. However,
were subject to meteoric phreatic diagenesis after during late diagenesis pore fluids also often exhibit
burial. negative δ18O values, and less negative δ13C, (Figure
6) due to higher temperatures of precipitation on
Through petrographic analyses a paragenetic burial and fractionation (Dickson and Coleman,
sequence of cement phases precipitated with 1980; Tucker and Wright, 1990).
increasing time and burial was determined based on
cross-cutting and over-printing relationships Samples Biak 1 and Supiori 1 of the Mokmer and
(Figure 5). Over printing relationships suggest that Wainukendi Formations, respectively, plot close
they underwent diagenesis in a meteoric phreatic together in the low positive end of δ 18O and δ13C
environment late on during their paragenetic history values (Figure 5). Both these samples exhibit very
(Figure 5). obvious early marine diagenetic features such as
inclusion-rich fibrous fringes and botryoidal
cements (Figure 4), and plot with carbon and oxygen
RESULTS OF STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS isotope values expected for normal marine
carbonate cements (Figure 6). Samples from the
The results of the bulk-rock stable isotope analyses Wardo (Biak 2-3) and Wafordori (Biak 4-5)
are given in Table 1. The results show that calcite Formations exhibit highly negative δ 18O values
comprised >94% of the powdered carbonate material between -3.79 and -5.36‰ VPDB, typical of values
in all but one sample. Sample Biak 3 of the Korem expected of meteoric phreatic cements (Figure 6).
Formation contained only ca. 70% calcite. The δ18O The oldest Early Miocene samples from the
values of the calcite cements range from -5.36 to - Wainukendi Formation (Supiori 2-3) fall within the
1.48‰ VPDB (Table 1) and the δ13C values range mixing zone between normal marine and meteoric
from -7.61 to +2.74‰ VPDB (Table 1). Carbon- phreatic cements (Figure 5). However, sample
Supiori 4 of the Wainukendi Formation exhibits δ18O
Figure 5: Paragenetic scheme of cement phases forming with increasing time and burial. Evidence for
diagenesis in the marine, shallow burial, meteoric phreatic and deep burial diagenetic realms is
interpreted. Based on overprinting relationships, the meteoric phreatic diagenetic realm is encountered
late on in the paragenetic sequence.

Table-1 : Oxygen and carbon isotope data including standards and precision information. The stable
isotope data are recorded in relation to the heavier isotope (δ 18O and δ13C), and Peedee Belemnite
(VPDB) standard. Isotopic composition of sea water taken from Shackleton and Kennett (1975).
Temperature calculated using method described by Anderson and Arthur (1983). Calculated burial
depth using a geothermal gradient of 3°C/100m.
Est % δ18O sea Temp Depth
13 18
Samples Formation Age δ C(‰) δ O(‰) carb. water (°C) (m)
Standards
RHBNC 3.31 -10.37 95.49
RHBNC 3.23 -10.35 102.36
RHBNC 3.22 -10.42 96.00
Average 3.25 -10.38 97.95
External
Precision 0.04 0.03
NBS-19 1.94 -2.20 100.00
Known 1.95 -2.20
LSVEC -46.50 -26.70 112.37
Known -46.50 -26.70
Outcrop
Biak 1 Mokmer Pleistocene 2.66 -1.48 94.34 -1.20 17.2 572.3
Biak 2 Wardo Pliocene -7.21 -5.03 97.52 -1.20 33.8 1126.0
Biak 3 Wardo Pliocene -6.95 -3.79 71.92 -1.20 27.6 920.5
Biak 4 Wafordori Middle - Early Miocene -7.61 -4.81 98.23 -1.20 32.6 1087.7
Biak 5 Wafordori Middle - Early Miocene -2.44 -5.36 98.96 -1.20 35.5 1182.5
Supiori 1 Wainukendi Early Miocene 2.74 -1.71 97.73 -1.20 18.1 604.8
and δ13C values approaching those expected for geothermal and hydrothermal gradients, and were
deep burial cements (Figure 5). likely to have similar starting sea-water
temperatures and isotopic values.
The results of the bulk-rock stable isotope analyses
allowed palaeothermometry calculations to To equate the calculated δ18OVPDB values obtained by
determine temperatures at which the cements mass spectroscopy to burial depth, it is necessary to
precipitated. A geothermal gradient of 3°C/100m know the isotopic composition of the ambient pore
was calculated from bottom-hole temperatures in fluids, the geothermal gradient for the time of each
the similar Salawati (Redmond and cement stage, and the degree of openness of the
Koesoemadinata, 1976), Bintuni (Chevallier and system (Ali, 1995). As the isotopic composition of the
Bordenave, 1986), and North Irian (McAdoo and pore fluids is unknown, it is impossible to relate the
Haebig, 1999) regional basins was used to convert δ18OVPDB values precisely to a burial depth. However,
temperature to depth. an estimate of palaeo-precipitation temperature can
be given using Equation 1. This equation follows a
The method for calculating palaeodepths and standard palaeotemperature calculation given by
precipitation temperatures was taken from work on Epstein et al. (1953), later refined by Irwin et al.
the cement stratigraphy of Miocene carbonates from (1977) and Anderson and Arthur (1983), and used
Sabah, Malaysia (Ali, 1995). It was assumed that the by Ali (1995) on Miocene carbonates from Sabah.
parameters of Ali’s (1995) method would closely
match that of the Biak Basin since samples used in T = 16.0 - 4.14 (δc - δw) + 0.13 (δc - δw)2 [Eq.1]
both experiments were of similar age, latitude,
Where: Using the 3°C/100m geothermal gradient,

maximum burial depth can be calculated using
T = precipitation temperature (°C) Equation 2. From the recorded values of δ 18O, it is
δc = oxygen isotopic composition of CO 2 produced calculated that meteoric cements from sample Biak
from calcite at 25°C 5 of the Wafordori Formation attained the greatest
δw = oxygen isotopic composition of CO2 in burial depth and temperature values of ca. 1.2 km
equilibrium with formation water, given as -1.2‰ and ca. 35.5°C, respectively (Table 1).
for seawater composition prior to the establishment
of polar ice caps (Shackleton and Kennett, 1975; Ali,
1995). DISCUSSION
D = T/Gg [Eq.2] Synthesis of petrographic and stable isotopic

data
Where:
Carbonate cements that have undergone meteoric
D = depth (m) phreatic diagenesis specifically related to subaerial
T = precipitation temperature (°C) calculated using exposure are reported to display variable δ13C values
Equation 1 with relatively constant δ18O values (Allan and
Gg = geothermal gradient, here given as 3°C/100m Matthews, 1982). However, relatively constant δ 13C
(0.03) and variable δ18O values are an indicator of meteoric
Figure 6: A) Carbon-oxygen cross

plots for Neogene carbonate
samples analysed for stable
isotope geochemistry. Samples
Biak 1 and Supiori 1 which
display obvious marine cements
lay within the carbon and oxygen
isotopic values expected for the
precipitation of marine cements.
There is a trend towards
freshwater cements occurring
during burial, supporting the
interpretation of a submarine
freshwater aquifer beneath the
burial diagenetic environment. B)
Location map of samples collected
from the islands of Biak and
Supiori

diagenesis at relatively low water-rock ratios (Wu the precipitation of meteoric cements during stable
and Chafetz, 2002). Samples from Biak and Supiori isotope analysis which suggest they were
display increasingly negative δ18O and δ13C values precipitated at depths ca. 1 km (Table 1). During the
which indicate considerable water-rock interactions Early to Middle Miocene, carbonates originally
suggesting meteoric waters had a progressively formed in the marine diagenetic environment were
greater influence on the isotopic composition of progressively buried, passing through underlying
samples during burial (e.g. Wu and Chafetz, 2002). diagenetic environments precipitating deeper burial
cements (Figure 5).
Observations of overprinting of cements indicate
that meteoric diagenesis occurred late on in the Samples dated from the Early Miocene through to
paragenesis of the carbonate samples (Figure 5). the Pliocene are interpreted to have attained burial
This is supported by the temperatures calculated for depths of approximately 1.2 km (Table 1). This
Figure 7: Schematic model showing development of the freshwater lens during the Neogene. A) During
the Early Miocene, carbonate platforms grow within marine diagenetic realms, burying older to deeper
burial diagenetic environments, B) As relative sea-level rises, Middle Miocene carbonate strata backstep
across former Early Miocene platform, burying it within the shallow burial diagenetic realm, C) As relative
sea-level continues to rise, the Early Miocene platform is progressively buried to deeper diagenetic
environments, D) Uplift forming the intra-Pliocene unconformity exposes Pliocene sediments. Karstification
forms conduits for freshwater lens to develop and penetrate older strata. Strata previously buried within
deep diagenetic environments are uplifted into meteoric realm causing overprinting of meteoric diagenesis
over burial cements. The oldest sediments are not uplifted far enough to reach fresh water lens and retain
deepest burial diagenetic signature.

suggests relatively rapid uplift of Neogene strata the youngest Neogene sediments during the
since the Pliocene. There may have been gradual formation of the ‘Intra-Pliocene’ unconformity
burial of carbonate strata in the Bird’s Head region (Figure 7). Karstic joints acted as conduits for
up to the Pliocene until the formation of the regional freshwater to develop a subterranean lens bathing
‘Intra-Pliocene’ unconformity at 4 Ma (Decker et al., older strata in meteoric waters. It is interpreted that
2009) which is responsible for the rapid exhumation this freshwater lens is the cause of meteoric phreatic
of Neogene sediments. diagenesis within samples analysed by this study.
The process of exhumation uplifted strata previously
Meteoric phreatic diagenesis within carbonate rocks buried within deep diagenetic environments up into
is usually attributed to periods of low relative sea- the region influenced by the freshwater lens,
level, especially within shallow water facies rocks causing overprinting of meteoric cements on
(Meyers and Lohmann, 1985; Quinn, 1991; Frank interpreted burial cements (Figure 7).
and Lohmann, 1995; Melim, 1996; Moore and Wade,
2013). Karstic joints that are developed in Some of the oldest Early Miocene samples from the
subaerially exposed carbonates of the hinterland act Wainukendi Formation exhibit carbon and oxygen
as a conduit for freshwater aquifers to extend isotopic values close to those expected for deep
offshore. In the Biak and Supiori region, relative sea- burial cements (Figure 6). It is interpreted that these
level lowstand is attributed to the tectonic uplift, samples have not been uplifted through the
exhumation subaerial exposure and karstification of freshwater lens, and are exposed updip of the lens
Figure 8: A) Present day topographic and bathymetric profile along transect A-B across
southern Biak and into the offshore Biak Basin. The freshwater lens extends southwest from
the island beneath the Biak basin, comparable to the Floridian Aquifer. B) Transect A-B
displayed in map view across the southern margin of the Biak Basin

on the island of Biak. Inversely, the youngest rapidly exhumed during the creation of the ‘intra-
Pleistocene sediments have not been buried to such Pliocene unconformity’ formed when rapid isostatic
an extent to have reached the freshwater lens, and uplift as slab-mantle decoupling close to Timor
remain unaffected by meteoric diagenesis (Figure 8). affected the wider Banda Arc and Bird’s Head region.
This uplift resulted in a period of low relative sea-
Effect of meteoric diagenesis in the Biak Basin level in the Biak and Supiori region with the
development of a freshwater aquifer formed as a
‘Pock mark’ and collapse features, such as those response. Most samples show evidence of meteoric
observed west of Biak and Supiori (Figure 1), are phreatic diagenesis through petrographic
often associated with gas seepage (e.g. Hovland and recognition of meteoric cements and presence of
Judd, 1998; Yun et al., 1999). However, here they light oxygen isotopes. Precipitation of these cements
are interpreted to be caused by submarine ‘spring is interpreted to have occurred late on in the
sapping’. The process of submarine spring sapping paragenetic history of the samples as they passed
is interpreted to be driven by the freshwater lens through a freshwater lens during uplift. Subsequent
responsible for the meteoric phreatic overprinting of ‘spring sapping’ by this freshwater lens is
samples collected onshore Biak and Supiori responsible for various collapse structures observed
extending a considerable distance offshore (Figure in multibeam bathymetry of the Biak Basin.
8). The Biak and Supiori aquifer extending offshore
into the Biak Basin represents the shelf scale of
Bratton (2010). At the shelf scale the freshwater ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
aquifer extends as far as the shallowest overlying
confining unit, typically comprising fine-grained I would like to thank TGS for providing multibeam
sediments (Bratton, 2010). The confining unit in bathymetric data, Ramadhan Adhitama and Ferry
Biak and Supiori are interpreted to be Late Miocene Yulien of Institut Teknologi Bandung for assistance
to Pliocene deep-water sediments (e.g. Gold et al., during field work and collection of the samples, the
2017). The thickness of the meteoric lens at the shelf Southeast Asia Research Group consortia and staff
scale is typically several hundred metres and has a members at Royal Holloway, University of London
width of approximately 80km (Bratton, 2010). In the for enabling this study to take place, Dr. Dave Lowry
offshore Biak Basin, the width of the lens extends and Dr. Nathalaie Grassineau for help in stable
approximately 55 km offshore and is interpreted to isotope analysis, and Dr. Jim Hendry for continued
be approximately 250 m thick (Figure 8). The support and assistance in the production of the
interpreted ca. 1 km depth of the Biak freshwater isotope cross plot. Finally, I would like to thank
lens is comparable to that of the Floridian Aquifer Robert Hall for continued mentoring, guidance,
and extends almost as far offshore (Figure 8). helpful discussion and facilitating the progression of
our understanding of a geologically complex and
It is unknown whether the ‘Y-shaped’ canyon or exciting region of the world through his work with
semi-circular collapse feature observed in the Southeast Asia Research Group.
multibeam bathymetry (Figure 8) formed during
subaerial exposure or subaqueously. However, it is
likely that both are relatively recent structures, no FUNDING
older than the Pliocene. The lateral, rather than
vertical, displacement of carbonate units by the Biak This research was funded by industrial companies
Fault Zone permitted the freshwater lens to extend as part of a consortium supporting the Southeast
beyond the transtensional flower structure via well- Asia Research Group at Royal Holloway, University
developed karstic joints acting as conduits to the of London.
southern margin of the Biak Basin.
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Berita Sedimentologi

SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS: ESTABLISHING THRESHOLD TEMPERATURE AND

THE EFFECT OF METEORIC PHREATIC DIAGENESIS AND SPRING SAPPING ON

The Indonesian Sedimentologists Forum (FOSI)

Editorial Board Advisory Board

Minarwan Prof. Yahdi Zaim

Ricky Andrian Tampubolon F. Hasan Sidi

Mohamad Amin Ahlun Nazar Prof. Dr. Harry Doust

Yan Bachtiar Muslih Dr. Andy Wight

Bottom: Thin section photographs in plane

Number 41 – September 2018 Page 2 of 39

From the Editor

THE EFFECT OF METEORIC PHREATIC

Call for paper BS #42 –

to be published in December 2018

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T he forum was founded in 1995

FOSI Group Member as of SEPTEMBER 2018: 986 members

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SANDSTONE DIAGENESIS: ESTABLISHING THRESHOLD

*Corresponding Authors –franzlkessler32@gmail.com

INTRODUCTION highs. Therefore, in a less explored basin or frontier

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Figure 6: Diagenetic sequence in the Malay Basin, based on Madon (1994).

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POROSITY, QUARTZ CEMENTATION AND thought that a deep overpressured formation

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Figure 10: Common patterns

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Figure 13: Grain-to-

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DISCUSSION a result of tectonic collisions and strike-slip shear of

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CONCLUSIONS Barber, P. (2013). Greater Penyu Basin Intra-Rift

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Kingston, D.R., Dishroom, C.P. & Williams, P.A.

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THE EFFECT OF METEORIC PHREATIC DIAGENESIS AND

*Corresponding author: david.patrick.gold@gmail.com

Keywords: Spring sapping, meteoric diagenesis, carbonates, aquifer

INTRODUCTION Yapen Island (Figure 1). The Biak Basin is bounded

Number 41 – September 2018 Page 23 of 39

contributes to the understanding of geomorphologic approximately 4 Ma (Decker et al., 2009). This

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PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS calcite micro- or pseudospar (Figure 4). This fabric

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Where: Using the 3°C/100m geothermal gradient,

D = T/Gg [Eq.2] Synthesis of petrographic and stable isotopic

Figure 6: A) Carbon-oxygen cross

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CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES CITED

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