IADC Drilling Manual 12th Edition 2015

IADC DRILLING MANUAL DM–3
DM
12TH EDITION
IADC DRILLING MANUAL
VOLUME 1 OF 2
IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

This is a volume of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, 1st printing.
Copyright © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
without the prior written permission of the publisher.
International Association of Drilling Contractors

10370 Richmond Avenue, Suite 760
Houston, Texas 77042
USA
ISBN: 978-8-9915095-0-8
Printed in the United States of America. 1st printing. March 2015.

ABOUT THE IADC DRILLING MANUAL, 12TH EDITION

The IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in developing
the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and equipment
maintenance and repair.
This is Volume 1 of the two-volume edition of the IADC Drilling Manual attempts to bring the best information on drilling
technology and practices to rig crews, drilling engineers and rig management. The manual uses black-and-white and
full-color images, videos, charts and tables to complement the text.
Each of the 26 chapters of the IADC Drilling Manual is denoted by a two-letter code, “DS” for Drill String, for example.
Pages, videos and illustrations are all described with this two-letter designation. For example, “Figure DS-3” indicates the
third figure in the Drill String chapter. These codes are also listed on the tab dividers separating the chapters. The codes
are defined in the table of contents for this manual.
The IADC Drilling Manual will be an evergreen document. Should any reader see an opportunity to improve this manual,
email your suggestions to IADC_DrillingManual@iadc.org.
For other IADC books, visit www.IADC.org/bookstore. Electronic versions of every chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual and
other books are available at www.IADC.org/ebookstore. Or click the QR Codes below.
www.IADC.org/bookstore www.IADC.org/ebookstore
Important information
The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual drilling
company recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual may
conflict with regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for
his own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology
and practices advance quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional
engineering expertise is required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the
contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described
in this book will lead to the result desired by the reader.

VOLUME 1 OF 2

Contents
CHAPTER TAB
Types of Drilling Rigs............................................... RT

Automation................................................................ AU
Bits............................................................................... BI
Casing and Tubing.................................................... CT
Casing While Drilling............................................... CD
Cementing.................................................................. CE
Chains and Sprockets.............................................. CH
Directional Drilling................................................... DD
Downhole Tools........................................................ DH
Drill String................................................................... DS
Drilling Fluid Processing.......................................... FP
Drilling Fluids............................................................. FL
Drilling Hydraulics.................................................... HY
Drilling Practices....................................................... DP

Title: IADC Drilling Manual, Volume 1 and 2 (12th Edition)
Table: Interactive Graphs
x-axis y-axis graph title text graph

digitizer
Number of Cycles of Stress Stress (psi) Figure DS-8: S-N curve of mild steel shows number of cycles under stress to view text
produce failure.
Dogleg Angle (&#0176) for (kip) Tension (kip) Figure DS-10: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt doglegs vs. tension for 3 view text
½-in., 13.3 lb/ft drill pipe.
Dogleg Angle (&#0176) for Thousands of Tension - Thousands of feet of pipe Figure DS-10: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt doglegs vs. tension for 3 view text
feet of pipe ½-in., 13.3 lb/ft drill pipe.
Dogleg Angle (&#0176) for (kip) Tension (kip) Figure DS-11: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt doglegs vs. tension for 4 view text
½-in., 16.6 lb/ft drill pipe.
Dogleg Angle (&#0176) for Thousands of Tension - Thousands of feet of pipe Figure DS-11: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt doglegs vs. tension for 4 view text
feet of pipe ½-in., 16.6 lb/ft drill pipe.
Dogleg Angle (&#0176) for (kip) Tension (kip) Figure DS-12: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt doglegs vs tension for 5- view text
in., 19.5-lb/ft drill pipe.
Dogleg Angle (&#0176) for Thousands of Tension - Thousands of feet of pipe Figure DS-12: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt doglegs vs tension for 5- view text
feet of pipe in., 19.5-lb/ft drill pipe.
Percent Fatigue Life Expended in a 30-foot Length of Drill Pipe Below Dogleg Figure DS-13: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual doglegs vs tension in a view text
Interval for (103 ft) (103 ft) non-corrosive environment.
Percent Fatigue Life Expended in a 30-foot For Drill pipe 3-1/2 in. Tension in Figure DS-13: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual doglegs vs tension in a view text
Interval for (kip) Drill Pipe in Dogleg (kip) non-corrosive environment.
Interval for (kip) Drill Pipe in Dogleg (kip) non-corrosive environment.
Percent Fatigue Life Expended in a 30-foot For Drill pipe 5 in. Tension in Drill Figure DS-13: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual doglegs vs tension in a view text
Interval for (kip) Pipe in Dogleg (kip) non-corrosive environment.
Percent Fatigue Life Expended in a 30-foot Length of Drill Pipe Below Dogleg Figure DS-14: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual doglegs vs tension in a view text
Interval for (103 ft) (103 ft) corrosive environment.
Interval for (kip) Drill Pipe in Dogleg (kip) corrosive environment.
Interval for (kip) Drill Pipe in Dogleg (kip) corrosive environment.
Percent Fatigue Life Expended in a 30-foot For Drill pipe 5 in. Tension in Drill Figure DS-14: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual doglegs vs tension in a view text
Interval for (kip) Pipe in Dogleg (kip) corrosive environment.
Yield Point lb/100 square ft Effective viscosity, K (cp) Figure FP-1: Effective viscosity vs Yield Point. view text
IADC Drilling Manual, Volume 1 and 2 (12th Edition) © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) 1
RT
TYPES OF
DRILLING RIGS
IADC Drilling Manual 12th Edition
IADC Drilling Manual • Copyright © 2015

GAINING GROUND OFFSHORE
CAMERON’S TOTAL RIG PACKAGE SOLUTIONS
FLOW EQUIPMENT LEADERSHIP
Cameron’s Topside Equipment Packages:

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no head or die changes
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RAISING PERFORMANCE. TOGETHER™

TYPES OF DRILLING RIGS RT-i
CHAPTER
RT
TYPES OF
DRILLING RIGS
he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
T expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in developing
the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and equipment mainte-
nance and repair.
The contents of this manual should not replace or take precedence over manufacturer, operator or individual drilling company
recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual may conflict with
regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for his own
reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology and practices ad-
vance quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise is
required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter war-
rant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book will lead to the result desired
by the reader.
Contributors
Mark Dreith, Dreith Working Interests LLC
Shane Lalumandier
Reviewers
Alan Spackman, IADC
Joe Hurt, IADC
RT-ii TYPES OF DRILLING RIGS
This is a chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-5-3

TYPES OF DRILLING RIGS RT-iii
CHAPTER RT
TYPES OF
DRILLING RIGS Contents
Introduction......................................................................RT-1 Semisubmersibles��RT-8
Land Rigs��RT-1 Drillships��RT-9
Fit-for-purpose rigs�� RT-1 Conclusion�� RT-10
Walking rigs��RT-2 References�� RT-11
Offshore rigs�� RT-3 IADC Drilling Manual chapters��RT-11
Platform rigs��RT-3 IADC Deepwater Well Control Guidelines�� RT-13
MODU types��RT-4 IADC Health, Safety and Environmental
Posted barges and submersibles��RT-6 Reference Guide�� RT-13
Jackups��RT-7
THE IADC LEXICON
D E F I N I N G T H E D R I L L I N G S PAC E !
IADC Lexicon puts critical definitions at your fingertips.

Imagine thousands of the most pertinent definitions and terms relevant to
drilling, all in a single convenient repository – the IADC Lexicon. The IADC
Lexicon draws from the most critical legislation, regulations, standards and
guidelines worldwide.
The European Union requested that IADC, as the authority in the drilling
space, create the Lexicon to aid in regulation and understanding our industry.
Use the IADC Lexicon as a dictionary or to quickly and easily identify a
relevant standard, guideline or regulation. Or, use it as a template to develop
instructions for your own company.
www.iadclexicon.org
TYPES OF DRILLING RIGS RT-1
Figure RT-2: At top is a mast being raised by the bull lines

and drawworks (Courtesy Nabors Industries Ltd.). The photo
below shows the mast being raised by hydraulic cylinders
(Courtesy Precision Drilling Oilfield Services Corp.).
Figure RT-1: With the advent of steel rig construction,

derricks were replaced by masts. A mast has fewer
pieces to assemble and a smaller footprint than a
derrick. Importantly, it remains open on one side,
allowing traveling equipment to run freely up and down
and has fewer pieces to assembly. IADC image.
Introduction
This chapter will explain the various types of drilling rigs
used today. It will try to touch on the unique features of each
rig type and their relative advantages and drawbacks. This structure be abandoned at the well site. Now, rigs could be
chapter is not meant to be an exhaustive narrative on each moved from site to site, a major advantage. To enhance rig
rig type, but strives to provide the reader with an overview of mobility, the original, bulky derrick was replaced with masts.
each. The one overriding theme that holds true, regardless A mast has fewer pieces to assemble and a smaller footprint
of rig type, is that the drilling industry has made big changes than a derrick. Importantly, it remains open on one side, al-
in the design and layouts of all rig types to improve safety lowing traveling equipment to run freely up and down and
for the people working on these rigs, safeguard the envi- has fewer pieces to assembly.
ronment, and improve the efficiency to minimize the time it
Once on location, masts can be raised either by bull lines
takes to construct the well.
and the drawworks or by using cylinders. Cylinder-raised
masts feature 2-3 fully constructed sections that pin togeth-
Land rigs er before the hydraulic cylinders raise them or a two-section
As mechanization made the hunt for hydrocarbons more ef- telescoping mast where the top section is telescoped up af-
ficient, it had a direct effect on land rig design. The first land ter raising.
rigs were permanent wooden structures and would be left in
place after the well was drilled. Many were just tall poles or Fit-for-purpose rigs
simple V-frame structures. As well depth increased, drilling Drilling rigs often go where few people wish to venture,
required stronger structures and rig construction from steel such as burning deserts and frozen tundra. Because few
became the norm. or no highways exist to transport rigs in deserts, industry
designed fit-for-purpose rigs. To move these rigs across the
Fabricating rigs from steel meant that no longer would the

RT-2 TYPES OF DRILLING RIGS
Video RT-1: Views of modern Arctic rig. Courtesy Bentec.
sands, the entire drilling structure is placed on wheels, many

of which can reach 12 ft in height. The huge wheels allow the
rig to be pulled to the next location by truck or tractor.
Figure RT-3a: Winterized Arctic rigs are often
modular in design and capable of skidding from Industry has adapted the “standard” drilling rig for other
wellhead to wellhead. Courtesy Bentec. specialized environments. For example, Arctic rigs are win-
terized, with heating and cooling systems for the rig floor,
drillpipe and casing storage and other areas. Often modular
for easier fabrication, Arctic rigs are often capable of skid-
ding from wellhead to wellhead.
With current mechanization, wells on land can be drilled in

as little as 14 days, and drilling speed is now a rig design fac-
tor. However, this rig complexity has increased the share of
rig moving time, relative to total operating days. Drilling con-
tractors today often seek designs that shorten rig-up times.
Walking rigs
Industry’s improved understanding of accessing tight-per-
meability formations, especially shale rock, has also impact-
ed rig design. In today’s shale operations, many wellsites are
configured for multi-well drilling. The entire rig mast and
substructure walks or “skids” short distances to the next lo-
cation. As a consequence, rigs require additional structural
reinforcement, adding weight and increasing design com-
Figure RT-3b: Desert drilling rigs were purpose built to Figure RT-4: Trailer-mounted rig working on location.
traverse the roadless sands of this tough environment. Courtesy Drillmec Drilling Technologies.
Note the size of the tires relative to the people in
the foreground. Courtesy Nabors Industries Ltd.

Figure RT-5: One of the latest trends is

“walking” rigs, used in multi-well locations
to access drill sites that might be 100 ft
apart (left). Photo above shows a close up
of a rig “foot”. Photo at left courtesy Entro
Engineering. Photo above an IADC image.
they were mounted at the end of piers protruding into the

ocean. Platform rigs have come a long way since then, and
other types of marine rigs evolved to meet varying water
depths and other environmental demands offshore.
Platform rigs
As industry stepped out beyond the reach of land-based
piers, platform rigs were installed on large steel “jackets”,
the bottom-supported frames supporting the rig substruc-
ture, derrick and, often, fluid-processing equipment for pro-
duced oil or gas (Figure RT-6).
Video RT-2: Example of walking rig. IADC
video of Wisco Moran drilling rig. Platform drilling rigs themselves are essentially of the same
type and construction as land based rigs, with BOPs on sur-
plexity. However, the mud system does not move with the face verses subsea, and special considerations to minimize
mast and substructure, as with desert rigs. Consequently, weight that needed to be supported by the platform. De-
heavy and complex festoons and flowline systems are being pending on the size and capacity of the particular platform,
added to allow the rig to “walk” 100 ft without rigging down. if it was not of sufficient size to support the complete drill-
ing package, plus all of the equipment, materials, and liq-
The search for the land rig design that accommodates all uids necessary for the drilling operation, the use of a tender
the latest drilling equipment and can still move quickly from vessel was often required. The tender vessel, be it a barge,
wellsite to wellsite continues. Today, the industry box-on- semisubmersible or ship, would maintain station alongside
box substructures, telescopic substructures, as well as de- the platform, and all of the necessary manpower, electrical
signs featuring cantilevered masts in which the mast and power, mud pumping capacity, equipment and materials
rig floor are elevated in a single step. (This was originally stored/located on the tender is transferred to the platform
introduced as the “Dreco Slingshot”). Rigs are being built to rig as required.
handle single stands of drillpipe, as well as doubles and tri-
ples. Many of the smaller single style rigs being mounted on With the advent of extended-reach and horizontal drilling,
trailers for easy transport. enabled by steerable drilling technology, a significant number
of wells (typically 8, 12, or 16) could be drilled from a single
Offshore rigs platform, maximizing oil recovery. Platform drilling rigs were
Explorers began finding and drilling for oil in the ocean early deployed onto these large platforms.
in the 20th Century. The earliest offshore wells were drilled
Eventually, drilling operations proceeded in water far too
by equipment that differed little from land rigs, except that
deep to ever land a bottom-supported steel jacket. Indus-

Figure RT-9: Example of tender-assist rig.
Figure RT-6: Platform rig. try adopted different approaches, the most popular design
being the tension-leg platform. A TLP uses a floating plat-
form, much like a semisubmersible, permanently moored to
the sea floor. Figure RT-8 shows Shell’s Olympus TLP, over
the Mars field in about 3,000 ft of water in the US Gulf of
Mexico.
Tender-assist platform rigs

Older versions of the tender-assist type platform rigs uti-
lized a moored barge alongside the platform, with a ramp
that led from the barge to the platform for dragging mate-
rials (tubulars) onto the drill floor. This ramp was also used
for personnel transfer to and from the platform. However,
traversing the ramp in rough weather could result in person-
nel injury.
Figure RT-7: As industry stepped out into deeper water, On modern tender-assist vessels, the deployment of an
platform rigs were installed on large steel “jackets”, the articulated/telescoping walkway is used to safely transfer
bottom-supported frames supporting the rig substructure, personnel between the platform and the tender vessel.
derrick and, often, fluid-processing equipment for
produced oil or gas. This jacket was constructed for Shell’s MODU types
Bullwinkle platform in the US Gulf of Mexico. The jacket Today’s MODUs fall primarily into four water-depth catego-
was landed in 1988 in 1,360 ft of water, setting a world ries:
record for deepest water for a production platform.
• Shallow water: Either sitting on bottom in water depths
ranging from very shallow to 300-400 ft, or floating
with a traditional mooring system in 400-1,000 ft;
• Mid-water: Primarily using a traditional mooring
system attaching the hull/barge to the ocean floor
with chain/wire/rope to maintain stationkeeping,
in water depths ranging from 1,000-4,000 ft;
• Deepwater: Primarily using a dynamic position
system to maintain the rig over the well center,
with some specialized mooring systems in
water depths from 4,000-7,500 ft;
• Ultra-deepwater: Exclusively dynamically
positioned stationkeeping for water depths in
Figure RT-8: The tension-leg platform can drill and excess of 7,500 ft. Current rig designs have a
produce in deepwater. The Olympus TLP sits above 3,000 maximum water depth rating of 12,000 ft.
ft of water in the US Gulf of Mexico. Courtesy Shell.

Figure RT-10: At left is a typical BOP for land operations (Courtesy Cameron). At
right, a rendering of a subsea BOP stack. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
The move to deepwater locations required placing the blow- surface allows drilling fluids and wellbore cuttings to be re-
out preventer (BOP) on the ocean floor. This “subsea” BOP turned to the surface for treatment and recirculation. This
stack initially used a conventional method for controlling riser pipe is made from high-tensile steel, traditionally fabri-
the BOP functions from the MODU. In shallow water and cated in 50-ft lengths. Wall thickness in the older riser sys-
mid-water depths, this is accomplished using a straight hy- tems ranged between ½-⅝-in. wall thickness. More modern
draulic system in which hydraulic fluid was pumped down deepwater risers come in lengths of 75 ft or longer, with wall
the umbilical lines to the control pods located on the top of thicknesses of 1 in. or more. These changes were driven by
the BOP stack. The subsea stack comprises the same con- the tremendous tensions required at the top, and the sig-
ventional hydraulic rams and annular bags, without the add- nificant external pressures pushing in on the tube at deep-
ed component of the lower marine riser package (LMRP). water depths. Typical top tensions pulled from the surface
The LMRP allows the driller to pull the control pods to the rig range from 3,000-4,000 kips to keep the riser straight
surface without removing the critical hydraulic rams from and vertical in the water column. Buoyancy modules are
the wellhead on the ocean floor. (For a more complete dis- also attached to the riser to decrease the weight in water of
cussion of LMRP, read the separate Floating Drilling Equip- these massive tubes. Drilling in deepwater and high currents
ment and Operations Chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, requires special considerations to eliminate vortex-induced
12th edition, or the IADC Deepwater Well Control Guide- vibrations (VIV), similar to the spiral cowlings found on the
lines.) top of tall exhaust stacks on land.
With the move to deepwater and ultra-deepwater depths, Today’s modern drilling techniques require more capacity,
emergency hydraulic power is stored in subsea accumula- higher flow rates, and better cleaning abilities for the latest
tors attached to the subsea BOP stack. Controls went from drilling fluids. It is not unusual to have two separate mud
pure hydraulics to multiple electronic controls (“multiplex” systems on a modern deepwater rig, and even have the abil-
or “MUX”) to account for the increased pressures in deep- ity to connect a completions fluid system into the circula-
water. tion system onboard. While two mud pumps have sufficed
in the past, most modern deepwater rigs are outfitted with
A riser pipe running from the top of the LMRP to the rig on

A C
Figure RT-11: Marine riser pipe (A), marine riser pipe with buoyancy modules installed (B)
and riser pipe with strakes designed to minimize vortex-induced vibrations (C). Images A
and B courtesy GE Oil & Gas. Image C courtesy Balmoral Offshore Engineering.
Figure RT-12: A posted barge is an elevated structure built

above a submersible barge that is ballasted down at the
drilling location and generally pinned to the bottom using
piles at the corners which are driven into the seabed. Figure RT-13: A submersible is a purpose-built rig that
either has a mat or large ring pontoon at the bottom,
four and sometimes five mud pumps to increase redundanc- and columns that support the upper hull structure. The
ey and provide additional fluid flow and for some of today’s vessel is floated out to the drilling location, and ballasted
downhole steerable tools . For removing cuttings and clean- down so that mat or ring pontoon rests on the bottom.
ing the drilling fluid (“mud”) that returns to the rig from the
ed structure built above a submersible barge that is ballast-
wellbore, today’s rigs feature 6- 8 modern shakers. This has
ed down at the drilling location, and generally pinned to the
led to larger and more capable rigs, as the methods to drill
bottom using piles at the corners driven into the seabed. The
today’s wells have evolved.
elevated structure contains all the personnel accommoda-
tion, power generation, liquid storage, mud pumps, equip-
Posted barges and submersibles
ment and material storage necessary to drill the well. The
Both posted barges and submersibles are bottom-founded
drilling package is generally located at one end of the barge,
rigs that operate in relatively shallow water. Posted barges
and is either cantilevered over the end, or a slot is built into
can typically operate in 8-20 ft of water, while submersibles
the barge to accommodate the well center. Much like the
can operate in 10-70 ft of water. A posted barge is an elevat-
land rigs, a surface BOP is used for well control.

A submersible is a purpose-built rig that either has a mat

or large ring pontoon at the bottom, and columns that sup-
port the upper hull structure. The vessel is floated out to the
drilling location, and ballasted down so that a mat or ring
pontoon rests on the bottom. As with the posted barges,
submersibles are pinned to the ocean floor at the corners.
The upper hull stays elevated above the environment and
supports the drilling operation.
Both posted barges and submersibles are primarily used in

exploratory drilling, and only a single well can be drilled from
each set-up location.
Jackups
Jackup drilling rigs are also supported by the ocean floor.
Jackups can be supported either by legs that can be raised
or lowered independently or by legs attached to a large mat
resting on the ocean floor. Once on location, the hull of the
entire rig is lifted out of the water by a jacking mechanism.
This is most commonly accomplished by multiple pinion
drives climbing up the rack, which is part of the leg struc-
ture. An alternative is “single bite” hydraulic cylinders, which
raise the hull, one 8-10-ft stroke at a time.
The jackup’s hull is typically raised above the ocean until

achieving an “air gap” of some 50-70 ft or more. (The air
gap is the distance from the mean water level to the bottom
of the jackup’s hull.) This puts the hull of the rig above any
significant storm waves. When Hurricane Katrina moved
through the jackup fleet offshore Louisiana in August 2005,
the storm generated wave heights estimated at 70 ft. There
is solid evidence that jackups with air gaps less than 70 ft
were literally sheared off their legs, while jackups with larger
air gaps sustained far less damage. Figure RT-14: At top (Figure RT-14a) is a mat-supported
jackup, while the jackup on the bottom (Figure RT-14b)
Mat-supported jackups are better suited to areas with soft features independent legs. Note also the air gap on the
material on the ocean floor. They are far easier to “preload” mat-supported jackup. Courtesy Hercules Offshore Inc.
than are the independent-leg jackups. When a jackup arrives
on location and its legs or mat are jacked down to the ocean
floor, a “preload sequence” is conducted in which seawater
in brought onboard the vessel and placed into tanks. This
additional weight is used to push the legs or mat into the
seabed to establish a stable platform, prior to jacking up to
the drilling air gap. The objective of the preload sequence is
to simulate the maximum vertical loading that any single leg
will see during the worst anticipated loading condition (in-
cluding environmental loading), while the rig is on location.
Once the required amount of seawater has been brought
onboard, and no more leg settlement (penetration into the
ocean floor) is experienced, the seawater is discharged back
into the ocean, and the jackup is raised to its drilling air gap.
Some of the earlier jackups were built with a slot in the aft Figure RT-15: Note the slot on the left of the rig on this
slot-type jackup. The derrick had been removed from
end of the hull, and the drill floor package was located above
this rig, because it was converted to a non-drilling unit.
this slot in a fixed position. This allowed for only a single well

to be drilled from each drilling location, which was

acceptable in the early days of exploration.
The limitations of this single well per location led to

the installation of the cantilever-type drilling pack-
age, in which the drilling package is located atop
large beams that can be skidded or jacked aft. This
allows greater flexibility and the ability to drill mul-
tiple wells from a single location. These cantilever
jackups also incorporated the ability to move the
drilling package transversely atop these large can-
tilever beams.
The extended-reach cantilever jackups became the

tool of choice for oil companies wishing to economi-
cally recover hydrocarbons in a given field. After the
initial hydrocarbon field discovery, the oil compa-
ny would erect a smaller platform, with an 8-, 12-,
or 16-well grid located at one end of the platform.
With a jackup located next to the platform, the der-
rick cantilevers out over the platform to drill and/or
rework wells on the platform grid. Early cantilever
envelopes made it feasible to reach wells that were
located 10-50 ft aft of the transom, and 10 ft on ei-
ther side of the rig’s centerline. This represents a 20
ft by 40 ft drilling envelope. Modern jackups have
extended-reach capabilities of 75 ft and 15-20 ft of
transverse capability. This extended the drilling en-
velop to 40 ft by 65 ft. Figure RT-14a is an example
of a cantilever jackup.
As the search for hydrocarbons moved into ev-

er-deeper waters, the capabilities of jackup drilling
rigs moved deeper, as well. Typically, early jackups
could drill in shallow waters in water depths up to
200-250 ft. In the 1980s, the upper limit in water
depths was approximately 300 ft. Today’s modern
jackups are designed to drill in water depths of 450-
500 ft.
Semisubmersibles
Semisubmersible MODUs come in all shapes and
sizes. This rig type is characterized by a lower hull
(either separate pontoons or a ring pontoon) with a
number of vertical columns supporting a large up-
per hull. In most cases, the lower pontoons contain
liquid storage, while personnel accommodation,
power generation, and equipment/material stor-
age is in the upper hull. The drilling package on a
semisubmersible can either be centered in the up-
per hull or set to one end.
Figure RT-16: Semisubmersibles are characterized by a lower
hull of either separate pontoons or a single ring pontoon with Once the rig is on the drilling location, the lower
numerous vertical columns supporting a large upper hull. Top photo
pontoons are ballasted down (i.e., “submerged”)
Courtesy Diamond Offshore Drilling Inc. Center photo courtesy
Noble Corporation. Bottom and inset photos courtesy Seadrill. so that the vertical columns are sticking out of the

water, supporting the upper hull struc-

ture. Because the semi is floating, it will
ride up and down with the waves. Con-
sequently, it does not require the same
magnitude of air gap as jackups. The
semi’s configuration minimizes the en-
vironmental loading and resulting heave,
pitch and roll of the rig, compared to a
ship-shaped hull, providing a relatively
stable platform for drilling operations.
Semisubmersibles have historically been

used in the mid-water depths (1,000-
4,000 ft), and traditionally were moored
on the drilling location using a fixed
8-point mooring system; comprised of
anchors, chains, and/or wires to main-
tain station. Using a fixed mooring sys- Figure RT-17: The ultra-deepwater drillship shown above was
tem does not allow the driller to turn the designed for operations in water depths to 12,000 ft, with a 40,000-
ft well-depth capability. Courtesy Atwood Oceanics Inc.
rig into the weather, and for this reason,
the smaller water plane area of the ver-
tical columns minimized vessel motions could visually see his position and manually maintain station
when the variable storm directions hit the rig on the beam. over the well. This was the birth of dynamic positioning.
Early semis were not equipped with thrusters, and the in-
stallation of thrusters were first used for “mooring assist” to Over the next half-century, the size and sophistication of
drive the rig into the weather, to decrease the mooring load drillships evolved dramatically. Most of the early drillships
on the highest loaded moorings. used traditional 8-point mooring systems to maintain sta-
tion. If the wind/wave direction were always taken directly
As the search for hydrocarbons moved out into deep water, on the bow of the ship, vessel motions would be very good.
the size and capacity of the semisubmersibles grew also. However, winds and waves rarely come from the optimum
Variable deck load (VDL) is an important determinant for heading at all times. Because a drillship anchored by an
water-depth capability. As a semi moves into deeper water, 8-point mooring pattern cannot turn into the weather, the
it obviously must carry more riser and drillpipe to reach the vessel’s motions became excessive when the weather im-
ocean floor. As a result, a deepwater rig must be able to car- pacts the ship from the beam. This was a major reason why
ry more weight than one in shallower water. This means the the vessel motions of fixed-mooring semisubmersibles were
deepwater rig must have higher VDL. For a rough compar- superior to fixed-mooring drillships.
ison, a mid-water semi would typically have a VDL in the
3,000-4,000-long ton range, while the VDL of a deepwater Today’s drillships are nearly three times the size of the orig-
semi typically ranges from 7,000- 8,000 long ton. inal CUSS 1. While conventional mooring is still feasible in
the mid-water depths, dynamically positioned ships must
Along with the move to deeper water, semis were being be used in deepwater. DP systems use a sophisticated ver-
equipped with full dynamic-positioning systems, allowing sion of the now-ubiquitous Global Positioning System (GPS).
the rig to stay on location without installing a multi-point This has been enhanced with modern acoustic systems that
mooring system. hear “pingers” which are placed on the ocean floor. This ad-
ditional redundancy, combined with modern software, allow
Drillships the drillship to maintain station in up to 70-knot beam seas,
The first purpose built “drillship” was the CUSS 1,which was within a offset of only a few feet.
deployed and drilled her first well in 1956. In March 1961,
when the scientific community was looking for confirmation Drillships were the original tool of choice for the drillers, as
of the “Mohorovicic discontinuity” (the boundary between they have the largest deck load capacity (VDL) of any of the
the earth’s crust and mantle), the MOHO Project was un- rig type designs. While the mid-water semi has a 3,000-
dertaken by the CUSS 1 and successfully recovered a core 4,000-long ton VDL capacity, a mid-water drillship is on
of the earth’s crust from 11,000 ft depth in 3,100 ft of water. the order of 8,000-10,000-long ton VDL capacity. When
The drillship was fitted with four “steerable thrusters” and loading up all the materials to head out to location to drill
used a set of submerged buoys and sonar so that the “pilot” a well, this much larger VDL capacity made the drillship the

obvious choice. The oil company operating the well, had to days. Some drillers have increased the heights of their der-
make fewer trips with supply vessels to replenish the on- ricks to allow “quads” rather than “triples” of drillpipe to be
board supplies. tripped in and out of the hole. This reduces the number of
connections that must be made up and broken out by about
Ultra-deepwater drillships 25%. The drive to increase efficiency and decrease NPT
When the goal is to drill a well in more than 10,000 ft of wa- were among the key design features of modern ultra-deep-
ter, the tool of choice is the ultra-deepwater drillship. water drillships.
Being exclusively dynamically positioned, ultra-deepwater In most modern well construction, both water-based, and
drillships can maintain station and rotate the ship over the non-aqueous fluids, such as oil-based or synthetic fluids, are
well center to head the ship into prevailing weather, follow- used. When changing over from water-based to non-aque-
ing shifts in wind or wave direction. This minimizes the pitch ous fluids, fluid storage pits must be cleaned, if limited to
and roll motions of these large drillships. The number and one set of storage pits. Cleaning mud pits also means that
size of the engines and thrusters help determine the ship’s personnel must enter enclosed spaces, which can be a safe-
stationkeeping ability. ty hazard. It’s far more efficient to install two separate fluid
storage systems, allowing fluid switchovers without entering
Industry has learned from experience that a dynamically po- and cleaning the tanks. With the large VDLs and liquid-stor-
sitioned vessel must be able to maintain station in the face of age capacities available on ultra-deepwater vessels, most
a 61-knot beam wind. Howard Shatto, considered the father drilling contractors have designed their rigs to accommo-
of dynamic positioning, developed a standard by which a dy- date dual mud systems, eliminating the need to clean tanks
namic-positioning system is easily gauged. Using the ratio of between different sections of the well. Again, this decreases
80% of available thruster power (i.e., with one of five pow- the NPT and improves safety and efficiency.
er-generating engines down) and dividing that by the force
of a 61-knot beam wind pushing on the vessel results in a di- The drive into ever-deeper water combined with longer hor-
mensionless ratio called the HSSC Number (Howard Shatto izontal and directional sections means that more drillpipe
Sanity Check). “HSSC” is pronounced “his sick”. (The force must be used and handled by the rig, resulting in larger loads
of the 61-knot beam wind depends on rig size and configura- for the derrick to handle. Correspondingly, derrick capacities
tion.) This easily derived ratio provided industry with a quick to support these larger loads have sharply increased. The
check on a dynamic-positioning system’s ability to maintain old standard of 1.5 million lb gross nominal capacity (GNC)
station in real world events. A HSSC Number greater than was insufficient to support the weight of BOP and riser at
or equal to 1.0 means that the dynamic positioning system ultra-deepwater locations. Derrick’s of today’s ultra-deep-
should be able to maintain station. The consequences of be- water drillships boast lifting capacities of 2.5-3.0 million lb
ing blown off location are high from both environmental and GNC or higher. Derrick configurations have also changed
economic perspectives. Should an ultra-deepwater rig lose with the introduction of redundancy on the rig floor to allow
location, whether due to weather or a DP-system malfunc- offline activities for increase efficiency and lower NPT. Der-
tion, the driller must disconnect the riser from the subsea ricks capable of handling offline running of riser and casing
BOP, thereby dispersing the riser’s contents along the ocean are becoming standard in today’s ultra-deepwater drill-floor
floor. Clearly, avoiding such situations is critical. construction, using a second set of tubular handling equip-
ment (drillpipe, casing, and riser), second drawworks, and
These tanker-sized ships have very large VDLs to allow second rotary table. The increased efficiency from this du-
for increased storage of equipment and materials to drill ality of equipment has clearly helped reduce the NPT during
ultra-deepwater wells. One of the most significant design ultra-deepwater well construction.
goals for this rig type was increased efficiency for all oper-
ations. With the ocean floor nearly 2 miles below the ship’s As hookloads have increased, so has the rating of the trav-
hull, standard operations had to become more efficient to eling equipment in the derricks that carry these loads. The
minimize “non-productive time” (NPT). Relatively simple old standard of 750 short ton traveling equipment soon gave
operations, such as running the BOP and riser to the ocean way to 1,000-ton equipment, and today is pushing toward
floor, can take days, rather than hours on deepwater wells. capacities of 1,250-1,500 short ton. In addition, drillpipe
capacity for use in ultra-deepwater wells has increased as
As an example of reducing NPT, increasing the length of the well. The old standard 5-in. diameter drillpipe soon gave way
individual riser joints from 50 ft to 75 ft or longer, decreased to 5 ½-in. and even 6 ⅝-in. diameter drillpipe. As drillpipe
the number of time-consuming connections between the diameter increased, the length of the individual joints of
riser joints by one-third or more. In addition, redundancy on drillpipe has generally remained as API Range 2 (27-30 ft),
the drill floor allows drillers to run and retrieve the BOP and with some drillers using API Range 3 (38-45 ft) to further
riser off the critical path of building the well, which can save decrease NPT. Handling this drillpipe and combining them

into “stands” of multiple pipes have become more efficient,

as well. Offline stand building has replaced the old standard
References
For more detailed information on these and other aspects
of pulling single joints up the V-door to add to the drill string.
of drilling equipment, practices and technology, refer to ad-
Some drillers have used both horizontal and vertical storage
ditional chapters of the IADC Drilling Manual and to other
of full drillpipe stands to increase efficiency and options for
IADC references. Visit www.IADC.org/bookstore or www.
tripping drillpipe into and out of the well.
IADC.org/ebookstore. All IADC works are copyright IADC,
In addition to the change from straight hydraulic control sys- all rights reserved.
tems to multiplex (electronic) controls due to the increased
hydrostatic pressure in the ultra-deepwater, the overall rat- IADC Drilling Manual chapters
ing of BOPs has increased. In recent years, BOP capacity has Chapters of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, are avail-
increased from a standard of 10,000 psi to 15,000 psi as able as ebooks and within the complete printed manual:
Automation: Overview of automated drilling
formation pressures increase. Many of the latest deepwater
operations, impact on rig crew, control and monitoring,
drillships under construction, are designed for 20,000-psi
drilling network evolution and examples of automation.
BOPs. As discussed earlier, running and retrieving BOPs in Bits: Discusses bit design, lubrication and pressure
ultra-deepwater can be measured in days rather than hours. compensation, cutting structures, TSP cutters, nozzle
A problem with the BOP or its control system will add days and plug installation and removal, mechanical specific
of NPT, not to mention the time it takes to actually fix the energy (MSE), monitoring drill parameters, dull grading
problem. For this reason, many current ultra-deepwater and evaluation, storage, repairs, calculations, safety,
drillships being built are designed to accommodate two governing standards and guidelines, and more.
complete BOPs on deck. This allows the spare or stand- Casing and Tubing: Covers casing and tubing handling
by BOP to be completely tested and ready to be deployed, and storage on drilling rigs. The chapter covers pipe
should a problem develop with the subsea BOP. types, OCTG materials, corrosion, API casing grades,
OCTG marking, transportation, handling, storage and
Early in the evolution of ultra-deepwater drillships, there running procedures and equipment.
was a perceived need to store crude oil, generated from ex- Casing While Drilling: Covers the range of CwD
technology and operations. Topics include both
tended well testing, onboard the rig. Some of the early de-
retrievable and non-retrievable CwD, as well as liner
signs incorporated the ability to store 300,000-400,000
drilling and retrievable liner drilling.
bbl, or more. However, this crude oil storage and offload- Cementing: Discusses types of and reasons for
ing capability has very rarely been used on ultra-deepwater cementing; preparing the well for cementing; job
wells, and current rigs are not being designed and built with design, pumping and displacing cement; waiting on
this capability. cement and post-job rig operations; cementing strings
and hardware, including casing running tools; cement
However, ultra-deepwater drillships have also been tasked evaluation; and conducting safe cementing operations.
with erecting, testing and deploying subsea Christmas trees. Chains and Sprockets: Covers chain construction and
These installations are provided for the day when the oil specifications, applicable standards, roller-chain
company returns to produce one of these deepwater wells. numbering and dimensions, sprockets, installation,
lubrication and maintenance.
Directional Drilling: Reviews the evolution of
Conclusion directional drilling, from the earliest days to the present;
The type of rig to be employed depends on location and ex- magnetic and gyroscopic sensors; essentials of
pected well-construction requirements. Whether on land directional surveying, including anti-collision; defining
or in extreme water depths around the world, the push for subsurface targets; surface considerations; trajectory
increasing personnel safety, decreasing environmental im- design; well profiles; deviation control; bottomhole
pact, and reducing time to drill and complete the well are the assemblies; deflection and measuring tools; bits; and
ultimate factors driving design. more.
Downhole Tools: Provides a sweeping discussion of
numerous important downhole tools. Content includes
details on borehole enlargement; circulating subs;
downhole mud motors; air hammers; rotary steerable
systems; vibration, torque and drag; measurement
while drilling; logging while drilling; wireline logging;
and jars.
Drill String: Contains brand new sections on
heavyweight drillpipe, safety valves and accessories,
wired drillpipe and more. Color photographs clearly

identify common drillpipe problems. Included for the underbalanced and air/gas/mist/foam drilling. Covers
first time are proprietary drillpipe tables from IADC- drivers and all variations of MPD, including constant
member manufacturers. bottomhole pressure, pressurized mud cap drilling,
Drilling Fluids: Provides general information on drilling continuous circulation devices, dual-gradient and
fluids for rig workers and early career professionals. riserless drilling, deepwater applications of MPD, air
Covers purpose and functions of drilling fluids; basic hammer drilling, and more.
testing and properties; categories, systems and Pumps: Entirely rewritten to cover both mud pumps and
additives; maintenance, contamination and related centrifugal pumps. Each section is split between the
problems; calculations, units conversions and useful two types of pumps for easy reference.Provides
field tables; safety and hazards, regulations, safety data descriptions and basic theory, safety and handling,
sheets and labeling; and additional reference materials operations and applications, general maintenance, and
for more in-depth studies. important calculations. Includes a glossary, references,
Drilling Fluids Processing: A comprehensive guide to and new color illustrations and photos.
reducing drilling-fluid and overall well costs through Power Generation and Distribution: Features the latest
proper solids-control techniques. Covers dilution, information on emissions standards and regulations. A
chemical and mechanical separation, equipment brand-new section discusses design, operation and
arrangement,, weighted and unweighted drilling-fluid maintenance of variable-frequency drives.Covers
processing, screen labeling, shakers, degassers, engines, generators and transmissions, fuels,
hydrocyclones, desilters, desanders, mud cleaners, installation, operations, shutdown, maintenance,
centrifuges, lost circulation, sizing mud systems and storage and safety. Power distribution covers DC/DC
steel pits, and much more. and SCR systems, DC drilling motors, SCR (AC/DC)
Drilling Hydraulics: Discusses what is covered by the VFD, and DC/DC, including operations, design, theory
broad term “hydraulics”, as well as briefly describing and maintenance.
hydraulic-related equipment. Hydraulic parameters, Rotating and Pipehandling Equipment: Written and
such as density, viscosity, yield point, rheology models, compiled by 26 subject matter experts, the brand-new
flow rate and fluid velocity are covered. Velocity and Rotating and Pipehandling Equipment chapter covers
circulation rate determinations for both duplex and the full range of equipment, including operations and
triplex pumps are discussed. Applications of hydraulics, maintenance. Topics include top drives, hoisting and
including estimating bottomhole pressure and wellbore running in, pipehandling, make up/break out, racking,
pressure management are covered, as is annular auto-handling, tubulars, drawworks, elevators, casing
velocity. running tools, power catwalk, manual and power tongs,
Drilling Practices: A straightforward explanation of the instrumentation, maintenance and inspection, and
causes of troublesome drilling problems and how to more.
avoid and overcome them. Covers bit and drilling Special Operations: This new addition to the IADC
dysfunctions,reaming for hole conditioning, hole Drilling Manual covers tricky operations, including
cleaning in directional and horizontal wells ,tripping drilling highly depleted sands, coalbed methane
practices in horizontal and directional wells, wellbore formations, permafrost, and geothermal wells. Also
stability, lost circulation and more. discusses solid expandable liner technology and covers
Floating Drilling Equipment and Operations: Covers open-hole fishing operations in detail. The fishing
equipment and procedures specific to floating drilling section includes job planning, stuck-pipe mechanisms,
operations, with a focus on deepwater. Topics include estimating stuck point, string-stretch formula, and
stationkeeping, power systems, tubular and marine much more, including a review of fishing tools and
riser handling and tensioning, subsea well control, techniques.
motion compensation, cargo operations, emergency Structures and Land Rig Mobilization: Describes types
disconnects and more. of structures and provides detailed guidance on their
High Pressure Drilling Hoses: Includes an overview of maintenance, inspection, storage and safety. A new,
hose types, mechanical properties, care and dedicated section on land rig mobilization addresses
maintenance, inspection and testing, and a special pre-move planning, rigging down, and rigging up. The
section on flexible choke-and-kill hose and flexible section also includes a discussion on rig-walking
well-test hose. systems.
Lubrication: Discusses wear mechanisms and types of Well Control Equipment and Procedures: Covers the
lubrication. Covers in detail lubrication formulation of gamut of well-control equipment and practice, from
base oils and additives; lubricant properties, equipment to maintenance to procedures for land,
applications, and lubrication programs and practices, bottom-supported rigs and subsea operations. Updated
including fluid conditioning, management of change, with the latest information, this stand-alone chapter
storage handling, used oil analysis, and more. covers blowout preventer stack equipment and
Managed Pressure, Underbalanced and Air/Gas/ arrangements, BOP design, BOP testing, inside BOPs,
Mist/Foam Drilling: A brilliant guide to the key chokes, diverters, control systems and more. The
enabling technologies of managed-pressure, chapter’s section on well control procedures explains

calculations and more for well killing. As an added Six chapters tackle the following vital information, key to
bonus, the chapter includes the latest IADC Killsheets maximizing safety and efficiency in subsea rig operations.
for Driller’s Method, Wait and Weight (surface and Operational Risk Management and Well Integrity
subsea) and Bullheading Method. Each killsheet (James Hebert, Diamond Offshore Drilling Inc,
conveniently provided in US, metric and SI units. chairman): Barrier installation and maintenance for the
Wire Rope: Details the key information needed by rig life of the well;
personnel to properly use and maintain wire rope, with Well Planning and Rig Operations (Brian Tarr, Shell,
emphasis on obtaining the maximum safe life from the chairman): Relevance of well planning and well design
drilling line. Shows how to select the proper size and to well control;
type line to meet requirements, maintain and care for Equipment (Peter Bennett, Pacific Drilling, chairman):
the line to prevent damage, compute service in Typical well control equipment used on floating drilling
Ton-Miles, and choose a cut-off program best suiting rigs;
conditions. Includes numerous example calculations. Procedures (Earl Robinson, Murphy Oil Corp,
appendix. chairman): Kick prevention, detection and mitigation to
Appendix with Glossary: Fully updated to define maintain/regain control.
today’s industry terms, the IADC Glossary glossary Training and Drills (Benny Mason, Rig QA
provides guidance about common and not-so-common International, chairman): Planning, conducting and
acronyms, abbreviations and terms. continuously improving deepwater well control training
and drills;
IADC Deepwater Well Control Guidelines Emergency Response (John Garner, Booths and Coots,
The 2nd edition of the IADC Deepwater Well Control chairman): Activities and resources to manage a well
Guidelines includes new content on operational risk man- control emergency.
agement, sometimes called process safety, with additional
The IADC Deepwater Guidelines also include an appendix
new and refreshed content on well integrity, well planning,
defining important acronyms and terms.
rig operations, equipment, procedures, training and drills,
and emergency response. The year-long project was led by
Louis Romo, BP, Chairman of the Deepwater Well Control
IADC Health, Safety and Environmental
Guidelines Task Force, and Moe Plaisance, DODI, Executive Reference Guide
Advisor, with support from nearly 100 top-level experts. The redesigned IADC Health, Safety and Environmental
Reference Guide contains all the necessary guidelines for
The aim of the guidelines is to facilitate safe and efficient establishing a sound safety program, and includes valu-
deepwater drilling operations. This important publication able information on safe working practices. The redesigned
provides guidance for maintaining primary well control, ap- IADC Health, Safety and Environmental Reference Guide is
plying secondary well control methods and responding to an printed in full color with updated illustrations.
emergency in the event of a blowout. Each chapter is intend-
ed to facilitate the rig team’s primary task of maintaining and
optimizing control of the well.

AU
AUTOMATION

Get a grip on
automated tripping
MMC single handedly takes you there

To drilling contractors and rig operators who value safety, efficient operation and minimized wear and tear on
equipment, NOV Multi Machine Control is smartly integrated automation that optimizes tripping, stand building
and connection processes. This is all done by one person, freeing up valuable resources to look further into daily
safety and efficiency instead of focusing on machine control.
• MMC eliminates a big part of human errors in tripping operations

• MMC creates very consistent tripping speeds
• MMC extends equipment life with gentler operations
www.nov.com/mmc
AUTOMATION AU–i
CHAPTER
AU
AUTOMATION,
INSTRUMENTATION &
MECHANIZATION
T expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in
developing the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and
equipment maintenance and repair.
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for his
own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology advances
quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise
is required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the contributors to this
chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book will lead to
the result desired by the reader.
PRINCIPAL AUTHOR
Fred Florence, National Oilwell Varco
Gregers Kudsk, Maersk Drilling
John Pedersen, Maersk Drilling
REVIEWERS
Clinton Chapman, Schlumberger
Tom Geehan, MI SWACO
Moray Laing, SAS
John McPherson, Baker Hughes
Mario Zamora, MI SWACO

AU–ii AUTOMATION


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-5-3
Printed in the United States of America.

AUTOMATION AU-iii
CHAPTER AU
AUTOMATION
Contents
Overview of automated drilling operations........... AU-1
Impact on rig crew....................................................... AU-1
Automation systems.................................................... AU-1
Control and monitoring............................................... AU-3
Drilling network evolution..........................................AU-6
Examples of automation.............................................AU-6
Automated pipehandling..................................... AU-6
Standbuilding........................................................... AU-8
Tripping..................................................................... AU-8
Drilling ahead.......................................................... AU-8
Other automated procedures............................ AU-8
Operating automated equipment..................... AU-8
Restricted access zone (Red zone)........................AU-11

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Copyright © 2015.
International Association of
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The 2nd edition of the ground-breaking “IADC Deepwater Well Control Guidelines” is
available in print & electronic formats. The new deep-water guidelines include new content
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Copyright © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors.

AUTOMATION AU–1
Overview of automated drilling operations operated at a local panel, wired or wireless, and
For decades, nearly all rig designs used the basic separately from the integrated control station(s).
equipment of a drawworks, a rotary or top drive, and
several mud pumps. Drill floor operations were manual: Impact on rig crew
roughnecks handled tongs, slips and even spinning chains Automation is not intended to replace the driller, just like an
by hand. In the derrick, the derrickman pulled pipe to the autopilot does not eliminate the pilot of an airplane. Instead,
fingerboards with a piece of rope. Good crews did this automation can make the driller’s work easier and better.
well, and in some places, with excellent results. In other The driller is needed to supervise the operation and inter-
cases, however, injuries occurred, due to numerous factors, vene when there are tasks to perform that are not automat-
including human impairment (fatigue, distraction, etc), ed, and when things just don’t seem right.
poor judgment, inexperience, or well environment.
Automation also can allow the directional driller to be lo-
Rig owners and E&P companies asked for new tools and cated in a remote operating center, where he/she can su-
work flows to make this part of the job safer. Spinning chains pervise multiple rigs and steer the drilling assembly using
and tongs were replaced with pipe spinners and iron rough- remote controls, resulting in less travel to the rig site. Ser-
necks. Power slips made the work less manual. The addition vice companies from remote sites will also be able to assist
of these types of tools and machines is known as “mecha- with formation evaluation.
nization.”
The most important change resulting from introducing
Mechanization occurs when machines are introduced into drilling automation is monitoring and controlling the drilling
a process to allow people to do more with the machine than process with an overall picture of operations. Automation
they could do with their muscles. By pulling a lever or push- simulators can look at the rig settings with respect to pres-
ing and holding a button, the rig crew lets machines take sures, navigation, wellbore integrity, well productivity, time
some or all of the physical work out of the job. and cost impact, and more, all at the same time, and help
calculate the effect of changes to the drilling plan during the
As control systems evolved, machines were modified to take construction of the well
advantage of new measurements and control capabilities. A
single control command could trigger an entire sequence of Automation systems
steps programmed into the machine and its controls. The Most modern drilling equipment includes controllers such
execution of multiple steps by a machine to achieve some as PLCs (programmable logic controllers) and PACs (pro-
goal is an aspect of “automation,” which can more formal- grammable automation controllers) that collect sensor
ly be defined as a system that, without direct control by an information and provide signals to actuators that allow
operator, performs a set of actions using sensors and/or ac- machines to operate. Such systems are necessary for the
tuators of a machine. machine to execute its basic functions and allow it to be ac-
tivated from a remote location such as a driller’s station or
Automation, when implemented and used properly, can im- chair. Controllers can be connected together to form a net-
prove safety and drilling efficiency. When the machines can work that can communicate with one another and to HMIs
do the routine, repetitive work, the driller can focus on crew (human machine interfaces. Using these remote HMI’s on a
safety and downhole conditions. New automation systems mechanized rig, the driller monitors measurements and ex-
can warn the driller of possible downhole problems and can ecutes commands to control the drilling operation.
propose or change drilling parameters to avoid unwanted
wellbore influxes, stuck pipe, damaging drillstring vibra- HMIs on mechanized rigs range from older control stations
tions, and much more. with gauges, knobs, and buttons (see Figure AU-1) to new-
er fully digital computer displays (see Figure AU-2). In the
An automated system can be operated in different modes: case of the newer computer displays, most of these sys-
• Fully automated mode with no or tems have some sort of screen displays to make it easier to
minimal operator interaction; perform specific process, which can be changed to suit the
• Semi-automated mode in which operation/ current operation making it so driller’s cabins have far fewer
functions are performed in sequences buttons than those several decades old. However, the au-
with operator acknowledgment; tomatic system is not only controlling individual machines,
• Manual mode by the operator from a chair, but also systems that monitor their interaction regarding po-
controlling and monitoring equipment and systems sitioning, limits of operation, acceleration and braking, and
in a step-by-step or direct-control mode; overall safety aspects.
• Local mode where the equipment or system is

AU–2 AUTOMATION
Figure AU-1: Older driller’s control stations were cluttered with many buttons, switches
and knobs. Courtesy Jan A. Tjemsland and the Norwegian Petroleum Museum.
Figure AU-2: Newer control stations use displays configured for the
current drilling operation to reduce congestion and confusion.

AUTOMATION AU–3
By integrating measurements and and pressure while drilling (PWD).

control with algorithms in computer These tools monitor wellbore trajec-
systems connected to the network of tory, rock properties, vibration, and
controllers (or embedded within the downhole pressure, just to name a
controllers themselves), automated few. Measurements can be used man-
event detection, such as alarms, and ually by the drill crew to monitor the
automated control begin to surface. drilling process or fed into mathemat-
This allows control of individual ma- ical predictive models that compute
chines on the rig, as well as systems what is expected in the near future.
that monitor their interaction regard- One example would be to use the
ing positioning, limits of operation, drilling engineer’s hydraulics model
acceleration and braking and overall to estimate pressures in the wellbore
safety systems which can account for and update this model while drilling
rig operation objectives. using the PWD measurements. If
the trend looks like the pressures are
However, the automatic system is not building due to excess cuttings in the
only controlling individual machines, annulus, the drill crew could take pre-
but also systems that monitor their ventative measures, such as pumping
interaction regarding positioning, a sweep to clean the wellbore before
limits of operation, acceleration and the fracture pressure of the formation
braking, and overall safety aspects. is exceeded. Predictive models do not
By integrating measurements and replace the driller’s knowledge, but
control with algorithms in computer they can help alert the driller to unex-
systems connected to the network of pected situations.
Figure AU-3: A local control panel is not
controllers (or embedded within the
integrated with other machines.
controllers themselves), many types Once the monitoring is in place,
of automated sequences are possible. someone or something should control
One well known example is Zone Management, which is a the drilling machines to keep the drilling parameters within
smart system where the machines work together to avoid boundaries that are both safe and efficient. The driller ad-
collisions and dropped pipe, while moving at the maximum justs the throttles of the top drive and mud pumps and keeps
safe operating speed. While most machine alarms are the right weight on bit (WOB). The autodriller was invented
based on individual sensors, such as high temperature, over- to make this easier on the driller. After the driller sets the
speed, or excessive torque, automated event detection can desired WOB, the autodriller adjusts the brake, so the driller
alarm on operating conditions, such as potential downhole does not need to do this manually time after time. This is a
problems like stuck pipe, pack offs or fluid influxes. Limiting single example of semi-automated control.
tripping speeds and accelerations can also reduce a num-
ber of downhole pressure related problems such as induced A fully automated system would determine the optimum
fractures. As the system is expanded further to integrate WOB and control and coordinate the individual machines in
with downhole measurements and actuation with down- such a way that the entire process can be conducted with-
hole automation systems, such as rotary steerable systems, out human intervention, except of course, when something
automation of the full well-construction objective will have unusual occurs. The driller chooses the operation; the au-
been achieved tomation system does the required tasks to complete the
operation safely and properly. The driller carefully monitors
the actions.
Control and monitoring
Automation systems have two basic components: control Monitoring and control can be categorized as:
and monitoring. Monitoring systems need sensors and/or • Simple monitoring and manual/local control: Opera-
manual inputs to understand whether the process is going tions on the drill floor are performed more or less by
according to plan. Sensors include the familiar surface mea- using gauges or analog and digital instrumentation to
surements of hookload, block position, flow, density, pres- inform the driller. All control and equipment handling is
sure and others. executed in a manual and local mode by the driller and
crew on the drill floor;
Sometimes downhole sensors are deployed, such as mea-
surement while drilling (MWD), logging while drilling (LWD) • Advanced monitoring and manual/local control:

AU–4 AUTOMATION
Figure AU-4: Illustrates a first-generation DCN with two chairs and few PLCs, hardwired communication, PROFIBUS DP (decentralized
peripherals) and Ethernet. Courtesy of Aker Solutions.
Some rigs introduced “advanced drilling instrumenta- drill floor operational modes. Closed circuit television
tion” using networks set up with displays located in the (CCTV) allows the driller to visually monitor steps in
driller’s cabin and in the toolpusher´s office. The dis- the process at a remote location, such as checking the
plays help visualize the data on the rig, and sometimes position of fingerboard latches or watching the top
data is shared with off-site centers where everyone can drive engage with the top of the drillpipe while mak-
see the same information at the same time. The driller ing a connection. Operations can be performed in a
still controls the process in a manual and local mode; semi-automatic mode where tripping in/out is more
or less performed automatically and the driller’s only
• Advanced monitoring and integrated manual con- instructions are to confirm that actions have occurred
trol: Some rigs have “operator’s chairs” where most at critical steps in the process, and to choose the speed
of the monitoring and control is implemented in the of operation by adjusting the joystick on the chair. All
chair-shaped control station using networked and com- equipment on the drill floor must be upgraded hydrau-
puter-based solutions. This allows implementation of lically, pneumatically, electrically and mechanically for
automated hydraulic, pneumatic and advanced me- these semi-automated modes;
chanical solutions involving machines and equipment
used for drilling operations. It streamlines the hand-off • Advanced monitoring and full auto control: The
of control from the driller to the assistant driller and evolving “new generation” of drillfloor monitoring and
eliminates the “local” control and operation to ensure a control will be enabled for full automation, using sur-
safer and more reliable drilling operation; face and downhole sensors, mathematical models and
real-time simulation plus machines purpose-built for
• Advanced monitoring and semi-auto control: To- automation. This will reduce drilling related problems,
day’s existing solutions for drillfloor operations typi- improve drilling efficiency and increase the safety and
cally implement advanced monitoring with sufficient reliability of drill floor and downhole operations.
redundancy of control and monitoring systems for all

AUTOMATION AU–5
Figure AU-5 & AU-6 (above and below) show an advanced DCN network for two well centers with four chairs, where CCTV is implemented with
fully automated functionality of machinery on drill floor. Figure AU-5 courtesy Aker Solutions. Figure AU-6 is courtesy National Oilwell Varco.

AU–6 AUTOMATION
Table AU-1: Key elements to monitor from within the Drilling Control Network (DCN).
Flow in Flow out Flow Choke
Hook TD TD Hook Bit Total Stand Coriolis MP
WOB GPM GPM Out back
Load RPM Tq Pos Depth Depth no position SPM
(coriolis) (coriolis) (meter) pressure
Drilling
X X X X X X X X X X X X
Conventionally
Drilling with
X X X X X X X X X X X X X
MPD
Tripping X X X X X
Run/Retrieve
X X X X
BOP
Flow Check X X X X X
Well Control X X X X X X X X X
Logging X x x
Active
Indicator Total Trip
MP Vol. Active Stroke Trip
Res. Comp. for IBOP, Hook Trip Trip Trip Tank
Disch. (header, Gain/ counters Tank
Vol. Pos. Elev, Speed Tank 1 Tank 2 tank return
Pres. pond, loss (3-4) Discrep.
Slips volume flow
gutter)
Drilling
X X X X X X X X X X X
Conventionally
Drilling with
MPD
Tripping X X X X X
Run/Retrieve
X X X X
BOP
Flow Check X X X X X
Well Control X X X X X X X X
Logging X x x
Table AU-1: Key elements to monitor from within the Drilling Control Network (DCN) include hookload. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
Drilling network evolution well as additional monitors for CCTV, third party equipment
Rig controls have improved from manual levers and motor as MWD, etc.
control rheostats to computerized networks of machine Alarm handling is essential to ensure that the operator only
control devices like PLCs and touch screen monitors, often gets alarms that are essential for safe operation. Unneces-
referred to as a drilling control network (DCN). Over time, sary alarms from auxiliaries as seawater systems, freshwa-
the development of the DCN has expanded from a sim- ter systems, generator systems, etc., should be avoided, and
ple network with approximately 1,000 input/output (I/O) these alarms should be directly transferred to the mainte-
points, to today where a dual-well center control network nance department onboard.
with interface to other systems will typically have between
25,000 to 30,000 I/O (hardwired and serial). HMI and alarm handling are still an ongoing development
Figure AU-4 illustrates a first-generation DCN with two process to ensure improvement of safe operation for drill
chairs and few PLCs, hardwired communication, PROFIBUS floor.
DP (decentralized peripherals) and Ethernet.
Figures AU-5 and AU-6 show an advanced DCN network for Examples of automation
two well centers with four chairs, where closed circuit tele-
vision (CCTV) is implemented with fully automated func- Automated pipehandling
tionality of machinery on drill floor. There are established in- The most commonly known automated system involves
terfaces with the BOP control system for monitoring, choke handling of drillpipe, because the system can remove crew-
and kill for monitoring, DP system, mud mixing and mud members from harm’s way and mitigate issues related to
treatment system, etc. tripping pipe. Various drill floor and pipe deck machines
The operator normally has access to two screens/monitors have integrated controls so that they all work together to
in front of him where all essential information is shown, as move tubulars, assemble them into stands, rack them in the

AUTOMATION AU–7
Table AU-2: Key elements to monitor from the closed circuit television (CCTV).
Wash
pipe/ Hoisting
Drawworks/
Flow TD IBOP TD Mud Rotary Pit Sheaves
Shakers Manifolds CMC hoisting
Line Conn (will be elevators Pumps table Room (crown
cylinders
various block)
heights
Drilling
Conventionally
Drilling with
MPD
Tripping X X X X X X X
Run/Retrieve
X X X X X
BOP
Flow Check X X X
Well Control X X X X X X
Logging X X
Wire line
Drill Drill Riser Riser Riser Riser
Drill pipe RPS/ Capstan Wireline Sheave in Moon
pipe pipe finger gantry gantry finger
fingerboards TFM Unit Unit Derrick/ pool
setback VPC board crane shuffle boards
mast
Drilling
X X X X
Conventionally
Drilling with
X X X X X
MPD
Tripping X X X X X
Run/Retrieve
X X X X X X
BOP
Flow Check
Well Control
Logging X X X
Table AU-2: Key elements to monitor from the closed circuit television (CCTV). Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
derrick, and run them in or out of the hole. Automated pipe

handling puts the pieces together and lowers them into the
wellbore with a minimum of commands from the drill crew.
The drill crew can even set a speed limit, so that the lowering
does not create excessive surge pressure on the formations.
The pipe handling systems have different capabilities de-
pending on the rig type and the type of wells for which they
were designed. Automation on a land rig is very different
from that on a deepwater semisubmersible or drillship. Ad-
vanced pipehandling systems normally include the following
mechanized machines:
• Hoisting system, with either a drawworks with disk
brakes and /or AC motor brakes or a hydraulic cylinder
or rack-and-pinion system. Some rigs even use a
two-drawworks solution: a topdrive with pipehandler;
• Rotary with power slips;
• Iron roughneck with a mudbucket system; Video AU-1: Currently, pipehandling is the best-known
drilling-automation application. The advanced pipehandler
• Pipehandling machine, like a column racker, shown can build and rack drillpipe, HWDP and casing,
a bridge-crane system or a cartridge- including fully automated standbuilding and tripping. No
style that often works as a system; people are on the rig floor. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
• Remote-operated racking boards;
• Pipe-doping system;

AU–8 AUTOMATION
• Pipe-deck system; the desired value. The autodriller does not control both WOB
• Pipe deck crane, or; and delta P. It controls line payout, and it stops paying out line
• Pipe handler on the pipe deck, and; when one of the boundary conditions, either WOB or delta P,
• Conveyor belt or catwalk machine (or similar) is too high. If the autodriller has more than two parameters, it
to transport the pipe to the drillfloor. stops paying out line when any one of the parameters exceeds
• Possibly a V-door machine; the set points.
• Chutes from a low setback area may be installed;
• CCTV system, with cameras located on equipment In the future, automated drilling will do much more than
or positioned in the drilling tower, mast or derrick; control the brake. Pipe movement (up and down) and pipe
• Tailing arm to secure and position the lower end of the rotation will be adjusted as needed. Mud pump flow rates,
tubulars as they move from the V-door to well center. managed pressure systems and drilling chokes will be in-
cluded. Harmful drillstring vibrations will be avoided. Sur-
face and downhole measurements will feed drilling models
Standbuilding that will adjust the setpoints on the drilling machinery and
Stands of drillpipe and bottomhole assemblies (BHAs) are downhole tools. It may be something similar to a continual
often assembled in a separate location called an auxiliary automated drill-off test or adjusting parameters to minimize
mousehole. Stand building may also have an optional use in downhole vibrations measured at the bit.
preparing and racking back stands of casing. On some rigs,
this can be done offline to reduce trip times.
Other automated procedures
There are few, if any, automated procedures in use today, oth-
Tripping er than the piperacking systems and the autodriller. Look for
With the stands already racked in the setback area, the pipe- running and retrieving the riser and BOP to be automated in
handling machines and the rig’s hoisting system are integrat- the future. BOP and choke manifold testing will not be far off.
ed to trip pipe in or out of the well in an automated fashion. There are obviously many more processes that can be safely
The driller can set a maximum speed, but this still requires automated over the next few years.
rigorous monitoring of the downhole conditions to avoid ex-
cessive surge and swab pressures, tracking pick up and slack
off weights, and watching for possible ledges and other con- Operating automated equipment
ditions critical when tripping manually. As operator of an advanced or simple drilling operation today,
there are several parameters that should be taken into consid-
Future systems will use hydraulic models that calculate eration and monitored while these operations/ functionalities
downhole pressures in real time and automatically adjust the are performed.
trip speed limits depending on mud properties and downhole As “operator,” when located in the chair, you are responsible
conditions. The models will issue alerts when abnormal con- for a safe operation.
ditions are suspected. The driller will still be at the center of
the process, but perhaps not physically located near the haz- Tables AU-1 through AU-7 offer simple guidelines for “what
ardous location on the rig floor. to monitor“ when located in the “chair” on the drilling con-
trol network (DCN), including CCTV, BOP, choke and kill
panel (C&K), logging system, MWD, and fire and gas sys-
Drilling ahead tems. This information is sourced both from rig owners and
Automated drilling today uses a brake controller to limit the third parties. Be aware that third-party information might
payout of the drill line. When the calculated WOB is below not be available to view.
a threshold, more line is released until the WOB reaches the
set point. Some autodrillers use multiple parameter control, These tables present guidelines and are not exhaustive. Fur-
but they still do just one thing: they limit the payout of the ther, rig type and layout can impact information availability
drill line. When drilling a horizontal well, the normal way we or applicability. Therefore, a similar setup should be gener-
calculate WOB is no longer valid. Drillers normally measure ated for the specific vessel and drill floor layout of any given
the standpipe pressure off bottom and again when they start operation. It is recommended that the Driller not focus on
drilling. The pressure will change due to the forces of the bit the dynamic-positioning (DP) system. Instead, the Driller
and formation and the torque from a downhole drilling mo- should rely the DP Operator to confirm that operations are
tor. This differential pressure is called “delta P.” When drilling following approved procedures and for feedback regarding
off differential pressure, if delta P is below a certain thresh- watch circles/times.
old, the autodriller pays out more line until delta P reaches

AUTOMATION AU–9
Table AU-3: Key elements to monitor from the BOP panel.
Well head Well head BOP Acc system Flow count for functions
BOP line up Alarms
pressure Temp pressure (calculated and actual)
Drilling
X X X X X X
Conventionally
Drilling with
X X X X X X
MPD
Tripping X X X
Run/Retrieve
X X
BOP
Flow Check X
Well Control X X X X X X
Logging X X X X X
Table AU-3: Shows key elements to monitor from the BOP panel. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
Table AU-4: Key elements to monitor from the choke panel.
Manifold Manifold MGS MGS MGS Choke

MGS liquid seal Choke Temp
line up Pressures differential temperature pressure Pressure
Drilling
X
Conventionally
Drilling with
X
MPD
Tripping X
Run/Retrieve
BOP
Flow Check X
Well Control X X X X X X X X
Logging X
Table AU-4: Shows key elements to monitor from the choke panel. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
Table AU-5: Key elements to monitor

from logging systems.
Background gas
Drilling
X
Conventionally
Drilling with
Table AU-5: Shows key elements to monitor from MPD
X
logging systems. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
Tripping
Run/Retrieve
BOP
Flow Check
Well Control X
Logging X

AU–10 AUTOMATION
Table AU-6: Key elements to monitor from MWD and directional drilling tools.
Lateral
Stick Slip Whirl Actual WOB Actual Bit RPM Actual Bit Torque Well Trajectory
vibration
Drilling
X X X X X X X
Conventionally
Drilling with
X X X X X X X
MPD
Tripping
Run/Retrieve
BOP
Flow Check
Well Control
Logging
Table AU-6: Shows key elements to monitor from MWD and directional drilling tools. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
Table AU-7: Key elements to monitor

from fire and gas systems.
Fire Gas
Fire Type Gas Type
Location Location
Drilling
X X X X Table AU-7: Shows key elements to monitor from fire
Conventionally
and gas systems. Courtesy Maersk Drilling.
Drilling with
X X X X
MPD
Tripping X X X X
Run/Retrieve
X X X X
BOP
Flow Check X X X X
Well Control X X X X
Logging X X X X

AUTOMATION AU–11
Pending the system setup, there will be common or sever- The restricted access zones in connection with general lifting
al monitors and systems from which the operator gets all operations are typically the areas of the deck or structure be-
of the information, and the operator should be familiarized low any crane or where the load of a crane can be expected
with these systems before going into operation. Whether to land.
dual-well centers with four or five chairs or one well center
with two or three chairs, it should be clearly specified what to The general philosophy of the restricted access zone is to
monitor during operation when located in one of these chairs. establish a visual indication of an area where there is a high
potential for a hazardous event to occur if someone enters
without authorization.
Restricted access zone (red zone)
Rig crews identify and mark off areas that should be restrict- The restricted access zone could and should be treated in a
ed to essential personnel only. Indication of this “red zone” similar way to that of a safety barrier taped-off area, exten-
provides a simple and uniform procedure for identifying sively used throughout the industry to control and prevent
and/or differentiating between the areas deemed hazard- unaware individuals from entering an area with potentially
ous and less hazardous on the drill floor, pipe deck, riser hazardous conditions or events.
storage, moonpool and adjacent areas, and identifying haz-
ards in connection with handling operations. The intention is to identify the restricted access zone areas
for both drilling- and lifting-related operations and describe
On the drill floor, the restricted access zone is defined as the the control measures to be implemented to minimize the
drill floor and the area that can be impacted by equipment risks associated when working within the red zone.
remotely operated from the rig floor. This includes adjacent
walkways. Access to restricted zones in connection with lifting opera-
tions is normally not needed, but due to the large area a crane
With the range of automatic and remotely operated pipe or lifting device is able to cover, personnel can enter the lift-
and riser handling equipment in the restricted access zones, ing zone without being aware of the potential hazards from
as well as rotating machinery and high-pressure circulating the overhead work. The restricted access zones are estab-
manifolds, the area can be deemed hazardous. lished in order to avoid any personnel movement within the
work zones of a lifting appliance.
The red zone also provides a clearly defined and controlled
working environment for all drill floor activities and lifting op-
erations across the rig.

BI
BITS

BITS BI–i
CHAPTER
BI
BITS
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible
for his own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology
contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in
this book will lead to the result desired by the reader.
PRINCIPAL AUTHORS
Tyler Cobb, Baker Hughes
Dan Scott, Baker Hughes
Ron Dirksen, Halliburton
Alfazazi Dourfaye, Varel International
Craig Fleming, Schlumberger
Richard Rivera, National Oilwell Varco
Jorge Silveus, Ulterra
REVIEWERS
Bob Radtke, Technology International, Inc.
Ernesto Medialdia, Drilling Consultant

BI–ii BITS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-0-8

BITS BI-iii
CHAPTER BI
BITS
Contents
Introduction......................................................................BI-1 Hole openers.................................................... BI- 14
Roller cone development.........................................BI-1 Hammer bits.......................................................BI-15
Early diamond bit development.............................BI-2 Casing-while-drilling bits................................BI-15
PDC arrives..................................................................BI-2 Two-cone bits....................................................BI-15
Dual/dueling bit evolution......................................BI-2 Impreg and PDC hybrid bit............................BI-15
Directional drilling considerations........................BI-3 Cutting structures..........................................................BI-16
Motor roller cone................................................BI-3 Roller cone.................................................................BI-16
Steerable PDC......................................................BI-3 Steel tooth...........................................................BI-16
King diamond.......................................................BI-4 Tunsgten carbide inserts................................BI-16
Emerging technology.........................................BI-4 Diamond bits.............................................................BI-16
Drill bit basics....................................................................BI-5 PDC cutter technology....................................BI-16
History..........................................................................BI-5 PDC types...........................................................BI-17
Drilling bits classification....................................... BI-6 Diamond table...................................................BI-17
Design basics............................................................. BI-6 Cutter shape.......................................................BI-17
Roller-cone bits....................................................BI-6 Thermally stable polycrystalline cutters.................BI-18
Offset......................................................................BI-6 Leaching..................................................................... BI-18
Journal (bearing pin) angle.............................. BI-7 TSP application........................................................ BI-18
Soft formations: low journal angle................ BI-7 Cutter design............................................................ BI-18
Hard formations: high journal angle............. BI-7 Finite-element analysis......................................... BI-18
Design factors summary........................................ BI-8 Impact test................................................................ BI-18
Lubrication and pressure compensation system....BI-8 Abrasion test.............................................................BI-19
Roller cone.................................................................. BI-8 Thermal stability......................................................BI-19
Diamond bits...............................................................BI-9 Substrate interface..................................................BI-19
Bit profile...............................................................BI-9 Related equipment.........................................................BI-19
Bit profile types....................................................... BI-11 Additional bit accessories.....................................BI-19
Blade geometry: straight or spiral..................... BI-11 Installation................................................................ BI-20
Specialized roller-cone bits.................................. BI-12 Nozzle and plug installation and removal.............. BI-20
Air bits..................................................................BI-12 PDC nozzle installation......................................... BI-20
Jet deflection bits..............................................BI-12 PDC ports, plug removal...................................... BI-21
Specialized fixed-cutter bits..........................BI-12 PDC nozzle installation and removal tools...... BI-21
Sidetrack bits......................................................BI-12 Roller cone, nozzle installation........................... BI-21
Impregnated bits...............................................BI-12 Snap ring........................................................... BI-21
Surface-set diamond bits/natural Retaining pin.................................................... BI-21
diamond bits.......................................................BI-13 Large diamenter bits – center jets
Core bits..............................................................BI-13 and ports................................................................... BI-21
Hybrid bits (PDC and roller cone)...............BI-13 Roller cone, nozzle removal................................. BI-21

BI–iv BITS
Roller cone nozzle installation Impact on other stages of drilling, completion and
and removal tools................................................... BI-21 production....................................................................... BI-29
Bit make-up procedure.......................................... BI-21 Proper storage considerations............................ BI-29
Bits run on special BHA tools............................. BI-22 Tricone bit storage.................................................. BI-29
Suggested operating recommendations.......... BI-22 Sealed tricone bits.................................................. BI-29
Optimizing parameter overview......................... BI-23 Non-sealed tricone bits........................................ BI-30
Mechanical specific energy....................................... BI-23 Storage method 1: greasing the cones..... BI-30
Importance in drilling operations....................... BI-23 Storage method 2: submersed in oil......... BI-30
Definition................................................................... BI-23 Prior to use............................................................... BI-30
Application................................................................ BI-23 Locked cone.............................................................. BI-30
Monitoring drilling parameter procedures.............BI-24 Fixed cutters bit storage....................................... BI-30
Data sources............................................................ BI-24 Drill bit repairs................................................................ BI-30
General overview of monitoring......................... BI-24 PDC............................................................................. BI-30
Rotary speed............................................................ BI-24 Post-run evaluation........................................ BI-30
Torque........................................................................ BI-24 PDC cutting elements and secondary
Weight on bit........................................................... BI-24 components replacement and reclaim..... BI-31
Flow rate.................................................................... BI-24 Drill bit body and gauge.............................. BI-31
When to pull the drill bit...................................... BI-25 Pin connections and upper sections (matrix
bits)..................................................................... BI-31
Pull the bit for ROP.......................................... BI-25
Miscellaneous modifications....................... BI-31
Pull the bit for mechanical damage............ BI-25
Roller cone................................................................ BI-31
PDC bits..................................................... BI-25
Re-tipping.......................................................... BI-31
Roller-cone bits........................................ BI-25
Post-repair documentation
Factors in premature bearing failure:........ BI-25
and inspections............................................... BI-31
Pull the bit for bit balling............................... BI-25
Important calculations................................................. BI-32
Pull the bit for nozzle problem..................... BI-25
Drilling hydraulics........................................... BI-32
Lost nozzle................................................. BI-25
Pressure drop................................................... BI-32
Plugged nozzle......................................... BI-27
Hydraulic horsepower................................... BI-32
Dull grading and forensics.......................................... BI-27
Hydraulic horsepower/square inch........... BI-32
System enhancements.......................................... BI-27
Jet velocity........................................................ BI-33
Evaluating “cutting structure”............................. BI-28
Jet impact force.............................................. BI-33
Inner/ourter rows: spaces 1 and 2............ BI-28
Drilling economics.......................................... BI-33
Dull characteristics: space 3....................... BI-28
Cost per foot.................................................... BI-33
Location: space 4............................................ BI-28
Break-even line................................................ BI-33
Other evaluation criteria....................................... BI-28
Proper handling............................................... BI-34
Bearing: space 5.............................................. BI-28
Safety and handling...................................................... BI-35
Gauge: space 6................................................ BI-28
Governing standards & guidelines/references.... BI-36
Other dull characteristics: space 7........... BI-28
Reason pulled: space 8 ................................ BI-29

BITS BI–1
Table BI-1: Alternate names, acronyms & slang

Introduction
Rotary rigs drilling for oil in the early 1900s used a drag- Bit type/subtype Alternate names
type fishtail bit that made hole by scraping and shearing the Drill bits Earth-boring bits
bottom of the wellbore (Figure BI-2a and 2b). Although this
Fixed cutter bits Diamond bits, drag bits
was an improvement over percussion-style cable-tool rigs,
the fishtail bit limited rotary drilling to soft, plastic forma- Polycrystalline diamond PDC bits, diamond bits, drag
tions because they were not durable enough to penetrate compact (PDC) bits bits, fixed-blade bits, matrix
hard and abrasive formations. In 1909 a two-cone rolling bits, steel body bits
cutter bit conceived by Howard Hughes, Sr. was introduced Impregnated bits Impregs
at Spindletop field near Beaumont, Texas.1 The cutting struc-
ture was created by milling circumferential and axial grooves Natural diamond bits Surface set
into a steel conical rolling cone, producing a series of sharp Eccentric bits Bi-center bits
teeth. The rolling cones, combined with the sharp cutting
Thermally stable poly- --
structure, created a unique crushing action. The roller-cone
crystalline (TSP)
bit revolutionized oilfield drilling by enabling operators to
use rotary rigs to efficiently penetrate hard and abrasive Roller-cone bits Tricone bits, rolling cone bits
formations to gain access to the reservoir without hole de- Tooth bits Steel tooth (st), mill-tooth,
viation issues and costly delays associated with previous rock bits
methods.
Insert bits Tungsten carbide, tci bits,
Roller cone development insert bits, button bits,
During the following years, several major enhancements Hugheset® bits
driven by Floyd Scott and his team increased the roller-cone One-cone bits Uni-cones, single-cone bits
bit’s footage and rate of penetration (ROP) capabilities. Two-cone bits Bi-cone bits
In 1925 engineers devised a method for welding tungsten
Three-cone bits Tricone bits, roller-cone bits
carbide hard facing to the milled-tooth cutting structure,
increasing durability. In 1933, a three-cone version was Air bits
produced by perfecting offsetting cone geometry to ac- Hole opener tools Hole enlargement tools,
commodate the third cone. In 1951, precision machine tools expandable borehole tool
allowed manufacturers to force-press tungsten carbide in-
Fixed reamers --
serts (TCI) into pre-drilled holes in the cone steel, creating
the TCI roller-cone bit. This focused effort was once again Expandable reamers Concentric reamers
driven by the need to further enhance a bit’s ability to effi- Roller-cone reamers --
ciently drill hard and abrasive formations. The “Jet” bit, em- Eccentric reamers Bi-center bit
ploying the predecessor of today’s nozzles, was introduced
Specialty bits --
to help deal with the bottomhole cleaning. The underlying
problem of low ROP was caused by a phenomena known as Hybrid – impreg and PDC --
bottomhole balling that becomes progressively worse with Hybrid – PDC and Hyb
increased depths and mudweights. 2 Also, cutter tracking roller-cone
and off-center running further exacerbate the problems. In Casing-while-drilling CwD
1959, the first functional sealed bearing roller-cone bit was
Core bits --
introduced, offering extended life by allowing the bearing to
operate in a clean grease environment. 3 In 1969, an O-ring Hammer bits Percussion bits
sealed friction-bearing design revolutionized bit life by dis- Mills Diamond mills, speed mills,
tributing bearing loads over larger surfaces, reducing stress junk mills
levels in critical areas and leading to runs of three to four Coil-tubing --
times the prior life.4 However, limitations in drilling shale
Junk bits Junk mills
and other soft formations remained to be solved.
Casing-exit bits --
To further address the low ROP issues, research and devel- etc. The knowledge gained led to updated roller cone cutting
opment (R&D) focused on the rolling action and how the structure designs with bearing pin angles, optimized skew
cutting structure engages the formation. Engineers experi- angles and cone profiles that featured innovative TCI shapes
mented with different cone angles and made modifications and recent hardfacing materials that dramatically improved
to the cutting structure teeth shape, projection, orientation, steel tooth bits. 5-9 Due to their innovative design and unique

BI–2 BITS
crushing action, roller-cone bits accounted for approximate-

ly 96% of the total oilfield footage drilled worldwide be- Dual/dueling bit evolution
tween the years 1909-1986. Increased drilling activity in the 1990s rejuvenated demand,
and both types of bits continued to evolve with R&D efforts
Early diamond bit development focused on increasing service life of roller-cone bits and ex-
During the time roller cone reigned supreme, different man- panding the PDC application envelope into harder and more
ufactures were experimenting with natural diamond bits, abrasive formations while attempting to maximize penetra-
and in 1946 a diamond coring bit was successfully run in tion rates of both types of bits. During this time span, the
Rangely Field, Colorado In 1952, the first non-coring surface bits were generally applied as follows: 1) roller cone was uti-
set natural diamond bit developed by Christiansen was suc- lized in hard/abrasive and interbedded formations and for
cessfully run in an oilfield application. This design utilized complex directional work, and 2) PDC was applied in mostly
an erosion-resistant carbide matrix and a new powder met- soft to medium formations and for less demanding direc-
allurgical process for mounting natural diamonds in the bit tional applications. However, the drive to advance bit tech-
crown. In 1960, an impregnated diamond bit was introduced nology intensified when global engineering studies quan-
that featured sintered cutting segments composed of sharp, tified the large impact improvements in bit design have on
grit-size diamonds mixed with tungsten carbide and a me- overall drilling efficiency and its vast potential for lowering
tallic binder. The resulting grinding action enabled an im- project costs.13,14 Manufacturers responded with a series of
pregnated bit to drill the hardest, most abrasive formations systematic advancements in bit technology that improved
but at a much lower ROP compared to alternative bit types. performance in both product lines in the world’s most de-
Other similar bits had the diamond grit dispersed in the car- manding drilling theaters.13,14
bide matrix and infiltrated with a copper-based binder, and
others chose to make the bit crown and bit face as a unit, In 1987, a diamond-enhanced insert improved roller cone
casting the new impregnated segments into the bits. gauge-holding capabilities on TCI bits and increased bore-
hole quality.15-22 During this same time, design and applica-
PDC arrives tion engineers experimented with PDC blade count and cut-
In 1976, after four years of development and isolated bit ter configurations. The industry also focused attention on
runs by General Electric Superabrasives, the first commer- modeling cutter loading and analyzing drilling mechanics to
cial synthetic PDC bits specifically designed for oilfield ap- quantify and mitigate downhole vibrations. 23-24 As operators
plications were manufactured and field-tested. The work by continued to explore the outer boundaries of the PDC appli-
the innovative leaders proved the capability of stud-mount- cation envelope, the industry began to describe the damag-
ed synthetic diamond drill blanks, which would evolve into ing effects that downhole vibrations have on PDC bits and
today’s PDC cutters, to efficiently shear soft formations10,11 cutters. 25-30
In 1982, the first cylindrical PDC cutters were introduced
using new materials and bonding techniques to attach the The inefficiencies drove the industry to explore new manu-
synthetic diamond cutters to the bit body. PDC bit develop- facturing methods to develop cutter technology that could
ment continued during the early 1980s with the introduction withstand with a punishing downhole environment and
of a parabolic face profile that increased cutter density in the develop bit bodies that would remain dynamically stable
gauge area to improve durability when drilling with a motor in targeted applications. 31-36 Non-planer interfaces, appli-
at high RPM. cation-specific PDC cutters, low-friction polished cutters,
improved edge geometries and ultra-thick high-toughness
In 1986-87 the price of crude oil plummeted to $9/bbl, PDC cutters were introduced. The next major step involved
causing a dramatic decline in drilling activity and bit devel- producing cutter technology using a deep leaching pro-
opment. In spite of the downturn, the industry produced cess25, and that led to a new process that involves a two-step
an application-specific three-bladed PDC bit with dedicat- high-temperature/high-pressure procedure that produces
ed hydraulics specifically designed to drill soft and sticky a cutter capable of maintaining a sharp, efficient cutting
shale.12 The combination of technologies alleviated bit ball- edge. 37,38 In 2013, a fully rotating cutter was introduced that
ing issues drilling soft formations in water-based mud and effectively utilizes the entire 360° diamond cutting edge
served as the basis for next generation soft formation PDC. to reduce frictional heat/wear while increasing drilling ef-
Drilling research work led to the discovery of bit whirl and ficiency and bit life, and a cutter with a non-planer cutting
the effects of this dynamic dysfunction on cutter durability. face that was documented to stay cooler was introduced39,40,
41
The proposed solution from a team at Amoco produced a ( SPE-168000).
much more robust cutting structure, and a step change in
life was noticed. Competition from new suppliers entering
the market aided the development of improved PDC cutters.

BITS BI–3
Diamond vs Roller Cone: Footage drilled, historical trend

100%
80%
60%
Gold Series Genesis
40% Anti-whirl
20%
0%
1985 1990 1995 2000 2004
Tricone Footage (%) Diamond Footage (%)
Figure BI-1: Industry philosophy of continuous improvement led to the rapid advancement of
PDC technology to solve application challenges. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Directional drilling considerations scribing problems while steering with PDC bits. They de-
Another key driver influencing bit development is the ev- termined that controlling PDC torque response to weight-
er-increasing requirement for directional drilling. The indus- on-bit changes in motor steerable applications is critical to
try requires complex wellbore trajectories and multilaterals maximize ROP while rotating without compromising direc-
to economically develop offshore oil and gas reserves and in tional control when sliding. The issues of toolface control
difficult-to-reach reservoirs in land applications. The evolu- with PDC bits has been discussed in the literature, and a
tion in motor- and rotary-steerable tools has played a vital number of approaches have been used to improve perfor-
role in drill bit development. Properly matching the bit to mance, including increased cutter back rake, higher blade
the formations to be drilled and other bottomhole assembly counts, small cutters, wear knots, large chamfers and most
(BHA) components is critical to project success, and a num- recently a patented depth of cut (DOC) feature that has a
ber of bit technologies have been incorporated into roller bearing surface to limit reactive torque. The objective of
cone and PDC bits to accomplish these objectives. each of these design changes is to reduce bit aggressiveness
with increased weight on bit (WOB). However, the conse-
Motor roller cone quence of this approach can lower drilling efficiency and
The high rotational speed of motor drilling was one of the ROP in hard formations to gain steerability in soft rock if not
primary drivers in the accelerated advancement of seal and properly applied. At times the bits are too aggressive to drill
bearing technology. A unique twin elastomer sealing system soft formations at high angles.46-51
was developed to protect the bearing from corrosive drilling
and formation fluids in hot/high-pressure formations.42,43
An innovative metal-sealed bearing has also been incorpo-
rated into a wide range of bits to accomplish the same objec-
tives with the added ability to operate reliably at high rotary
speeds.44,45 Improved cutting structure configurations in the
gauge and heel rows were developed for TCI, and enhanced
hard-facing materials and application techniques were per-
fected on the milled tooth bits. Manufacturers have also
increased tungsten carbide hard-facing on the shirttail and
up the leading edge of the leg for additional protection in di-
rectional applications. Although roller cone provides drillers
with good directional control, its slower ROP and limited run
life relative to the latest PDC bits led to significant research
into steerable PDC bits.
Steerable PDC
With PDC bits continually encroaching on traditional roller Figure BI-2a & 2b: Fish tail bit and percussion bits.
cone applications, engineers began experiencing and de-

BI–4 BITS
Figure BI-3: Howard R. Hughes was granted US Patent 930759 on August 10, 1909, for two-cone bits.
Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
damage to the brittle synthetic diamond cutters. The stable

bit allowed the bit companies and cutter suppliers to more
reliably evaluate improvements in materials and processes.
The result has been a dramatic improvement in cutter tech-
nology and bit performance. If the cutters remain intact, the
bit can continue to drill at an acceptable ROP. This gives PDC
bits a distinct advantage over roller cone and other bit types
in the majority of today’s applications, with an increasing
number of shoe-to-shoe runs being the norm in many ap-
plications.
Emerging technology
Today we are seeing a combination of PDC and roller-cone
components to produce a hybrid bit. 52 It employs the crush-
ing action of a roller cone combined with the scrapping
action of PDC. It performs well in interbedded formations
Figure BI-4: Howard R. Hughes was granted US

Patent 959540 on May 31, 1910, for a three-
cone roller bit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
King diamond
In today’s drilling environment, PDC bits are the industry’s
workhorse accounting for approximately 75% of total foot-
age drilled in worldwide oilfield applications. The shift to
majority PDC drilling took only 28 years to achieve and oc-
curred in 2004 when footage drilled by PDC increased to
54% (see Figure BI-1). The dramatic swing was made pos-
sible by stabilizing the bit body with various techniques to Figure BI-5: : Synthetic diamond (grit).
significantly reduce downhole vibration and mitigate impact

BITS BI–5
Figure BI-6: Development paths for today’s drill bits.
handling the transitions without the vibrations of a PDC, and in some of the oil-producing countries in Europe. Fish
in those where the PDC is not consistent enough to make tail-type bits were used (Figure BI-2a);
the required interval reliably. An adjustable DOC control • 1859: Edwing Laurentine Drake drilled the first oil
feature is being introduced which will alleviate some of the commercial well in Titusville, Pennsylvania. Percussion-
concerns mentioned with earlier technologies. Further, new type bits were used (Figure BI-2b);
cutter technology is emerging with cutters which are free to • 1900: The rotary drilling system was in general use in
rotate in a PDC bit, and others have innovative chamfers or Texas;
a contoured face to control chip flow and temperature. A • 1901: On January 10 a well at the Spindle Top oilfield, a
resurgence in the science of the HTHP apparatus for making salt-dome structure located in south Beaumont, Texas,
PDC cutters has led to substantial improvements in the base was drilled, marking the birthdate of the modern
underlying cutter technology. petroleum industry;
• 1909: Howard R. Hughes granted US Patent 930759 on
August 10 for two cone bits (Figure BI-3);
Drill bit basics • 1910: Howard R. Hughes granted US. Patent 959540 on
The drilling bit industry is changing rapidly in the areas of May 31 for a three-cone roller bit (Figure BI-4);
manufacturing technology and the use of new materials. • 1925: Cutting structures with intermesh were invented;
Computers have also caused dramatic changes in the drill- • 1928: Use of tungsten carbide hard-facing first used in
ing bit manufacture process, as today the use of bottomhole the drilling industry;
simulation software in order to have a new bit design “virtu- • 1939: “Offset” criteria was introduced to roller-cone bit
ally tested” before it gets manufactured is a very common design;
practice in this industry. • 1940: Natural diamond bits introduced to the market;
• 1951: TCI first used in roller-cone bits;
History • 1953: General Electric Company created synthetic
The drill bit history timeline actually stars about 5,000 years diamond crystals (Figure BI-5);
ago in ancient China. There is some historical evidence indi- • 1963: Sealed bearing roller-cone bits first used;
cating that water wells were drilled using cable drilling tech- • 1969: O-ring sealed journal bearing introduced;
nology with percussion bits. • 1976: The PDC cutter was introduced by General Electric;
• 1986: Diamond-enhanced inserts (DEI) introduced on
More recently: roller-cone bits by MegaDiamond;
• 1845: Pierre Pascal Fauvelle invented the rotary drilling • 1994: PDC technology introduced the non-planar
system. It was used in the early years of the oil industry interface (NPI) between tungsten carbide substrate and

BI–6 BITS
Figure BI-7: The bit cone’s “offset” is the horizontal distance between the bit axis and a vertical plane through the axis of the journal.
Soft formations usually experience a high offset, while hard formations usually have a low offset. Courtesy Schlumberger.
• 2013: Rotating PDC cutter and a PDC cutter with a

contoured face to improve chip flow and run cooler.
Drilling bits classification

There are two big groups of drilling bits, including its respec-
tive divisions and sub-divisions, as follows:
The PDC bits can be sub-classified as:

• Matrix-body PDC;
• Steel-body PDC.
The same type of sub-classification applies to bi-center bits:

• Matrix-body bi-center;
• Steel-body bi-center.
Also, impregnated bits can be sub-classified as:

• Conventional impregnated matrix;
• Impregnated inserts or segments.
Note: Matrix is manufactured from a tungsten carbide pow-

der and metallic binder.
Design basics
Based on the drilling mechanics differences between roller
cone bits and diamond bits, different design concepts apply
for each group of bits.
Roller-cone bits
There are three basic design factors for roller-cone bits:
• Cone offset;
• Journal (bearing pin) angle;
• Cone profile.
Figure BI-8: The top image shows a low offset, while the lower
drawing shows a high offset. Notice the difference between the Offset
centerline and the offset on each cone. Courtesy Schlumberger.
The bit cone’s “offset” is defined as the horizontal distance
diamond table. Diamond table thickness was increased between the axis of the bit and a vertical plane through the
to maximize wear resistance and cutter life; axis of the journal.
• 1995: Polished cutters, stress engineered cutter
placement and application-specific cutters introduced Offset is established by moving the centerline of a cone
commercially; away from the centerline of the bit in such a way that a ver-
• 2003: Surface-leached PDC cutters commercialized; tical plane through the cone centerline is parallel to the ver-
• 2003: Depth of cut control for steerable PDC introduced; tical centerline of the bit.

BITS BI–7
Figure BI-9 (above): The journal angle is formed

by a line perpendicular to the bit axis and the
journal axis. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Figure BI-10 (top and center right): Usually bits with

smaller journal angles (30°-33) are best for drilling
softer formations requiring lower WOB. Conversely,
larger journal angles are better for harder formations
requiring higher WOB. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Soft formations usually experience a high offset (3⁄8 in.),

while hard formations usually have a low offset (1⁄32 in.).
• Gauge contact and length;
Soft formation bits use high offsets values to increase this • Cone diameter;
cutting action and thus increase ROP, while harder bits use • Cone shell thickness;
lower offsets values to reduce cutter wear induced by the • Bearing space availability;
sliding action. • Leg strength.
These images show a low offset (up) and a high offset It also affects the relationship between scraping and crush-
(down). Notice the difference between the centerline and ing actions produced by the cutting elements of the bit.
the offset on each cone.
Soft formations: low journal angle
Basic cone geometry directly affects increases or decreases Generally, bits with relatively small journal angles, 30°-33°,
in either journal or offset angles and a change in one of them are best suited for drilling in softer formations that require
requires a compensating change in the other. lower weight on bit (WOB). These formations require goug-
ing and scraping actions.
Journal (bearing pin) angle
The journal angle is the angle formed by a line perpendicular Hard formations: high journal angle
to the axis of the bit and the axis of the journal. Journal angle Larger journal angles, 34°-39°, are better when drilling in
influences the design of many key bit features, including: harder formations that require higher WOB amounts. Hard
• Intermesh depth; formations require a chipping and crushing action.
• Insert projection and milled tooth depth;
• Heel surface length and angle;

BI–8 BITS
Figure BI-11: The basic design factors associated with designing bits for particular formation types. In a very soft formation, for
instance, the bit teeth are spaced farther apart, are longer and gouge and scrape more than chip or crush. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Figure BI-13: Seals contribute significantly to the effectiveness of

the lubrication and pressure compensation system by preventing
drilling contaminants from entering the bearings. Non-sealed
Figure BI-12: Roller-cone bits boast one of the highest unit bearing designs allow mud to enter the bearing to cool and
loads for any bearing and require specialized grease. lubricate, but suffer shorter bearing life than sealed bearings.
Design factors summary Lubrication and pressure compensation

Figure BI-11 identifies the basic design factors associated
with designing a bit for a particular type of formation. For
system
example, in a very soft formation, the teeth of the bit are Roller cone
spaced further apart, longer in length and provide more The lubrication and pressure compensation system equal-
gouging-scraping action; the journal angle is lower, while the izes pressure across the seal and provides lubricant to op-
offset is higher. timize temperature and load pressure within the bearing
system. Roller-cone bits have one of the highest unit loads
of any bearing and require specialized grease. Each drill bit
manufacturer has developed custom-engineered roller cone
bearing grease compatibility with all bearing components.
The grease has been designed to have higher heat capaci-

ty, greater resistance to oxidation, and higher load capacity

BITS BI–9
than conventional bearing greases. Collectively these char-

acteristics minimize wear and friction and extend the life of
the bearing system.
The pressure compensation system serves to accommodate

grease expansion, cone movement and annulus pressure
and maintain a stable environment for the bearing system.
The seal contributes significantly to the effectiveness of the
lubrication and pressure compensation system as its dy-
namic properties keep drilling contaminants from entering Figure BI-14: The apex is the geometric center of a diamond bit. The
the bearings. cone can have a deep or shallow profile. Courtesy Schlumberger.
The pressure compensation system has a diaphragm that

moves inwards to equalize internal pressure with the outside
pressure from the annulus or changes in volume from cone
movement. The diaphragm moves outward to increase the
internal volume from grease expansion and cone movement
to equalize with external pressure. In doing so, grease can
vent through the diaphragm into the annulus to equalize the
pressure.
Some bearing designs incorporate solid lubrication com-

ponents such as thrustwasher or hardmetal inlays; others Figure BI-15: A bit’s nose is described by the radius (R) of it’s
incorporate a silver-plated bearing surface. These compo- curvature and the horizontal distance (L) from the bit centerline
nents serve to form a dissimilar material system that miti- where the curvature begins. Courtesy Schlumberger.
gates adhesive wear when carrying the thrust component of
the bearing load. These run against Stellite® inlays, in many
cases, which also provide a dissimilar material system that
mitigates adhesive wear. The inlays have higher wear resis-
tance properties than steel so as to reduce bearing letdown.
Not all roller cone drill bits have sealed bearings. Non-sealed
bearing designs allow mud to enter the bearing for cooling
and lubrication. Non-sealed designs have a shorter bearing
life than sealed bearings as mud contains particles that can
cause excessive wear to the bearings therefore shortening
the bearing in comparison to sealed designs. Figure BI-16a & 16b: The bit above features a nose location
close to the apex. This means higher cutter density on the
shoulder. Therefore, there is more diamond volume, creating a
Diamond bits bit suitable for abrasive formations. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Bit profile
The first factor is the bit profile, which is a vertical cross-sec-
tion of the bit head.
The profile has a direct influence on stability, steerability,

cutter density, durability, ROP, cleaning efficiency and cutter
cooling.
The profile is divided as follows:
The apex is the geometrical center of the bit. Figure BI-17a & 17b: When the nose moves further from
the apex, higher cutter density exists along the cone.
This increases cone durability, suitable for drilling strong
The cone area can be: formations, such as dolomite and limestone, as well
• Deep cone profile; as transitional drilling. Courtesy Schlumberger.

BI–10 BITS
• Shallow cone profile.
A deep cone profile has a cone angle of 90°. Due to the deep
profile, the cone area has substantial lateral support, which
makes it more stable. The lateral support also makes a bit
with a deep cone profile harder to steer.
A deep cone profile allows for higher cutter density and in-
creases durability. The additional cutters increase the num-
ber of cuttings, and the depth of the cone means that the
cuttings need to travel further to evacuate from the bottom
of the hole.
A shallow cone profile has a cone angle of approximately

150°. Unlike a deep cone, the shallow cone offers less lat-
eral support, making it much easier to steer. This makes a
Figure BI-18: In addition to the nose location, nose radius affects
shallow cone profile suitable for downhole motors, rotary
bit aggressiveness. A large radius increases surface area for better
load distribution in hard and transitional drilling. A smaller radius steerable system (RSS) and any directional application. It is
provides higher point loading on the cutters, which is more suitable less stable than a deep cone bit.
for soft, homogeneous formations. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Cutting evacuation is much more efficient with a shallow
cone bit. The cuttings have less distance to travel to evac-
uate the bottomhole.
The more shallow the cone profile, the fewer cutters on the
bit. Fewer cutters results in a higher point load on each cut-
ter, making a shallow cone more aggressive.
A bit’s nose is described by the radius (R) of its curvature

and the horizontal distance, or location (L), from the bit cen-
terline where the curvature begins.
The location of the bit nose and the sharpness of the radius
curvature influences the bit’s aggressiveness and durability.
A nose location closer to the apex permits more surface area

Figure BI-19: The bit shoulder stretches from the outside nose on the shoulder. In turn, this means higher cutter density on
tangent to the start of the outside diameter radius (ODR). the shoulder. The increase in the number of cutters means
Courtesy Schlumberger.
the point-load for each cutter is less than ideal for drilling
in homogeneous soft formations. Because of a higher cutter
density, there is more diamond volume, thus making the bit
suitable for more abrasive formations.
In a bit where the nose is moved further away from the

apex, there is a higher cutter density along the cone. The
increased number of cutters results in an increase in cone
durability suitable for drilling strong formations, such as do-
lomite and limestone, as well as transitional drilling.
Along with the nose location, the radius of the nose affects
bit aggressiveness. A large radius increases the surface area
for better load distribution in hard and transitional drilling. A
Figure BI-20: The outside diameter radius (ODR) is the transition smaller radius provides higher point loading on the cutters,
between bit shoulder and gauge areas. Courtesy Schlumberger.
which is more suitable for soft, homogeneous formations.

BITS BI–11
Figure BI-22a & 22b: Straight blades stay on the same

vertical plane form the apex to the gauge. Spiral blades are
curved, which increases the overall blade length. That in turn
provides room for more cutters. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Figure BI-21: Nose locations are shown by the vertical

lines intersecting the curves of each of four main profile
types. The nose location changes with each profile type. A flat bit profile drills best in harder, less abrasive formations
Long parabolic profiles are considered the most aggressive, such as limestone and dolomites. It is easy to predict the di-
while flat profiles are the least. Courtesy Schlumberger. rection and behavior of a flat profile bit in a given formation.
The bit shoulder is from the outside nose tangent to the start These bits are most often found in sidetracking applications.
of the outside diameter radius (ODR). The ODR is the transi-
tion between bit shoulder and gauge areas. The number of blades on a bit affects bit performance. A
matrix body bit can support from 3 to 20 blades, whiles
The gauge is the outward-most part of the bit and helps to a steel-bodied bit is generally limited to between 3 and 8
stabilize the bit and maintain an in-gauge wellbore. Under- blades. The majority of PDC applications require between
gauge holes impede or prevent entry and removal of tools. 4 and 9 blades. Each blade has PDC cutters brazed into it;
Bit gauge features can also provide stabilization to the bit collectively, these are called the cutting structure.
and help prevent undesirable operating problems such as
bit whirl. Various gauge types and lengths are available to Bits are considered symmetrical when the angles between
achieve maximum drilling efficiency. successive blades are equal. If one or more angles are un-
equal, the blade arrangement is considered asymmetrical.
Bit profile types Symmetrical bits are prone to vibration, and asymmetrical
Figure BI-23 graphically summarizes the four main profile bits are less prone to this damaging behavior.
types. Note how the nose location changes with the various
profile types, from long parabolic to flat. In general, long par- Blade Geometry: Straight or Spiral
abolic profiles are considered the most aggressive, while flat Blade geometry and layout influence bit vibration. There are
profiles are considered the least aggressive. two types of geometries, straight or spiral.
Long parabolic profiles work best in soft, abrasive forma- A straight blade is one where the blade stays on the same
tions such as shales, clays and mudstones. They are typical- vertical plane from the apex to the gauge. The cutter ra-
ly used in high-speed positive-displacement motors (PDMs) dial forces are summed together as a whole on the gauge.
and turbine applications. Straight blades are more hydraulically efficient because
of the straight geometry; the flow exiting the nozzles can
Medium parabolic bit profiles are less aggressive and work sweep efficiently along the blade.
best in medium-to-hard abrasive formations such as sand-
stone, limestone and hard shales. Medium parabolic bits are A spiral blade introduces a curve on the blades and increas-
used in rotary, PDM, RSS and turbine applications. es the overall blade length. This provides room for more cut-
ters, and the circumferential contact area on the gauge is
Short parabolic bit profiles are most effective in hard forma- increased.
tions with medium abrasion such as sandstone, limestone
and some cherts. This bit profile has the sharpest nose of Only the perpendicular component to the gauge of each ra-
the three parabolic profiles. The short parabolic is most like- dial force is used, and the net effect on gauge is less than
ly the most versatile; it provides an effective compromise that of straight blades. Spiral blades are not as hydraulically
between ROP, wear and cleaning. Short parabolic bits are efficient as straight blades; including an extra nozzle in the
used in rotary, downhole motor and turbine applications. bit design improves cutter cleaning.

BI–12 BITS
In addition to standard roller cone and fixed cutter bits, many

manufacturers custom-produce bits with features suited for
a particular purpose.
Specialized roller-cone bits

Air bits
Air bits use air or gas as the drilling fluid in underbalanced
drilling (UBD). Air bits might have screens over the bearings
to protect them from clogging with cuttings. They can also
have thicker hardfacing on the shirttail to protect them from
the abrasive, high-velocity air or gas drilling fluid.
Jet deflection bits

On directional drilling operations, jet deflection bits are
sometimes used in soft formations. Jet deflection bits have
Figure BI-23: A jet deflection bit.
an oversized jet nozzle. Without rotating, the bit is run to
bottom and the oversized nozzle is pointed (oriented) in the
direction required to start the deflected hole. Then the mud
pump is started. Because the bit is not rotating, the over-
sized nozzle washes out the formation and forms a pocket
in the wall of the hole. This pocket helps start the directional
drilling (Figure BI-23).
Specialized fixed-cutter bits

Unlike most fixed cutter bits, some specialty bits are de-
signed and manufactured for very specific drilling needs.
Sidetrack bits
Sidetracking bits, when made up on a downhole motor, are
used to drill around broken drillpipe or casing that is perma-
nently stuck in the hole. Drilling around non-removable ob-
jects requires a form of directional drilling. These bits have
Figure BI-24: Sidetracking bit.
a flat profile and a short gauge length (Figure BI-24). Some
have large fluid outlets so that a high volume of drilling mud
can circulate without losing pressure across the face of the
bit.
Impregnated bits
Impregnated drill bits are drilling bits where the cutting ele-
ments contain diamond grit throughout. The elements might
be sintered segments containing diamond grit (synthetic or
natural) compacted in a matrix of tungsten carbide. The im-
pregnated parts, where the segments are pre-sintered, are
generally incorporated into the body of the bit when being
processed through the furnace, as with diamond-set bits. It
is also possible to fix the impregnated segments in place by
brazing, although this technique is less used at present. In
other styles the diamond grit is mixed with the bit matrix,
forming an integral cutting structure. Like surface-set dia-
mond bits, impregnated bits are used when none of the PDC
Figure BI-25: Impregnated bit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. and roller-cone bits are suited to economically drill a very
hard and abrasive rock (Figure BI-25).

BITS BI–13
Surface-set diamond bits/natural diamond bits

The use of a single layer of surface-set diamonds in the pe-
troleum industry began in the 1940s by Franck Christensen.
The diamonds were hammered in steel bit alveolus, or cav-
ities, and filled with a thin layer of copper. Enhancement in
the manufacture of fixed cutter diamond drill bits was made
by setting the diamonds into a metal blend called a matrix.
The matrix combined grains of tungsten carbide in an alloy of
copper and nickel. This new technology allowed for the de-
velopment of increasingly economical and custom-shaped
bits (Figure BI-26).
Core bits
Core bits are shaped like a ring (Figure BI-27). The ring drills
the formation on both its inside and outside circumference,
so it has two gauge surfaces. The center hole surrounds a Figure BI-26 Surface-set diamond bit.
Courtesy Varel International.
solid cylinder of rock (the core) that the driller recovers later.
Once the core is retrieved, the operating company sends it
to a laboratory for formation analysis.
Hybrid bits (PDC and roller cone)

The PDC and roller-cone hybrid bit combines the two tradi-
tional cutting structure types into one tool (Figure BI-28).
This drill bit uses the crushing action of the rolling cutting
structure to fail the rock and the shearing action of the PDC
cutter to clean the bottom and accelerate the ROP.
The rolling, pre-fracturing action decreases the common

PDC tendency for high torque fluctuations, establishing a
smoother, more efficient drilling response. Lower torque
magnitudes mean reduced stick-slip and downhole vibra-
tion. The resulting drilling dynamics create smooth transi-
tions between interbedded formations of varying strength
Figure BI-27: Core bits—PDC and natural diamond.
and reduce overall vibrations for more reliable operation of
Courtesy Corpro (a company of ALS Oil & Gas)
downhole tool components. The more consistent torque
responses also improve toolface control, and the hybrid bit
is capable of achieving high buildup rates on push-the-bit,
point-the-bit, bent-housing motors and other directional
systems.
Hybrid bit technology tends to generate less torque than

a PDC with a lower WOB requirement than roller-cones,
which can be beneficial in drilling environments where these
parameters are limiting factors with traditional bit solutions.
The conventional bit breaker for the manufacturer’s PDC

should be used. The nozzles are interchangeable with the
manufacturer’s PDC bits and are installed the same way.
Hybrid bits might be repaired and rerun, much like any PDC
bit. Care, handling and storage instructions for both the roll-
er cone and PDC bits should be followed.
Figure BI-28a & 28b: PDC and roller-cone
hybrid bits. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

BI–14 BITS
Table BI-2: Representative pass-through and hole

size for eccentric tools. Figure BI-29a shows a
bi-center bit, and Figure BI-29b shows
an eccentric reamer.
Drill diameter (in.) Pass-through diameter (in.)
3.000 2.700
3.250 2.740
4.125 3.750
5.000 4.125
5.750 4.750
7.000 6.000
Figure BI-29a & 29b: Bi-center bit (left) and eccentric 7.500 6.500
reamer. Figure BI-29a courtesy Varel International.
Figure BI-29b courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. 8.500 7.500
9.500 8.500
Representative applications, operational parameters and 9.875 8.375
performance of the hybrid bit can be found in SPE litera-
10.500 9.750
ture. 52,53,54,55
12.250 10.625
Hole openers 13.500 12.250
The past twenty years have seen the birth and tremendous 14.500 12.200
growth of hole openers in the oil and gas drilling business.
14.750 12.250
Reasons for utilizing these more expensive BHAs have in-
cluded drilling of difficult formation, preventing stuck BHA 16.000 14.750
due to swelling formations, simplifying completions and 17.500 14.500
allowing better cement jobs, which will be more and more 19.500 16.500
critical in the future.
20.000 17.000
First to come into the market were bi-center bits, followed 22.000 18.000
by eccentric reamers. They are designed to pass through a
given diameter of hole, and when rotated on bottom will drill These are still available for the foreseeable future. They are
a larger diameter hole by having the gauge cutting blades relatively low-priced and have the reliability advantage of
on one side only. See Table BI-2 for representative pass- no moving parts or seals. Just go to bottom and turn to the
through and hole sizes for eccentric products. Contact your right, and the hole is drilled and enlarged. In the case of many
supplier to verify the actual dimensions for the brand and eccentric reamers, the pilot bit diameter is stabilized before
style you might be running, as these are custom-made and the eccentric blades enlarge the hole. Maintaining the pilot
vary by application and the customer requirements. hole size allows the creation of the proper-sized enlarged
hole. A larger pilot hole allows an undersized reamed hole.
In the 1990s, bicenter bits came into use on Gulf of Mexico
deepwater wells. Here they solved several problems unique Concentric reamers followed eccentric bits and reamers
to deepwater GOM. These wells encounter drilling prob- into the industry, first as near-bit flow-activated reamers,
lems, including plastic flow of salt formations, sloughing and and later placed above the measuring tools. Ball-drop ac-
swelling of shale formations, and inflows and outflows of tivated reamers displaced flow-activated reamers due to
fluids. Compounding these difficulties is the depth of water. ease of use and reliability. This accounts for the majority of
the market today. Upon introduction into the industry, many
Drill-out bicenter is a special design developed because the suppliers provided reamers properly balanced to their pilot
casing tends to be damaged by the gauge cutting elements bits56, 57. Without properly balanced relative aggressiveness,
mounted on the bicenter drill bit when drilling the plug. unacceptable levels of BHA vibration can restrict ROP to un-
When the bit is inside the casing, the pilot section of the bit acceptable levels and damage the BHA components. Vibra-
tends to rotate about the center of the drillstring, causing the tion control continues to be a focus area.
reamer gauge cutters to engage the casing. This damages
the casing and the cutters on the bit.

BITS BI–15
Ultra-deep wells have successfully implemented ball-drop premium bearing, seal and insert technology of the three-
concentric reamers, probably the deepest being document- cone. They are sometimes used in very soft drilling appli-
ed in SPE 14525958. This particular tool is not susceptible to cations.
hydrostatic pressure problems and completed the well to
31,400 ft (9,571 m). Impreg and PDC hybrid bit
This is a unique style of bit employing both PDC cutters and
Flow-activated on-off reamers have made a resurgence. impregnated inserts as backups, as the substrate behind the
They can be difficult to operate, but they offer the advantage PDC table or in the matrix behind the PDC cutter. In isolat-
of being able to be placed below the measurement string as ed applications, the bit might have PDC cutters and impreg
a rathole reamer, immediately above the pilot bit. This al- materials both as the primary cutting structure in different
lows the operator to drill with flow-activated reamer closed areas on the bit.
until TD and then activate it and ream the rathole without
a dedicated cleanout run, saving a trip. Other reamers are
being developed that are activated or de-activated by RFID, Cutting structures
or by electronic signal in the case of a wired pipe operation.
A mud-pulse-activated tool is now available in two sizes on Roller cone
a limited basis 59 and is expected to grow in popularity given
its compatibility with many existing rig systems. Steel tooth
A steel-tooth cutting structure is valuable for various appli-
In hole openers and stabilizers with movable blades, care cations, especially soft formations. These bits are normally
must be taken in handling to not damage the moving parts, hardfaced with tungsten carbide pellets in a hardened steel
which could result in an inoperable tool on bottom, or worse, matrix. The size and shape of the teeth and location of the
one which opens but does not close. hardfacing varies by the intended application and the design
criteria amongst the manufacturers of the bits. A modifica-
Hammer bits tion of this uses a composite cone made by powder metal-
Hammer bits are a unique style of bit that designed for use lurgy, which has the hardfacing integrally molded into the
on a downhole percussion hammer. They feature a solid cone during the manufacturing process.
head bit with either tungsten carbide or diamond-enhanced
carbide inserts. The typical application is situations where it Tungsten carbide hardfacing on steel tooth cones is neces-
is not possible to put sufficient weight on bit on a standard sary to provide wear resistance.
bit to efficiently drill, such as very hard rock at the surface.
Tungsten carbide inserts
Casing-while-drilling bits Tungsten-carbide inserts (TCI) are manufactured in a vari-
The unique bits are growing in popularity where the oper- ety of shapes, sizes and lengths with specialized grades of
ator desires to drill with casing to the chosen TD for that carbide designed for specific applications and formations.
interval and leave it in the hole as opposed to pulling the bit The size of the bit and the type of formation it is designed
and drillstring. There are two styles of bits. One is run on a for has a direct effect on the insert needed. The physical
retrieval tool and is removed after reaching the casing point. appearance of cutting structures designed for soft, medi-
The more common bit is designed to be drillable and is left um and hard formations can readily be recognized by the
on the end of the casing, cemented in and drilled out with shape, length and geometric arrangement of the inserts.
the following bit. Bits with large inserts with large projections and generally
chisel-shaped inserts are designed for softer formations.
Typical application are in areas with heavy lost circulation, Those for hard formations contain smaller ball-nose-shaped
where the formations are easily PDC-drillable and the op- inserts with an increased number of inserts. A bit designed
portunity to save a trip and NPT, where heavy back reaming for medium-strength formations typically has a conical or
to get out of the hole was encountered on offsets, through a blunt stubby chisel insert with moderate projection (see
depleted sands, shallow water flows and many others. Figure BI-30).
For a detailed discussion of casing while drilling, refer to the The inserts are composed of cemented tungsten carbide,
dedicated chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th editon, which is a mixture of tungsten grains in a metallic binder,
on CwD. usually cobalt. The carbide grain size and cobalt content are
adjusted to produce the desired combination of wear resis-
Two-cone bits tance and toughness required for the particular application.
Two-cone bits are a specialized roller-cone bit with all of the This mixture is pressed to shape, sintered at a high tempera-

BI–16 BITS
Figure BI-30: Tungsten carbide inserts (TCI) can be designed for soft, medium and hard formations. The TCI bit above was designed for
medium-strength formations, and features a conical or a blunt stubby chisel insert with moderate projection. Courtesy Schlumberger.
ture in a furnace and finished to the final shape. They are Diamond bits
then press-fit into precision holes in the cones. This material
has the combination of wear resistance and toughness to PDC cutter technology
perform well in the TCI bits. A PDC is the cutting element on a PDC bit. It is composed of
very fine diamond crystals sintered under extreme pressure
One specialized form of a TCI bit uses a diamond-enhanced and high temperature to a tungsten carbide carrier known as
insert (DEI) for added wear resistance of the cutting struc- a substrate. Diamond is the hardest known substance and
ture in extremely abrasive applications. These insets em- is also the best-known conductor of heat. It also has a very
ploy a specialized layer of polycrystalline diamond over a low coefficient of friction against rock. This combination of
TCI. They are typically used in medium-to-hard and very unique properties was the driving force in the development
abrasive applications and in directional drilling applications of the PDC cutter in the 1970s. In other words, diamond is
where wear and rounding of the gauge and heel area would the best material in resistance to abrasion, has the ability to
have a negative impact on the bit performance. These bits withstand and transmit compressive forces, removes heat
have been documented to have longer life and improved from the cutting tip efficiently, and generates less heat from
bearing and seal reliability. There are other downhole ben- friction than other materials.
efits. One is a reduction in the amount of reaming needed
by maintaining a full gauge hole. Another benefit is the pre- To manufacturer the PDC cutter, the provider utilizes spe-
vention of heat checking on the heel and gauge row inserts, cially designed high-pressure, high-temperature equipment
more commonly seen with downhole motors and high rotary known as HPHT apparatuses or diamond presses.
speeds. Operating parameters are the same as for a conven-
tional TCI bit. There are a variety of different system designs. These sys-
tems are known as the cubic press, the belt press and the
Another specialized feature on rolling cone bits is a mechan- piston-cylinder press. All three press systems are capable of
ical or metal-faced seal, as opposed to the more common generating the ultra-high pressures (800,000-1,000,000
elastomer seal. The distinguishing feature from the external psi or more) and high temperatures (2,700°F) required to
examination of a bit is the very easy rotation of the cones. sinter the polycrystalline diamond (PCD) used in the bit.
Care should be taken in handling to prevent pinching of a (Note: Polycrystalline diamond, or PCD, is a term used by
hand or finger between cones when handling the bits. Typ- materials scientists working on synthetic diamond. But,
ical applications are high rotary speeds and large-diameter somewhat confusingly, the cutter on the bit is typically
bits where the heat generated from the friction of the tightly called PDC.) Each of these press designs are used commer-
squeezed elastomer seal leads to high heat and damage to cially, and each has its own particular advantages relating
the seal. to sintering characteristics and properties imparted to the
product.

BITS BI–17
Figure BI-31: Types of grain. Courtesy Schlumberger.
The application for the PDC cutter is determined by the PDC types
grade of diamond used in the manufacturing process. Dia- There are two primary PDC designs: the cylinder and the
mond grit size, distribution and density have an effect on the stud. Cylinder cutters are able to achieve greater cutting
final cutter properties. densities on a given bit profile and are the most common
used on today’s bits. Stud cutters have greater flexibility to
If the initial diamond grit is fine (1-6 microns), the cutter achieve a particular cutter exposure. Although cylinders are
has high abrasion resistance but lower impact resistance. more common, both types of cutters are used by leading bit
Medium-grain grit (7-15 microns) cutters display moder- manufacturers.
ate abrasion and medium impact resistance. Coarse-grain
grit (16+ microns) cutters have low abrasion resistance Diamond table
and better impact resistance. Most PDC cutters employ a A key element with both types of cutters is the diamond ta-
multi-modal mixture of grain sizes in which the mixture of ble. The thickness of the diamond table is typically 2-4 mm
fine-medium-coarse grains is chosen to impart a particular thick. The thickness is a variable utilized by the fabricators to
balance of wear resistance, impact resistance and diamond provide cutters that have properties and behaviors tailored
density for the intended application. Some PDC cutters used to the specific application of the bit.
in the industry have a unique layered structure that utilizes
the wear-resistant fine-grained diamond on the face and the Cutter shape
coarser and tougher diamond feed backing it up to provide PDC cutters are manufactured in a cylindrical wafer shape.
a combination of excellent abrasion resistance supported by Round cutters are the most common shape used on PDC
a tough and durable underlayer between it and the carbide bits. PDC cutters can be precisely cut to shape using a laser
substrate. or electrical discharge machine. Other shaped PDC cutters
are made directly to their shape in the diamond press.
Figure BI-32: Two primary PDC designs exist, the cylinder and the
Figure BI-33: The diamond table is typically
stud. Cylinder cutters can achieve greater cutting densities and
2-4 mm thick. Courtesy Schlumberger.
are the most common today. Stud cutters offer greater flexibility
to achieve a particular cutter exposure. Courtesy Schlumberger.

BI–18 BITS
Figure BI-34: PDC cutters are manufactured in a cylindrical wafer shape. The cutters can be cut
precisely to shape with a laser or electrical discharge machine. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Thermally stable polycrystalline cutters exposing new diamond as it is worn. The tungsten carbide
First developed in the 1980s as an alternative cutting ele- matrix, with its lower abrasion resistance, wears away soon-
ment, today thermally stable polycrystalline (TSP) cutters er, exposing more cutter and maintaining a positive angle
are primarily used in the gauge of a matrix PDC bit. There are between the cutter wear flat and the formation.
a limited number of bits still made for unique applications
that use the TSP as a primary cutting element. They might Cutter design
be a fully leached PDC element where the cobalt catalyst is Now that the manufacturing process has been explained, let
removed by an extensive acid treatment, or they might be us examine cutter design characteristics. The various design
a diamond matrix with a silicon carbide material disposed characteristics greatly affect the overall cutter performance.
within the area between the diamonds. The characteristics that directly influence performance in-
clude impact, abrasion, shear strength and thermal stability.
After the leaching process, TSPs are cut into the desired
shape based on application. Unfortunately, TSPs are not Finite-element analysis
wettable, which limits their application. Finite-element analysis (FEA) is a mathematical process
used by engineers to design cutting structures that are used
Leaching in all types of formations for analyzing a geometrical shape
TSP cutters are PDC cutters that have gone through the and calculating the effectiveness of the interfaces. The mod-
leaching process. The patented leaching process is used to els produced reflect the stress state and magnitude. They
remove the cobalt and increase the thermal coefficient of also serve to predict high-stress areas that could be prone to
the cutter. failure and allows mitigation through selective modification
of the interfaces and other parameters. This valuable pro-
TSP application cess is used in the design of cutters, inserts and nearly every
TSP cutting elements can be used in a variety of applica- component and bit style in use today.
tions. Ideally, these cutters were designed to drill harder and
more abrasive formations such as sandstone, limestone and Impact test
granite. A higher tolerance to abrasion is required, which is Impact damage is the mechanical failure that occurs when
accomplished with the significantly stronger diamond-to-di- the forces from the formation are able to overcome the bond
amond bond and removal of the cobalt catalyst of the diamond table to the substrate or the bond in the di-
amond table.
The variety of shapes and sizes that are most commonly
in used include triangles, rectangles and cylinders. Ma- In conjunction with FEA analysis, the industry is continually
trix-bodied bits provide an excellent medium for TSP cutters. mechanically testing PDC cutters for impact resistance us-
When the cutter is set in the bit face with a matrix backing, ing a specially designed testing apparatus. This is a way of
very aggressive exposures can be achieved. Self-sharpening experimentally validating and comparing cutters before field
characteristics can then be utilized, with the cutting element testing commences. The drop tower test is performed to

BITS BI–19
test impact. During the test, an up-sharp cutter is fastened Substrate interface
onto a steel bar with material properties and surface finishes Substrate geometry at the interface area seeks to enhance
that are carefully controlled. Tests are performed at sever- bonding with the diamond table. Generally, geometries that
al energy levels using multiple cutters per level. Cutters are increase interface surface area improve bonding. Geome-
then ranked according to the degree of failure by percent tries also attempt to hold stresses at the bond to the lowest
of spalling, number of hits to failure defined as whenever possible level.
spalling area is over 30% of the diamond table surface area,
and failure mode. The final number is a relative number that Geometrically, the shape of a diamond table seeks to in-
gives a general indication of impact resistance. Most sup- clude the highest possible diamond content. Geometric fea-
pliers have some form of impact test, although there is no tures of the interface between the diamond table and the
industry standard. substrate can significantly improve the ability of a diamond
table to withstand impact. For this reason, the interface be-
Abrasion test tween the diamond table and substrate is geometric rather
Abrasive wear occurs on a microscopic level through a pro- than planar in premium cutters used in sever applications.
cess of impact shock and fatigue on the individual diamond
grains. On impact with rock particles, some diamond grains Different types of interfaces are used based on the type of
experience crushing in which the edge of the diamond grain application and the location of the cutter on the bit.
is gradually removed. Other grains might experience cleav-
age fracturing across the entire plane of the diamond grain. Depending on the type of application, the interface on the
substrate is either planar or non-planar. High-temperature
During an abrasion test, an up-sharp cutter is rotated cutters have optimized diamond table thickness through the
against a granite block until failure. At the end of the test, use of NPI in conjunction with FEA.
the volume of rock removed until the point of failure is mea-
sured, and results for each cutter type are ranked. Different interface geometries were developed by PDC cut-
ter suppliers to minimize residual stresses concentrated in
There is also a granite mill test, which tests abrasion as well the diamond table during the manufacturing process.
as impact fatigue.
Most suppliers also conduct additional abrasion testing run Related equipment
on large vertical turret lathes on large blocks of stone. As for
impact testing, however, there is no industry standard. Additional bit accessories
Several items support bits being used at the rig site. Exam-
Thermal stability ples are listed below.
Thermal stability is the ability of a cutter to maintain its in- • Nozzle kit: This kit includes the items needed to change
tegrity at higher temperatures. PDCs used at temperatures out the nozzles safely at the rig site if some hydraulic
below 1,380°F are primarily worn down by impact. Unfa- modifications are needed from the initial requirements.
vorable stress conditions increase in PDCs at temperatures This kit likely varies among the various drill bit
over 660°F. At this temperature, micro-chipping intensifies manufacturers. Never assume the nozzles from one
due to degradation of the bond between individual diamond manufacturer fit another despite visually similar
grains. The hardness of the diamond table decreases linear- appearances;
ly as the temperature approaches 1,290°F. • Lifting straps: Appropriate lifting straps must be used
depending on the weight of the bit being lifted. Refer to
At temperatures over 1,380°F, the wear changes from mi- the appropriate bit handling procedures for more
croscopic chipping of diamond grains to macroscopic loss information on how to handle bits;
of entire grains. Wear rates resulting from high tempera- • Lifting bail and cap: These are used to help move the bit
tures are elevated and unpredictable. PDC cutters have no around the rig. They are screwed to the end of the shank
practical life under those conditions. TSP cutters might be threads. There are both pin and box thread types
necessary in applications where there are excessive tem- available, depending on what type of upper connection is
peratures. on the tool (see Figure BI-35);
• Bit breakers: The appropriate bit breaker needs to be
An abrasion/thermal wear test is conducted to evaluate available at the rig site to make up and breakout the bit.
PDC cutter wear and depth of cut when the cutter is rotated Refer to the bit make-up and breakout procedures for the
on a rock sample. specific drill bit in question. Use the bit breaker from the
manufacturer of the bit. Do not attempt to use a breaker

BI–20 BITS
from another supplier as it could result in damage to the

bit or could be damaged and cause an injury;
• Thread protectors: These help protect the thread on the
bit shank so the threads (usually made of plastic) do not
get damaged. They must always be used when the
thread is not screwed into a BHA component, lifting bail
or cap. One could use a pin or box type depending on
what type of connection the tool has (Figure BI-36);
• Ring gauge: The appropriate ring gauge should be
available to verify bit gauge. The gauge of the bit must be
verified prior to the bit run. (See API Spec 7-1
Specification for Rotary Drill Stem Elements.) Drill bit
Figure BI-35: Lifting bail for pin. Lifting bails are used to help move vendor employees or rig site crew personnel can perform
the bit around the rig. They are screwed to the shank threads. Both this task. Dull grading gauge measurements must be
pin and box thread types are available. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. taken once the bit has been run (Figure BI-37).
Note: Be sure the ring gauges being used are for the ap-
propriate bit type. Due to the API specifications, the manu-
facturing tolerances on a roller-cone and PDC are different
enough to require separate gauge rings for the two products.
Installation
When installing drill bits, or making-up, it is traditionally ac-
complished via attaching it securely to the end of the drill
stem by using a bit breaker. Not all bits of the same size or
type or from the same vendor might use the same bit break-
er. Roller-cone bit breakers often have a bottom-plate versus
the gate-style prevalent with the fixed cutter bits. It is best
to check with the vendor to ensure the proper bit breaker is
used with the bit to prevent lost time or injury while trying to
make up the bit with the incorrect breaker.
Nozzle and plug installation and removal

Figure BI-36: Connections with and without thread PDC nozzle installation
protectors Thread protectors must always be used
1. Determine the nozzle requirements;
when the thread is not screwed into a BHA component,
lifting bail or cap. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. 2. Gauge the nozzle orifice to ensure proper nozzle size.
Nozzle gauges might be obtained from the vendors and
should be readily available on the rig;
3. Inspect the nozzle threads or nozzle retainer threads and
the nozzle socket threads. Remove all debris with a small
brush and environmentally safe solvent if needed;
4. Inspect the O-ring. Ensure that the O-ring is properly
seated and is not cracked or damaged. If the O-ring is
damaged, it should be replaced;
5. Apply anti-seize to both the threads of the nozzle socket
and the nozzle. If there is a problem or history of nozzles
backing out in an area or application, then do not use any
anti-seize and apply approximately three drops of Loctite
242 to the threads of the nozzle;
Figure BI-37: Ensure that the correct ring gauge is being 6. Carefully thread the nozzles into the nozzle sockets;
used for the appropriate bit type. Manufacturing tolerances
on roller cones and PDCs differ enough to require
7. Using the wrench provided, slowly turn the nozzle or
separate gauge rings. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. nozzle retainer clockwise until resistance is felt. Then

BITS BI–21
back the nozzle out ½ turn counter-clockwise and 8. Rotate the snap ring with the snap ring pliers to ensure
continue rotating clockwise until a firm resistance is felt that the snap ring is seated;
to finish seating the nozzle against the O-ring; 9. For applications in corrosive environments, coat exposed
8. Tighten all nozzles by hand or using a torque wrench to snap ring with water-repelling grease.
35 ft-lb.
Retaining pin
PDC ports, plug removal 1. Retaining pin type installation follows steps 1-6 of snap
1. Use provided hex wrench to remove the two plugs; ring installation;
2. Keep removed plugs and O-rings in a cool, dry place, in 2. Choose the retaining pin length that correlates to the
case the reinstallation is necessary. nozzle and then insert the pin into the retaining pin hole.
PDC ports, plug installation Tap it with a hammer until the head is flush with the bit
1. Inspect and clean ports using the same method used for body. A properly installed pin could be slightly loose-
nozzles; fitting.
2. Remember that plugs are sized specifically for the given
port size; Large diameter bits - center jets and ports
3. Use anti-seize on the threads of the plug; Each drill bit company and third-party nozzle provider pro-
4. Fit the first plug and hand-tighten it, using the provided vides specific installation procedures for center jets and
hex wrench; ports located in the throat of the roller cone.
5. Install a clean, undamaged O-ring on top of the first plug;
6. Thread and hand-tighten a second plug on top of the Roller cone, nozzle removal
O-ring and first plug. 1. It is easiest to remove the nozzles immediately after the
bit is pulled out of the well;
PDC nozzle installation and removal tools 2. Clean the nozzle and nozzle sockets of mud and cuttings;
• Nozzle extractor; 3. Place the bit on its pin end with the cones facing up;
• Nozzle wrench. 4. If the nozzles are not being removed immediately after
running, apply water or penetrating oil to the nozzle
Roller cone, nozzle installation sockets. Wait several minutes to allow the water or
Depending on the manufacturer, roller-cone nozzles might penetrating oil to work before proceeding;
be installed using threads or snap rings to hold in place. For 5. Orient the snap ring so the ears are toward the outside of
threaded nozzles, use similar process to the PDC nozzle in- the bit;
stallation described previously. 6. Insert snap ring pliers in the holes of the snap ring,
compress and remove the snap ring from the nozzle
Snap ring socket;
1. Determine the nozzle requirements; 7. Insert the nozzle puller into the nozzle and pull up with a
2. Select and clean and inspect the nozzles for any damage. twisting motion to remove the nozzle.
Do not use cracked or chipped nozzles;
3. Gauge the nozzle orifice to ensure proper nozzle size; Roller cone nozzle installation and removal tools
4. Place the bit on its pin with the cones facing up; • Nozzle gauge;
5. Lubricate the nozzle socket and O-ring with light grease • Snap ring pliers;
or lubricating oil. Make sure that the O-ring is not • Nozzle extractor;
damaged and is properly seated in the O-ring groove; • Nozzle hammer.
6. Insert a nozzle into the nozzle socket with the smaller
opening of the nozzle facing out. Push the nozzle with Bit make-up procedure
both thumbs until it passes the O-ring and seats with the 1. Proper lifting techniques and equipment must be used to
top of the nozzle below the snap ring groove. Never bring the tools to the rig floor. Drill bit in the bit box/
hammer the nozzle into place. This can chip or crack the container and appropriate bit breaker (where applicable)
nozzle and damage the O-ring. Protective eye wear should be brought up to the drilling rig floor;
should be worn, since tungsten carbide nozzles can chip 2. When picking up a bit, take all the precautions normally
easily from any impact; taken while lifting and handling a bit, along with the
7. Place the tips of the snap ring pliers into the holes of the following additional precautions;
snap ring with the flat side facing up and compress the 3. When removing the bit from its box, handle it carefully.
snap ring until it fits into the nozzle socket. Insert until Do not roll it out on the rig floor and let the cutting
snap ring aligns with groove and release the snap ring structure get damaged, which will reduce the life and
until it seats in the groove; performance of the bit. PDC bits must be placed on a

BI–22 BITS
should be locked so as to not allow rotation, where

applicable;
12. Use the tongs system or appropriate wrench system to
apply the torque to the connection. API Recommended
Practices 7G lists the torque requirements for the tool
connection type. The unique bit specification sheet will
also have the torque requirements.
Bits run on special BHA tools

Note: Make all personnel aware of the correct bit lifting pro-
cedures in the pre-tour safety talk or drill floor tool box talk.
Some BHA components might require special consider-

ations. One example would be that some rotary steerable
directional drilling tools might require a breaker box to lift
the bit off the rotary table to allow the bit to be made-up or
broken out of the BHA tool, just above the bit (Figure BI-38).
Figure BI-38: Bit breaker and breaker box in rotary table
with BHA tool above bit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. The bit has to be lifted up off the table to help get the tongs
on the tool above the bit to allow the bit to be made up or
wood or rubber mat to ensure that the diamond cutters broken out.
are not damaged;
4. Perform a visual inspection of the interior (center Suggested operating recommendations
waterway) of the bit to ensure that no debris is left inside It has been said by some industry experts that more dam-
prior to making up the bit to the drillstring. Rags, gloves age is caused getting to bottom and in the first 10 minutes
and other debris can plug a nozzle and result in hydraulic of a bit’s life than in the rest of the run. “Tagging” bottom
back pressure problems on the rig equipment and can damage the cutting structure and, in extreme cases, the
improper fluid flow across the bit, resulting in poor bearings and seals. Care should also be taken when running
cleaning and cooling of the cutting elements and leading to bottom not to hit a ledge from a prior run. Forcing a bit to
to bit balling or damage to the cutting structure; bottom in an undergauge hole results in a pinched bit and
5. Ensure that appropriate nozzles are installed for the can result in premature bearing and seal failure, and/or cut-
application; ting structure interference and damage. PDC bits might suf-
NOTE: Some smaller bit sizes (less than 5 in.) might not fer premature damage to the shoulder and gauge. Rotating a
require a bit breaker. These small bits generally weigh PDC bit on a motor and adjustable kick-off (AKO) motor in
less than 50 lb (22 kg) and can be lifted by a person, the casing can result in damage to the casing and also bro-
unless there are personal limitations. ken shoulder and gauge cutters on the bit. Optimizing drill-
6. Install the appropriate bit breaker that is designed for the ing performance through operating parameter optimization
bit as required; is frequently interpreted as maximizing the ROP, but this is
NOTE: The bit breaker should be visually inspected to not always appropriate and might cause poor overall per-
verify that there is no possible way for the bit breaker to formance.
malfunction. The system of bit, bit breaker and master
bushing should match up for proper fit. In some applications, drilling performance is optimized by
7. Place the bit and bit breaker assembly into the rotary maximizing the bit run length, thus reducing the number of
table. Do not allow any junk to go down into the borehole trips. In these cases, the goal is to protect the cutting struc-
while setting the assembly in the rotary table; ture, so it might be necessary to reduce penetration rates to
8. Prior to applying the thread compound, inspect the pin/ gain increased durability of the cutting structure and save
box threads; more time with reduced trips than the upside potential of
9. Apply the threads compound to the bit threads and/or short-term ROP gains.
the next tool above the bit;
10. Carefully bring the bit thread and tool above bit In some applications, drilling performance is optimized by
together to engage the threads. One or the other (bit or minimizing reactive torque, thus reducing the occurrence of
tool above bit) should be rotated to engage the threads; vibrations. This can be achieved by running the drill bit with
11. When the bit and tool are engaged, the rotary table reduced parameters: for example, with low WOB. In other
applications, best life is obtained by using higher WOB and

BITS BI–23
lower rotary speed. Contact your bit representative for spe- floor monitor. The rig floor monitor can be inaccurate
cific recommendations for the BHA design and formations unless data are frequently recalibrated as hole is drilled;
being drilled. • There are no rotary speed limitations for a PDC bit in
rotary and motor applications. Rotary speed constraints
In some applications, borehole quality for logging purpose are established by rig and downhole motor capabilities;
or casing running issues might need the application of re- • Critical drillstring RPM (destructive drillstring harmonics
duced parameters and a decrease of the ROP. initiated) should be avoided;
• Use the RPM that gives the best performance, avoiding
Operating parameters optimization strategy should be guid- critical drillstring harmonics;
ed by: • It should not be necessary to use the maximum WOB
• Understanding what the primary aim of the application value for the bit—exceeding this significantly increases
is; the risk of catastrophic failure.
• Understanding the challenge of the environment being
drilled; For more on vibration mitigation in bits, as well as other
• Understanding the constraints on performance guidelines for running bits efficiently, please refer to the sep-
associated with the drilling equipment you are working arate Drilling Practices chapter of the IADC Drilling Manu-
with. al, 12th edition. The Drilling Practices chapter also includes
physics-based guidance on connection practices, reaming
Optimizing parameter overview to condition holes, hole cleaning, tripping, wellbore stability
• A diligent driller that performs frequent drill-off tests for management and lost circulation.
drilling parameter optimization always drills further and
faster than the driller who “sets and forgets;”
• Be on the rig floor (physically or virtually) at all crew Mechanical specific energy
changes. This is critical to ensure optimum drilling
parameters are maintained and to update the new driller Importance in drilling operations
of the current drilling/rig issues and any drilling Fundamental to any drilling optimization program is know-
parameter testing in progress; ing what the energy balance is downhole. Is the energy be-
• If running a motor, try setting the automatic driller to run ing input into the system being used efficiently in the drilling
off motor differential pressure rather than WOB. This of the rock?
generally corrects the weight faster; consequently, the • Where energy is not being used efficiently, that energy is
weight is applied more consistently and better invariably used in phenomena that are detrimental to the
performance is achieved; bit and BHA: for example, vibrations that can lead onto
• Conduct a series of drill-off tests to find the optimum cutter damage;
drilling parameters to achieve satisfactory penetration • Due to this, it is important in all drilling operations to be
rate or to minimize bit/BHA damage; aware of the energy usage in the subsurface, and one of
• Formation changes can result in a penetration rate the ways of doing this is by monitoring mechanical
change; if the ROP reduces and reasonable torque is still specific energy (MSE) values.
generated, the formation is likely to be harder so the
rotary speed should be reduced and weight increased. If Definition
this generates too much torque, weight should be MSE is the amount of energy consumed to remove a unit
reduced and RPM increased; volume of rock and expressed in lb/sq in. (psi).
• Monitor mudweight. As mudweight increases, ROP • MSE values are best measured (if possible) at multiple
generally decreases. When closer to balanced drilling points along the BHA, as that way you get a better idea
(where the mud pressure equals the formation pore of the energy distribution and its application;
pressure), ROP generally increases; • For the best understanding of what energy is available
• Maintaining good notes is very important for optimizing for the bit, you need to get MSE values from as close to
drilling performance over an entire run. It also aids the bit as possible;
understanding/problem solving if the drilling becomes • These downhole MSE values are provided by specialist
problematic; real-time visualization of the drilling downhole drilling dynamic measuring tools. If they are
parameters makes it easier for you to see trends over not being recorded and transmitted, then you are
time; generally limited to surface MSE alone.
• Parameter readings are more accurate if read directly
from the gauges (Martin Decker for WOB, the stand pipe Application
gauge for pressure, etc.) than those displayed on the rig If drilling were taking place with 100% efficiency, the energy

BI–24 BITS
being input into the system would match the rock’s confined propriate) records all relevant parameters when drilling and
compressive strength (CCS expressed in psi). when reaming.
• In reality, there is never 100% efficiency, but what should
be seen in efficient drilling is a trend for MSE values to be Continuously compare the observed drilling performance
approaching the rock’s compressive strength; (ROP, torque, standpipe pressure) and cuttings interpreta-
• When analyzing MSE values, do not fixate on the tion with the prognosis for the well. Any discrepancies be-
absolute values—the best way of using MSE is as a trend tween the observed and anticipated performance should be
indicator; evaluated and explained.
• For example, an observed increase in MSE value with no
corresponding change in lithology type and strength Compute the MSE (if not already being generated by any
indicates that a drilling inefficiency is appearing (for of the rig data systems being used). Compare this with the
example, cutter dulling, bit balling, vibration, etc.). prognosis unconfined compressive strength (UCS) for the
formation being drilled to get an idea of the overall drilling
Interpreting what the drilling inefficiency is, and what is efficiency. In the ideal world, with 100% energy efficiency,
causing it, can be a complex task, so appropriate training is the MSE value should be coming close to the UCS value.
needed to use MSE analysis proactively.
Rotary speed
As mentioned, the best MSE analysis is done where you can Total bit RPM is equal to the surface RPM plus the downhole
access values from various positions in the BHA. motor/turbine rotary speed.
• High rotary speed should be avoided in abrasive
Monitoring drilling parameter procedures formations to prevent rapid thermal abrasive wear;
• High rotary speed should be avoided if the drill bit starts
Data sources whirl;
• Fully understand the source of the data, as the source • Some rotary speeds can initiate drillstring resonance and
influences how much credence is given to it during should be avoided. This can be done by determining
decision making; critical RPMs;
• If several measurements of the same parameter exist, • High RPM in hard formations might reduce ROP, as the
analyze those drilling parameter values measured as cutters are unable to dig in the formation;
close to the bit as possible; • Rotary speed might be limited due to drillpipe or drive
• Surface data need to be treated more circumspectly, limitations.
especially if you have the likes of a motor present in the
BHA; in that scenario, the values should be used more Torque
qualitatively as trend indicators than quantitatively in the Rotary torque is an indicator of what is happening at the drill
likes of MSE analysis; bit. In soft formation, torque might indicate the bit is on bot-
• In the best-case scenario, you should be monitoring both tom before the WOB does. The torque could be considered
surface and downhole measurements simultaneously. high when it starts to slow down surface rotary speed and
Doing so delivers the most accurate representation of stalls the motor, rotary table or top-drive.
what is happening in the wellbore.
Interbedded formations produce torque changes as the bit
General overview of monitoring moves in and out of formation beds that have different rock
Closely monitor the following parameters: strength and drillability, while homogeneous formations
• ROP; produce smooth constant torque signals.
• Rotary speed;
• Torque; If downhole torque measurements are available, they can be
• WOB; used in combination with surface measurements for greater
• Flow rate; accuracy.
• Standpipe pressure;
• Pump stroke rate. Weight on bit
As the bit wears, more WOB is required to achieve the same
Undertake this while reaming as well as when drilling a new ROP in a homogeneous formation. In general WOB should
formation. be applied before excessive RPM so that the cutting struc-
ture maintains a significant depth of cut to stabilize the bit
Ensure that the mud logging unit (or rig data system if ap- and prevent whirl.

BITS BI–25
• With a worn bit, torque tends to gradually decrease as

Flow rate the consequence of ROP drop, while the MSE tends to
Generally, high flow rate provides better hole cleaning than increase;
low flow rate, as it removes the cuttings more efficiently due • Sudden PDC cutter damage causes an instantaneous
the resulting high velocity and high hp/sq in. (HSI). Howev- reduction in penetration rate, as opposed to a
er, excessive HSI might result in poor borehole quality due to progressive reduction;
washout. Flow rate must match with junk slot area (JSA) to • A fixed cutter bit should be pulled as soon as it is
prevent bit erosion, particularly in the case of rock bits and believed to have suffered major mechanical damage such
steel body PDC bits. as a “ring-out” or a broken blade;
o Ring-out and broken blades can occur when the cutting
When to pull the drill bit
structure is damaged by a high impact event, i.e., lateral
There are many reasons why an operator might desire to or
vibration. The high lateral vibration can damage a set of
need to pull a drill bit. Below is a detailed list of some of the
cutters, which subsequently requires the remaining
most common reasons and guidelines for when they might
cutters to increase their work rate, which ultimately
be applicable.
accelerates the wear rate on the remaining cutters;
Pull the bit for ROP o Ring-out and broken blades can occur during period of
The decision to pull the bit because of low ROP should be high stick-slip. During the stick phase, the cutters and
based on a review of the observed ROP, drilling efficiency, blades are loaded the greatest amount.
cuttings interpretation and their comparison to expecta-
tions. »» Roller-cone bits
• Be aware of offset performance in all the relevant • The most frequent mode of failure for a roller-cone bit is
formations; bearings failure. A roller cone bit should be pulled as
• ROP could be poor because of a transition into a hard soon as there are good reasons to believe that a bearing
formation and not necessarily because of a damaged bit; has failed. The threat of leaving junk in the hole is very
• If no relevant offsets exist, it is crucial to focus on the serious and could lead to very costly fishing jobs for the
drill bit response to parameter changes before deciding customer;
to pull the drill bit. • With correct operating parameters and procedures, a
1. Estimate the ROP to section TD with the current bit and sealed roller cone bearing can operate for hundreds of
compare it to the ROP of a new bit; thousands of bit revolutions before it wears to the point
2. Could the bit currently in the hole be able to drill to the of a failure;
next planned trip, to section TD or to the next change of • Open bearings have a much shorter operating life and
BHA? If not, pull the bit; should not normally be used in applications that require
3. Compare the cost of leaving the current bit in the hole runs much in excess of 24 hours;
longer, with the cost of tripping the bit and replacing it • Bearing failures can occur sooner than the target life
with a new bit. Would the time saved by the higher span. If a bearing failure is not detected rapidly, there is a
penetration rate of a new bit be sufficient to compensate real prospect of a cone becoming detached from the bit
for the time spent on the trip and the cost of the new bit; and left downhole.
4. Do not leave a bit on bottom once it is determined that
the bit should be pulled. Grinding away on bottom Factors involved in premature bearing failure:
destroys the dull characteristics that could reveal the • Incorrect operating parameters;
cause of the bit’s loss of performance or damage. It could • Unsuitable cutting structure;
also leave junk in the hole, such as a cone from a • Severe gauge wear;
roller-cone bit or nozzles from a fixed-cutter bit. • Incorrect reaming practices;
• Unsuitable BHA;
Pull the bit for mechanical damage • Axial and torsional drilling string vibrations.
The evaluation of possible mechanical damage to the bit dif-
fers between bit types. Pull the bit for bit balling
1. First, try to remove the balling before deciding to trip the
»» PDC bits drill bit;
• A worn cutting structure tends to require more WOB to 2. If attempts to remove the balling are unsuccessful,
achieve comparable ROP compared to a bit with sharp perform the cost/ft analysis to assess the cost of the trip.
cutters. The bit becomes less aggressive, which means
the reactive bit torque generally decreases for a
sustained WOB;

BI–26 BITS
Figure BI-39: Format of IADC dull grading chart.

BITS BI–27
Pull the bit for nozzle problem
»» Lost nozzle
The primary symptom of a lost nozzle is a sudden decrease
in pump pressure due to an increase in the total flow area
(TFA).
• If ROP isn’t affected significantly, the drilling operation
could continue. The lost nozzle in the hole could damage
the drill bit’s cutting structure;
• Drilling with a missing nozzle could increase the risk of
eroding the drill bits nozzle ports. Monitor the pump
pressure; if the ports are eroding, the pump pressure
would gradually decrease;
• A lost nozzle could increase the risk of bit balling due to
the reduction in HSI.
»» Plugged nozzle
The primary symptom of a plugged nozzle is an increase in
the standpipe pressure due to the blockage in the flow area.
The symptoms are the opposite of what is seen in the case
of lost nozzle.
There are various factors that could clog up a nozzle, rang-

ing from swollen or sticky formation cuttings to loose mud
motor stator chunking (junk inside bit).
Dull grading and forensics

Paper SPE/IADC 23939, developed under the auspices of
IADC and presented the 1992 IADC/SPE Drilling Confer-
ence held in New Orleans, Louisiana, February 18-21, 1992,
outlines the dull-grading procedure for fixed-cutter bits. Fig-
ure BI-40 shows examples of dull characteristics.
The IADC Fixed-Cutter Work Group during 1991 audited the

1987 Fixed-Cutter Dull Grading System and determined that
some minor refinement was necessary. As was the case with
introduction of the fixed cutter dull grading system in 1987,
the objective of this revision was to facilitate creation of a
“mental picture” of a worn bits physical condition through a
standardized evaluation of certain bit characteristics.1
Because the system provides an industry-wide standard for shows eight factors to record. The first four spaces describe
recording the physical condition of the worn bit for future the extent and location of wear of the “Cutting Structure”.
reference, the meaning of a dull grade should be subject to The next two spaces address other criteria for bit evalua-
as little misinterpretation as possible. Therefore, committee tion, with the fifth space reserved for grading “Bearing” wear
discussions focused on two specific areas: improving the of roller cone bits. This space is always marked with an “X”
definition of “usable cutter height” as it relates to evaluation when fixed cutter bits are graded.
of PDC cutter wear, and making minor enhancements to the
wear characteristic codes. The sixth space indicates “Gauge Measurement.” The last
two positions allow for “Remarks” which provide addition-
System enhancements al information concerning the dull bit, including “Other (or
The format of the dull grading chart, shown in Figure BI-39,

BI–28 BITS
Inner Area Outer Area

2/3 Radius 1/3 Radius
GAGE GAGE
SHOULDER SHOULDER
CONE CONE TAPER
TAPER
NOSE NOSE
1 2
3
0 4 GAGE
GAGE
5 SHOULDER SHOULDER
CONE
NOSE
6 TAPER
CONE
NOSE A1-4
7
Figure BI-42: Location designations.
Figure A1-4 Location Designation
Figure BI-41: Location designations. Rather than evaluating “usable cutter height”, PDC cutter
wear is now measured across the diamond table, regardless
Secondary) Dull Characteristics” and “Reason Pulled,” re- of the cutter shape, size, type or exposure. This eliminates
spectively. the difficulty in determining the initial cutter height on a bit
in which PDC cutters are designed with less-than-full expo-
The system grades all PDC cutters based on condition of sure.
the visible diamond table of the cutter, regardless of cutter
shape or exposure. This differs from the former practice of For both surface-set and PDC bits, the average amount of
grading PDC cutters based on “usable cutter height” re- wear for each area is recorded, with two-thirds of the radius
maining. It was determined that the definition of “usable representing the “inner rows” and the remainder represent-
cutter height” for PDC bits was subject to misinterpretation, ing the “outer rows” (Figure BI-41). Average wear is cal-
given the initial positioning of some PDC cutters “within” the culated by simply averaging the individual grades for each
bit blade on some designs. cutter in the area.
Additional enhancements include addition of a dull charac- Dull characteristics: space 3

teristic code, “BF”, to distinguish “bond failure” between the The most prominent or “primary” physical change from new
cutter and its support backing from “LT”, loss of a cutter. In condition of a cutter is recorded in the third space. “Other”
addition, the optional designations “RR” or “NR” were added dull characteristics of the bit are noted in the seventh space
to allow for indication of whether a bit is “re-runnable” or the difference being that space 3 describes cutter wear,
not. while space 7 may concern other wear characteristics of the
bit as a whole. Codes for dull characteristics of both catego-
Application of these minor revisions will further “standard- ries are listed in Figure BI-39.
ize” the meaning of a dull grade. Examples of dull character-
istics are shown in Figure BI-40. Location: space 4
The fourth space is used to indicate the location of the pri-
Evaluating “cutting structure” mary dull characteristic noted in the third space. Locations
are designated in the diagrams of Figure BI-53. One or more
Inner/outer rows: spaces 1 and 2 of these codes may be used to indicate the location of the
Refer to Figures BI-41 and B-42. Using a linear scale from characteristic(s) noted. They include: C-cone, N-nose (row),
0 to 8, as before, a value is given to cutter wear in both the T-taper, S-shoulder, G-gauge, A-all areas, M-middle row and
inner and outer rows of cutters. Grading numbers increase H-heel row.
with amount of wear, with 0 representing no wear, and 8
meaning no usable cutters left. A grade of 4 indicates 50% Other evaluation criteria
wear.
Bearing: space 5
For surface-set bits, the scale of cutter wear is determined This space is used only for roller cone bits. It will always be
by comparing the initial cutter height with the amount of us- marked “X” for fixed-cutter bits.
able cutter height remaining.

BITS BI–29
drilled. The path might include geological obstacles,

Gauge: space 6 high dip, salt dome, igneous rocks, unconsolidated
The sixth space is used to record the condition of the bit formations, non-desired high-pressure zones;
gauge. “I” is used if the bit is still in gauge. Otherwise, the • Marketing plan: This factor is more related to
amount the bit is under-gauge is recorded to the nearest 1/16 economic and strategic models, and is the proper
in. time to show drilling capacity and time reduction.
Sometimes large drilling projects depend on the
Other dull characteristics: space 7 result of the small ones, and bit selection plays a key
In the seventh space, secondary evidence of bit wear is not- role on the marketing plans for drilling;
ed. Such evidence may relate specifically to cutting struc- • Equipment availability: What types of drilling systems
ture wear, as recorded in the third space, or may note iden- are used or planned to be used under the umbrella
tifiable wear of the bit as a whole, such as “erosion”. Many of the project feasibility, and what technology is
times, this “secondary” dull grade identifies the cause of the available? Some of the equipment indirectly affected
dull characteristic noted in the third space. by the bit selection can be directly affected by
vibrations, like drilling line (hesitation and pendular
Codes for grading both “primary” and “secondary” dull char- vibration), conventional rigs, hydraulic pistons at the
acteristics are listed in the table shown in Figure BI-50. The super singles, or rack-and-pinion rigs, and of course
designations “RR” and “NR” have been included as options all of the downhole tools, like mud motors, RSS
for noting whether the bit is re- runnable or not. systems, etc;
• Other effects: Drilling an oversized hole results in
Reason pulled: space 8 increased cost in the completions and cementing
The eighth space is used to record the reason the bit was operations. A tortuous hole or one with ledges
pulled. A list of codes is shown in Figure BI-50. might result in difficulty with getting casing to
bottom, further increasing time and cost to the
Impact on other stages of drilling, complete the well. These effects can be minimized
or are generally preventable with good drilling
completion and production practices.
The drilling process itself always starts with a careful de-
sign and engineering analysis, where the objectives for this Proper storage considerations
specific and unique drilling case must be approached, con- The storage procedures differ depending on the bit type to
sidering the overall situation, even under well-known offset be stored. Not all bits are manufactured or maintained the
conditions and mature drilling developments, or with risky same. Below are general recommendations, but always con-
wildcats. sult the appropriate drill bit representative and documenta-
tion for best practices.
Factors to be taken into account might be driven by some
questions. Equipment could be affected by the following: Tricone bit storage
• Risk analysis: How fast in terms of drilling time and Tricone bits have bearings that are either sealed or non-
directional work one desires to work. The analysis sealed. The sealed bits must have component parts (like
should include critical factors such as drillability, elastomers) protected from the environment. Extreme tem-
steerability and available technologies for peratures also degrade the elastomeric properties, which
operations with remote or difficult logistics. could diminish the performance of the bit.
Considering items such as pore pressure and kicks
probability, equivalent circulating density (ECD) will Sealed tricone bits
help drill under controlled, near-balance • Sealed bearing rolling cone drill bits must be stored
environment; properly to protect them from damaging environmental
• Drilling mud: Borehole interaction in terms of conditions. Store sealed bearing rock bits in a bit box;
reactiveness and well aging; • When stored properly, sealed bearing drill bits should
• Geological objectives: The target’s trail when we found retain their full performance potential for a period of five
more than one , scale, and the necessary type of years from the date of manufacture. Bits over five years
well to reach the target; old might experience a slow degradation in performance,
• Well profile and trajectory: The selected path to be due to the elastomer (rubber) components in the bit;
followed to hit the targets impacts the necessary bit • Elastomer components, such as bearing seals and
selection, cutting structure, stability and pressure compensator parts, continue to age with time.
aggressiveness in terms of the formations to be Aging causes the parts to harden and become less

BI–30 BITS
ed until grease appears at the outer edge of the cones be-

tween the cone backface and the leg. The rock bit can now
be stored safely.
Storage method 2: submersed in oil

Another acceptable practice is to store an unsealed bit in a
drum of oil. The oil should completely cover the cones. Af-
ter sitting in oil for two or three days, the cones should be
turned and the bit returned to the oil bath until needed.
Prior to use
Prior to use, clean and install new nozzle o-rings and noz-
zles. Re-grease each cone bearing through the weep hole;
try to fill the entire bearing cavity by rotating the cones sev-
eral times until plenty of grease comes out the backface.
Clean the shank and shoulder area as well and apply pipe
grease (dope) to these areas.
Figure BI-43: Location of grease holes in non-sealed bits. Locked cone

If an unsealed bit has a locked cone, submerge it in a diesel
tank for a day, then try again to rotate the cone. If the bit was
submerged for a couple of days or more and the cone still
resilient. The deterioration of elastomer components can does not break free, then consider scrapping the bit.
be aggravated or accelerated by improper storage
conditions, which result in decreased seal life in Fixed cutters bit storage
demanding drilling applications; • Fixed cutter bits (PDC, casing and impregs) need to be
• Do not store bits in a place where they could be exposed stored in the bit box they arrived at the wellsite in;
to dampness, harmful vapors, radiation or temperatures • The PDC cutters on the bit need to be protected from
in excess of 120°F (49°C) or lower than 30°F (-1°C). Do sustaining damage in any manner;
not place close to a heater, because the elastomer • Steel bits should be placed in an environment where
components will be damaged; there is minimal chance of corrosion on the bit body, i.e.,
NOTE: Do not rotate the cones on a bit that is cold (below away from wet/damp/humid conditions.
30°F or -1°C) to avoid damaging the bearing seals; warm the
bit up before rotating the cones.
Drill bit repairs
• Sealed bearing rock bits must be stored at least six ft
away from ozone-producing equipment, such as electric PDC
motors. In the current market and under current operating parame-
ters and limits of the BHA and drillstring components, PDC
Non-sealed tricone bits drill bits typically can be run multiple times after minimal re-
There are two methods to servicing and storing non-sealed pairs. Repairing PDC drill bits is a common practice amongst
rock bits between runs. Prior to storage, the non-sealed rock the larger drill bit manufacturers, and each manufacturer
bit must be cleaned thoroughly by washing with a high-pres- has a specific set of acceptance criteria or standards for a
sure hose. Wash down the bit, and rotate the cones to flush repairable bit. The drill bits are repaired to specific manufac-
out cuttings through the weep holes. Make sure all the cones turing tolerances, and non-destructive examinations (NDE)
can be rotated freely. are performed to satisfy manufacturer quality management
procedures. These standards provide product reliability in
Storage method 1: greasing the cones line with customer expectations and standard operating pa-
The first method is to grease each cone individually with rameters and are requirements per ISO 9001 standards.
a grease gun. Cones can be greased through the pre-cast
holes, as shown in Figure BI-43. Several pumps of grease Post-run evaluation
should be forced into the grease holes. During this process, After a drill bit is run, the dull bit is cleaned and evaluated
the cone should be rotated fully in order to spread the grease for reparability. The procedure for reparability inspection
inside the roller bearing. This procedure should be repeat- involves a visual inspection that classifies drill bits with ob-

BITS BI–31
vious non-repairable damage as damaged beyond repair rials and an oxy-acetylene torch, worn areas of crown and
(DBR), and the bit is subsequently scrapped. PDC cutting el- all the joints between cutters and pockets are covered and
ements and components are visually inspected for wear and repaired.
damage. Dye penetration inspection is used to further eval-
uate the dull drill bit to determine reparability at the repair For functional wear repairs, drill bits are repaired using a
or manufacturing facility. The dye penetration can be used flame spray method. The difference between cosmetic and
to indicate the need for replacing secondary components on functional might differ between drill bit manufacturers. The
the drill bits that have passed visual inspection, e.g., TCI or functional gauge wear has limitations, and bits that exceed
posts. The pin connection might be magnetic-particle tested the functional repair limits are classified as scrap. After
based on manufacturing standards. Drill bits designated for hardfacing is applied, the bit is visually inspected, and wheel
offshore use might be required by the customer to be DS-1 brushing or grinding is used to clean-up or remove any over-
Category 5 tested before and after repairs. spray or cosmetic imperfections. The gauge is ground radi-
ally to nominal specified diameter. Other components that
PDC cutting elements and secondary components might be affected by the temperatures involved in these re-
replacement and reclaim pairs should be replaced.
PDC cutting elements are brazed in during the original man-
ufacturing process and can be replaced after running. Each Pin connections and upper sections (matrix bits)
PDC cutting element is inspected for wear or damage and Pin connections and certain upper sections can be removed
classified for scrap or reuse. The wear to the diamond ta- and replaced. The drill bit is cleaned by pressure washing
ble and the tungsten carbide substrate is evaluated. If ac- and shot blast. The pin or upper section is removed by ma-
ceptable for reuse, the cutting element is reclaimed and in chining the weld groove or the entire pin connection down
future use be rotated to use an edge that has not engaged to the original blank make-up threads. Care must be taken
formation. In some areas there is no reclaim process, and all to leave the original blank make-up threads intact to enable
cutting elements are replaced. The PDC cutting element re- the threading make-up of the replacement pin connection.
placement and reclaim process involves complete removal Threads shall be properly de-burred. The weld groove shall
of the cutting elements, braze material and corrosion/oxida- also be cleaned out as necessary by machining to provide for
tion products through a heating cycle and blasting/grinding. a suitable weld groove for the replacement upper section.
The bit is allowed to cool, and the cutting element pockets The replacement pin connection shall be made up, welded,
are then shot blast, chemically cleaned and preheated for inspected and completed in accordance with appropriate
re-braze. The reclaimed cutting elements are also cleaned requirements.
for re-braze. Whenever heat is being used, thermocouples
are required to monitor heat magnitude and cycles. Caution Miscellaneous modifications
is taken during repairs due to the inherent risks associated Drill bit gauge modifications can be made by grinding both
with heat cycles. Detailed procedures are specified for drill in diameter and length. These modifications have limitations
bit repairs outlining preheat, heating and brazing tempera- and are outlined by manufacturing and engineering policies.
tures and various other critical steps in the repair process. Ports can also be closed using welding methods.
For welding and brazing, specific settings are outlined, and
thermocouples are used to monitor temperatures. Roller cone
Upreaming PDC cutting elements and secondary compo- Re-tipping
nents are replaced in the same manner as the primary cut- Re-tipping of the teeth of steel-tooth roller cones is not a
ting structure PDC cutting elements. Various other types common practice for standard drilling environments. How-
of tools, such as reamers, variable-gauge stabilizers and ever, numerous third-party re-tippers will provide this ser-
bi-center bits that use PDC cutting elements are repaired vice for non-challenging or special applications. Re-tippers
using similar procedures. have developed a procedure for cosmetic repair of tooth
gauge, face, flank and crest. The procedure involves the
Drill bit body and gauge building-up the teeth of the drill bit by welding steel and hard
Wear to the drill bit body and gauge can be either cosmetic metal to the surface of the teeth. Smaller cosmetic discrep-
or functional, each requiring a specific procedure for repair. ancies are repaired using “liquid steel” or equivalent product
Cosmetic body and gauge repairs are typically performed to the voids. These repaired areas are filled slightly above
immediately after cutter replacement brazing to prevent un- flush with the base material and sanded to create a blended,
necessary heat cycles. The body is prepared by shot blast uninterrupted surface.
and cleaned of all foreign material. Graphite plugs are used
to protect cutting element pockets. Using approved mate-

BI–32 BITS
Table BI-3: Approximate weight of roller-cone bits (boxed).
Post-repair documentation and inspections and mudweight, the fluid exiting the nozzles has a corre-
Drill bit manufacturers are required keep detailed records spondingly high velocity. A lower-pressure drop, on the oth-
regarding serialized components. These records detail post- er hand, under the same conditions of flow and mudweight,
run inspections, repair comments, temperature logs, NDE results in fluid exiting the nozzles with lower velocity.
results and tolerances compliance. Various stages in the
repair process require meticulous inspection and quality as- Pressure drop is dependent on flow rate, mudweight and the
surance checks: bit TFA.
• ASME SEC V: Non-Destructive Examination;
• ASTM E709: Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
Examination;
• ASTME 1316: Standard Terminology for Non-Destructive
Examinations;
• Standard DS-1: Drillstring manufacture, design, Units system:
inspection and specialty tools. • Pressure drop (psi);
• Flow rate (gal/min);
• Mud weight (lb/gal)
Important calculations • TFA (sq in.);
• 10,856 is a unit conversion factor.
Drilling hydraulics
Good hydraulics is essential in ensuring the economic suc- Hydraulic horsepower
cess of a drill bit. The drilling fluid must at the same time The total hydraulic hp developed at the bit (HHP) is a func-
clean the cutting elements, avoid clogging (balling up), cool tion of flow rate (gal/min) and pressure drop (PD) according
and lubricate the cutters. To ensure and fulfill these objec- to the formula in U.S. units:
tives is therefore mandatory to design the hydraulic power
to meet the bit performance target. For a given flow rate,
the choice of a greater TFA reduces the fluid velocity at the
exit of the nozzles. The jet impact is the force with which the
fluid leaving the nozzles hits the hole bottom. This impact
force, mainly a function of the fluid speed and mudweight, is Hydraulic horsepower/square inch
at its maximum when the pressure drop at the bit is 49% of Hydraulic HSI provides a measure of the hydraulic power
the pump pressure. consumed at the bit per hole section and is a function of
flow rate and bit pressure drop, as well as hole diameter, and
Pressure drop therefore increases as the flow rate is increased.
The pressure drop across a bit is defined as the difference
between the pressure of the mud exiting the nozzles and the However, as flow rate becomes higher, the TFA eventually
pressure of the mud within the drillstring immediately prior needs to be increased to maintain a suitable pressure drop,
to entering the bit. in which case the HSI once again falls.
If the bit pressure drop is extremely high for a given flow rate

BITS BI–33
HSI is at maximum when the pressure drop across the bit is bit diameter, a proportional relationship is used to define
65 % of the standpipe pressure, which registers the pres- the necessary energy: the power per wellbore area. The hy-
sure of the mud entering the top of the drillstring. draulic power at the bit is at its maximum when the pressure
drop at the bit is 64% of the pump pressure.
The hydraulic power requirements vary with local practices.

In soft formation, it is preferable to increase mud flow rath-
er than pressure drop; two to three HSI is common. With
Units system: oil-based mud or when drilling in some shales, the level is
• Flow rate (gal/min); generally lower. For surface set bits, the level is between one
• Bit pressure drop (psi); and three HSI. In harder rocks and with water-based mud
• Hole area (sq in.) = π/4 * (hole diameter)2; and when a high jet effect is wanted, a level from three to
• 1,714 is a unit conversion factor. five HSI is usually applied.
Jet velocity Drilling economics

Jet velocity The jet velocity is defined as the average speed Drill bit selection is key in the achievement of decent drilling
of mud exiting the nozzles. It is a function of flow rate and performance and the reduction of overall drilling costs. Val-
TFA. If the flow rate is extremely high, for a given mud- ues of optimization might include various benefits such as
weight, the fluid exiting the nozzles has a correspondingly reduced number of trips, lower rig mobilization and better
high velocity. A lower flow rate, on the other hand, under safe operating conditions, which result in a great economic
the same conditions of mudweight, results in fluid exiting benefit. To help drilling engineers in this task, there are some
the nozzles with lower velocity. If the TFA is high, for a given basic cost calculations to perform. The most used formula is
flow rate and mudweight, the fluid exiting the nozzles has the cost/ft that measures the overall operating cost to drill
low velocity. The converse is also true. one foot of well with a given drill bit.
Cost per foot

The cost/ft is the bit performance measurement used to
evaluate the choice. When a downhole motor (measure-
ment while drilling [MWD], motor or rotary steerable sys-
Units system: tem) is used, its rental cost must be added to the hourly cost
• Flow rate (gal/min); of the rig and the fixed cost of the bit. However, the eco-
• TFA (sq in.); nomics of a bit only depends on its penetration rate and its
• 0.32086 is unit conversion factor. life expectancy in terms of time and/or m drilled. One must
endeavor to optimize these two elements. One can use the
Jet impact force following formula to calculate the cost/ft drilled:
The jet impact force (JIF) is the force that is exerted on the
bottom of the hole by the fluid exiting the nozzles when the
bit is on bottom.
It is a function of jet velocity, mudweight and flow rate. JIF is

maximized when the pressure drop across the bit is 49% of Where CPT = Cost/m drilled ($/m or $/ft)
the standpipe pressure.
CRig = Cost/hr for the rig ($/hr)
CBit = Bit cost ($)
CMotor = Motor cost

Units system:
• Flow rate (gal/min); t = Drilling time (hour)
• Mud weight (lb/gal);
• TFA (sq in.); T = Trip time (hour)
• 1,932 is unit conversion factor.
M = footage drilled (m or ft)
Given the fact that the required hydraulic hp varies with the

BI–34 BITS
the best bit selection for the planned profile, BHA, forma-
Break-even line tions and operating conditions.
Bit life and ROP are the best criteria used to define the im-
pact of the drill bit on the overall drilling cost. Bit life is mea- Proper handling
sured as the footage drilled per bit, whereas the ROP is ft Always refer to the original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
drilled per rotating hour. Bit life affects the number of trips manualas applicable, before undertaking procedures at the
that is required to change the bit, while ROP influences the current work site.
number of drilling hours needed to complete a given hole
section. Proper planning for the well prognosis and working
with your operator and bit specialist will you help to choose

BITS BI–35
SAFETY AND HANDLING

General handling hazards Operation-specific hazards
• Ensure all lifting straps are correctly rated for the load • Ensure correct tools are being used for any nozzle
and are secured when moving drill bits; replacement procedures;
• Use proper lifting practices when handling drill bits; • Do not place fingers below the bit cutting face when the
• Be aware of other material movements being undertaken bit is being manually handled, especially when it is being
when working on the drill floor; placed upon a flat surface;
• Any general wellsite bit handling hazards should be • Do not manipulate a heavy bit at height if it is not
covered and discussed with the relevant third-party adequately supported or if there is any possibility of it
personnel in the general safety meeting or pre-run/ falling;
pre-tour Toolbox talk; • Ensure the base of the bit box is supported if a bit is lifted
• Use correct PPE when handling drill bits (gloves) and/or within its packaging, if there is any possibility the bit
drill bit accessories; could fall through the base of the box;
• Make crew aware of any potential hand safety issues • Never place fingers on a drill bit that has packed debris
(e.g., pinch points) when handling, moving and lifting bits on its body until it is cleaned off, especially if casing has
at the wellsite; been drilled, as sharp edges might be packed in the
• Placement of the bit box and make-up equipment should material.
not constitute an obstruction or trip hazard on the drill
floor.

BI–36 BITS
GOVERNING STANDARDS & GUIDELINES / REFERENCES

Governing standards & guidelines 9. Meiners, M.J., Jacobsen, J., Kunning, J.: “Understanding
• ANSI/API Specification 7-1 Specification for Rotary Drill Downhole Dynamics While Reaming Enhances Gauge
Stem Elements; Protection,” presented at the ASME Energy Sources
• API Recommended Practice 7G Recommended Practice Technology Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas
for Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits; Feb 1999.
• ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems - Requirements 10. Feenstra, R., Juergens, R., Walker, B.H.: “New
- Fourth Edition; Generation of Oilfield Bits - Laboratory and Field Results”
• IADC/SPE 23937 The IADC Roller-cone bit Classification paper SPE 6712 presented at the Annual Fall Technical
System; Conference and Exhibition SPE/AIME, Denver, Colorado,
• SPE/IADC 16145 Application of the New IADC Dull 9-12 October 1977.
Grading System for Fixed Cutter Bits; 11. Zijsling, D.H.: “Single Cutter Testing - A Key for PDC Bit
• SPE/IADC 16142 The 1987 IADC Fixed Cutter Bit Development” paper SPE 16529 presented at Offshore
Classification System; Europe, Aberdeen, Scotland UK, 8-11 September 1987.
• SPE/IADC 23939, First Revision to the IADC Fixed- 12. Zijsling, D.H., Illerhaus, R.: “Eggbeater PDC Drillbit
cutter Dull Grading System; Design Eliminates Balling in Water-Based Drilling Fluids”
paper SPE 21933 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands, March 11-14 1991.
References 13. Shepherd, W.L., Klingensmith, D.L.: “Improvements in
1. Hughes, H.: “A Modern Rotary Drill” Transactions of the Rock Bit Performance presented at the ASME Energy
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Volume LI., Resources Technology Conference, New Orleans,
February 1915. Louisiana, February 1990.
2. Murray, A.S., Cunningham, R.D.: “Effect of Mud Column 14. Turner, E.C.: “Field Specific Analysis Reinforces Role of
Pressure on Drilling Rates” paper TP4166 presented at Bit Technology in Improving Overall Drilling Economics”
the Petroleum Branch Fall Meeting, New Orleans, paper SPE/IADC 37642 presented at the SPE/IADC
Louisiana 2-5 October 1955. Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 4-6
3. Cook, J., McElya, F.: “Development and Application of March 1997.
Journal Bearing Bits” paper presented at the Rotary 15. Salesky, W.J., Payne, B.R.: “Preliminary Field Test
Drilling Conference, March 2, 1973. Results of Diamond-Enhanced Inserts for Three-Cone
4. Newman, E.F.: “Design and Application of Softer Rock Bits” paper SPE/IADC 16115 presented at the SPE/
Formation Tungsten Carbide Rock Bits” paper IADC/SPE IADC Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, 15-18
11386 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, March 1987.
New Orleans, Louisiana, 20-23 February 1983. 16. Salesky, W.J., Swinson, J.R., Watson, A.O.: “Offshore
5. Byrd, C, Scott, D.E., Kirkland, R.: “New Rolling Cutter Bit Tests of Diamond-Enhanced Rock Bits” paper SPE 18039
Design Reduced Gage Wear in Geothermal presented at the 63rd Annual Technical Conference and
Applications,” 1991, Trans., Geothermal Resources Exhibition, Houston, Texas, 2-5 October, 1988.
Council, pp. 365-69. 17. Eckstrom, D.: “Bits with Diamond Inserts Reduce
6. Scott, D.E., Zahradnik, A.F, Schmidt, S.R.: “Enhanced Gauge Problems,” 1991, Oil & Gas Journal, June 17, pg. 41.
Gauge Improves Rolling Cutter Bit Performance in 18. Scott, D.E.: “Development of Roller-cone bits with
Abrasive North Sea Sands,” 1991, OTC 6738, presented Active PDC Shear Cutting Elements Improves Gauge-
at the 1991 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Holding Ability,” 1993, IADC/SPE 25736, presented at
Texas, May 6-9, 1991. the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The
7. Grimes, R.E., Felderhoff, F.C., Brown, L.A.: “New Cutting Netherlands, February 23-25 1993.
Structure Designs Extend Rock Bit Life in Hard Permian 19. Keshavan, M.K., Siracki, M.A., Russell, M.E.: “
Basin Formations,” 1992, PED-Vol. 40, Drilling Diamond-Enhanced Insert: New Compositions and
Technology, ASME, pp. 43-50. Shapes for Drilling Soft-to-Hard Formations” paper SPE/
8. Watson, P.A., Welch, R.M., Scott, D.E.: “New Hard IADC 25737 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Formation Roller-cone bit Technology Improves Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 23-25
Economics of Abrasive Travis Peak, Cotton Valley Wells,” February 1993.
1996, IADC/SPE 35114, presented at the 1996 IADC/SPE 20. Pessier, R., Grimes, R., Isbell, M., Scott, D.: “Rolling
Drilling Conference, New Orleans, Louisiana, March Cone Bits with Novel Gauge Cutting Structure Drill
12-15. Faster, More Efficiently” paper SPE 30473 presented at

BITS BI–37
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, 32. Tomlinson, P. N., Pipkin, N. J., Lammer, A., Burnand, R. P.,
Dallas, Texas 22-25 October 1995. 1985, “High Performance Drilling-Syndax3 Shows
21. Salleh, S., Eckstrom, D.: “Reducing Well Costs by Versatility,” Industrial Diamond Review, Vol. 6 pp. 299-305.
Optimizing Drilling Including Hard/Abrasive Igneous 33. Eko, A., Ohashi, T., Tajima, I.: “Precision Machining
Rock Section Offshore Vietnam, paper IADC/SPE 62777 with Fine-Grained Carbonate Binder PCD” Diamond
presented at the IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drilling Tooling Journal, February 2010, pp. 48-51.
Technology, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia 11-13 September 34. Radtke, R.P.: “New High Strength and Faster Drilling
2000. Thermally Stable Polycrystalline Diamond Cutters for
22. Martin, D., Jacobsen, J.: “New Hard Rock Roller-cone Drill Bit” paper SPE 74515 presented at the IADC/SPE
bit Technology /Operational Excellence Improves Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, 26-28 February 2002.
Economics in Mature East Texas Gas Fields” paper 35. Wood, J. 1984, “Thermally Stable Cutters Extend
IADC/SPE 74527 presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Application of Synthetic diamond Bits to Hard
Conference, Dallas, Texas, 26-28 February 2002. Formations” Oil and Gas Journal, pp. 133-138.
23. Glowka, D.A.: “Use of Single-Cutter Data in the 36. Schell, E.J., Phillippi, D., Fabian, R.T., “New Stable PDC
Analysis of PDC Bit Designs: Development of a PDC Technology Significantly Reduces Hard Rock Cost per
Cutting Force Model” paper SPE 15619 presented at the Foot” paper SPE/IADC 79797 presented at the SPE/
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, New IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands,
Orleans, Louisiana, 5-8 October 1986. February 19-21 2003.
24. Warren, T.M., Sinor, L.A.: “Drag-Bit Performance 37. Baker, R., Shen, Y., Zhang, J., Robertson, S.: “New
Modeling” SPE paper 15618 presented at the SPE Annual Cutter Technology Redefining PDC Durability Standards
Technical Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, for Directional Control: North Texas/Barnett Shale”
Louisiana, 5-8 October 1986. paper IADC/SPE 128486 presented at the IADC/SPE
25. Behr, S.M., Warren, T.M., Sinor, L.A. Brett, J.F.: “3D Drilling Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans,
PDC Bit Model Predicts Higher Cutter Loads” paper SPE Louisiana, 2-4 February 2010.
21928 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, 38. Plemons, B., Douglas, C., Shen, Y., Zhan, G., Zhang, Y.:
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 11-14 March 1991. “New Cutter Technology for Faster Drilling in Hard/
26. Brett, J.F., Warren, T.M., Behr, S.M.: “Bit Whirl - A New Abrasive Formations” paper SPE 132143 presented at the
Theory of PDC Bit Failure” paper SPE 19571 presented at CPS/SPE International Oil and Gas Conference and
the SPE 64th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition in China, Beijing, China, 8-10 June 2010.
Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, 8-11 October 1989. 39. Zhang, Y., Baker, R., Burhan, Y., Shi, J., Chen, C.,
27. Warren, T.M., Brett, J.F., Sinor, L.A.: “Development of a Tammineni, S., Durairajan, B., Self, J., Segal, S.:
Whirl-Resistant Bit” paper SPE 19572 presented at the “Innovative Rolling PDC Cutter Increases Drilling
SPE 64th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Efficiency Improving Bit Performance in Challenging
San Antonio, Texas, 8-11 October 1989. Applications” paper SPE/IADC 163536 presented at the
28. Sinor, L.A. Brett, J.F., Warren, T.M., Behr, S.M.: “Field SPE/IADC Drilling Conference and Exhibition,
Testing of Low-Friction-Gauge PDC Bits” paper SPE Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 5-7 March 2013.
20416 presented at the SPE Annual Technical 40. Zhang, Y., Burhan, Y., Chen C., Tammineni, S.,
Conference and Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, Durairajan, B., Mathanagopalan, S., Ford, R.: “Fully
23-26 September 1990. Rotating PDC Cutter Gaining Momentum: Conquering
29. Pastusek, P.E., Cooley, C.H., Sinor, L.A., Anderson, M.: Frictional Heat in Hard/Abrasive Formations Improves
“Directional and Stability Characteristics of Anti-Whirl Drilling Efficiency” paper SPE 166465 presented at the
Bits With Non-Axisymmetric Loading” paper SPE 24614 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition New
presented at the SPE 67th Annual Technical Conference, Orleans, Louisiana, USA, 30 September–2 October 2013.
Washington DC, 4-7 October, 1992. 41. DiGiovanni, Anthony. Stockey, David. Fuselier,
30. Warren, T.M., Sinor, L.A.: “PDC Bits: What’s Needed Danielle. Gavia, David. Zolnowsky, Matt. Phillips, Russell.
To Meet Tomorrow’s Challenge” paper SPE 27978 Ridgeway, Derek. “Innovative non-planer Face PDC
presented at the University of Tulsa Centennial Cutters Demonstrate 21% Drilling Efficiency
Petroleum Engineering Symposium, Tulsa, Oklahoma, Improvement in Interbeded Shale and Sand” Paper
29-31 August 1994. 168000 presented at the SPE Annual Technical
31. Ortega, A., Glowka, D.A.: “Frictional Heating and Conference and Exhibition New Orleans, Louisiana, USA,
Convective Cooling of Polycrystalline Diamond Drag 30 September–2 October 2013.
Tools During Rock Cutting,” paper SPE 11061presented at 42. Cariveau, P., Slaughter, R.H., Didericksen, R.,
the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held Cawthorne, C.E., Portwood, G.R.: “Sealed Bearing Drill
in New Orleans September, 26-29 1982. Bit with Dual-Seal Configuration” United States Patent

BI–38 BITS
6,033,117, March 7, 2000. Caleb, Rothe, Mitchell A., Tipton, Brent Jackson,
43. Al-Farei, I.,A., Al-Sukaiti, A.H., Al-Lawati, A., Chesapeake Energy: “Hybrid Drill Bit Combining
Portwood, G., Krishnamurthy, R., Gatell J.: “Two Years of Fixed-Cutter And Roller-Cone Elements Improves
Progress: Field Driven Rollercone Design Iterations Cut Drilling Performance In Marcellus Shale Surface
Conglomerate Formation Drilling Costs by 40% in Interval”, SPE 154831, 2012.
Oman” paper SPE/IADC 147958 presented at the SPE/ 55. Di Pasquale, M., Calvaresi, E., Baker Hughes, Pecantet,
IADC Middle East Drilling Technology Conference and S., NV Turske Perenco, “ A Breakthrough Performance
Exhibition Muscat, Oman, 24–26 October 2011. for an Inland Application with a Hybrid Bit Technology”,
44. Schmidt S. R., Wittry A. E., Burr B. H., Kelly J. L.: SPE 163436. 2012.
“Metal-Bearing Seal Technology Improves Drilling 56. Thomson, Ian James, Radford, Steven Ralph, Powers, Jim
Efficiency of Rolling Cutter Bits in High-RPM North Sea R., Shale, Leslie T., Jenkins, Mark, Baker Hughes Inc. “A
Applications”: SPE paper 21934 presented at the SPE/ Systematic Approach to a Better Understanding of the
IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, March 11-14, 1991 Concentric Hole-Opening Process Utilizing Drilling
45. McLeod, S.A., O’Grady, T.T., Sullivan, E.C., Mason, J.S., Mechanics and Drilling Dynamics Measurements Recorded
Lin, C.: “Application of Metal-Bearing Seal Roller-Cone Above and Below the Reamer”, SPE 112647, 2008.
Bit Reduces Rig Time/Drilling Costs in Green Canyon, 57. Meyer-Heye, Bernhard, Technische Universitat
Deep Water Gulf of Mexico” paper IADC/SPE 59109 Braunschweig, Reckmann, Hanno, Baker Hughes Inc.
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New Ostermeyer, Georg-Peter, Technische Universitat
Orleans, Louisiana, 23–25 February 2000. Braunschweig, “ Weight Distribution in Reaming While
46. Norris, J.A., Dykstra, M.W., Beuershausen, C.C., Drilling BHAs” SPE 127094 SPE Conference Paper , 2010.
Fincher, R.W. and Ohanian, M.P.: “Development and 58. Ubaru, Charles C., Thomson, Ian James, Radford,
Successful Application of Unique Steerable PDC Bits,” Steven Ralph, Baker Hughes Drilling and Under-Reaming
paper IADC/SPE 39308 presented at the IADC/SPE in the GOM” “Deepwater Ultradeep Lower Tertiary:
Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, 3-6 March 1998. History of a Record Run in the World” SPE 145259 SPE
47. Sinor, L.A., Powers, J.R., Warren, T.M.: “The Effect of Conference Paper, 2011.
PDC Cutter Density, Back Rake, Size, and Speed on 59. Pragt, Jos, Herberg, Wolfgang, Meister, Matthias,
Performance” paper SPE 39306 presented at the IADC/ Clemmensen, Carl Christian, BAKER HUGHES Inteq
SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, 3-6 March 1998. GmbH, Grindhaug, Gaute, Hanken, Knut Johan, Statoil
48. Mensa-Wilmot, G., Krepp, T. and Stephen, I.: “Dual ASA Oil “Reaming on Demand - Selective Activation of
Torque Concept Enhances PDC Bit Efficiency in an Integrated Under Reamer at the Grane Field in the
Directional and Horizontal Drilling Programs,” paper North Sea”.146501-MS SPE Conference Paper – 2012.
SPE/IADC 52879 presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling 60. Ulvedal, Lydia, Statoil, Enterline, James Dean, Hughes
Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands, 9-11 March 1999. Christensen, Scott, Dan Eugene, Shale, Les, Radford,
49. Sinor, L.A., Hansen, W.R., Dykstra, M.W., Cooley, Steven Ralph, Baker Hughes Inc. Clinkscales, Douglas Jay,
C.H., Tibbits, G.A.: “Drill Bits with Controlled Cutter Hughes Christensen, Croxton, Mike, Hughes Christensen.
Loading and Depth of Cut,” US Patent 6,298,930, “ Operator’s Recommendation for a Uniform Dull Grading
October 9, 2001. System for Fixed Cutter Hole Enlargement Tools”,
50. Dykstra, M.W., Heuser, W., Doster, M.L., Zaleski, T.E., SPE139870-SPE ATCE, Amsterdam, - 2011.
Oldham, J.T., Watts, T.D., Ruff, D.E., Walzel, R.B., 61. Pessier, R.C., Hughes Tool Co., Fear, M.J., BP
Beuershausen, C.C.: “Drill bits with reduced exposure of Exploration, “Quantifying Common Drilling Problems
cutters,” US Patent 6,460,631, October 8, 2002. With Mechanical Specific Energy and a Bit-Specific
51. Al-Suwaidi, A.S., Soliman, A.A., Klink, Z., Isbell, M., Coefficient of Sliding Friction”, SPE 24584 SPE
Dykstra, M., Jones, C.: “New PDC Design Process Solves Conference, Dallas TX – 1992
Challenging Directional Application in Abu Dhabi 62. Pessier, Rudolf Carl, Hughes Christens, Wallace,
Onshore Fields paper SPE/IADC 79796 presented at the Stephen Nicholas, Baker Hughes Oasis, Oueslati, Hatem,
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Baker Hughes, “Drilling Performance is a Function of
Netherlands, 19-21 February 2003. Power at the Bit and Drilling Efficiency”, SPE 151389-MS
52. Pessier, Rudolf. Damschen, Michael. “Hybrid Bits Offer SPE Conference San Diego, CA – 2012.
Distinct Advantages in Selected Roller-Cone and PDC-Bit 63. Clark, D. A., et al, Application of the New IADC Dull
Applications” SPE 128741, 2010. Grading System for Fixed Cutter Bits, paper SPE/IADC
53. Dolezal, Tisha, Felderhoff, Floyd Carl, Holliday, Alan D., 16145, presented at the 1987 SPE/IADC Drilling
Baker Hughes Inc. Bruton, Greg A., Chesapeake Conference, New Orleans, La., March 15-18, 1987.
Operating Inc.: “Expansion of Field Testing and 64. Brandon, B.D., et al, First Revision to the IADC Fixed
Application of New Hybrid Drill Bit”, SPE 146737, 2011. Cutter Dull Grading System, SPE/IADC 23939, 1992.
54. Bradford, John F., Ferrari, Louis Anthony, Rickabaugh,

CT
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IADC Technical
Resources
IADC TECHNICAL RESOURCES

ENHANCES RIG CREW EXPERTISE
IADC brings the collective knowledge and experience of the global drilling industry
to the workforce through industry-developed print, electronic and multimedia tools
and resources accessible in one convenient location.
From books to industry news to manuals and more—IADC is the definitive source.
The Technical Resources Center contains a variety of items, including:
• IADC Bookstore and e-Bookstore: textbooks, guidelines, checklists, model
contracts and more.
• Online Safety Toolbox: Safety Alerts, safety meeting topics, near hit/miss
forms and safety posters.
• Knowledge, Skill & Ability (KSA) Competencies Database: filter competencies
based on various criteria and generate a unique set of KSAs for each type of
position on a rig.
• Industry news: quick access to Drilling Contractor magazine and IADC Drill Bits
newsletter.
• Reports: Onshore and Offshore US Federal Regulatory Summaries and the
International Regulatory Summary provide easy to access updated information
on industry regulation.
www.IADC.org/technical-resources
CASING AND TUBING CT-i
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AND TUBING
nance and repair.
by the reader.
CONTRIBUTORS and REVIEWERS

Dan Postler, Sierra Hamilton
Dusty Sonnier, McCoy Global Inc.
Fred Dupriest, Texas A&M University
Stewart Barker, Albany Technical Services
Alistair Brodie, VAM Oilfield Service
Antoine Caillard, Vallourec
Dan Dall’Acqua, Volant Products Inc.
Malcolm Gray-Stephens, Frank's International
W.H. “Buster” Hamley, Weatherford
Neil Kimbler, Besco Tubular
Bob Moe, Viking Engineering
Kevin Robertson, EMAS Energy Services Ltd.
Allen Sinnot, Weatherford
Matthew Allen, Volant Products Inc.
CT–ii CASING AND TUBING


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-2-2

CASING AND TUBING CT-iii
CHAPTER CT
CASING AND TUBING

Contents
Introduction..................................................................... CT-1 Summary of API casing grades...............................CT-10
Types of casing and tubing......................................... CT-1 OCTG marking..............................................................CT-10
Drive, structural and conductor casing........... CT-1 Transportation and handling....................................CT-12
Surface casing........................................................ CT-1 Transport and offloading...................................CT-12
Intermediate casing.............................................. CT-1 Handling.................................................................CT-12
Drilling liners........................................................... CT-2 Tubular storage.............................................................CT-13
Production casing and tiebacks......................... CT-2 Pipe racks��CT-13
Tubing....................................................................... CT-2 Storage coatings and compounds..................CT-13
OCTG materials............................................................. CT-2 Thread protectors................................................CT-13
Manufacturing methods...................................... CT-2 Running procedure......................................................CT-14
OCTG labels............................................................CT-4 Running tools and equipment..........................CT-15
OCTG specifications.............................................CT-4 Pick-up and lay-down tools..............................CT-22
Corrosion..........................................................................CT-9 References.....................................................................CT-24
Sour service corrosion (SSC).............................CT-9

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
CASING AND TUBING CT-1
Introduction •• Allows for installation of a full mud circulation system,

when formations are sufficiently stable;
Tubulars are selected for the specific conditions anticipated
•• Guides the drill string and subsequent casing into the
in a given well. The anticipated production flow rates and
hole;
economics of the well determine tubing size, which then de-
•• Can form a part of the piling system offshore for a
termines the necessary size of each previous hole and tubu-
wellhead jacket or piled platform. In subsea wells the
lar. Once the tubular size and setting depths are determined,
conductor may form an integral part of the structural
the wall thickness and grade of material are then chosen by
support for the wellhead system;
the well designer to ensure the strength is adequate for the
•• Provide centralization for the inner casing strings, which
expected loads. Material grade is also selected to ensure it
limits potential buckling of subsequent casing strings;
is appropriate for the fluids the tubular will encounter; cor-
•• Minimize shallow lost returns;
rosion resistant alloys (CRA) may be required in some envi-
•• Provides a mount in onshore applications for a diverter
ronments such as CO2 or H2S. Finally, tubular connections
system that would be used in the event of an
are selected based on dimensional needs, load capacity, and
unexpected shallow influx.
gas-vs-liquid sealability.
Conductor casings can be driven or jetted to depth or, alter-
This chapter discusses types of casing and tubing; OCTG
natively, run into a predrilled or jetted hole and cemented.
manufacturing, labeling and specifications; corrosion; API
casing grades; transportation and handling; storage; and
running procedures. Surface casing
Surface casing is installed to:
•• Prevent poorly consolidated shallow formations from
Pipe types sloughing into the hole;
There are two basic types of pipes used in oil and gas ex-
•• Enable full mud circulation;
ploration and production and standardized by the American
•• Protect fresh water sands from contamination by
Petroleum Institute (API) and the International Standards
drilling mud;
Organization (ISO).
•• Provide protection against hydrocarbons found at
For in-well services (i.e., below the wellhead oil country tu- shallow depths;
bular goods [OCTG]): •• Provide initial support for the blowout preventers;
• • Casing: API 5CT/ISO 11960 with API 5B/ISO 10422 for •• Provide kick resistance for deeper drilling;
threads; •• Support the wellhead system and all subsequent casing
• • Tubing: API 5CT/ISO 11960 with API 5B/ISO 10422 for strings.
threads.
The surface casing string is typically cemented to the sur-
Per API, the specification differences between casing and face or seabed. it is usually the first casing on which blowout
tubing are: preventers are installed. The amount of protection provided
• • Length of the drift mandrel: 6 in. or 12 in. for casing and against internal pressure will only be as effective as the for-
42 in. for tubing; mation strength at the casing shoe.
• • Joint strength calculation method: Minimum tensile
strength for casing, and minimum yield strength for Intermediate casing
tubing. Intermediate casing is used to ensure there is adequate
blowout protection for deeper drilling and to isolate forma-
This chapter specifically covers casing and tubing. For in- tions that could cause drilling problems. The first intermedi-
formation on drill pipe, heavyweight drill pipe and drill col- ate string is typically the first casing providing full blowout
lars, please refer to the separate chapter Drillstring of the protection. An intermediate casing string is nearly always
IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition. For additional advice on set in the transition zone associated with the onset of signif-
drillpipe practices, refer to the separate chapter on Drilling icant overpressures. If the well could encounter severe lost
Practices. circulation zone(s), intermediate casing would normally be
set in a competent formation below the loss zone.
Types of casing and tubing Intermediate casing can also be used to case off any known
hydrocarbon-bearing intervals as a contingency against the
Drive, structural and conductor casing possibility of encountering lost circulation, with attendant
The main purpose of this first string of pipe is to protect
well control problems. An intermediate string may also be
unconsolidated shallow formations from erosion by drilling
set simply to reduce the overall cost of drilling and com-
fluids. Additional functions of the first casing string include:
pleting the well by isolating intervals that have caused me-

CT-2 CASING AND TUBING
chanical problems in the past. Intermediate casing may be be completed, produced and controlled throughout its life.
required to isolate: On exploration wells, this life may amount to only a very
•• Swelling clays and shale that can result in tight hole and short testing period, but on most development wells it will
key seats; span many years, during which multiple repairs and recom-
•• Brittle caving shale or weak zones prone to washout and pletions might be performed. Production casing should be
creation of persistent on bottom fill; designed to retain its integrity throughout its life. In most
•• Salt intervals; cases, production casing must provide full pressure redun-
•• Chemically active formations that can upset mud dancy to the tubing, isolate the productive intervals, facili-
chemistry; tate proper reservoir maintenance and/or prevent the influx
•• Over-pressured permeable formations; of undesired fluids.
•• Hole sections that are used to deviate the wellbore;
•• High permeability sand(s); The size of the production casing is selected to accommo-
•• Partly-depleted reservoirs that could cause differential date the optimum method of completion and production,
sticking. along with:
•• Well flow potential, i.e., tubing size;
A good well designer should plan to combine as many of •• Possibility of a multiple tubing string completion;
these objectives as possible when selecting a single cas- •• Space required for downhole equipment, such as safety
ing point. A liner may be used instead of a full intermediate valves, artificial lift equipment, etc.;
casing string and difficult wells may actually contain several •• Potential well servicing and recompletion requirements;
intermediate casings and/or liners. •• Adequate annular clearances to permit circulation at
reasonable rates and pressures.
Drilling liners
A drilling liner is essentially a string of intermediate casing It is also possible that the production casing itself could be
that does not extend all the way to surface. It is hung off in or used as production tubing to maximize well deliverability
above the previous casing shoe and is usually cemented over (casing flow), to minimize the pressure losses during frac-
its entire length to ensure it seals within the previous cas- ture stimulations, for continuous or batch chemical injection
ing string. In many subsea well designs, the liner is partially or for lift gas.
cemented around the shoe, and a liner lap packer is used to
seal the liner top. This is necessary when the fracture gradi- Tubing
ent cannot withstand the equivalent circulating density re- The pipe centered in the annulus of an oil and/or gas well
sulting from the pressure drops associated with cementing through which the hydrocarbons flow to the surface from
the entire liner. the formation is called tubing. It is important to size tubing
properly. If too small, production will be restricted, limiting
Drilling liners may be installed to: the profitability of the well. However, tubing that is too large
•• Increase shoe strength to allow further mud density can reduce fluid velocity and allow for build up of produced
increases; water that can kill the well. Large tubing will also affect the
•• Isolate troublesome zones; economics of the project, adding to the cost of the overall
•• Satisfy rig tension load limitations; well design.
•• Minimize the length of reduced hole diameter to
overcome possible adverse effects on drilling hydraulics OCTG materials
and the size of drill pipe that can be used; For OCTG, material “type” describes the composition of the
•• Save money compared to running a full string. steel used in manufacturing of the pipe, which impacts re-
There are a number of disadvantages to installing liners: sistance to various types of corrosion. The type of material
•• Difficulty obtaining a quality cement job; for OCTG must be appropriate for the corrosiveness of the
•• Risk of liner running equipment being cemented in the operating environment. The six material types for OCTG are
hole; shown in Table CT-1.
•• The liner lap represents a potential source of influx and
typically must be isolated by a retrievable bridge plug if Manufacturing methods
it is necessary to remove the blowout preventer stack; OCTG pipe is manufactured by either a welded or seamless
•• The lap must be tested with both positive and negative process.
pressure and remedial action taken if it fails to perform.
•• Welded tubulars are generally large diameter with
Production casing and tiebacks relatively thin walls, suitable for structural pipe,
Production casing is the conduit through which the well will conductors, surface casing, and marine risers. Welded

Table CT-1: The six materials used for OCTG manufacture

Material Name Governing specification Application
Non-corrosive wells
Carbon steels API 5CT/ ISO 11960
Sour service without CO2
13% Cr Martensitic API 5CT/ ISO 11960 Sweet corrosion (CO2)
API 5CRA/ ISO13680

Super 13 Martensitic Sweet corrosion (CO2) and temperature
Group1
API 5CRA/ ISO13680
22% Cr or 25% duplex or super duplex Sour service + CO2
Group 2
28% Cr Austenitic API 5CRA/ ISO13680
Highly corrosive: Fit for purpose testing
(Fe base alloys) Group 3
Alloy 825, G3, C276. API 5CRA/ ISO13680
Extremely corrosive: Fit-for-purpose testing
Nickel base alloys Group 4
pipe is sometimes used for other applications such as continuous rolling mill to produce a continuous
intermediate casing, production casing, and tubing, tube;
though these applications are less common, especially s s Push Bench: First billets are heated to rolling
in the smaller diameters. Welded pipes have generally temperature, and then moved through the
good dimensional properties and are generally less cylindrical dies of a piercing press, where they
expensive but have limitations: become thick-walled pierced billets (a.k.a.,
s s Prohibited for API 5CRA tubulars; "hollow") closed at one end. Later the hollows are
s s Not suitable to 13 Cr; stretched using a 3-roll elongator, thereby leveling
s s Not suitable to sour service. Only accepted for the wall thickness. Once elongated the hollow is
L80, forbidden when higher strength properties moved to a push bench, where a mandrel is
are required; inserted and it passes through a series of rollers.
s s Prohibited for couplings and accessories, per API The hollow passes roller to roller, resulting in
5CT; smaller wall thicknesses. Finally a hot saw
s s Limited wall thickness because of weld limitation removes the closed end from the hollow.
in wall.
•• Multi-stand plug mill (MPM) with controlled floating
•• Seamless pipe is suitable for all types of material and mandrel and plug mill: 140-406 mm (51/2-16 in.);
grades, and is preferred when well conditions are s s MPMs and Plug Mills: In Plug mills a solid round
severe. Per API 5CRA, all CRA tubulars are seamless. (billet) is used. It is uniformly heated in the rotary
Because of manufacturing limitations, seamless pipe is hearth heating furnace and then pierced by a
generally only available in diameters of 18 in. or less. piercer. The pierced billet or hollow shell is
roll-reduced in outside diameter and wall
Seamless tube manufacturing thickness. The rolled tube simultaneously
There are multiple seamless steel-tube manufacturing pro- burnished inside and outside by a reeling
cesses that originated at the end of the 19th century. These machine. The reeled tube is then sized by a sizing
include: mill to the specified dimensions. From this step
the tube goes through a straightener. This process
•• Continuous mandrel rolling process and push bench completes the hot working of the tube. The tube
process: 21-178 mm (0.8-7.0 in.); (referred to as a mother tube) becomes a finished
s s Continuous mandrel rolling process: 7 to 9 product after finishing and inspection.
tandem rolling stands continuously mill and
elongate the hollow shell of the tube over a •• Cross-roll Piercing and Pilger rolling process: 250-660
floating mandrel bar to produce a final tube. mm (10-26.0 in.);
Starting material is generally round rolled billets. s s Cross-roll Piercing and Pilgering Stand: Piercing a
First the material is heated, then pierced to solid billet with two or three profiled working rolls
produce a hallow shell. At this point the piece is rotating in the same direction is the basis of the
elongated anywhere from 2 to 4 times its initial cross –roll pilgering process. Once it is completed
length. Finally the shell is rolled out in the the thick-walled hollow shell is rolled through a
pilgering process to produce the finished pipe.

Table CT-2: Casing and tubing tolerances Table CT-3: Wall thickness tolerance*
OD < 4 ½ in. OD ≥ 4 ½ in. Per API 5CRA QT Per API 5CRA
Per API 5CT
+/- 0.031 in. and SA** CH***
-0.5% / +1%
+/- 0.79 mm Min, % Min, % Min, %
-12.5 -12.5 -10
The pilgering stand generally has two rolls, with a
*Max tolerance is driven by actual weight for all
tapered pass around the circumference. The rolls ** For quenched and tempered or solution-annealed products
rotate in the opposite direction from the material. *** For cold-hardened products
OCTG Labels and through the threaded and coupled (T&C) connections
Casing and tubing are generally described with four labels: in inches or mm. API defines three types of drift dimensions:
••Size; standard, alternate, and special.
••Weight;
••Grade; Standard drift dimensions are given in the Tables CT-4 and
•• End finish and thread. CT-5.
For example, casing bearing the label “9-5/8 47 P-110 BTC”

»» Alternate drift
Alternate drift is used when the standard drift does not meet
has a 9.625-in. diameter, 47-lb/ft nominal weight, P-110
the user’s operational requirements. API has defined some
grade, and Buttress (BTC) threads.
alternate drift sizes that are outside the standard drift for-
Size and weight labels are referred to as the designation in mula, but which can be achieved within normal manufac-
the API specifications. API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960 lists the turing tolerances. For example, 9 5/8-in., 53.5-lb/ft pipe has
various size and weight designations and the standardized a standard API drift of 8.379 in., but can be offered with an
grade and available end finishes for API casing and tubing, alternate drift of 8.5 in. Alternate drift must be specified by
respectively. the user at the time of purchase.
Knowledge of dimensional characteristics and performance

»» Special drift
Special drift is a specific drift diameter agreed between sup-
properties of OCTG tubing or casing strings is essential for
plier and purchaser. The “special drift” option can have an
all who work on oil and gas wells.
impact on the OD of the tubular as it is often necessary to
shift the OD tolerances above maximum. In this case, the
OCTG Specifications pipe would be considered “oversized”, and no longer com-
pliant with API.
Outer diameter (OD)
This size designation establishes the outside diameter in
inches (in.) or millimeters (mm), as shown in Table CT-2.
Inside diameter (ID)
The size/weight designation defines the inside diameter of
the pipe body in inches (or mm). There are no specified tol-
Wall Thickness
erances for the inside diameter of the pipe body; it is gov-
For a particular size, the weight designation determines the
erned by the outside diameter and weight tolerances. Ex-
nominal pipe body wall thickness in inches or mm (Table
treme line casing and integral joint tubing have special inside
CT-3). Although wall thickness tolerance is normally a nomi-
diameter drift requirements.
nal value, buyers can request a specific measurement of wall
thickness. Tolerances may also be changed by agreement
between the purchaser and supplier.
Weight
The size/weight designation determines the mass (i.e., the
nominal plain end unit weight) of the pipe body. Although
Drift diameter
generally expressed in pounds per foot (lb/ft), the nominal
OCTG users must be assured that the pipe will have suf-
weight given by API and manufacturer literature is actually
ficient clearance to allow a bottomhole assembly (BHA)
dimensionless and is only a nominal value. The dimension-
or other drilling or completion tool to pass through it. The
less weight designation is an adequate approximation of the
internal clearance of an OCTG is proven by the ability to
mass of the pipe in lb/ft (x 1.4895 for kg/m). Actual weight
pass a mandrel of specified diameter and length through
depends on wall thickness tolerances, OD tolerances, and
the pipe’s full length. This mandrel is called a drift mandrel.
connection weight. When nominal weight is unknown, a tu-
Drift should not be confused with internal diameter (ID), as
bular can be specified with only the nominal outside diame-
any given ID is only a nominal value. The size and weight
ter and nominal wall thickness.
designation determines the drift diameter of the pipe body

Table CT-4: Standard drift dimensions for API 5CT Table CT-5: Standard drift dimensions for API
tubulars 5CRA tubulars
Drift Drift Drift
Drift Length,
OD range, in. Length, Diameter*, OD range, in. Diameter*,
in. (mm)
in. (mm) in. (mm): in. (mm):
OD ≤ 2 ⅞ d-3/32 (2.38) OD ≤ 2 7/8 d – 3/32 (d-2.38)
Tubing 2 ⅞ < OD ≤ 8 ⅝ 42 (1,067) d-⅛ (3.18) Tubing 4 (1067)
OD > 2 7/8 d – 1/8 (d – 3.18)
8 ⅝ < OD < 10 ¾ d-5/32 (3.97)
4 ½ ≤ OD < 9 ⅝ 6 (152) d-⅛ (d-3.18) OD ≤ 8 5/8 6 (152) d – 1/8 (d-3.18)
Casing
Casing 9 ⅝ ≤ OD ≤ 13 ⅝ d-5/32 (d-3.97)
12 (305) OD > 8 5/8 12 (305) d - 5/32 (d – 3.97)
OD > 13 ⅜ d-3/16 (d-4.76)
* d = nominal OD - 2x nominal wall thickness
* d = nominal OD - 2x nominal wall thickness
Weight tolerances are: External clearance

•• Single lengths: +6.5%, -3.5%; The OD of an OCTG tube body is generally NOT the largest
•• Carload lots (40,000 lb or 18,140 kg minimum): -1.75%, diameter of the joint of pipe, because the connections are
with no + tolerance. often larger than the tube body. Users need to know the ex-
ternal clearance between the tubular and the hole or outer
Grade tubular in which it is installed. The largest outside diameter
For API OCTG, material “grade” is a letter and/or number measured across the full length of the casing or tubing is the
combination that signifies the composition and mechanical coupling OD for T&C pipes or the OD at the box end level for
strength of the tubular. The grade of steel sets the mechan- integral semi-flush connections. API specifications define
ical properties and corrosion resistance of the product. Cer- the coupling OD for API connections. For proprietary con-
tain grades also carry restrictions on the process of manu- nections, the coupling diameter is obtained by machining.
facture and heat treatment. The values should be provided by the supplier.
»» Grade naming for API 5CT (non-CRA) Casing and tubing lengths
The names of the API 5CT grades are a combination of one The Range length and tolerances are listed in API RP 5CT/
prefix letter and one number. Past practice associated the IS011960 and in API RP 5CRA/ISO 13680. Due to the various
prefix letter with quality, with early letters in the alphabet manufacturing processes used to make pipe, pipe lengths
indicating poorer performance: the closer to “A”, the worse can vary considerably from one mill to another for the same
the performance. However, this is no longer true and can product and within the same product from the same mill.
be confusing. Currently, the prefix letter has no particular Conversely, pipe lengths can be very consistent. By agree-
significance with three exceptions, two of which indicate ment between purchaser and supplier, special ranges may
suitability for sour service, while the third indicates ultimate be defined due to rig constraints, transportation in closed
strength difference: containers, etc.
•• L and N 80 (L grade suitable for sour service);
•• R and T 95 (T grade suitable for sour service); For operational purposes, all tubulars should be individual-
•• J and K 55 (K grade has higher ultimate strength). ly measured. At the mill and in the pipe yard, the lengths
of pipe are measured from the end of the coupling, or box
Grade number corresponds to the specified minimum yield connection, to the end of the pin. For the running (rig or drill-
strength (SMYS) of the material in thousands of psi (ksi). For er's) tally, the lengths of pipe are measured, "less threads"
example, material grade C90 has minimum yield strength of (i.e., from the end of the coupling, or box connection, to the
90 ksi (90,000 psi). position on the pin that will be flush with the end of the box
»» Grade naming for API 5CRA connection made up fully on the prior run joint).
The names of the API 5CRA grades are a combination of
four numbers separated by dashes. The first 3 numbers Casing and tubing strength
represent the material composition in chromium, nickel and Please refer to API 5C3/ISO 10400 for detailed calculations:
molybdenum, while the fourth corresponds to the SMYS of
•• Pipe body yield strength (PBYS) is the maximum
the material in ksi. For example, 27-31-4-110 CRA material
tensile load that can be applied to the pipe body without
contains 27% chromium, 31% nickel, and 4% molybdenum,
yielding the steel (in the absence of internal and
with a SMYS of 110 ksi.

Table CT-6: API 5CT grades, YS range and tensile strengths

Yield Strength ksi Tensile strength
Grade Type min. max. ksi
H40 40 80 60
J55 55 80 75
K55 55 80 95
Group 1
N80 1 80 110 100
N80 Q 80 110 100
R95 95 110 105
M65 65 85 85
L80 1 80 95 95
L80 9Cr 80 95 95
Group 2 L80 13Cr 80 95 95
C90 1 90 105 100
T95 1 95 110 105
C110 110 120 115
Group 3 P110 110 140 125
Group 4 Q125 1 125 150 135
Table CT- 7: Range length for API RP 5CT tubulars

Range 1 Range 2 Range 3
Min 18 ft (4.88 m) 28 ft (7.62 m) 36 ft (10.36 m)
Casing* Max 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 48 ft (14.63 m)
Variation 6 ft (1.83 m)) 5 ft (1.52 m) 6 ft (1.83 m))
Min 20 ft (6.10 m) 28 ft (8.53 m) 38 ft (11.58 m)
Tubing** Max 24 ft (7.31 m) 32 ft (9.75 m) 42 ft (12.80 m)
Variation 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61 m) 2 ft (0.61 m)
Min 20 ft (6.10 m) 28 ft (8.53 m) 38 ft (11.58 m)
Integral joint
Max 26 ft (7.92 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 45 ft (13.72 m)
tubing
* 95% of the order shall meet the values shown in the table above for casing. The last 5% minimum values may be smaller and variation on
lengths may be more scattered (see API 5CT).
** Range 3 Tubing can be increased to 45 ft max by agreement between Purchaser and manufacturer.

Table CT-8: Range length for API 5 CRA Tubulars

Range 1 Range 2 Range 3
Min 16 ft (4.88 m) 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36 m)
Casing or tubing Max 25 ft (7.62 m) 34 ft (10.36 m) 48 ft (14.63 m)
mended practices, and specifications describing minimum

Table CT-9: Pup joint length tolerance requirements for the manufacture and physical perfor-
+ / - 3 in. (+ /- 76 mm) mance of API connections. The specifications most com-
monly used are:
external pressure, bending and torsion). It is defined as •• API Specification 5CT/ISO 11960, “Specification for
the product of the cross-sectional area and the Casing and Tubing”;
specified minimum yield strength for the particular
grade of pipe ; •• API Specification 5B, “Threading, Gauging, and Thread
Inspection of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads”.
•• Internal yield pressure (often referred to as burst
pressure) is the internal pressure that is guaranteed API connections have been in use for decades and have
before risk of pipe yielding; Per API 5C3, it is based on proven to perform well in many applications. However, the
specified minimum yield strength for the particular increased structural, dimensional, and sealability demands
grade of pipe, outside diameter, and minimum wall placed on tubulars, particularly in hostile well environments,
thickness; have led to the development of a number of proprietary
(non-API) connection designs.
•• External pressure resistance is often referred to as
collapse pressure. Collapse is an unstable failure mode Both API and proprietary connections can have different end
leading to a sudden deformation of the pipe body. It finishes. They may be:
cannot be calculated from a single simple formula. API •• Threaded and coupled (T&C);
5C3/ISO 10400 recognizes four collapse equations •• Integral joint (IJ);
based primarily on the outside diameter / thickness •• Flush joint (FJ).
(D/t) ratio.
Threaded and coupled connections
OCTG connections Threaded and coupled connections (T&C) are the most
Lengths of casing and tubing are joined together with common connection in use (Figure CT-1). They consist of
threaded connections. Besides joining the pipe together, two externally threaded ends of pipe (called pin ends) joined
connections must withstand all expected wellbore loads for together by a shorter internally threaded section of pipe
the life of the well (e.g., tension and compression, collapse stock (called a coupling or collar). The OD of the coupling is
and burst pressures, and bending). In addition to wellbore larger than the OD of the pipe body. Note that the ID of the
loads, connections often must meet other requirements that API connection is not flush. It therefore creates turbulence
may include OD/ID clearance, makeup characteristics, and in fluid returns. This, in turn, can cause washout in the tur-
hostile-service environments. bulent zone, pushing API dope out and creating a leak path
in the API connection.
Although connections represent less than 3% of the length
of the pipe run in a well, they deserve spe-
cial care and handling. The integrity of the
entire wellbore can depend on them, and,
further, more than 90% of pipe string fail-
ures occur in the connection.
Casing and tubing connections are com-

monly categorized as either API connec-
tions or Proprietary connections. The API Figure CT-1: Threaded & coupled connection.
has published a number of standards, recom-

• Some proprietary connections have leak

resistance and higher pressure capabilities
that are superior to API connections;
• Proprietary connections are frequently

the best solution for small annular
clearance applications;
• Proprietary connections may also be

chosen because of superior makeup
Figure CT-2: Integral-joint (IJ) connection. characteristics. A connection’s resistance
to galling, mishandling, or cross threading
can greatly affect its performance.
Proprietary connections generally have
less thread interference than API
connections and as a result usually have
greater resistance to galling.
ERW pipe
In calculating performance properties,
API/ISO specifications treat casing and
Figure CT-3: Flush-joint (FJ) connection.
tubing manufactured by the electric re-
sistance weld (ERW) process the same as
»» Integral-joint connections casing and tubing manufactured by the seamless process.
Integral-joint (IJ) connections were developed to provide a However, this is not the case in specifying which of the two
strong, leak-tight connection with an OD that was smaller manufacturing processes are suitable for sour service. API
than a T&C connection while reducing problems with down- 5CT stipulates that sour service grades of casing and tubing,
hole makeup or tight clearances. IJ connections do not use L80, C90 and T95, must be manufactured using the seam-
couplings, but instead require some form of pipe expansion less process. This was done because of concerns about
to achieve the desired tensile strength. An IJ connection maintaining acceptable sour service metallurgical proper-
consists of two joints of pipe, joined together by an inter- ties across the weld area. There are other API requirements
nally threaded box end and an externally threaded pin end, particular to ERW tubular products:
and has only half as many potential leak paths as a T&C con- •• There are special chemistry requirements for ERW
nection. Figure CT-2 shows a schematic of an IJ connection. P-110;
•• There are special heat treating requirements for ERW
The integral-joint connection shown in Figure CT-2 has had
P-110 and Q-125;
both the pin and box upset for improved tensile load carrying
•• Any pipe component with an API threaded box (female
capacity. Many IJ connections are used for liner applications
thread) must be made of seamless material.
or for contingency casing strings where clearances are par-
ticularly tight. Some of the benefits of ERW pipe are:
»» Flush-joint connections •• Since the pipe starts out as a flat plate, tight control of
Flush-joint (FJ) connections are a special class of IJ con- the wall thickness is easily achieved;
nections developed to provide high-pressure integrity in •• The inside surface finish condition can also be
applications with small annular clearance. A true flush-joint controlled to some extent while the pipe is still in the
connection has OD and ID dimensions equal to that of the plate configuration;
pipe body itself. The thread is cut directly onto the pipe wall •• ERW pipe is available in much larger diameters than
with no upsetting and no coupling. Therefore, the connec- seamless.
tion tensile strength is relatively low as compared to IJ, and
ERW pipe introduces additional quality control measures
especially as compared to T&C connections. Figure CT-3
associated with the process used to produce the weld seam:
shows a flush-joint connection.
»» Proprietary connections •• The pressure welding process used to join the seam
Proprietary connections are used when API connections requires very tight quality control;
cannot meet one or more of the requirements for the well.
For example:

•• Heat treatment and ultrasonic inspection of the weld SSC characteristics

seam must also be tightly controlled and documented. •• SSC is a hydrogen-induced phenomenon that can be
nearly instantaneous;
ERW manufactured pipe is currently used in many drilling
•• As temperature increases, a material’s tolerance for
and completion applications by a broad cross section of op-
H2S increases;
erators, with the exception of those applications excluded by
•• As yield strength increases, the material’s tolerance to
API Specifications and mentioned above. It is worth noting
H2S decreases;
that many of the expanded tubular applications utilize ERW
•• CO2 has no direct effect on SSC, but it can lower the pH
casing because of its consistent wall thickness. Uniform wall
of the environment, which will encourage cracking.
thickness is critical to achieving a uniform expansion and
this implies at least one reason why ERW pipe is widely used
SSC resistance
for this application.
The resistance of steel to SSC is a function of chemical, met-
allurgical and mechanical properties of the steel, and is also
Corrosion affected by:
Corrosion can have a major detrimental effect on the me- •• Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) of the environment;
chanical integrity of tubing and casing systems and must be •• H2S concentration and total pressure;
considered in the design. Corrosion can attack the pipe in ••Stress;
two ways: ••Temperature;
••Time.
1.• Metal loss will reduce the wall thickness of the casing
and lead to a corresponding reduction in its load Alloying elements can lead to a significant improvement in
resistance. This is typical of CO2 corrosion; the SSC resistance.
2.• The pipe material can be damaged to an extent that it

Hardness
can no longer withstand operating loads. The most
In addition to the chemistry, one of the most significant me-
severe forms of this type of corrosion are corrosion
chanical properties affecting SSC resistance is steel hard-
fatigue, sulfide or chloride stress-corrosion cracking,
ness, which reflects steel strength. Since higher-strength,
and hydrogen damage. These can lead to sudden and
higher-hardness steel has less SSC resistance, maximum
often catastrophic failure of the material. The corrosion
hardness values are specified for the various steels.
resistance of a particular material is affected by
complex interactions of many factors, including:
Corrosion resistant alloys (CRA)
•• The material under corrosive attack, The vast majority of oilfield applications utilize low-alloy
carbon steel for tubular, wellhead, and other pressure-con-
•• The composition and concentration of the corrosive taining purposes. Generally, more expensive corrosion re-
agents such as CO2, H2S, Salts (NaCI, CaCl2, MgCl2), sistant alloys (CRA) may be appropriate for one or more of
elemental Sulfur (S), and Oxygen (O2), the following reasons.
•• Weight loss and pitting corrosion resistance;
•• Temperature, pressure, and a host of other factors that •• Velocity Enhancement;
must be considered by the well designer but are beyond •• Higher Strength.
the scope of this chapter.
Sour service conclusion
Sour service corrosion (SSC) Many environmental factors influence the suitability of any
given material in a given medium. Foremost among these
Sour environments and sour service are partial pressures of H2S, CO2, concentration of chlo-
An environment can contain H2S without being considered rides, and temperature. Other influencing parameters in-
a sour environment or necessitating sour-service OCTG. clude pH, and carbonate (HCO3) concentration, produced
The National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) water concentration, and a myriad of produced formation
MR0175 defines a sour environment according to the partial minerals. When planning casing for an H2S application, the
pressures of H2S in the well; environments that contain H2S casing designer should select materials with care and with-
concentrations lower than those specified by NACE are not in the guidelines of NACE MRO175. A qualified metallurgist
considered sour and design for H2S is not necessary. should always be involved in assessing the severity of a cor-
rosive environment and in recommending appropriate tubu-
lars and/or corrosion monitoring and mitigation measures.

Summary of API casing grades s s Relatively expensive.

••P-110
The following is a summary overview of API casing grades,
s s Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than
with comments regarding suitability for sour service. This is
175°F;
not intended to be a definitive classification and a qualified
s s Minimal chemistry requirements.
metallurgist should be involved in the selection of any mate-
••C-110
rials for sour service.
s s A proprietary sour service grade that may or may
••H-40
not be fit for H2S service at all temperatures.
s s Used for non-critical, shallow wells;
Suitability depends on a number of factors
s s Do not use for sour service applications.
including: the manufacturer, the pH of the
••J-55
produced fluids, and the partial pressure of H2S;
s s Fit for H2S service at all temperatures;
s s Relatively expensive.
s s Often used for shallow tubing strings.
••Q-125
••K-55
s s Type 1 is fit for H2S service at temperatures
greater than 225°F;
s s Often used for large diameter surface casing
s s Often used for critical service wells.
strings, although line pipe grades X-52 and X-56
••S-135
are becoming a popular replacement.
s s Not suitable for sour service at any temperature.
••M-65
••U-140
s s Fit for H2S service at all temperatures.
s s Not suitable for sour service at any temperature;
••L-80
s s May be very brittle and generally discouraged for
OCTG service.
s s Has a maximum hardness requirement;
••V-150
s s Often used for sour service production casing,
s s Not suitable for sour service at any temperature;
production liners, and tubing.
s s May be very brittle and generally discouraged for
••N-80
OCTG service.
s s Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than
150 °F for quenched and tempered (Q&T); If an electric weld (EW) product is used, use only products
s s Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than with a full body anneal as opposed to a seam-annealed
175 °F if not Q&T. product.
••C-90
s s Type 1 grade fit for H2S service at all
temperatures;
OCTG Marking
Characteristics of API tubulars are identified by die stamp-
s s Has a maximum hardness requirement;
ings or stencil markings. The markings, which assist in vi-
s s An SSC test is required to demonstrate a
sually inspecting and verifying the pipe, provide all key el-
minimum threshold stress of 80% of YP;
ements: manufacturer’s name or mark, size, weight, grade,
s s This grade is becoming obsolete in favor of T-95.
length, manufacturing process, hydrostatic pressure test
May be used for sour service production casing
and thread type.
and production liners when L-80 does not have
enough strength for the desired wall thickness. API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960 requires API tubulars to be identi-
••R-95 fied with paint stencil markings (or die stampings) to aid in
s s R-95 is not a sour service grade; the process of visual inspection and verification. The mark-
s s Fit for H2S service at temperatures greater than ings give the manufacturer’s name or mark, size, weight,
150°F; grade, length, process of manufacture, hydrostatic pressure
s s Used for intermediate casing strings that may be test, and the type of thread. Table CT-10 summarizes the
exposed to H2S during a gas kick. tubular paint stencil information requirements of API Spec
••T-95 5CT/ISO 11960, and Figure CT-4 shows the locations for the
s s Type 1 grade fit for H2S service at all markings on the pipe.
temperatures;
s s Has a maximum hardness requirement; Figure CT-4 indicates the pipe was rolled by XYZ manufac-
s s An SSC test is required to demonstrate a turing company and produced to API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960.
minimum threshold stress of 80% of YP; (Use of “API” is optional.) The “41” indicates the date of
s s Often used for HPHT sour gas production casing manufacture, with the “4” denoting 2014 (or any year end-
strings when L-80 and C-90 do not have enough ing in “4” such as 2024) and the “1” the quarter of the year.
strength for the desired wall thickness;

Table CT-10: Tubular paint stencil requirementsa,b
Marking Sequence Grade
Manufacturer’s name or mark All Grades
ISO 11960 with date of manufacture. Inclusion of “API” is optional. All Grades
Unthreaded pipe or special end finishc All Grades
Size All Grades
Weight per ft All Grades
Grade All Grades
Heat treatmentc Grades J55, K55, M65
Manufacturing process All Grades
Supplementary requirementsb All Grades
Hydrostatic test pressure All Grades
Type of threadc All Grades
Full Length driftc All Grades
Serialization of products Grades C-90, T-95, Q-125
Notes:
a Source: API Spec 5CT, ISO 11960.
b A die stamp may be substituted for the paint stencil by mutual agreement of the manufacturer and the purchaser.
c If applicable.
“UF” indicates the pipe was shipped with

unfinished ends (threading to be done by
2 ft 2 ft
another party). The pipe is 7 ⅝ in., 39 lb/ft
and grade Q125 Type 1. “S” indicates the pipe Paint stencil
was manufactured by the seamless process, marking in this area
and “P10000” means that it was hydrostat-
ic pressure tested to 10,000 psi. Finally, “D”
indicates the pipe was drifted along its full XYZ ISO 11960 41 UF 7-5/8 39.00 Q1 S P10000 D
length with an API standard drift.
Paint band
API couplings are also required to have spe-
Coupling paint
cific markings. However, because of space
limitations on the coupling, this information
is generally die stamped rather than paint 42.23 ft
stenciled. In general, the markings on the
coupling include the manufacturer’s name
or symbol, ISO 11960 with manufacture date, Figure CT-4: Location of paint stencil marking and paint
thread type, and the grade. bands. See text for a discussion of the markings.
API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960 also require that pipe and cou- •• A paint band encircling the pipe at a distance not greater
plings be identified by color-coded paint bands to indicate than 2 feet from the coupling or box end;
the grade. The paint bands are applied by one or more of the
following methods: •• Paint entire outside surface of coupling;

Table CT-11: ISO pipe paint color code identification

J55 Tubing One bright green C90 Type 2 One purple, one yellow
J55 Casing One bright green T95 Type 1 One silver
K55 Two bright green T95 Type 2 One silver, one yellow
M65 One bright green, one blue C95 One brown
N80 Type 1 One red P110 One white
N80 Q One red, one bright green Q125 Type 1 One orange
L80 Type 1 One red, one brown Q125 Type 2 One orange, one yellow
L80 9Cr One red, one brown, one yellow Q125 Type 3 One orange, one green
L80 13Cr One red, one brown, two yellow Q125 Type 4 One orange, one brown
C90 Type 1 One purple
•• For pup joints shorter than 6 ft in length, the entire a few miles, and at regular intervals thereafter during the
surface is painted, except the threads. journey.
The ISO pipe paint color code identification is summarized The stowage and transportation of tubulars by marine craft
in Table CT-11. is the sole responsibility of the Master of the marine vessel.
Handling of tubulars to and from the vessel should be gov-
Other paint codes that indicate the results or types of in- erned by the same guidelines indicated for land transport. In
spections performed at the pipe yard may also be present preparation for handling offshore, casing and tubing should
on the pipe. Inspection paint-code bands are red for reject- be bundled with slings and secured with a bulldog grip and a
ed pipe and white for accepted pipe. These bands will be plastic tie-wrap to prevent loosening of the bundle.
placed as close as possible to the coupling without conflict-
ing with pipe grade paint bands. The use of metallic supports and slings is acceptable for
carbon and low-alloy steel, but corrosion-resistant alloys
Transportation and handling should be placed on non-metallic supports, and forks of the
Tubular-handling practices are described in API Recom- forklift should be protected with wood or plastic. Textile or
mended Practice 5C1, “Recommended Practices for Care plastic-coated slings should be used for handling any CRA
and Use of Casing and Tubing”. Additional industry rigging material.
courses are available to teach standards and practices for
For safety reasons, use of hooks is not recommended for
working with forklift trucks and cranes. Personnel who
handling any type of tubular because of the possibility of
should receive training for handling of tubulars may include
accidental release. Instead of hooks, it is recommended to
roustabouts, floor hands, deck hands (offshore), riggers,
handle tubulars with slings and/or cables. Slings and cables
crane operators, drillers, deckhands, thread representa-
must be stored out of the weather and inspected prior to
tives, casing hands, drivers and dock hands.
storage. Damaged slings or cables must be handled accord-
ing to instructions for repair or destruction.
Transport and offloading
The forces applied to a load when a vehicle brakes, accel- Regardless of material, a sufficient number of supports are
erates, or changes directions may be sufficient to cause the required to accommodate the weight and quantity of the tu-
load to slide or shift Approved restraining devices should be bular. To prevent bending, space the supports evenly but no
sufficient to withstand a force equal to the total weight of farther than 10 ft apart.
the load acting in a forward direction when braking and half
the weight of the load acting backwards or sideways. An- Handling
chor points must be designed to resist twice the weight of Racking practices should allow protectors to be removed,
the load in any direction. Tensioning devices/lashings points connections inspected, and threads cleaned and doped.
should be checked prior to moving the loaded vehicle, after Provide a space equal to twice the circumference of one pipe
between tube bodies on each layer.

Unless a crane is available, pipes must be rolled to the cat- width in proportion. As a rough guide, the height of tubulars
walk. If pipes are higher than the catwalk, use planks of in a stack should not exceed the base width; therefore, when
wood to create a very slight slope. When rolling CRAs, use a planning pipe racks, allowance must be made for small
rope to control rolling speed. To pick up and position a joint quantities that require more space than the table indicates.
in the V-door, use a “single joint elevator” rather than a rope
or a chain to lift the pipe, or use a pick up/laydown machine Storage coatings and compounds
or hydraulic catwalk. The choice of preservative or coatings that may be applied to
protect stored tubulars depends on the corrosiveness of the
Impact of low temperatures environment and cost. Casing manufactured in accordance
Low temperature reduces the impact resistance of steel. with API RP 5CT will have a mill coating to protect it during
Pipes that are dropped, bent or deeply scratched should transit. If casing is to remain in storage for a long period, the
be inspected. Take care to avoid scratching surfaces when mill coating can be supplemented, or completely removed
separating frozen tubes, and do not hammer thread protec- and new coating applied. Internal and external surfaces of
tors to remove. Use a stabbing guide to avoid damage while production tubulars may be grit-blasted to achieve this and
making up connections, and ensure pin and box are similar thread protectors are fitted to prevent contamination. Par-
temperatures to ensure proper torque response. Use Arc- ticular care is need with notch-sensitive casing, such as C95
tic-grade thread lubricant when appropriate. and P110. (Notch-sensitive metals suffer significant strength
loss from notches.) If storage for more than three months is
Tubular storage expected, assess whether the mill coating is adequate, and
At the rig-site, tubulars are typically stored above ground or the pipe should be cleaned and coated internally and exter-
deck level on pipe racks. Tubulars stored for long periods nally, if needed. Evidence suggests that coatings may affect
in wet climates should be separated, using a plastic wedge acoustic cement evaluation logs and the seal itself. In critical
or T-piece to allow drainage and the rack should be tilted applications the external coating can be removed.
towards the pin-end to enhance self-drainage. For storing
Compounds are available that are specifically designed for
tubulars, use open-ended thread protectors to allow evap-
the tube body, or the connection threads. In addition, hybrid
oration.
compounds are available. Ensure the proper compound is
used for the intended service. Storage compounds should
Pipe racks also not be confused with thread compounds. Many com-
Practices for the design of pipe racks are provided in API
pounds contain elements such as lead, copper, zinc, arsenic,
RP 5C1, Section 6.3. The design depends on local condi-
antimony and molybdenum disulphide that may be harmful
tions, such as the required load-bearing capacity and de-
to the environment. These should be used in accordance
gree of permanency. Racks should be spaced at about 6.5
with the manufacturer's recommendations. Further, proper-
ft (2 m), which allows 20-ft (6.1-m) joints to be stored on
ties of storage compounds differ from those of running com-
two racks, and 40-ft (12.2-m) joints on four racks. Timbers
pounds. Consequently, using a storage compound to make
are often used for temporary stringers. Dimensions depend
up a connection could result in a result in a reject make up
on soil-bearing capacities, but 10 ft length x 10 in. diameter
and even a damaged connection, due to the friction factor &
generally suffices.
mating tolerances.
Layers must be separated and the separators must be
Ensure that any compound being spread on the connection
aligned vertically to avoid bending the pipe. Timbers of ap-
is clean and debris-free. The compound should be covered
proximately 5-in. (7.5-cm) diameter are commonly used as
at all times by protectors to prevent contamination from for-
separators, with a wedge secured to the timber at each end.
eign materials. (Sand & grit can score the seal of a connec-
Green timber should not be used, because their moisture
tion, rendering the connection unusable.)
content may cause corrosion. Stack height should not ex-
ceed 10 ft (3 m), including the pipe rack.
Thread protectors
The length of each pipe rack should accommodate Range 3 Thread protectors are used for shipping and are not ade-
tubulars. (Refer to Table CT-7 for lengths of Range 1-3 tubu- quate for running operations. Air-operated thread protec-
lars and to Table CT-8 for CRA tubulars.) The width should tors (Figure CT-7) used to prevent impact damage have an
not exceed 40 ft (12 m) nor be less than 20 ft (6 m). For inner diameter that can be made reduced by clamps or an air
transport and handling operations, allow a lane of not less bladder to enable the protector to grip the pin. These pro-
than 20 ft (6 m) wide on each side of the racks and a space tectors will also have a shoulder of an even smaller diameter
of approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) between racks. For small quan- for the end of the pin to rest on and to align the protector
tities, reduce the stacking height and increase the stacking when being placed. They are applied at the pipe deck and

Block or top drive
Link (bails)
Engage elevators
to pick casing
D rings up off slips, and
disengage slips
Sling
Power
tongs
Single Disengage slips,
joint elevator Power slips then lower
V door or casing tongs casing
Figure CT-5: Procedure for running casing or tubing. From left, pick up a joint positioned in the V-door. Next, make up a
new joint to the tubular hanging in the slips. Then engage elevators, release the slips and run the tubular into the hole.
removed just prior to stabbing the pipe. Heavier-capacity 2.• Pick up casing joint and position the upper box end in
versions can also be used to rack stands of pipe. the V-Door with tugger line, crane, or mechanical
pick-up machine;
Running procedure 3.• Latch single joint elevator below box. If casing does not
Casing and tubing may be run by either rig crews or specialty
have a square shoulder box, pick up on pre-installed lift
service companies that provide and operate running equip-
subs made up in box;.
ment, or a combination of both. The general procedure and
equipment utilized are illustrated in Figure CT-5. 4.• Raise block or top drive to pull casing through V-Door
and continue upward until the pin end is above the floor.
Procedures will vary with the type of elevators, spiders,
Remove the pin protector. Continue raising joint until
make-up equipment, and other factors. When using bails,
the casing pin is hanging vertically above the joint in the
it is important to use a specified length to ensure proper
spider or slips;
equipment spacing.
5.• Apply thread dope to pin and/or box, as directed by
General descriptions of each individual component of a cas-
operator's representative;
ing running system are provided in this chapter. The crew
should refer to the equipment manufacturer’s detailed pro- 6.• Lower joint and guide pin by hand into the box of the
cedures for rig-up, inspection, and operations for the specif- previous joint, ensuring that workers’ fingers are clear of
ic equipment used to run the casing. mating parts and pinch points;
1.• Clean all compounds from connections and drift full 7.• If a stabbing guide has been used on the box of the
length. Drifting can also be performed in the v-door to casing joint in the slips, remove it;
allow drift to free fall from box to pin end. Take care
when removing the pin end protector to ensure the drift 8.• Swing power casing tongs into position 1-2 ft above the
does not fall out; pin and close the side door;

Figure CT-6: Stabbing guide. Figure CT-7: Inflatable and made of rubber, Air-operated
thread protectors are quick to install, and protect tubular
9.• Make up the connection to the appropriate torque, and/ pin end threads from damage en route to the drill floor.
or thread position. See separate discussion of make-up
procedure. Be sure to pull power tong back to a safe bing board requires good communications and constant
area; awareness of the location of the top drive.
10.•Slowly lift elevators and check to ensure string load has Stabbing guides
been transferred; Stabbing is the action of guiding the pin end of the pipe into
the box end of the previous joint in the spider. A stabbing
11.• Open spider or lift slips when approved by the driller; guide (Figure CT-6) is often used to assist in guiding the
pin into the box and to protect the threads of the box and
12.• Lower the casing string at the planned speed, which
pin. Stabbing guides are generally funnel-shaped and wrap
may vary with hole conditions or the ability of the hole
around the box and extend above it. As the pin enters the
to withstand surge pressures. Initiate movement slowly;
upper section of the guide it is centered and its lateral move-
13.• While the joint is lowered, the single joint elevator ment is limited. This prevents damage to the pin threads,
hanging from the slings will be caught by the floor which do not make contact with the box until just prior to
hands and swung out and latched below the box of the engaging the threads. Guides should be considered for use
next joint in the V-Door;. with premium connections in which the pin end or step
shoulders provide a seal surface that must be protected
14.•Continue lowering the string to position the box at the from damage.
planned working height above the spider and rig floor.
Air-operated thread protector
15.• Set the spider slip assembly or manual slips and slack An inflatable rubber protector is quick and easy to install
off the string weight. and remove. They protect the tubular pin end threads from
damage en route to the drill floor (Figure CT-7).
16.•Disengage the elevators and pick up to position them a
short distance above the floor so that they are in
position to reach the next joint with the single joint
Single-joint elevators
Single-joint elevators (SJE) are used to pick up a single joint
elevator.
of casing through the V-door and position it above the rotary
17.• Install clamp-on thread protector or stabbing guide on table (Figure CT-8). They are typically rated for 5 tons and
box in the spider, if one is to be used. Fill up casing joint feature a center hinge de-
with drilling fluid. sign to latch the elevator
around the casing below
18.•Repeat the process beginning with Step 1. the collar. An SJE is used
when a casing pickup ma-
Running tools and equipment chine is unavailable. With
the SJE, a wire tugger line
Stabbing boards moves the casing to the rig Figure CT-8: Single joint elevator.
The stabbing board is a temporary work platform installed floor.
approximately 30 ft above the rig floor for the stabber to
stand on while aligning the pipe for make up. The platform Full-string elevators
can usually be adjusted up and down as much as 10 ft to Full string elevators are used to lift the entire casing or tubing
allow for different lengths of pipe. Running pipe with a stab- string. These are designed to either pick up against a square

A B C
Figure CT-9a, b and c: From left to right, side-door elevator with a load shoulder for square shoulder connections; center
latch elevator with slips to grip external casing surface. These may also be designed with a load shoulder for square
shoulder connections. Combination elevator spider with powered slips to grip the external casing surface.
connection shoulder if one exists, or they hold the outside •• Ensure load-bearing rings in elevators are not deformed.
of the casing with gripping elements (i.e., slips) if the casing Recheck regularly;
connection is flush or has a tapered upset. Three types of el-
evators are shown in Figure CT-9. The center latch type may •• Tools might require greasing of slip backs. See the OEM
be designed to use either a load shoulder or slips. manual for instructions. Do not alter the type of grease
and do not use pipe dope or thread compound on slips
Lift subs may also be screwed into flush joint or tapered or elevators. Using the wrong grease can be as
boxes to create a lifting shoulder. There are two types of lift detrimental as using no grease at all.
subs: those for lifting single joints of pipe from the V-door,
and those for lifting and running a full string. Typically, 3-5 Casing running tools
lift subs are supplied to run a string of pipe so they can be The casing running tool (CRT) is essentially a type of ele-
removed and recycled on the pipe deck without interrupting vator that connects directly to the top drive through a drill
operations. string sub, rather than being suspended from bails. This
enables fill-up and makeup using the top drive’s circulation,
Elevator operating controls can be manual or have pneumat- rotation, and torque capabilities (Figure CT-10a). The con-
ic or hydraulic assistance. In either case, a crewmember is nection to the top drive also allows casing to be rotated as it
normally located in the derrick on a stabbing board to po- is run and circulated for conditioning and cementing.
sition the elevators and operate the power controls. With
power-assisted systems,
remote controls may be lo-
cated on the floor. If these A B C
are used, it is good practice
to have visual flags, camer-
as, or pneumatic/hydrau-
lic/electric indicators to
ensure the pipe is engaged.
Interlock systems will en-
sure a further level of secu-
rity against dropped pipe.
Pre-job checks
•• Secondary latch
mechanisms should be
present, checked
before lifting, and
visually verifiable;
•• Ensure inserts of
slip-type tools are
clean. Recheck during
job;
Figure CT-10a, b and c: From left to right, CRT with link tilt for picking up and presenting a single joint for make
up (Figure CT-10a); CRT with internal gripping system (Figure CT-10b); CRT with external gripping system
(Figure CT-10c). Figure CT-10a courtesy Weatherford. Figures CT-10b and -10c courtesy Volant Products Inc.

A B C
Figure CT-11a, b and c: From left, Floor mounted casing bowl with manual hand slips, casing bowl with mechanical
assist for removal and insertion of slips, and near-flush mounted spider (FMS) with power slips.
The casing is suspended from the CRT by either internal or Insert bushings can be used with some bowls to reduce to a
external gripping systems, and torque is transferred through smaller size, e.g., a 20-in. by 16-in. reducer bushing can be
the same device. Internal grippers that extend into the top fitted to a 20-in. bowl so that 16-in. and smaller pipe can be
few feet of the casing (Figure CT-10b) are used over a wide handled.
range of casing sizes, from 4.5 in. to as large as 30 in. In-
ternal grippers also include an elastomer sealing element to Systems are available with mechanical assist devices to low-
allow circulation. External gripping systems are available for er or lift the slips in and out of the bowl (Figure CT-11b). They
smaller casing (Figure CT-10c) and are well suited for lifting are designed to be removed from the pipe by splitting or re-
very heavy casing strings, a key advantage of external grips. moving a section. These are commonly used with tubing and
While they grip the exterior of the pipe, they must still have smaller casing sizes.
an extension that passes inside to seal against the interior
Flush-mounted spiders (FMS) are available with power slips
to allow circulation. CRTs may be may be part of a casing
that mount within the rotary and project above it by only a
running system or standalone elevators.
few inches (Figure CT-11c). These are typically equipped
Since the casing is run and made up with the rig’s top drive with casing slips within the body of the spider that support
when a CRT is used, the driller will play a larger role in the the pipe, but they are also available with load shoulders for
casing installation than with conventional tongs. Rig-up and square shoulder connections if needed. Some hydraulically
operating practices are specific to each casing running sys- operated systems will be able to resist makeup torque when
tem, and suppliers should provide training for the rig crew loaded with only the first joint, but other systems require
and qualified service personnel. backup tongs to be used to resist makeup torque until the
string weight on the slips is sufficient. Spiders typically have
Casing slips and spiders
Manual casing slips or spiders are used to hold the vertical
casing load as each connection is made.
Historically, hand slips were placed into bowls inside the ro-
tary table, and backup casing tongs were used to prevent
rotation of the casing in the slips during makeup (Figure
CT-11a). For larger diameters and tonnage combinations,
independent bowls may be placed on the rig floor above the
rotary table. These may require additional support plates
to properly transfer the load to the drilling rig structure.
Independent bowls can use the same hand slips as used in
the rotary if they have the normal 4 in./ft taper, but some
independent bowls have a 3 in./ft taper and would require
matching slips. The bowl’s normal maximum sizes are 3 ½
in., 4 ½ in., 5 ½ in., 8 5/8 in., 10 ¾ in., 13 3/8 in., 16 in., 20 Figure CT-12: Combination spider/elevators.
in., 30 in., 36 in., and 42 in. with ratings from 100-500 ton.

Figure CT-13a, b and c: Clockwise B

A
from left, Manual casing tongs used
for makeup or backup, power casing
tongs, combination tongs. Figures CT-
13b and -13c courtesy McCoy Global.
top and bottom guides that are changed for different pipe
sizes. Check to ensure centralizers, cable clamps, side pock-
et mandrels, and other larger diameter elements will pass
through the guides and power slips.
Combination spider/elevators can be dressed as either an C

elevator, or the lift eyes may be removed for them to be used
on the rig floor as a spider (Figure CT-12). These are gen-
erally external slip type elevators. When used as a spider,
the load is transferred to the rotary table through the bot-
tom surface of the elevator (sometimes requiring C plates or
adapter plates). When dressed as an elevator, the tool will
have a bell-shaped guide and bottom guides to guide it over
the top of the pipe. When dressed as a spider, there will be
no bottom guide or bell guide but top guides will be fitted.
Tongs
Tongs are used to apply torque to make up and break thread-
ed connections. They may be manual tongs, power tongs, or
combination tongs (Figure CT-13).
The manual tong (belt tong, rig tong) is essentially a wrench

used to make and break casing and tubing connections (Fig-
points should be arranged according to OEM installation in-
ure CT-13a). This tong is typically suspended by a cable
structions. Failure to do so could result in an unsafe, uncon-
from the mast and hangs near the rotary. The tong is latched
trolled load movement on the rig floor and increased work
around the casing and torque is applied by pulling tension
for the crew.
on a cable attached to the tong arm. The tong operator, who
can be either a service company employee or a rig crew- For hydraulic power tongs, the torque is applied by hydrau-
member, increases cable tension on the arm until reching lics within the body of the tool, rather than by pulling on an
the required makeup torque. The torque in the connection is external tension cable (Figure CT-13b). A static snub line is
calculated by the pull on the cable and the length of the tong attached to the rig to prevent the tong from rotating about
arm. It is important to position the cable at 90° from the arm the pipe during makeup.
of the tong at max torque for an accurate. calculation
Alternatively, combination power tongs may be used that
When manual tongs are used for make up a second manu- have an assembly that also grips the casing below the con-
al tong is often used below the connection to hold back-up nection and the torque reaction is held within the system
torque to resist the makeup torque. This tong is generally (Figure CT-13c).
fixed to a structural element of the rig via a chain or cable
and remains stationary. The tong's position and suspension

Figure CT-14: Two examples of tong positioning

systems. Courtesy McCoy Global.
Power tongs are installed with a means to account for thread

makeup loss. This is typically a spring in series on the hang- instruction. Safe work positioning and motion paths
ing line that will allow the tong to travel up/down as the should be discussed prior to each job. Do not assume
thread engages on the connection; this is commonly known each member has previous training;
as makeup loss/gain. Hydraulic pressure is supplied to the
•• Ensure open throat tongs include a safety system to
power tong by an independent hydraulic power unit or the
prevent rotation when the door is not fully closed.
rig’s hydraulic systems.
Pre-job testing and regular inspection of the systems
Power tongs are typically capable of generating high speed should be scheduled and should follow the OEM
as well as excessive torque that far exceed the recommend- instructions. Follow manufacturer’s lubrication
ed limits of the connection being made up. The desired RPM, instructions.
torque, and clamping/crushing limits should be considered
when selecting the appropriate tong for the application. Tong positioning systems
The purpose of a tong positioning system is to present the
For proper handling for safety, the operator of the power tong to the pipe in the rotary for makeup and breakout op-
tong must be competent in the safe use of the equipment. erations without manual handling (Figure CT-14). A tong
Some operational risks are noted below: positioning system allows for a single operator to control the
position of the tong and reduces the number of personnel
•• Because power tongs are capable of generating extreme on the rig floor. As the capability, mass and size of tongs
torque, a snub line should be used, even with integral has increased, the need for tong positioning systems has
backups; increased accordingly. The many models and styles of tong
positioning systems range from a simple cylinder that push-
•• Pinch points should be guarded and indicated on the
es and retracts a suspended tong to fully rigid power tongs
tong system. Hand placement practices should be
on the floor or attached to the rig structure. These systems
discussed prior to each job. It’s important that only the
must be installed according to manufacturer’s instruction.
tong operator place his hands on the tong;
Because each functions somewhat differently, it is essential
•• As with manual tongs, power tongs should be that training be provided, and that the competency of crew-
suspended and positioned according to manufacturer’s members be confirmed prior to each job.

Figure CT-15: Torque turn

monitoring systems are primarily
data acquisition and control systems
with the ability to measure and
display connection data acquired
tubular during makeup and breakout.
Courtesy McCoy Global.
Torque turn monitoring systems make up, the torque supplied to the casing is fairly low and
Torque turn monitoring systems are primarily data acqui- remains low until the casing is screwed in for seven full
sition and control systems with the ability to measure and turns. At this point the tapered threads on the casing starts
display connection data acquired during the makeup and to bind with the threads on the coupling and torque begins
break out of tubular products (Figure CT-15). These sys- to increase until the casing end meets the shoulder in the
tems integrate with power tongs and bucking units and have coupling. The connection has “shouldered”. When this point
a primary function to stop torque actions at a predetermined is reached, the torque will increase rapidly, as it takes only
torque or turns (or combination of) limit as specified by the one-tenth of a turn to apply the final makeup torque. The
parameters set at the start of the job. These systems vary casing will not screw in deeper into the coupling but any ro-
in complexity and features but are fundamentally based tation supplied to the casing will increase the pressure on
around torque vs. turns as a means to predict appropriate the shoulder. The compression of the casing end and shoul-
make up. This data is collected and graphed on a display for der provide the seal and the structural strength of the con-
the operator to evaluate in order to determine if the connec- nection. As soon as the optimum torque is reached (peak
tion was made up to acceptable criteria. The graph is shown torque), the rotation of the casing is stopped and the torque
where turns are represented on the X-Axis and torque is rep- reduced to zero.
resented on the Y-Axis. Initial thread engagement, shoulder
The connection must be made up to a specific torque to pro-
point of primary seal, and change in torque from shoulder
vide a proper seal and structural strength. If the torque is
to peak is displayed. The proper parameters for the make-
below the lower torque limit, the connection might not seal
up are given by the thread OEM for the connections being
properly or achieve the required structural strength. If the
used. These systems are used on most OCTG connections,
connection is torqued higher than the upper limit, the seal
but are almost always required when running premium con-
faces might be damaged and the structural strength com-
nections. Interpretation of the graph and data should only
promised. The equipment used to make up the connection
be attempted by a trained and competent person that has
has inertia and cannot be stopped immediately. Since it
knowledge of the connections being serviced.
takes only one-tenth of a turn to apply the delta torque, the
Figure CT-16 is a typical torque-turn graph showing the make-up speed of the connection must be slow enough to
amount of torque supplied to the casing as the connections enable the equipment to stop within a tenth of a turn. It is
is screwed together. The lower horizontal axis indicates the important to specify an RPM that will allow the equipment
turns in the pipe, the left vertical axis indicates the corre- to be stopped in time, preventing the torque from over-
sponding torque supplied to the casing and the right hand shooting the upper torque limit and thereby damaging the
axis indicates the RPM while the connection is made up. connection. On the other hand, if the RPM is too low, make
The line between the upper and lower limits is the optimum up will proceed too slowly. Figure CT-16 shows make up at
torque for the connection and is typically specified by the a speed of approximately 11 rpm for most of the connection.
OEM. Once the shouldering point was reached, however, RPM
dropped rapidly to zero.
The torque monitoring system is activated as soon as the
connection is started. In the beginning of the connection

Torque (ft lb) RPM

22,000 40
21,000 Peak torque 38
Upper torque limit
20,000
36
19,000
34
18,000
32
17,000 Lower torque limit
16,000 30
15,000 28
14,000 26
13,000 24
12,000 Delta torque 22
11,000 20
10,000 18
9,000 16
8,000
RPM graph 14
7,000
12
6,000
10
5,000
8
4,000
3,000 The connection 6
2,000 is shouldering 4
1,000 2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Turns
Figure CT-16: Typical torque-turn graph showing the amount of torque supplied to the casing as the connection is screwed
together. The lower horizontal axis indicates the turns in the pipe, the left vertical axis indicates the corresponding torque
supplied to the casing and the right hand axis indicates the RPM while the connection were made up. The line between the upper
and lower limit are the optimum torque for the connection and is typically specified by the OEM. Courtesy Tesco Corp.
Fully remote tong systems

The purpose of a remote tong system is to remove the tong
operator from the area of moving equipment. This differs
from tong-positioning systems that still require an operator
to function hydraulically or pneumatically assisted controls
at the tong unit. The most common functions of a remote
tong system include make/break, backup clamp/unclamp,
door open/close, gear selection, reversing pin location, and,
in some cases, tong position. (See preceding section on tong
positioning systems.) These remote systems vary from teth- Figure CT-17: Safety clamp.
ered control panels where the operator is positioned away
from the tong to wireless control stations that may, in some
then expanded to effect a seal on the inside of the pipe and
cases, be integrated into the driller’s chair controls.
fluid is pumped as the casing joint is being lowered.
Fill-up and circulation tools Safety clamps

Fill-up tools are stingers that are run into the top of each
Safety clamps (Figure CT-17) are used with slip-type spiders
joint and through which mud is pumped to fill the empty
and hand slips until sufficient casing weight is run to ensure
joint. This enables the casing to be filled as it is run to elimi-
the slips will seat reliably (typically about 20,000 lb). Safety
nate fill-up time, and it allows for circulation of the casing if
clamps are not lifting devices and are positioned far enough
an obstruction is encountered downhole. The stinger may
above the slips so that they do not make contact with the
be made up directly to a top drive or suspended below a
slips when the slips are set. They are installed after the string
hook with a a high pressure mud line attached for circula-
is set in the slips and removed after the string weight is re-
tion. Whether it is run below a top drive or hook, it is long
turned to the elevators. Manufacturing specifications are
enough to extend down through the center of the elevators
provided in API Spec 7K and maintenance in API Spec 7B.
so that the sealing element on the end enters the top of the
casing as the elevators are lowered. The sealing element is

Interlocks, zone and elevator

management
Interlocks prevent the opening of the eleva-
tor before the spider or slips have closed to
secure the string and they prevent the spider
or slips from being opened before the eleva-
tor has closed. Interlocks can be part of an
integrated drill floor system or supplied by a
service company along with hoisting tools.
Installation of interlocks must be done ac-

cording to instructions provided by manu-
facturers of the equipment. While interlocks
are often assumed to be fail-safe, operation
of interlock systems should be supported by
sound practical procedures that use human
observation to the greatest extent possi-
ble. All interlock systems have some form
of override to allow for testing, rig-up, etc.
Figure CT-18: Example dies. Courtesy McCoy Global. The use of the interlock override should be
strictly controlled, ideally via the permit-to-
Dies, inserts, jaws work system at the worksite. Pre-job testing
The purpose of dies, inserts, and jaws is to allow a tool (el- and regular inspection of the systems should be scheduled.
evator, spider, slips, tongs, etc.) to grip a tubular. The ma- Often several systems are in use at one time on a rig site,
jority of dies work with teeth that penetrate or deform the and these systems do not necessarily exchange information.
surface of the tubular and operate in shear. This die pene- This should be addressed and shared knowledge on the rig
tration varies by tooth design, which allows different style floor during use.
dies to penetrate deeper into the OD of the pipe and provide
higher load carrying capacity based on depth of penetration Pick-up/lay-down tools
and clamping force (Figure CT-18). Other dies work by using There are numerous systems for picking up or laying down
pressure and surface contact and have lower load ratings casing. On land rigs, these systems are typically rigged up
than toothed dies. temporarily for the casing running operation. Pick-up / lay-
down systems are more likely to be an integral and perma-
The manufacturer of the tool that uses dies determines the nent element in offshore pipe handling systems, or on some
dimensions of the dies. There are no standardized sizes, so large land rigs. Pick-up/lay-down system designs generally
dies from one tool should not be assumed to be interchange- fall into one of two major categories. In cable systems, a wire
able with those from another tool. Instructions on installa- is run from a winch unit located at the end of the catwalk to
tion and removal of dies are given in operating manuals for an anchor point above the floor. Casing is then picked up by
their respective tools. arms that place it in a trough suspended from a wire rope,
and the trough and casing are pulled up the wire to the rig
Some key points:
floor.
•• Use of the manufacturer’s recommended lubricant for
the back of dies is critical as this changes with OEM In the second type, casing is also picked up onto a horizontal
tools and will affect safe working load (SWL) of the tool; trough positioned on the catwalk, but the trough is support-
ed by hydraulically powered arms that tilt and move it to po-
•• When removing stuck dies with impact, wear
sition the upper end of the casing at the rig floor. The casing
appropriate PPE as they may shatter;
is solidly supported by the catwalk throughout the process,
•• Overloaded dies that fail may be rather than suspended in air by wire. The hydraulic system
fragmented. Inspect them regularly; is considered more reliable and it is also preferred for larger
and heavier casing.
•• Dies are not repairable;
New offshore rigs and large land rigs might be equipped
•• Store dies in a manner to avoid impact damage and
with permanent pick-up systems used for both drill pipe and
corrosion.
casing. These vary from hydraulically supported troughs to

Figure CT-19: Horizontal

makeup system. Courtesy
McCoy Global.
more complex armatures or trolleys. The manufacturer’s in- move pipe to and from the catwalk and a pickup/laydown
structions should be followed for installation and processes machine that then moves it to the V-door.
in place to ensure the rig crew is trained in maintenance, op-
erations, and potential pinch points and handling risks. Vertical alignment systems
Alignment systems are used to ensure that the pin on the
Horizontal make-up systems joint being positioned vertically for make up or breakout is
Horizontal make-up systems are also referred to as buck- aligned with the box to prevent damage to the threads, and
ing units, make/break machines, and offline makeup units. to ensure a good make up or break out. There are two basic
These may be used to make or break connections offline, types of mechanical alignment systems: those that are ca-
outside of the critical path of activity on the rig (Figure CT- pable of returning a joint that has moved out of alignment
19). These machines can be used for a range of operations back to the correct position and those that simply hold the
such as stand-building, pre-assembly of completions, instal- joint in the correct position. The standard location on a rig
lation of couplings, etc. Bucking units are generally provided site for stationary equipment is normally the derrick or the
in one of two versions. One version is commonly referred top drive assembly.
to as a ‘make/break’ unit. This system functions similar to
a power tong, in which pre-turns are applied via spinners, Follow the installation and operating instructions provid-
with final torque then applied in incremental bite/turn of the ed by the manufacturer. Alignment systems operate in the
head. The alternate version has a continuous rotating head same path as the travelling block assembly and procedures
and functions similar to a hydraulic power tong, where the or interlock systems should be utilized to prevent collisions.
makeup is continuous from initial pre-turns to final torque. The system should be tested prior to the job and inspected
regularly as specified by the manufacturer.
Horizontal pipe handling
Offshore rigs and large land rigs may be equipped with hor-
izontal pipe handling systems. These are typically a com-
bination of an overhead gantry crane that can pick up and

References 5. API Spec 5CRA/ISO 13680: Specification for Corrosion

Resistant Alloy Seamless Tubes for Use as Casing,
1.• API Spec 8C: Drilling and Production Hoisting
Tubing and Coupling Stock.
Equipment.This has replaced API Spec 8A.
6. API TR 5C3/ISO 10400: Formulae and calculations for
2.• API RP 8B/ ISO 13534: Inspections, Maintenance,
casing, tubing, drill pipe and line pipe properties.
Repair and Remanufacture of Hoisting Equipment.
7. API Spec 5B: Specification for Threading, Gauging and
3.• API Spec 8C/ISO 13535: Specification for Drilling and
Thread Inspection of Casing, Tubing, and Line Pipe
Production Hoisting Equipment.
Threads.
4. API Spec 5CT/ISO 11960: Specification for Casing and
Tubing.

CD
CASING WHILE
DRILLING

Enhancing
operational
integrity by
ensuring a
competent
workforce
Accreditation
& Credentialing www.iadc.org
CASING WHILE DRILLING CD–i
CHAPTER
CD
CASING WHILE
DRILLING
PRINCIPAL AUTHORS
Moji Karimi, Weatherford International
Eric Moellendick, Schlumberger
REVIEWERS
Kyle Graves, Apache
Don Hannegan, Weatherford International
Calvin Holt, Chevron
Dietmar Neidhardt, Tubefuse Technologies
Bill Rehm, Consultant

CD–ii CASING WHILE DRILLING


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-6-2

CASING WHILE DRILLING Contents CD-iii
CHAPTER CD
CASING WHILE DRILLING

Contents
Introduction....................................................................CD-1 Why drill with a retrievable CwD system?... CD-8
Non-retrievable casing while drilling........................CD-1 Typical retrievable CwD problems.................. CD-8
Enhanced rig equipment - surface Liner drilling................................................................... CD-9
drive systems........................................................ CD-4 Non-retrievable liner drilling............................. CD-9
CwD centralizers.................................................. CD-4 Non-retrievable liner drilling and setting
CwD connections, torque rings sequence................................................................ CD-9
and wear bands/sleeves.................................... CD-4 Why drill with a non-retrievable liner drilling
Plastering effect.................................................... CD-5 system?................................................................. CD-11
Operations............................................................. CD-5 Typical problems with a non-retrievable liner
Why drill with a non-retrievable drilling system..................................................... CD-11
CwD system?........................................................ CD-5 Retrievable liner drilling........................................... CD-11
Typical non-retrievable CwD problems......... CD-6 Why drill with a retrievable liner
Retrievable casing while drilling.............................. CD-6 drilling system?................................................... CD-12
Locking assembly................................................. CD-6 Typical problems with retrievable liner drilling
systems................................................................. CD-12
Internal duplex stabilizer.................................... CD-6
Safety and the environment................................... CD-13
Underreamer......................................................... CD-7
Conclusion................................................................... CD-13
Operations............................................................. CD-8

IADC
Safety Toolbox
Essential safety alerts
and other tools for the
crew on the rig floor
IADC SAFETY TOOLBOX

DESIGNED TO SHARPEN SAFET Y SKILL S
Sharpen your safety skills with the new IADC Safety Toolbox. Available at no charge
at www.IADC.org/safety-toolbox, the searchable IADC Safety Toolbox provides easy
access to key IADC safety information, including safety alerts, safety meeting topics,
near miss/hit forms, safety posters and more.
The IADC Safety Toolbox is easy to use. Users can narrow their search by type of
operation (rigging up, lifting, etc), incident classification (LTI, equipment damage,
etc.), body part, location (rig type, etc.), incident type (slip, etc.) and equipment.
The Online Safety Toolbox provides a practical, user-friendly resource that will
seamlessly integrate into daily drilling operations. Contents include:
• 700 IADC Safety Alerts;

• 125 Safety Meeting Topics for JSAs or other meetings;
• Near Miss/Hit Report forms for both drilling and well servicing/workover;
• 60 IADC Safety Posters.
The Online Safety Toolbox puts critical safety related tools and resources directly in
the hands of the rig crew, and is one of several IADC initiatives aimed at enhancing
safety in the industry. Access it today!
www.iadc.org/safety-toolbox
CASING WHILE DRILLING CD–1
Introduction
Casing while drilling (CwD) technology uses the casing
string as a drillstring so that casing is landed on bottom
during the drilling process, rather than later in a separate
installation process. The technology is typically applied for
purposes of increasing drilling performance, putting trouble
zones behind CwD, and enhancing the integrity/quality of
the wellbore from the resulting plastering effect.
CwD can be performed using two kinds of systems: non-re-

trievable and retrievable. The non-retrievable system’s
assembly comprises a drillable casing bit attached to the
bottom of the first joint of casing. A float collar is usually
run between the first and second joints. Drilling torque is
transferred from the top drive to the casing string and drill
bit via the casing-running tool. The casing-running tool can
be a crossover, a CwD spear or a premium top-drive CwD
system. Once the targeted depth is reached, there is no drill
bit to recover through the casing. Since the float collar is also
run in the casing string, cementing can begin immediate-
ly. After the cement is set, the next bottomhole assembly
(BHA) drills out the shoe track and the casing drill bit.
With the retrievable system, an underreamer and pilot bit

assembly is latched below the casing by means of a retriev-
able locking assembly. As the assembly drills ahead, the
casing is run in the hole, either in a sliding or rotating mode.
Upon reaching TD, the BHA is unlatched and recovered with
a special retrieval tool on drillpipe. Cementing plugs can
Figure CD-1: Non-retrievable casing while
then be pumped downhole into a landing profile to complete drilling. Courtesy Weatherford.
the cementing process.
The main component of non-retrievable CwD is the drillable
In this chapter, CwD systems are discussed first, and then casing bit. Figure CD-2 shows drillable casing bits.
liner drilling is covered. The components of non-retrievable
and retrievable systems and their functions are explained in The installation of a separate float collar in the casing string
each section. allows the cementation operation to begin immediately
once TD has been reached and to be completed as normal.
After waiting on cement, the next drill bit is run and drills
Non-retrievable casing while drilling through the shoe track and casing bit before entering new
With non-retrievable CwD, the drillable casing bit is at- formation. Alternatively, it may be possible to drill out the
tached to the first joint of casing to eliminate the drillpipe shoe track with another casing bit on the next casing string.
and hence the need for tripping to recover the bit (see Figure
CD-1). This process also eliminates the need for convention- The drillable bit ought to reach the objective depth in one
al casing running. CwD faced so much resistance initially run; therefore, rock strength and abrasiveness should be
since it was thought to create problematic situations such as studied before deciding the footage the drillable bit can
stuck pipe and higher equivalent circulating density (ECD) drill. Figure CD-3 and Table CD-1 provide some general
due to narrow annulus. However, once the technology was guidelines on typical rock types (hardness) drillable with
implemented, it was observed that these situations were not non-retrievable casing drill bits. For applications outside
arising. In addition, there were unexpected advantages due the acceptable zone, the required footage to be drilled must
to the special geometry of CwD and the interaction of the be analyzed further. Of course, for applications with softer
large-diameter pipe with wellbore wall. This interaction is rocks, simpler designs can be used. It is worth mentioning
commonly referred to as the plastering effect. that in cases where the CwD is the last section of the well
(no drill-out required), conventional bits can be used.

CD–2 CASING WHILE DRILLING
Figure CD-2: Drillable casing bits. Courtesy

Weatherford & Schlumberger.

Table CD-1: Lithology and rock strength

for non-retrievable CwD
Very low < 4,000 Gumbo, shales, soft shales, claystones,
strength psi unconsolidated (very soft sands)
chalk, shaley and clayey sandstones,
Low 4,000 -
claystones, shales, (soft) evaporites,
strength 8,000 psi
soft silicones
Conglomerates, sandy and chalky
Medium 8,000 -
limestones, marls, medium-medium
strength 16,000 psi
hard sandstones, hard shales
Hard stringers, hard dolomites,
High 16,000 -
crystalline limestones, brittle (hard)
strength 32,000 psi
shales, hard sandstones
Very fine, tight sandstones, chert,
Very > 32,000
quartzite, igneous and metamorphic
Figure CD-3: Application range for casing drillable bits. high psi
rocks, hard siltstones
Device used
Description Application
for CwD
• Short casing strings (less

than 500 ft);
It is simply a sub with a drillpipe
• Very large casing string, i.e.,
connection (box) up and a casing
Waterbushing 20 in. or larger;
connection (pin) down that is
Crossover • Jobs where reducing flat
positioned between the top drive
time is not the primary
and the casing string.
consideration, e.g., major
hole problems.
The string can be rotated and

CwD spear replaces the
circulated at the same time,
conventional threaded crossover,
making the modified CwD spear
reducing connection time and
an ideal upgrade to the type
ultimately making the worksite
CwD Spear used for running casing. The
safer. The tool is simple to operate
spear can be used to replace
and is field-serviceable.
conventional casing-running
CwD spear is connected directly
tools such as spider-type
to the top drive.
elevators and casing fill-up tool.
ICDT operates in the same way
as the CwD spear. The main ICDT can replace the spider
Internal difference between the tools is elevator and fill-up tool. It
Casing Drive the internal gripping slip area. The also provides a means of
Tool (ICDT) ICDT slips are significantly larger simultaneous circulation,
and have a superior carrying reciprocation and rotation.
capacity.
The automated casing-running

system eliminates the derrick
Internal tools grab the casing man and allows for safe rotation
Top-Drive
from inside and external tools and reciprocation of the casing
CwD System
from outside. string, making drilling with
casing possible with high
efficiency.
Figure CD-4: CwD surface drive system. Courtesy Weatherford.
When drilling with casing, flow rate is considerably less than formations, the bit is jetted for a large total flow area (TFA)
what is used for a conventionally drilled interval of equiva- as the best drilling performance is achieved by maximizing
lent hole size. This is necessary due to the reduced annular flow rate. In more competent formations, the bit is jetted to
clearance and to achieve an optimum ECD. In soft “top-hole” achieve the same hydraulic horsepower or as close as can be

Rubber liner with

straight flutes
Venting
holes
Figure CD-5: Rotating centralizers for CwD - hardfaced Figure CD-6: Non-rotating centralizers for
and non-hardfaced. Courtesy Schlumberger. CwD. Courtesy Weatherford.
obtained to conventional best practice without running jets acts as a bearing to eliminate casing wear as well as to re-
smaller than 12/32. duce friction and potential damage. This type of centralizer
has been shown to effectively reduce the amount of torque
Drilling parameters when drilling with a CwD system are required when drilling with casing. But because it reduc-
similar to what are used to drilling a convention interval with es the mechanical contact with the wellbore wall, it must
a PDC bit cutting the same size hole (both in terms of WOB be used with caution in wells that depend on the wellbore
and RPM). The casing string is commonly used to turn the strengthening of the plastering effect.
bit in excess of 100 rpm. In order to achieve rate of penetra-
tion (ROP) that is equivalent to conventional operations, it Spray metal technology can also be used to build centraliz-
is necessary to provide the same amount of energy towards ers, stabilizers and wear bands directly onto casing for drill-
the destruction of rock both mechanically and hydraulically. ing (see Figure CD-7). The resulting blades, ribs and bands
are at least as wear-resistant as steel.
Enhanced rig equipment - surface drive systems
When drilling conventionally, the drillstring is connected to CwD connections, torque rings and wear bands/
the top drive by a crossover sub. A crossover from casing to sleeves
the top drive is not a standard piece of rig equipment and is Casing is designed to be run, not to be drilled with. Hence,
probably not available on the rig unless it has been pre-or- certain modifications might be necessary to allow for drilling
dered. Applications engineers will ensure that the crossover with standard casing. These include:
is correctly specified to support the string weight, transmit • Premium CwD connections;
rotary torque and seal against hydraulic pressure. Non-re- • Torque rings for buttress connections in absence of
trievable CwD can be accomplished using several methods special CwD connections to create a positive shouldered
to rotate the casing string (Figure CD-4). makeup;
• Wear bands/sleeves to protect the casing/couplings
CwD centralizers from wear as well as from abrasive environments.
In most vertical surface or intermediate CwD applications,
centralization is not a concern. If the CwD or liner drilling
system is deployed in a deviated well, it is critical that the
centralizers installed onto the casing are designed to with-
stand the harsh drilling environment. One strategy that
has been routinely employed is to attach a solid body hy-
dro-formed centralizer to the body of the casing by crimping
it in place. The crimping process ensures the centralizer re-
mains in place both axially and torsionally and also ensures
the contact necessary between the casing and wellbore wall
for the plastering effect to occur.
Another method of centralizing casing is using a non-rotat-

ing centralizer with an internal rubber lining (see Figure CD- Figure CD-7: Sprayed-on centralizers/stabilizers
6). The centralizer has a solid body, and the rubber lining for CwD. Courtesy Weatherford.

the plastering of drill cuttings, the true mechanism is not yet

well understood. Pipe size and annular clearance have been
reported as the critical parameters for increasing wellbore
strength. The other factors include the casing’s contact with
the wellbore wall, rotary speed, mud type, time, stress anisot-
ropy, mud hydraulics, thermal effects and penetration rate.
Operations
Non-retrievable CwD systems are made up in the rotary
table in similar fashion to how casing connection and ac-
CwD connections. CwD connections. cessories are installed into a standard shoe track. The main
Courtesy Tenaris. Courtesy U.S. Steel. differences will be in the connection type and the amount of
torque used to make-up all connections in the string (should
be 20% higher than the maximum expected torque required
to drill to TD). This may require power tongs. Floats are in-
stalled in the string that are rated for the expected circu-
lating hours that are required to reach TD and cement the
interval. The placement of the floats is as per the operators
requirements on the amount of shoe track desired. Any
centralization installed on the string is recommended to be
done prior to the arrival of the casing to the rig.
The casing is tripped into the hole using the same methods
as conventional. It is recommended to fill the string at reg-
ular intervals during the trip. After reaching bottom, drilling
can proceed according to the parameters specific to the bit
used and optimized to the specific application. When mak-
Wear bands/Sleeves. Courtesy TESCO.
ing connections, time in slips should be minimized as much
as possible. If any positive indication of flow is detected, the
well can be controlled using the casing rams sized to the cas-
ing string, in the same way well control is implemented when
running casing. After reaching TD, the well should be circu-
lated till shakers are clean prior to rigging up for cement. Ce-
menting operations are similar to conventional operations.
Why drill with a non-retrievable CwD system?

Torque rings. Courtesy Premiere. Advantages include:
• Increased ROP in soft formations (eliminate need for
Figure CD-8: CwD accessories. control drilling due to improved hole cleaning);
• Minimize rig time and floor operations by eliminating
Plastering effect dedicated casing run;
In addition to increasing drilling performance, CwD tech- • Utilize the benefits of plastering effect to:
nology has also shown strong potential for drilling in weak • Reduce or eliminate the risk of lost circulation;
sections to mitigate lost circulation and wellbore instability • Reduce differential sticking while drilling depleted
problems and reduce NPT in drilling operations, specifical- sands;
ly in narrow pore-fracture pressure sedimentary basins and • Extend casing point to eliminate casing/liner string;
deep offshore applications. It offers hydraulic improvements • Reduced overall well costs by reduction of time on well.
and the ability to plaster cuttings to the wellbore wall, which
may restore the wellbore’s hoop stress by wedging the cre- One key advantage of CwD with a non-retrievable system
ated fractures and/or by increasing the fracture propagation involves the ability to take advantage of the high ROP ex-
pressure. Additionally, because of the larger pipe-to-annu- perienced while drilling large outer diameter (OD) vertical
lus size ratio of CwD compared to conventional drilling, the top-hole sections. Drilling these top-hole sections has be-
casing rotation forms a better mud cake (see Figure CD-9). come an increasingly common practice for offshore wells in
Although the increased wellbore containment is explained by multiple locations.

Figure CD-9: A and B describe two plausible mechanisms of plastering effect to increase wellbore integrity. Courtesy Weatherford.
Typical non-retrievable CwD problems The full retrievable CwD will consist of the individual compo-
• High torque: Because the casing is larger in diameter and nents listed below and shown in Figure CD-10. Also required
heavier than drillpipe, the torque required to rotate the will be the casing accessories to provide centralization for
pipe to TD is often much greater; cementing and stabilization for drilling.
• Hydraulics: As the casing is larger in diameter than
drillpipe, the annulus between the casing and the drilled Locking assembly
hole is much smaller; therefore, the hydraulics must be The locking assembly must facilitate several requirements
redesigned. Even with optimal mud rheology and in order for the remainder of the assembly to effectively drill
reduced flow, it is very difficult to plan for CwD intervals with casing. The assembly must allow:
deeper than 15,000 ft (5,000 m) due to higher ECDs • Hydraulic isolation: All drilling fluid pumped from surface
that become increasingly hard to manage at greater must be directed from the casing into the locking
depths; assembly, into the drillpipe BHA and ultimately through
• Tripping casing: The bit must make the minimum casing the bit below;
depth in a single run to be successful. If the bit is unable • Crossover from the casing to drillpipe connection:
to drill the planned footage to an acceptable casing point, Engaging the locking assembly in the profile nipple
the only option is to trip the casing to replace the bit. provides a downward-facing drillpipe connection used to
connect the drillpipe BHA to the casing used to drive the
string from surface;
Retrievable casing while drilling • Weight-on-bit transfer: The locking mechanism must
Retrievable CwD systems provide all the advantages of a allow weight on bit to be transferred from surface to the
non-retrievable system but add the flexibility to incorporate cutting structure;
directional and measuring/logging while drilling (M/LWD) • Torsional transfer: The locking mechanism must transfer
tools to both steer and log the well while drilling. Whereas a the torque that allows the drillpipe BHA to rotate at the
non-retrievable system must guarantee that the entire inter- same RPM as the string is turning at surface;
val be drilled in a single run, retrievable systems allow mul- • BHA retrieval: The locking assembly must be able to be
tiple trips to replace the drill bit or any other failed logging used in tandem with drillpipe, wireline or hydraulic
or directional component of the BHA. A retrievable system retrieval tools to convey the drillpipe BHA through the
also assures that the casing can be run to TD, and it captures internal diameter (ID) of the casing string on multiple
many of the savings that have been proven when CwD ver- trips.
tical wells.
Internal duplex stabilizer
The same casing-running systems, centralizers and connec- The internal duplex stabilizer is used to stabilize the drillpipe
tions used with non-retrievable CwD are also used for the BHA inside the casing shoe joint below the locking assem-
retrievable systems. Retrievable CwD systems use a special bly. This configuration provides lateral stabilization and en-
coupling with an internal profile installed above the last joint sures concentricity of the drillpipe BHA as it exits the casing
in the casing string. shoe joint.

Figure CD-10: CwD BHA with conventional positive displacement motor. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Underreamer cleaning while drilling through offshore top-hole intervals

As all components in the drillstring BHA must be smaller has eliminated the standard practice of control drilling and
than the drift of the casing to allow conveyance in and out of allowed wells to be drilled significantly faster with casing
the hole, an underreamer must be used to open hole larger than with conventional drillstrings. Directional drilling with
than the casing’s outer diameter. With respect to hydraulics, smaller casing may sacrifice some drilling efficiency due to
it is most common to underream the hole to the same size the requirement to use smaller motors.
that would be used to drill the interval conventionally. For
instance, when drilling an interval with 9 5⁄8-in casing, a 12
¼-in underreamer would be used in tandem with an 8 ½-in
pilot bit.
Successful directional CwD operations require more than

simply having directional tools available that can be run be-
low the casing. BHA response may be quite different when
CwD as compared to drilling with conventional systems.
Extensive pre-project planning must be completed, includ-
ing hydraulics analysis, torque-and-drag modeling, casing
connection analysis and selection, and BHA design. Well-
site implementation and successful execution of operational
procedures at the wellsite are critical to success.
Figure CD-11: Tool face change when CwD
Retrievable CwD BHAs are primarily arranged into three
categories: Rotary steerable-based retrievable CwD assemblies, as
• Directional with conventional positive displacement shown in Figure CD-12, provide a unique synergy by having
motor (PDM); both the drilling hazard mitigation benefits of the plastering
• Directional with rotary steerable systems; effect and superior hole cleaning by allowing the assembly
• Short stick-out assemblies (tangents and loss zones). to be steered with continuous rotation. CwD assemblies
with conventional PDMs must sacrifice these benefits over
CwD with a conventional PDM is similar to drilling with a the footage where steering is required.
conventional assembly. The motor orientations are ex-
tremely easy when drilling with the casing because there The drilling hazard mitigation aspects of CwD only occur af-
is very little twist between the surface and motor. For exter the formation drilled comes into contact with the casing
ample, Figure CD-11 shows the toolface for about five min- component of the drillstring. For this reason, it is critical to
utes during which time the motor stalled, the drillstring was manage the length of drillpipe that projects below the cas-
picked up and the motor restarted. The tool face changed ing shoe or stick-out. In highly unstable formations or where
less than 10° when the string was picked up and returned to large amounts of fluids are lost to the formation, it is critical
its original position when drilling resumed. to begin applying the plastering effect as soon as possible.
In these circumstances, a short stick-out BHA, as shown in
For larger sizes of casing, no loss of efficiency occurs while Figure CD-13, is a preferred design hold angle while drilling
drilling with the steerable tools below the casing, allowing through difficult formations. It can also be used while drilling
the operator to take full advantage of the faster tripping and vertical intervals where more than one bit trip is required to
trouble avoidance benefits provided by CwD. Improved hole reach TD.

Figure CD-12: CwD BHA with rotary steerable system. Courtesy Schlumberger.
Additional advantages specific to a

retrievable system include:
• Capability of active directional
control [steerable motor or rotary
steerable system (RSS) in BHA];
• Ability to run logging tools in
BHA;
• Contingency operations to run
Figure CD-13: CwD with short stick-out BHA. Courtesy Schlumberger. subsequent BHAs;
• Eliminate open-hole tripping of
Operations BHA and risks associated with stuck pipe/LIH.
Retrievable casing drilling BHAs are made up in two sections. The same advantages can be obtained by the user wheth-
First the conventional BHA is picked up and run in hole. Sec- er running a retrievable or non-retrievable casing system,
ondly, the shoe joint is picked up, and the BHA is made up to however, the retrievable CwD system further enables the
the first joint of casing. The casing is then tripped into the hole capability to run any choice of BHA components (directional
using the same methods as conventional. It is recommended and/or M/LWD).
to fill the string at regular intervals during the trip. After reach-
ing bottom, drilling can proceed according to the parameters Typical retrievable CwD problems
specific to the BHA design used and optimized to the specific • High torque: Because the casing is larger [in terms of
application. When making connections, the amount of time outside diameter (OD)] and heavier than drillpipe, the
the casing is in slips should be minimized as much as possi- torque required to rotate the pipe to TD is often much
ble. If any positive indication of flow is detected while drilling, greater. This is especially true in directional wells;
the well can be controlled using the casing rams sized to the • Hydraulics: As the casing is larger (in terms of OD) and
casing string, in the same way well control is implemented the annulus between the casing and the drilled hole is
when running casing. If any positive indication of flow is de- much smaller, the hydraulics must be redesigned. Even
tected while conducting BHA setting or retrieval operations, with optimum mud rheology and reduced flow, it is very
a casing circulating tool is used along with the casing rams to difficult to plan for CwD intervals deeper than 15,000 ft
secure the well. After reaching TD, the well should be circu- (5,000 m) due to higher ECDs that become increasingly
lated until shakers are clean prior to rigging up for cement. As hard to manage at greater depths;
cementing floats are not present in the string, a cement plug • Stick-out management: The benefits of CwD do not
is pumped into a landing profile to cement the interval. occur until the casing itself reaches the formations of
concern. For example, if the directional/logging BHA
Why drill with a retrievable CwD system? extends 120 ft past the casing shoe and the ROP is 40 ft/
Similar to non-retrievable casing drilling systems, advantag- hr, three hours of drilling are required before any benefit
es include: of plastering effect (reduction in losses, for example)
• Increased ROP in soft formations (eliminate need for may be realized;
control drilling due to improved hole cleaning); • Fatigue management: The fatigue performance of the
• Minimize rig time and floor operations by eliminating liner pipe and connections is well understood. The safe
dedicated casing run; number of total revolutions allowed for any given
• Utilize the benefits of plastering effect to: application is calculated in pre-job analysis, and total
• Reduce or eliminate the risk of lost circulation; revolutions are also monitored during job site execution
• Reduce differential sticking while drilling depleted to ensure the liner can be used to safely drill to TD.
sands; Fatigue management is most critical when high doglegs
• Extend casing point to eliminate casing/liner string; are predicted to cause high levels of reversing stresses
• Reduced overall well costs by reduction of time on well. on the liner and its connections. The table below shows

the doglegs limits below which the onset of accumulated on the benefits necessary to complete the section as quick-
fatigue damage to the casing/liner and connections is ly, safely and efficiently as possible. On the rig floor, safety
not of concern. and efficiency of casing running and drilling operations are
improved by the use of the automated casing-running sys-
Casing Size Dogleg to initiate fatigue tem. Below the rotary table, the benefit of always having
4 ½ in. 8° the drillstring across open hole, even while tripping BHAs,
7 in. 5° can assist in reducing NPT associated with open-hole prob-
lems, such as sloughing, influx, losses, and surge and swab.
9 5⁄8 in. 3°
In many cases, improved drilling windows help to mitigate
13 3⁄8 in. 1.5° the above issues and potentially allow for casing seats to
be pushed deeper, reducing the number of casing or liner
Wells are commonly drilled with higher doglegs than shown strings required to reach TD. Due to the fact that during liner
in the table above; however, advanced fatigue analysis drilling operations are most likely to be applied when drilling
should be performed to ensure the accumulated fatigue is into the reservoir, well control is of paramount importance.
within safe limits. When drilling with the liner, drillpipe is always positioned
across the BOP and in such allows for well control opera-
tions without restrictions. This is a considerable advantage
Liner drilling when compared to normal casing drilling operations, where
Numerous operators have utilized the benefits of CwD to the casing is positioned across the BOP and might require
successfully drill through challenging zones, saving both particular BOP configurations.
time and money through increased safety and efficiency, re-
duced NPT and the inherent ability to keep every ft drilled. Non-retrievable liner drilling
Liner drilling, which retains these advantages, must be used Non-retrievable liner drilling technology enables drilling
in applications where CwD is not employable because of the liner into the well across depleted or loss zones or un-
hydraulic, torque or well construction limitations. In cases stable formations, setting the hanger and packer, and ce-
of drilling the liner through incompetent formations, the menting in a single trip. Figure CD-14 shows the non-re-
wellbore strengthening provided by rotating the liner casing trievable liner drilling system and the components of the
against the open hole is anticipated to assist in the reduction assembly.
of losses and hole sloughing, the widening of the pore pres-
sure-fracture gradient (PP-FG) windows and the potential Non-retrievable liner drilling/setting sequence
improvement of the section’s formation leak-off test (LOT), The installation sequence shows a premium liner drilling
any of which may permit deeper casing points to be realized system complete with liner top packer, liner hanger, liner
as opposed to drilling these sections conventionally. wiper plug and drill bit (see Figure CD-15). The operation is
set up to activate the system from a single setting ball, ce-
In some cases of drilling deep wells, where the ability to ment the liner, set the packer and retrieve the running tools.
deploy CwD is limited by the loading of the casing connec- The time and complexity of the setting sequence are consis-
tions near the surface, a liner drilling system can be adopted tent with that of a conventional liner system.
because drillpipe is situated from the top drive to the liner
top. This allows the transfer of higher surface loads to the A top-drive CwD system is used to trip the liner into the
drillstring, as the peak loading is seen on the drillpipe at the hole with the drillable casing bit on bottom. The string is
rig floor. The maximum load applied to the liner string is at stabilized using casing stabilization capable of surviving the
the casing connection just below the liner top and is limited drilling process. The interval is drilled from surface, much
to the torsional and axial loads required to rotate and convey as in a conventional drilling operation. Attention is paid to
the liner pipe alone, as all drilling loads are transmitted to managing the narrow annulus between the liner and parent
the BHA via an inner string. casing as well as monitoring torque and vibration of the as-
sembly in open hole. After the target depth of the interval
When liner drilling operations are applied in reservoir or in- has been achieved, the liner hanger is set and cementation
tervals with hydrocarbon bearing formations, well control is begins. The cementation process ends with the packer being
of paramount importance. When drilling with the liner, drill- set and the top of cement being reversed off the liner top.
pipe will always be positioned across the BOP and allows The running tool is then tripped out of hole.
for well control operations using the same procedures and
equipment as a conventional drilling scenario. If for any reason the target depth of the interval is not
reached, the liner must be tripped completely out of hole in
Objectives for implementing liner drilling systems depend order to replace the drillable casing bit. In addition, as no

Figure CD-14: Non-retrievable liner drilling. Courtesy Weatherford.
Figure CD-15: Non-retrievable liner drilling setting sequence. Courtesy Weatherford.

Figure CD-16: Retrievable liner drilling. Courtesy Schlumberger.
active directional control is possible, non-retrievable liner sufficient cuttings-carrying capability above the liner.
drilling assemblies are typically reserved for vertical appli- This is critical to manage and becomes increasingly
cations or short tangent sections. more difficult when the liner top is set at higher
inclinations;
Why drill with a non-retrievable liner drilling • Tripping liner: The bit must make the minimum liner
system? depth in a single run to be successful. If the bit is unable
Advantages include: to drill the planned footage to reach an acceptable liner
• Increased ROP in soft formations (eliminate need for point, the only option is to trip the liner to replace the
control drilling due to improved hole cleaning); bit.
• Minimize rig time and floor operations by eliminating
dedicated casing run;
• Utilize the benefits of plastering effect to: Retrievable liner drilling
• Reduce or eliminate the risk of lost circulation; Retrievable liner drilling technology enables the liner to be
• Reduce differential sticking while drilling depleted drilled directionally across depleted or loss zones or unsta-
sands; ble formations while simultaneously logging the well. As the
• Extend casing point to eliminate casing/liner string; inner string and BHA are designed to drift through the liner,
• Reduced overall well costs by reduction of time on well. the operator has the ability to retrieve the BHA to the sur-
face at will. While replacing the BHA, the liner is temporarily
A key advantage of drilling with non-directional liner drill- parked in tension anywhere in the wellbore. Additionally, if
ing systems is the mitigation of drilling hazards through the the liner becomes stuck, the BHA can still be pulled safely to
plastering effect and the subsequent reduction in associated surface, leaving a usable wellbore through which to drill the
rig time due to lost circulation and stuck pipe events that next section.
occur when drilling unstable or depleted zones with conven-
tional methods. After reaching TD, the liner is permanently hung, and the
drill/logging BHA is retrieved to surface before running the
Typical problems with a non-retrievable liner cementing assembly in hole on a second trip. Figure CD-16
drilling system shows the component of the retrievable liner drilling system
• High torque: Though the liner is larger in diameter and assembly.
heavier than drillpipe, the torque required to rotate the
pipe to TD is greater, but often not significantly greater The drilling assembly is composed of six main components:
than a conventional BHA. This is of course dependent on • Drilling BHA (below liner shoe);
liner length and wellbore geometry, but with liner drilling • Inner string (including BHA below liner shoe);
systems, torque is far less limiting that in CwD systems, • Liner string;
as the large diameter tubular extends only a fraction of • Liner drilling tool;
the distance from TD to surface. As the drilling torque in • Liner top equipment.
most liner drilling systems runs through the liner
connections, the connection must be capable of handling The drilling BHA consists of the bit, directional tools, MWD
this safely; tools, the underreamer and any other BHA components that
• Hydraulics: The annulus between the liner and the are positioned below the liner shoe. The drilling BHA pro-
drilled hole is much smaller, as the liner is much larger in vides all functions of steering, measurement and hole en-
diameter than drillpipe. This geometrical change largement required to achieve the goals of the planned liner
requires careful consideration when planning the drilling interval.
hydraulics. The hydraulics are even different from what
is seen when CwD; because the liner does not extend to The inner string in this application is used to transmit the
the surface, superior hole cleaning above the liner top torque and weight on bit from the liner-running tool to the
may be difficult to achieve. Careful consideration must drilling BHA.
be taken when planning the mud rheology and flow
rates to balance the generation of high ECDs with The liner string in this application is removed from the

torque path between the liner drilling tool and the drilling drilling systems, torque is far less limiting that in casing
BHA. The liner string is conveyed from the start of drilling to while drilling systems as the large diameter tubular
the end of the planned interval with minimum torque applied extends only a fraction of the distance from TD to
across its length. surface. As the drilling torque in most liner drilling
systems runs through the liner connections, the
The liner drilling tool is used to cross over from the liner connection must be capable of handling this safely;
string to the drillpipe. It transmits torque and WOB from • Hydraulics: The annulus between the liner and the drilled
surface through the liner and to the BHA below. The lin- hole is much smaller, as the liner is much larger in
er-running tool is also used to convey the liner top packer re- diameter than drillpipe. This geometrical change requires
quired to isolate the drilled interval after drilling is complete. careful consideration when planning the drilling
hydraulics. The hydraulics are even different from what is
The liner equipment includes the liner hanger and the pol- seen when casing while drilling; because the liner does
ished bore receptacle (PBR). A liner top packer is introduced not extend to the surface, superior hole cleaning above
during the cementing run after the retrievable BHA has been the liner top may be difficult to achieve. Careful
retrieved. The liner top packer isolates the drilled-in liner consideration must be taken when planning the mud
from the parent casing string and is activated immediately rheology and flow rates to balance the generation of high
following cementing operations. ECDs with sufficient cuttings-carrying capability above
the liner. This is critical to manage and becomes
Why drill with a retrievable liner drilling system? increasingly more difficult when the liner top is set at
Similar to non-retrievable liner drilling systems, advantages higher inclinations.
include: • Stick-out management: The benefits of plastering effect
• Increased ROP in soft formations (eliminate need for do not occur until the liner shoe reaches the formations
control drilling due to improved hole cleaning); of concern. For example, if the directional/logging BHA
• Minimize rig time and floor operations by eliminating extends 120 ft past the casing shoe and the ROP is 40 ft/
dedicated casing run; hr, three hours of drilling are required before any benefit
• Utilize the benefits of plastering effect to: (reduction in losses, for example) may be realized.
• Reduce or eliminate the risk of lost circulation; • Fatigue management: The fatigue performance of the
• Reduce differential sticking while drilling depleted liner pipe and connections is well understood. The safe
sands; number of total revolutions allowed for any given
• Extend casing point to eliminate casing/liner string; application is calculated in pre-job analysis and total
• Reduced overall well costs by reduction of time on well. revolutions are also monitored during jobsite execution
to ensure the liner can be used to safely drill to TD.
Additional advantages specific to a retrievable system in- Fatigue management is most critical when high doglegs
clude: are predicted to cause high levels of reversing stresses
• Capability of active directional control (steerable motor on the liner and its connections. The table below shows
or RSS in BHA); the doglegs limits below which the onset of accumulated
• Ability to run logging tools in BHA; fatigue damage to the casing/liner and connections is
• Contingency operations to run subsequent BHAs; not of concern.
• Eliminate open-hole tripping of BHA and risks associated
with stuck pipe/LIH. Wells are commonly drilled with higher doglegs than shown
in the table above; however, advanced fatigue analysis
The same advantages can be obtained by the user wheth- should be performed to ensure the accumulated fatigue is
er running a retrievable or non-retrievable casing system; within safe limits.
however, the retrievable casing while drilling system further
enables the capability to run any choice of BHA components
Casing Size Dogleg to initiate fatigue
(directional and/or M/LWD).
4 ½ in. 8°
Typical problems with retrievable liner drilling 7 in. 5°
systems
• High torque: Though the liner is larger in diameter and 9 5⁄8 in. 3°
heavier than drillpipe, the torque required to rotate the 13 3⁄8 in. 1.5°
pipe to TD is greater, but often not significantly greater
than a conventional BHA. This is of course dependent on
liner length and wellbore geometry, but with liner while

Safety and the environment Conclusion

The CwD process offers significant improvements related The CwD and liner drilling processes are currently being
to safety and the environment relative to conventional cas- used by the industry to improve drilling efficiency in some
ing-running operations. As for safety, the floor becomes applications and to provide drilling hazard mitigation in
crowded on many rigs when the conventional casing-run- others. These processes must be implemented with care-
ning equipment is rigged up while drillpipe is racked in the ful attention to ensure that the torque required to reach TD
derrick. The casing tongs are often operated from scaffold- as well as any fatigue accumulated during drilling does not
ing set up on the floor as a work platform. A workman is affect the ability of the casing to secure the wellbore after
positioned in the derrick to help align the casing joint in the it is cemented in place. Standard practices used with con-
elevators. The overall result is an increased potential for ventional drilling must be reevaluated in the context of the
falls from elevated work positions as well as for injuries from narrow annulus and adjusted where necessary in order to
being caught between pieces of equipment as the casing is optimize drilling performance.
picked up, made up and run.
The current toolbox gives the industry the ability to drill near-
Due to the reduced flow and standpipe pressure require- ly any interval with either a casing or liner drilling solution.
ments of the CwD process, the rig is able to use significantly Because of its increased ROP and superior hole cleaning,
less fuel during the drilling process. This efficiency gain re- CwD is fast becoming the standard approach to drilling top-
sults in a net fuel saving that is not only a significant cost hole intervals, both vertical and directional, as the process
savings, but also an environmental benefit that reduces the simplifies operations by eliminating the need to run casing
carbon footprint of the drilling process. after reaching TD. As more wells are drilled in increasingly
unstable or depleted formations, the technology becomes
more valuable, as it provides economical and technical solu-
tions for achieving drilling objectives. As the understanding
of the mechanism for the plastering effect of CwD becomes
better understood, the shift from anticipating a benefit to
predicting the benefit as part of pre-planning the well will
continue to expand the value of this emerging technology.

CE
CEMENTING

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
CEMENTING CE–i
CHAPTER
CE
CEMENTING
AUTHORS AND REVIEWERS

Ron Sweatman, Baker Hughes
Kate H. Baker, Consultant
Anthony Badalamenti, Consultant
Glen Benge, Consultant
Louis Bone, Halliburton
Ramy Eid, Repsol
Barbara Kutchko, U.S. DOE
K.K. La Fleur, Consultant
George Morgan, Derrick Equipment Co.
Dan Mueller, ConocoPhillips
Sam Pickett, Chesapeake
Alfredo Sanchez, Top-Co
David Stiles, ExxonMobil

CE–ii CEMENTING


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-5-5

CEMENTING Contents CE-iii
CHAPTER CE
CEMENTING
Contents
Preface..............................................................................CE-1 Estimating cement volumes.............................. CE-12
Cementing and safety..................................................CE-1 Hole size determination..................................... CE-12
Personal safety.........................................................CE-1 Area experience and excess cement.............. CE-12
JSA topics to consider............................................CE-1 Addressing lost circulation in cement
Operational risk management.............................CE-1 job design............................................................... CE-13
Introduction ....................................................................CE-1 Mix water volumes ............................................. CE-13
Relevancy of cementing for the drilling process.. CE-2 Spacer volumes..................................................... CE-13
Well cementing purposes ......................................... CE-2 Water sources and supply................................. CE-13
How cement works in well applications.......... CE-3 Estimating displacement volumes................... CE-14
Types of cementing jobs and reasons for and types of Hole-size determination
cementing........................................................................ CE-3 Job time................................................................... CE-14
Primary jobs............................................................. CE-3 Pump rates and pressures................................. CE-14
Setting casing strings ......................................... CE-3 Wait on cement (WOC) time and post-job rig
Squeeze cementing................................................ CE-3 operations .................................................................... CE-14
Plug cementing....................................................... CE-5 Cements and cement additives ............................. CE-14
Lost circulation cement squeezes Conditions and required properties................ CE-14
and plugs ................................................................. CE-6 Cement additives................................................. CE-15
Cementing through the bit..........................................CE-7 Cement slurry properties................................... CE-15
Preparing the well and wellsite Cementing strings and associated hardware,
for cementing .................................................................CE-7 including casing running tools................................ CE-16
Pre-job meeting ..................................................... CE-8 Casing cementing string hardware................. CE-16
Preparing the well for cementing...................... CE-8 Guides & floating equipment............................ CE-18
Hole conditioning with casing on bottom....... CE-8 Liner cementing tools..........................................CE-20
Rig personnel support of Casing running tools ..........................................CE-20
cementing operations........................................... CE-8 Conventional equipment/tools........................CE-21
Rigging up and pressure testing Next-generation tools.........................................CE-21
treatment lines........................................................ CE-9 Mechanized equipment......................................CE-23
Components of a high-pressure line................ CE-9 Cement evaluation ....................................................CE-23
Job design, pumping and Outlook ......................................................................... CE-24
displacing cement....................................................... CE-10
Estimating job volumes (cement, mix water,
spacers, displacement)...................................... CE-11

IADC Technical
Resources

contracts and more.
position on a rig.
newsletter.
CEMENTING CE–1
Preface • Hand tools: equipment maintenance;

The Cementing Chapter contains information on the oper- • Work permit: hot work, high pressure, noise;
ational aspects and importance of cementing practices as • Confined space: working in pits or tanks;
they relate to drilling rigs. This chapter is intended as re- • Working at heights: rigging up equipment, iron, plug
source to help crews conduct safe and effective cementing containers;
operations, enabling wells to be drilled, completed, and op- • Dropped objects: hand tools, service iron;
erated more safely and efficiently. • Lifting and handling: iron, chemicals, related materials;
• Stop Work authority: when in doubt, STOP;
• Slips, trips and falls;
Cementing and safety • Pressurized equipment;
Regardless of their location or industry, nearly all safety • Chemical handling: movement, mixing of fluids (e.g.,
professionals contend that “the potential to cause harm” is drilling mud, cement).
what defines a safety hazard. In the oil and gas industry, a
safety hazard often requires a more complete definition: a Operational risk management
condition or activity that, if left unattended or uncontrolled, A sound operational risk management program should en-
has the potential to injure workers, harm the environment or able analysis of operational components: equipment design
threaten assets. and functionality, and operating and maintenance proce-
dures. The resulting assessments will help mitigate the risk
Whether on land or offshore, the cementing process in- associated with job related tasks and help wellsite personnel
cludes the same basic steps: guard against the uncontrolled release of hazardous mate-
rials or energy that could harm workers, property and the
• Mobilize resources: equipment and materials; environment.
• Access the well: rig up the equipment;
• Perform the job: cement the well; Prior to conducting an operation, the answers to several
• Rig down equipment; questions should be obtained:
• Demobilize resources (equipment, materials, and • Have well conditions changed between “designed for and
personnel). as drilled”?
• Can the equipment being used perform as required?
Cementing is part of the larger drilling process, and drilling • Has the equipment been properly maintained and readied
is a part of the overall well construction process. These pro- for service?
cesses present safety hazards, of which there are two types: • Do the personnel involved understand the cementing
personal safety hazards and process safety hazards. The procedure and can it be safely conducted?
discipline of personal safety provides methods that enable • Is the well ready to be cemented?
personnel to work in the safest manner possible. Process
safety, or operational risk management, includes proce- Operators and service companies have HSE, (health safe-
dures to mitigate operational risks that have the potential ty and environmental) guidelines that pertain to person-
to injure workers and damage material, physical assets and al and process safety. These guidelines should be known,
the environment. discussed and followed. Maintaining a disciplined process
safety culture increases personnel health, environmental
Personal safety sustainability, and asset integrity.
Job Safety Analysis (JSA) is widely used by contractors,
operators and service companies to identify and mitigate
safety hazards. By co-conducting preliminary job reviews, Introduction
employees and managers can gain a shared ownership in a The process of cementing oil and gas wells requires close
safety program that reduces and helps control risk. cooperation between the well operator, the drilling contrac-
tor, the cementing service company and the drilling fluids
JSA topics to consider company. This section of the IADC Drilling Manual outlines
• Driving safety: traveling to land location or offshore load the relevant cementing process concepts as they relate to
out point; establishing zonal isolation and provides insight into the ef-
• Personal protection Equipment: hard hats, safety glasses, forts made by the drilling contractor’s personnel to achieve
gloves, etc; this goal.
• Lock out tag out: equipment maintenance;
• Rig-up and rig-down procedures and assignments;

CE–2 CEMENTING
• Across naturally occurring pore pressure ramps to prevent

Relevancy of cementing for the drilling process interzonal flow.
Safely and efficiently establishing zonal isolation through
cementing is one of the most essential operations in well Placing cement across and at sufficient height to be above
construction. More recently, in granting approval for drilling potential flow zones should be considered, as it will ensure
permits and for progressive stages of the drilling process, oil these areas of the well are isolated and the annular cement
and gas regulators have placed increased emphasis on the is providing a barrier. It is very important to preserve isola-
importance cementing plans and their execution. In reaction tion between subsurface sections that have, or are expected
to this, the API/IADC Joint Industry Task Force recognized to develop, different pressure gradients. This may require
cementing as a key part of a safe drilling process and for- proper placement of cement across impermeable zones to
mally proposed this to the U.S. Department of the Interior ensure the wellbore does not become a leak point through
(DOI). As a result, the DOI’s Bureau of Safety and Environ- the natural pressure barrier.
mental Enforcement (BSEE) adopted the proposed safe drill-
ing process by incorporating API RP 65 Part 2 and later API A properly cemented annulus prevents formation fluids
Standard 65 Part 2 (65-2) into a new federal regulation. API from flowing into the annular space. Formation brines are
Standard 65-2 includes best drilling practices to improve often highly corrosive to the steel used in tubulars. Accord-
primary cementing. BSEE now requires that API Standard ingly, preventing such fluid movement will help protect cas-
65-2 practices for well cementing be followed as a condition ing from corrosion. A properly cemented annulus can also
for receiving a permit to drill in waters and on lands that are provide the structural integrity to endure certain stresses:
held by the federal government. • Axial loads arising from the suspended weight of
subsequent casing strings, liners, BOPs or marine risers;
Regulating bodies in other parts of the world are now adopt- • Axial loads from thermal expansion and contraction
ing or considering similar requirements. New API publica- during drilling operations that may result in buckling or
tions and revised editions strongly advocate the cementing extensional yield;
process as a primary means to safe drilling. The API RP 96 • Subsidence-induced strains associated with hydrocarbon
publication entitled “Deepwater Well Design and Construc- extraction;
tion” makes many references to API Standard 65-2 practic- • Side loads arising from mobile formations or geologic
es, making it a “normative” reference, (e.g., to comply with faults that may result in shear failure;
RP 96 practices, operators must also comply with practices • Stresses associated with completion operations such as
in API Standard 65-2). hydraulic fracturing, thermal stresses anticipated during
production and injection operations or unanticipated
drilling and production operations issues that may result
Well cementing purposes in burst or collapse failure.
The principal reason for cementing in well construction is to
fill the annular space between the casing and the wellbore Cement may also be placed in an open-hole for several rea-
with cement over specified formations or depth intervals. sons:
A cemented annulus provides several operational advantag- • Plugging back for abandonment of a hole section to
es: structural support for casing strings, corrosion preven- achieve zonal isolation and prevent flow to and from an
tion, and a barrier to prevent annular flow of oil, gas or water abandoned borehole;
from one subsurface zone to another or to the surface. • Plugging back to sidetrack a well in which the cement plug
must also provide enough integrity to enable the bit and
The principles and processes for establishing and maintain- bottomhole assembly to establish the new wellbore
ing cement as a barrier are central to providing well integrity. trajectory;
Establishing a barrier is especially important when the well- • Squeezing or pumping cement into the formation exposed
bore is constructed across certain intervals: in the open-hole section making remediation necessary,
lost circulation, to repair leaks, or strengthen the exposed
• Fresh-water aquifers that hold usable sources of water; casing shoe.
• Potential flow zones: permeable formations or those that
can be fractured; Cement is also used in applications presented in other sec-
• Hydrocarbon-bearing zones; tions of this chapter.
• Between production zones that might become drawn
down or over pressured relative to one another during the
life of a field;

CEMENTING CE–3
higher pressure integrity than those run previously,

How cement works in well applications especially when the next hole section must be drilled
Because cement can be mixed with water to create a slurry, through formations characterized by abnormal pressures.
it can be circulated into the well with pumps and directed • Production casing or liners are set across the reservoir
to the required location where it transforms into solid mass interval within which the primary completion components
that forms a barrier in the well. The hardening process is are installed. Production casing or liners are most often
called cement hydration, which is a series of chemical reac- set with cement, although isolation is sometimes achieved
tions that change the cement particles into hydrated com- using external casing packers which may or may not be
pounds. These materials form crystalline structures that cement filled.
interlock and give the set cement strength. This process is
shown in the electron microscope images in the Figure CE-1 Squeeze cementing
below. Squeeze cementing is the most common type of remedi-
al (secondary) cementing operation. The process involves
placing a cement slurry into all necessary wellbore entry
points (perforation, holes or split in casing, cement chan-
nels, etc.) under sufficient hydraulic pressure to dehydrate
or “squeeze” water from the cement slurry, resulting in ce-
ment that will harden and seal the voids.
Figure CE-1: Example Cement hydration showing initial mixing Application

to growth of crystal structure that gives cement its strength. Repair faulty, primary cement jobs:
• Repair a weak or wet casing shoes;
Reasons for and types of cementing • Seal mud or gas channels formed in the cement during
The following sections describe the most common types of primary cementing operations;
cementing jobs and the reasons why these jobs are conduct- • Complete annular cement fill in casing or liner tops.
ed for well construction, well integrity remediation, and well
abandonment. Some reasons may have been previously de- Repair casing damage:
scribed in section 3; others may be conducted for well-spe- • Repair split or parted casing;
cific conditions. • Patch holes in casing or tubing;
• Seal eroded or corroded casing.
Primary jobs
Primary cementing is the process of placing cement at the Alter well production characteristics:
required location in an annulus between the wellbore and • Reduce oil/water ratios;
casing or liner pipe string. Figure CE-2 (following page) illus- • Change gas/oil ratios.
trates the process of mixing and pumping the cement slurry
into the well, separating the cement with wiper plugs, and Isolate/Seal formation intervals:
placing the cement into the annulus with displacement fluid. • Seal lost-circulation and thief zones;
• Seal off depleted zones from production intervals;
Setting casing strings • Prevent fluid migration between zones;
• Conductor casing provides structural support for well and • Permanently abandon nonproductive zones;
completion equipment and is often the first pipe string • Temporarily abandon a production zone.
installed in wells and is not typically designed for pressure
containment. Common squeeze cementing techniques
• Surface casing is run to protect fresh water aquifers and Generally there are three squeeze cementing methods:
provides an attachment point for diverters or in some • Bradenhead or low pressure method is typically performed
cases blow out preventer (BOP) equipment. Surface under formation fracture pressure and without using a
casing also provides structural support for the remaining casing packer. The cement is placed in the wellbore using
casing strings. tubing or drillpipe. The pipe is then repositioned above the
• Intermediate casing or liners are set for various reasons: top of cement, the casing-pipe annulus is closed and
enables drilling ahead with a mud weight between pore hydraulic (pump) pressure is applied to squeeze the
and fracture pressures, seals formation pore pressures cement into the targeted area. Using this method makes
while drilling deeper and provides wellbore stability. accurate cement placement difficult, and usually more
Several intermediate casing strings may be used than one squeeze job is required.
depending on well conditions, and these strings may have • Squeeze-packer or high-pressure method uses a casing

CE–4 CEMENTING
Figure CE-2: Primary cementing process.

CEMENTING CE–5
packer to isolate the squeeze area from the rest of the

well. This method enables closer control of the entire Job design
squeeze cementing process and permits a more efficient To design an effective cement squeeze plan, the well oper-
placement of the cementing slurry into targeted zone. ator generally works with the cementing service provider to
• Top-down annular casing squeeze method is typically select the casing packer type, cement placement method
used to force cement to surface when it failed to do so (hesitation, stage or continuous pumping) and the cement
during the primary cement job. These squeeze jobs are slurry design. To make their selections, well operators and
normally performed by pumping cement down the casing cement service providers use several variables:
annulus by an outer casing valve or installing a small
tubing string into the targeted annuli and pumping cement • Job objective;
through this tubing. Monitoring the pressure of the inner • Well and operational risk and safety;
casing pressure and the annular pressure in which the • Well operations and production history;
cement is being pumped is necessary to prevent casing • Casing size, age and pressure rating;
damage caused by collapse (inner casing) or rupture • Drillpipe or tubing size and pressure rating;
(outer casing). • Formation properties;
• Pore pressure;
Common squeeze cementing packers: • Permeability;
• Squeeze-cementing casing packers (tools) are used to • Fracture gradient;
control the placement of job fluids and isolate wellbore • Fluids types (oil, gas, water, combination);
pressures during cement squeeze operations. Squeeze- • Diagnostic logs (Cement bond, temperature, noise);
cement packers are classified as either drillable or • Well fluids and type;
retrievable. The type of packer used is dependent on the • Rig capabilities;
squeeze job objective(s), casing and tubing condition, and • Field history and previous squeeze job results.
formation parameters.
• Drillable-casing packers (retainers) are designed and Plug cementing
manufactured to be drilled out of the casing when Plug cementing is another remedial cementing technique
required. Drillable casing packers can be set using and refers to the method of placing the cement slurry into
conventional work strings in compression or tension, or the wellbore to create a solid wellbore seal or “plug”. The
by electric wireline operations. These tools typically general plug cementing process involves selecting the loca-
incorporate a “sliding” or “poppet” valve, which closes tion for the plug, positioning the end of the work string at
when the work-string stinger is pulled out of the retainer the bottom of the desired plug depth, mixing and pumping
following the squeeze job. The retainer contains the a cement slurry down the work string (drillpipe or tubing)
pressure below, which is beneficial in many cement into the wellbore, removing the work string from the cement
squeeze operations. column and allowing the cement slurry to harden in the well-
• Retrievable-squeeze packers are designed and bore.
manufactured using high-strength steel to provide a
higher pressure rating than drillable casing packers. These Applications
retrievable packers also feature a fluid bypass system, Well or zone abandonment:
which reduces formation surge and swab pressure events • Seal a dry hole;
during installation and removal from the well. Additionally, • Seal depleted zones;
the packers have mechanical and hydraulic casing slips, • Seal non-commercial zones or wellbores;
which anchor the packer to the casing wall. And, because • Temporary well or zone abandonment.
they have a larger internal diameter, casing perforating
tools and other diagnostic tools can be used during well Zonal isolation or well stability:
operations. Since these packers feature high-strength • Isolate one pressure zone from another;
steel, fluid circulation ports and casing slips, it is very • Prevent zonal fluid communication;
important to monitor fluid volumes, casing and work • Stop lost circulation events;
string pressures, and pipe movement during operations to • Enable drilling through fracture or weak formations.
prevent the these packers from becoming “stuck” in the
well. Removal of “stuck” retrievable squeeze packers Directional drilling (kick-off plugs):
usually requires extensive milling, which if unsuccessful • Support controlled changes in well trajectory (whipstock
may result in loss of the wellbore section or even the operations);
entire well. • Sidetrack operators around a “fish”.

CE–6 CEMENTING
Formation testing: balance plug method that incorporates a mechanical tool

• Creates a base for open-hole formation test tools. to provide a bottom for the cement column and prevent
migration of the cement column down the wellbore. This
Common plug techniques method allows for a choice of several mechanical tools:
Listed below are the four most frequently used cement plug inflatable packers, cement baskets, tools that use
placement methods: expandable membranes, which open when positioned in
• Balanced-plug method is the most often used method to the wellbore. Once the mechanical tool is in the wellbore
install or set a cement plug in the wellbore. It works by at the designed depth, the work string is positioned above
means of the “balanced hydrostatic pressures” concept. the tool and the balance plug or two-plug method is used
“Balanced” describes a condition in which the top of to place the cement column in the wellbore.
cement and spacer outside the work string are at the
same height as the top of cement inside the work string at Job Design
the end of pumping. To help achieve this balance, it is When designing a cement plug that will meet the required
important that the well is in a fluid static state, the objectives, the well operator will work with the cementing
wellbore and drilling mud are prepared to receive cement, service provider to select the appropriate plug setting tech-
the spacers/flushes volumes and densities meet design nique and the cement slurry design. To formulate a design
requirements and the cement slurry is designed to ensure operators and cement service providers consider a number
safe cement placement and removal of the work string. of variables:
Rig operations should be prepared to begin removing • Job objective;
(pulling) the work string from the cement at the design • Well and operational risk and safety;
rate as soon as the cement is in place and surface pressure • Well operations history;
has been released. • Casing size, age and pressure rating;
• Two-plug method uses wiper plugs or rubber balls to • Hole size and hole enlargement;
isolate the cement from well fluids (prevent contamination) • Well stability;
in the drillpipe and provide positive surface pressure • Drillpipe or tubing size and pressure rating;
events, which are used as an indication of cement • Cement plug setting tools;
placement in the wellbore. Once the lead cement spacer • Well fluids and type;
or flush has been pumped into the work string, the bottom • Rig capabilities;
wiper plug or ball is released into the work string, the • Field history and previous plug job results;
cement volume is mixed and pumped, the top wiper plug/ • Hole angle.
rubber ball is released and drilling mud is used to displace
the cement. When the bottom plug/ball lands in a Lost circulation cement squeezes and plugs
receiving tool, a positive surface event occurs that In some cases, controlling lost circulation during drilling op-
indicates the position of the leading edge of the cement erations may call for a cement squeeze or plug job to mini-
slurry. Additional surface pressure is applied to release mize or stop drilling fluid losses and help regain full returns
the bottom wiper plug/ball, enabling the cement to be of the circulation fluids to surface. The formation interval
pumped into place. The top wiper plug lands in the wiper into which fluids are lost is commonly called the “thief zone.”
plug/ball receiving tool, indicating that cement is in place.
Surface pressure is then applied, causing the top wiper Losses may be halted and well circulation restored by spot-
plug/ball to be sheared out of the tool, which re- ting a cement plug across the thief zone and, after waiting on
establishes work string circulation. The work string is then cement (WOC), drilling back through the plug. This opera-
pulled from the cement column at the designed rate; rig tion can sometimes be less costly than a squeeze-cement
operations should be prepared to conduct this step as job. Spotting plug cement in open-holes across thief zones
soon as the cement is in place and surface pressure has with smaller diameter tubing has the advantage of less
been released. risk for drillpipe sticking issues and better cement place-
• Dump bailer method incorporates the use of a cylindrical ment. The tubing is often called a “stinger pipe” which can
fluid container, which is run into the well with wireline. be installed below the drillpipe. However, many plug and
When the bottom of the dump bailer reaches the desired squeeze-cement jobs are pumped “through the bit” due to
depth, an electrical or mechanical trigger is used to open the time required to trip out and back into the well with a
the bottom of the cylindrical fluid container, thereby lost-circulation treatment bottomhole assembly (BHA).
releasing the cement slurry into the well bore. Typically,
this method requires multiple runs, because fluid Low-pressure or depleted “thief zones” that steal well fluids
container’s limited capacity. drilling fluids can sometimes be sealed by a squeeze-ce-
• Mechanically supported plug method is a variation of the menting job. In severe cases, more than one job may be

CEMENTING CE–7
required. A combination squeeze-and plug-cementing job any increase in TOB that may indicate that cement is in
may be needed when losses occur after drilling out the cas- the annulus;
ing shoe. This can sometimes improve cement placement 8. If TOB increases during the job, further action is taken to
in the annulus between the open hole and the shoe track keep the DP free such as immediately PU one stand and
including some distance above the shoe track. For deeper check that TOB decreases before continuing the squeeze.
thief zones, drillpipe is pulled up above the top of the cement 9. If TOB doesn’t decrease and hook load increased during
plug and, if needed, above the open-hole; applying squeeze PU, immediately shut down the squeeze and take further
pressure at this stage will force some plug cement into the action such as POOH to prevent planting DP;
thief zone. By placing the end of the drillpipe inside the cas- 10.After all cement slurry has cleared the DP, pull five stands
ing shoe, the risk of stuck drill pipe can be eliminated. or 500 ft of DP and continue checking TOB;
When the designed squeeze pressure is achieved,
11.
Cementing through the bit circulate drilling fluid to clear the annulus of any cement
Conducting cementing operations when a drill bit is in the slurry. Continue to WOC until cement is set and rig is
well, is a very high risk operation and requires an additional ready to continue drilling operations.
level of pre-job planning including both Job Safety Analysis
(JSA) and risk assessments. When precautions were taken, Preparing the well and wellsite
cement slurries have been successfully pumped through the
drilling BHA, including motors, without prematurely setting. for cementing
One key condition for successful jobs is making sure the
hole (motor, BHA, DP, annulus, etc.) is cooled by circulating Pre-job meeting
enough drilling fluid. The BHA tools temperature readings The service company supervisor should hold a pre-job
should be used for test temperatures used in cement’s lab- meeting with his crew, the rig crew and all other involved
oratory thickening time tests. When no temperature data is personnel in cementing the well to review responsibilities
available, thermal modeling computer software can be run and coordinate the operations to be performed. Safety
to determine how long it takes the circulating drilling fluid should always be the top priority.
to cool the recently drilled “hot” hole section and BHA. The
start of the cement squeeze or plug job can then be delayed That meeting may cover a number of topics:
until the hole and BHA (motor, etc.) is cool enough to pre- • Roles and responsibilities - It is important that everyone
vent shorter than designed pump times. When needed, add involved understand their role during the cement job;
retarder in the cement slurry based on lab testing with high- open communication is essential. The pre-job meeting is
er temperatures. a means to establish everyone’s role and to discuss
potential risks and contingency plans to deal with any
Other recommendations are listed below: issue that may develop.
1. Total bit nozzle flow area and other flow restrictions in the • Rigging-up and pressure testing of treatment lines should
BHA should be sufficient for the designed pump rate and be discussed.
is sometimes specified to be greater than 0.5 sq. in.; • Job procedure – Every step of the cement job should be
2. The backside surface pressure is continuously monitored covered. Volume calculations of cement, mix water,
to check if cement is circulated up the annulus. This is displacement, expected pit gains should have been
intended for placing plug cement, but not for squeezing independently verified by at least two members of the
cement; team. The pressure to bump the plug calculation should
3. For shoe squeezes, the bit and BHA are spotted inside the also be independently verified. Depending on job
last string of casing one or two pipe stands above the specifics, there may be other pressure, volume or rate
shoe; calculations that need to be performed and verified before
4. Open hole squeezes to control lost circulation, place the the job. Equipment and material checks should be also be
bit one or two pipe stands above the lost circulation zone. independently verified by two or more people.
5. Run a lab-tested, compatible spacer ahead and behind the • Potential events to discuss – Unplanned issues include
cement slurry. Spacer volumes are determined based on lost circulation, excess gas, well control issues, equipment
conditions; failures, abnormally high or low pump pressure limits,
6. Do not stop pumping with cement inside the drill pipe slow mixing rates, cement volume shortages, lack of
(DP). When the spacer reached the bit, close the choke cement density control, failure of plug to bump on time
manifold to begin bullheading cement into the zone of and floats to hold.
interest; • Contingency plans – Circulating the job out and starting
7. A DP swivel is installed above the rotary table and DP is over criteria and switching from cement pumps to rig
rotated either intermittently or continuously to check for pumps in order to circulate out, dropping the top plug and

CE–8 CEMENTING
displacing without pumping the planned job volume and a bridging or plugging off with cuttings in tight clearances,
complete list of standby equipment on site. and high equivalent circulating density (ECD) from the
• Weather conditions – Considerations include how frictional pressure drop while circulating;
extreme heat, cold, or offshore sea state conditions might • During casing or liner running, surge and swab pressures
affect personnel, equipment and materials. Extreme can result in losses or formation fluid influxes if the
temperatures may introduce conditions different from the tripping speed is not controlled. The drilling program
cement job’s design conditions (ambient) that could should specify the running speed to minimize surge
cause compromise the job. For example, in the Middle effects. Computer programs are available to aid ECD
East, on several occasions cement has prematurely set management and to determine the proper tripping speed
inside the batch mixer as a result of prepumping and to minimize surge and swab forces. In very close-tolerance
variance in ambient temperature used by the design from situations, “auto-fill” float equipment can be used to
lab: 120-140°F. The possibility of these effects should be minimize surge pressures by allowing mud to flow up the
discussed together with measures to mitigate the adverse inside of the casing while casing is run in the well. The
effects of extreme weather conditions. “auto-fill” float equipment can be converted to
conventional float equipment when needed. Surge
Preparing the well for cementing pressures can also be minimized by controlling the mud
Hole and mud conditioning for cementing operations should properties so that they have non-progressive gel strengths
begin prior to tripping the drillstring out of the hole for the and overall viscosity readings as low as practical for hole
purpose of running casing. While the wellbore may be clean cleaning. Depending on well conditions, the well should
enough to enable trouble-free tripping operations, the pres- be circulated at prescribed intervals while running in the
ence of cuttings beds, fill on bottom, or mud with undesir- hole to help break gel strengths and ensure the well is
able properties make running and cementing casing difficult. stable.
Even though the well will need to be circulated and condi-
tioned again after casing is run to bottom, the hole should Hole conditioning with casing on bottom
be clean and the drilling fluid should have the desired mud Once casing is on bottom, the well should be circulated until
properties before casing is run. well conditions are stable and the wellbore is free of excess
gas. Mud properties in and out should be the same and with-
The drilling program should outline the hole-cleaning proce- in specifications. Between bottoms-up and the casing vol-
dures to be followed for each hole section. The procedures ume, a minimum of the larger of the two should be pumped.
should specify guidelines for flow rate, pipe reciprocation, Pumping a minimum of one casing volume will indicate if
pipe rotation, cuttings and gas monitoring as well as drill- there are any foreign objects in the casing that might plug up
ing fluid property specifications. Hole cleaning practices will the float equipment. Pumping bottoms-up will reveal if there
differ between vertical or near vertical wells, and extended have been any influxes into the well during casing running
reach high-angle or horizontal wells. For wells with greater operations. Other factors that may need to be considered
than 30° to 40° of inclination, torque-and-drag monitoring for circulating with casing on bottom are the need to cool the
is recommended to help determine when the hole is clean. wellbore down, cleaning the wellbore of cuttings and main-
Torque-and-drag can be monitored by using work string taining the optimum rheology for mud removal by cement.
pick-up and slack-off weight indicator readings and rotating In general, the pump rate should be as fast as possible with-
torque measurements. Torque-and-drag monitoring can be out inducing lost circulation.
used during hole cleaning and tripping operations to gauge
the quality of the hole. This applies to tripping the drillstring Rig personnel support of cementing operations
or casing. Drilling rig personnel may be assigned a number of cement-
ing operation support activities:
Hole and mud conditioning becomes imperative in the fol- • Identifying the location of mix water, drilling mud or both
lowing situations: supply lines that furnish cementing equipment (cement
• Liner cement jobs run with tight tubular/annular pump/batch mixer) with mix water and drilling mud;
clearances, when the liner hanger is set the annular flow • Ensuring there is sufficient cement mix water, drilling mud
path becomes more restricted and prone to plugging with or both to mix and displace the cement and communicating
cuttings, debris or gelled mud; and facilitating the method of fluid transfer (centrifugal
• All wells with tight annular clearances; pump, gravity feed, etc.);
• Wellbores with small mud weight margins between the • Identifying the barite supply lines that furnish cementing
minimum mud weight needed to control formation equipment (cement pump/batch mixer) with bulk barite
pressure and the mud weight that results in mud losses to – typically for spacers;
the formation, resulting in loss of returns caused by • Facilitating the movement of liquid additives (drums,

CEMENTING CE–9
totes, etc.) from the storage area to the liquid additive • Wear a P-, N- or R-95 respirator to minimize inhalation
system and the pneumatic transfer of cement from the rig of cement dust;
tanks to the cementing unit during cementing operations • Eat and drink only in dust-free areas to avoid ingesting
that take place offshore or at remote sites; cement dust.
• Informing the cementing service providers of any
restrictions on the placement of the cementing equipment Rig personnel may also provide support in the preparation
on location; of washes or spacers used in the cementing operation. The
• Monitoring returns at surface for change in flow rates and mixing of spacer fluids should be conducted using instruc-
presence of pumped fluids (spacer and cement slurry) tions provided by the cementing service company or, in the
and diverting contaminated fluids from the active system; case of more complex spacer systems, under the direct su-
• Many operations require the rig pump to take over pervision of the service company personnel. Rig personnel
displacement – in this case rig personnel should coordinate should always be mindful of the exposure and respiratory
closely with cementing personnel regarding volumes, hazards associated with the handling and mixing of mate-
rates and returns. rials used to prepare washes and spacers. As such, rig per-
sonnel involved in the mixing of spacer fluids should always
Rig personnel should be cautious when working in or near abide by the same personal protection equipment require-
the cement pumping unit, cement bulk equipment, liquid ments as those used by the cementing service provider.
additive systems, process controls, batch mixers, flow/mass
meters, densitometers, temporary bulk/liquid transfer lines, Mixing cement slurry during the cementing operation is the
bulk manifolds and electronic cabling. Rig personnel should responsibility of the cementing service company. However,
always be aware of the location and service state (not in ser- rig personnel may be asked to provide assistance to the ce-
vice, pressure testing, in operation, etc.) of the high pressure menting service supervisor or other cementing personnel on
discharge iron from the cementing unit to the rig floor as certain occasions:
well as the status of pressurized bulk tanks, lines and hoses. • Assisting the cementing service providers with obtaining
During foamed cementing operations, care should be exer- samples of cement slurry, bulk materials and liquid
cised around the cryogenic nitrogen storage tanks, nitrogen additives;
pumps and nitrogen discharge/vent lines. • Providing a tally of materials being consumed, additives,
mix water, etc;
Cement dust • Managing fuel and air supply for cementing equipment
Well cementing operations utilizes equipment designed to and ensuring that the air supply is dry;
prevent the escape of cement dust into the atmosphere. • Helping the cementing service company manage the rig
However, in the event that personnel are exposed to `ce- bulk material supply system;
ment dust, hazard mitigation procedures are used to prevent • Measuring and recording slurry density using pressurized
injuries or health issues. Local regulators may publish these mud balance;
procedures to help prevent HSE incidents and require them • Assisting in efforts to repair cementing equipm
to be posted on bulletin boards or included in the rig’s safety
manuals at the wellsite. For example, the U.S. Occupational Rigging up and pressure testing treatment lines
Safety and Health Administration’s (OHSA) guidelines are In preparing for cementing and pumping operations, ser-
shown below: vice company personnel rig up and use a high- pressure
• Hazard: Exposure to cement dust can irritate eyes, treatment line often referred to as a cement service line.
nose, throat and the upper respiratory system. Skin They may ask the rig crew to assist them in this operation.
contact may result in moderate irritation to thickening/ High-pressure pumping requires managing hazards and
cracking of skin to severe skin damage from chemical risk. In addition, all personnel must comply with local regu-
burns. Silica exposure can lead to lung injuries including lations. Examples can be found under OHSA rules in North
silicosis and lung cancer. America, DNV in Norway or ANP in Brazil.
Solutions:* Components of a high-pressure line

• Rinse eyes with water if they come into contact with ce- • Chiksan/swivel joint is a high pressure articulating
ment dust and consult a physician; hardline used to make connections adjustable by rotating
• Use soap and water to wash off dust to avoid skin dam- and a swiveling them. A double chiksan enables an easier
age; rig up for spacing and flexibility, regarding vibrations and
pump pulsations during operations.
• Pressure relief (pop-off) valve is a safety device that
* Reference: OSHA 3221-12N 2004 protects contained systems from over pressuring. In most

CE–10 CEMENTING
by line size, pressure and line service, liquid or gas.

• Pressure testing should be conducted once the service
line has been rigged up in accordance with all applicable
operator, contractor or service company safety guidelines.
The line should be tested to the expected working
pressure, plus an agreed on safety factor.
Job design, pumping and displacing cement

Optimizing a cement job for proper placement begins with
defining the objectives of a particular cement job. Whether
the job is designed for casing support, wellbore isolation,
formation isolation or providing a plug for directional op-
erations, properly understanding the objectives of the job
is a prerequisite to successful design. The next step in the
design process is identifying the operating envelope for the
job, which includes identifying the pore pressure and frac
gradients in a well, temperatures, wellbore architecture and
formations to be cemented. Once these parameters are
identified, a cement slurry and job design can be developed
to meet the objectives of a cement operation using industry
recognized laboratory standards and methods.
In planning a cement job, slurry density, rheology and pump

rate are optimized to the particular well conditions. The slur-
ry design will take into account the required density, rheol-
ogy and pump time required for cementing. The design may
Figure CE-3: Diagrams of incorrect and correct be as simple as cement and mix water, or it may require a
combinations of pressure unions. See p CE-10. more complex system with several additives, or systems
containing nitrogen gas to foam the slurry to a specific den-
cases, it works by the tripping of a spring or shear pin that sity.
was set at a prescribed safe level, allowing unplanned
high-pressure events to be vented or relieved into a lower- The slurry’s density provides the necessary weight for well
pressure or non-pressured destination source. control, but it must be light enough not to fracture the well.
• Plug Valves are high-pressure capable valves designed for During placement, the friction generated by the various flu-
a wide range of standard and sour gas drilling, production ids introduced into the well impact the ECD and must be
and well-servicing applications. These valves come in controlled to prevent fracturing the well, resulting in lost
single- and dual-body designs in pressure ratings up to circulation. Slurry densities, rheologies and pump rates are
20,000 psi. Depending on the pressure rating of the used to manage ECD.
value, they range in size from one to four inches and are
equipped with hammer unions or flange connections. To optimize slurry placement, job design is based on vari-
They feature a two-piece floating plug/stem, and are ous well parameters: frac gradient, pore pressure, formation
capable of handling fluids with solids intermixed. This type, wellbore architecture, etc. and the rig’s equipment ca-
plug valve is used throughout the industry in temporary pabilities and any logistic challenges. The final design should
setups such as flowbacks, coiled tubing, well testing, be a representation of all of these variables to achieve an
fracturing and cementing operations. optimized operation.
• Mismatched connections or pressure unions are
potentially one of the most dangerous situations faced by A primary goal of any cement job is to replace the drilling
rig and service personnel. For example, in Figure CE-3 a mud in the well with uncontaminated cement. To achieve
1502 union will make up to a 602 or 1002 thread, but it this, the drilling mud must be completely removed from the
will fail once the pressure rating of the lower union is annular space. Contamination of cement by drilling mud can
exceeded. be detrimental to the final cement properties. Dilution of the
• Line restraints may be required by some operators or cement by drilling mud can result in lowered strength, and
governmental regulators. Ratings of lines are determined if there is excessive contamination, the cement slurry may

CEMENTING CE–11
never gain measurable compressive strength. To completely Flushes are used reactively to flush ahead of the spacer and
minimize contamination, several good cementing practices cement slurry to improve mud displacement, control fluid
are recommended. loss, and alleviate lost circulation during cementing. Flushes
are not generally viscosified and cannot be weighted. Types
One of the keys to good cementing is centralized casing. De- of flushes include water, brine and base oil. Spacers and
pending on the size of the casing and the open- hole, the flushes should be prepared according to instructions from
degree of eccentricity that can be tolerated will vary. Larger the cement service provider.
annular spaces are more tolerant to eccentricity than small-
er annuli. This is because there is less of a difference in fluid Regardless of the spacer or flush (or combination of the two)
velocities for fluids flowing on the narrow or wide side of the selection, sufficient volume of these materials must be used
annulus. to provide sufficient separation of the drilling mud from the
cement. A minimum of 500 annular feet of fluid should be
With the casing properly centralized, the drilling mud should used with preference given to 1,000-1,200 ft. Additional
be conditioned prior to cementing. Pumping at least the vol- work has shown that a minimum of 10 minutes contact time
ume of the annulus (bottoms up) is a common recommen- may provide sufficient volume of fluid for wellbore cleaning.
dation, though some work has shown that this should be a
minimum volume and larger volumes are often beneficial. Once the slurry and job design are completed, and the well
has been prepared for cementing, the on-site quality control
Optimizing mud displacement requires bulk and chemical for the job remains a key step in proper cementing. During
removal of the mud. Bulk removal is conducted by “putting the mixing of the cement slurry, careful attention must be
energy” into the well. This can be done in two ways: high paid to density control of the slurry. Optimally, cement slur-
pump rates and casing movement. Pump rates will be limit- ry should be mixed to within +/- 0.2 lb/gal of the labora-
ed by the fracture pressures in the well, and the viscosity of tory design. Mixing cement to the proper density is more
the fluids being pumped. High rates may not be achievable important than attempting to achieve a particular mixing
in all cases, but the design should use the highest rates prac- rate. While mixing rate is a consideration, density control is
ticable, while taking the ECD into consideration. crucial to cementing success.
Pipe movement, either reciprocating or rotating, will put en- When the cement has been mixed, the displacement of the
ergy into the well; both invite additional risks. Reciprocation cement begins. Normally this is preceded by dropping the
can be effective; however, consideration must be given to top plug followed by introducing the displacement fluid.
the surge and swab pressures in the well. Once the top plug is dropped, the only variable that can be
controlled is the pump rate. As noted earlier, optimizing the
There is also a risk of sticking the casing off-bottom if the pump rate for proper mud removal while maintaining ECD
casing cannot be lowered completely to bottom at the end of control in the well is a key consideration regarding the job
a cement job. Casing rotation can also be effective, although design.
using this technique may require replacing the casing cou-
plings to ensure they can withstand the increased torque on The cement is displaced until the top plug lands out on the
the connection. Additional equipment may be required on float equipment, the landing collar or when a specific vol-
the rig to enable casing rotation, adding some degree of op- ume of displacement fluid has been pumped. Once the cal-
erational complexity. culated volume of displacement fluid has been pumped, if
the plug has not bumped, the pre-job plan should make it
Centralization, pipe movement and pump rates and use of possible to identify the amount of “over displacement” that
bottom wiper plugs are used in bulk drilling fluid removal. is to be pumped. Depending on the well requirements and
Equally important in this process are spacers or other fluids plans, this volume might range from zero to half the shoe
to separate the drilling mud from the cement. Many drilling track volume. In cases where equipment must be pressured
fluids are not compatible with cement slurries, and mixtures up to function, as with hydraulically activated packers, the
of fluids can form a mass that cannot be pumped. To guard plug must be displaced until it lands on the float equipment.
against this, spacers and washes (or flushes) provide a buf-
fer between the cement slurry and drilling fluid in the well. Estimating job volumes (cement, mix water,
spacers, displacement)
Cement spacers, which are viscosified and can be weighted, Many different volume estimates are required to achieve a
also help prevent cement degradation caused by the mixing good cement job. Cement displacement volumes depend on
of cement slurries with drilling muds; reducing or prevent- the pumping schedule and are tracked by cementing com-
ing cement degradation can minimize formation damage. pany personnel as the job progresses. The volume of ce-

CE–12 CEMENTING
ment needed depends on the hole size and the desired top of between wellbore fluids and the formation. It is also
cement in the wellbore-casing annulus. Water requirements possible to have a hole size less than bit size because of
depend on the volume and density of cement needed and filter cake buildup on permeable formations. If filter cake
the specified volume and composition of spacers and flush- buildup is an issue, the drilling fluid can be treated to
es. Having enough makeup water on hand is essential, and mitigate the problem.
the rig crew may need to provide this by ensuring sufficient • Four-arm wireline calipers normally provide the highest
tankage for hauled water or by securing a sufficiently plenti- amount of accuracy, especially when the wellbore shape
ful water sources: surface water or aquifers. becomes more oval, rather than a perfect circular shape.
In an oval-shaped hole, a two-arm caliper tends to
Estimating cement volumes measure the maximum diameter of the oval, while a three-
Accurately determining the necessary cement volume de- arm caliper will tend to measure the minimum diameter of
pends on several factors: the oval. In a perfectly round hole, all caliper types will
• If there is a loss zone that must be covered, it is important measure the hole size accurately. There are also non-
to bring the cement top just above the loss zone, but not mechanical acoustic type tools available that produce a
so high that the hydrostatic head from the cement causes hole caliper log. Multifinger calipers with 12 to 80 fingers
lost circulation; are normally run in cased holes to inspect tubulars.
• In some cases it is imperative that the cement top be • Fluid calipers provide an estimate of the circulating
placed near the previous casing shoe, but not above the volume of the hole, but not necessarily the true volume of
previous casing shoe where annular pressure build up in a the hole. Fluid calipers are usually less reliable than
trapped annulus could cause casing failure; wireline calipers since the circulating volume may be less
• For foam cement jobs, the density and actual volume of than the true volume of the hole due to fluid bypassing of
cement placed is highly dependent on accurately knowing static mud pockets in enlarged sections of the wellbore. A
the hole size in each interval of the open-hole; fluid caliper also gives an average hole size over the entire
• There are also regulatory and many other factors that open-hole interval. If there are enlarged whole sections in
may need to be considered. specific intervals, there may a problem with placing
cement accurately. In situations where accurately
The first step in estimating cement volumes calls for deter- determining the hole size in each interval of the hole is
mining the hole size in the interval where cement is to be imperative, such as foam cementing, a fluid caliper may
placed. The second step involves determining the interval or not provide the needed accuracy unless experience in the
length of hole section that needs to be covered with cement. area can also be factored in.
The interval is usually defined by the top of cement (TOC)
and the base of the cement. The planned TOC should be in A fluid caliper is performed by pumping “marker” materi-
the drilling plan and must meet regulatory and wellbore inal down the drillstring and recording the volume of fluid
tegrity related issues. pumped for the marker to be pumped around to surface in
the annulus. The annular volume is calculated by subtracting
Hole size determination the internal volume of the drillstring and the volume of steel
• Bit size can be used to determine the hole size as it will in the drillstring.
provide an approximation for calculating cement volumes.
However, the average hole size is usually larger than the Using this volume, further calculations can be performed to
bit size because of wellbore instability. Stresses in the estimate an equivalent hole size for the open-hole to esti-
earth can cause areas of the borehole to collapse and mate cement volumes. The marker can be paint, dyes, lost
break off which enlarges the hole. When there is an circulation material, carbide or any other pumpable material
appreciable difference in the direction of the that can be easily detected at surface. Several consecutive
geomechanical forces acting on the wellbore, the fluid calipers should be run to increase accuracy.
enlargement will usually be in the direction of the higher
forces, causing an oval shaped hole. The magnitude of the Area experience and excess cement
enlargement depends primarily on the magnitude of the Experience in an area helps to more accurately determine
stresses in the earth, the formation strength and the the cement volumes needed. Cement volumes can be based
density of the drilling fluid. Higher density fluids can help on a gauge hole (bit size) or caliper volume with an excess
stabilize the wellbore, but there are risks, such as volume added. The excess volume is calculated by using
fracturing the formation (lost returns) and differential the cement volume calculated from a gauge hole or caliper,
sticking, to consider before increasing the mud density. multiplied by an excess factor, which is usually expressed in
Wellbore enlargement can also be caused by interactions percentages. Excess cement is usually pumped for the fol-
lowing reasons:

CEMENTING CE–13
• In order to ensure cement is placed at or above the • Aids effective mud removal and increases displacement
planned cement top; efficiency to provide a better cement seal;
• In cases where cement is pumped to surface, pumping • Wets the casing and formation with water ahead of the
excess cement minimizes the volume of potentially cement to improve cement bonding when non-aqueous
contaminated cement due to intermixing with the spacer (oil-based) fluid is in the well prior to cementing.
or mud with the leading edge of cement.
Water sources and supply
Addressing lost circulation in cement job design An essential component in making any cement slurry is the
Cement alone is usually not effective at stopping losses water. Water quality, volume, temperature and supply rate
during primary cementing. If possible, losses should be un- can all impact the ability to mix the cement to the proper
der control prior to the cementing process. In the event this density and the slurry properties in the well.
is not possible, lost circulation material (LCM) is almost al-
ways added to the cement blend. Common types of LCM Water quality is a key concern in cementing. Generally
include: cellophane flakes, ground coal and gilsonite. There potable water is preferred for cementing, though sea wa-
are some fibrous materials that can be used, but they intro- ter, brines or other types can be used. The key to success
duce more operational complexity since they must be added in cementing operations is to test the cement slurry in the
directly to the mixing tub instead of being pre-mixed in the lab with the water that is to be used at the wellsite during
cement blend. the actual job. In that way, any contamination of the water
can be taken into account for the design. Inadvertently using
Lost circulation can also be mitigated by designing a cement sea water rather than fresh water, for example, can shorten
system with the lowest density slurry that still meets all the thickening times and result in job failures.
well requirements. Lower density systems can be designed
using low density materials such as Pozzolan, fly ash, ben- If sea water was used in the original design, the same sea
tonite, hollow spheres or by foaming the cement with a gas water or water that is as close as possible to it should be
such as nitrogen. used to mix the cement. Generally, this is only a concern
for rigs located near river outlets where rain events on land
Two-stage cementing may also be a viable alternative to can change the composition of water flow from the river,
prevent losses while cementing. The first stage of the ce- because such events have the potential to change the salin-
ment is pumped to place the top of cement just above the ity of the sea water. In some cases, the impact of large rain
loss zone. The stage tool is placed just above the loss zone. events on land can reduce the salinity of the water to near
fresh and may add lignins, which retard cement setting. Ad-
If losses are expected, the volume of cement available ditionally, withdrawal points for sea water on the rig must be
should be adjusted accordingly. deep enough to avoid surface changes in sea water quality
while high enough to avoid incorporating bottom sediments.
Mix water volumes
Once the cement volumes have been determined, the mix Another important aspect of job execution is ensuring that
water volume requirements can be calculated. To ensure sufficient water is available for the job and can be delivered
sufficient mix water is available for the job, excess volumes to the cementing unit at the rate required for the cement
should be ordered to account for un-useable tank volume job. Insufficient water supplies mean the volume of cement
below the suction line, filling the lines, and wash-up after the mixed on the job could be insufficient for the well require-
cement has been mixed. ments. Inadequate supply rates can reduce mixing rates,
which will extend the time required to mix the needed vol-
Spacer volumes ume of cement, potentially leading to a job failure.
A spacer or wash fluid is usually pumped ahead of the ce-
ment. The spacer or wash fluid volume should be included Finally the temperature of the mix water is important. Very
in the drilling procedure for the well. There are a number of hot water can lead to premature setting of the cement, while
computer programs available to aid in the design (density, very cold water can impact the ability to mix the cement to
rheology, volume and other properties) of the spacer. Pre- the proper density. Hot water is a common problem on lo-
job testing should be conducted to ensure that the spacer is cations where the mix water has been stored in tanks ex-
compatible with the drilling fluid and cement systems. The posed to direct sunlight. During summer months the water
spacer or wash can improve the cement job by serving sev- in these tanks can be quite warm, at times exceeding 120°F.
eral purposes: If the water must be stored in tanks or high temperatures
• Prevents contamination of the mud and cement which are anticipated, the lab testing of the cement should take the
could lead to gelation problems; high-water temperature into account.

CE–14 CEMENTING
Very cold water, coupled with cold cement can lead to mix- or a combination of the two. There may also be regulatory
ing problems. Hydration of the cement particles is impaired, limits on the type of activity allowed during the WOC period.
and achieving the proper cement slurry density can be diffi-
cult. In cold climates it is common to heat the mix water to The WOC period begins when the cement displacement
counteract very cold and dry cement temperatures. If these ends (plug bump), and the cement is allowed to stand in a
conditions are anticipated on location, the laboratory testing static state. For most wells the hydrostatic head of the ce-
can be adjusted to account for the temperature extremes. ment column in the annulus is greater than the hydrostat-
ic head of the displacement fluid in the casing. When the
Estimating displacement volumes pressure is bled off at the end of the displacement, the float
Displacement volumes can be calculated using the internal equipment is checked to ensure that it holds the cement
diameter of tubulars. If the cement plug does not bump after column in place by preventing backflow of cement from
pumping the calculated cement volume, a plan should be in the annulus into the casing. If the float equipment does not
place to determine if additional volume above the calculated hold, pressure must be maintained inside the casing until
volume should pumped. the cement has reached sufficient compressive strength to
support its own weight. At this point, the pressure should
Job time be bled off the casing to minimize the chance of a micro-an-
Changes in planned cement volumes directly affect job time. nulus forming.
Ensure that the cement thickening time is adequate whenev-
er there is a major change in cement volume. Since cement During WOC time, the well should be monitored to ensure
begins to react the moment it comes into contact with wa- that there is no flow from the annulus or the casing. There
ter, job time begins when cement mixing starts. Job time is is a potential for the well to flow from either area until the
estimated by calculating the time to mix and pump cement, cement has obtained sufficient strength to form a barrier.
drop cement plugs after cement mixing begins, plus the time
to displace the plug to the float collar or baffle. A safety fac- The cement’s compressive strength development should be
tor is added to the job time to estimate the thickening time lab tested as per procedures in API RP 10B-2 to determine
or pump time needed for the cement. This safety factor en- WOC time periods that achieve the following values for the
ables slower than planned pump rates or unplanned shut- listed operations:
downs. The safety factor for thickening time requirements • 50-psi cement compressive strength before removing the
on cement will vary based on several factors: overall size of BOP or other well barrier;
the job, job complexity and equipment on location. Safety • 500-psi cement compressive strength before drilling out
factor policies vary, but it is common to see a one hour safe- the casing or liner shoe;
ty factor for cement job times that are one to three hours, • 2,000-psi cement compressive strength before running
with the safety factor increasing for larger or more complex cement evaluation logs or minimum 48 hours as per API
jobs. Technical Report 10TR1.
Pump rates and pressures Cements and cement additives

Planned pump rates and expected pump pressures should
be included in the drilling procedure for the well. Comput- Conditions and required properties
er simulation programs are available to help optimize pump Cement used in oil wells is subjected to a wide range of tem-
rates and estimate pump pressures during a cement job. perature and pressure conditions. Accordingly, the use of a
Pressure limits should be established for the cement job single-cement type is impractical; therefore, different types
based on casing-burst and surface-equipment ratings. Of- of cements and cement additives have been developed to
ten, the cement head has the lowest pressure rating. meet a variety of conditions.
A number of cements are available in the industry and in-

Wait on cement and post-job rig operations clude both ASTM and API cements:
Wait-on-cement (WOC) time allows cement to develop the • Class A: Common cement used for shallow casing strings,
compressive strength necessary to continue with rig opera- similar to ASTM Type I;
tions in a safe manner without affecting the cement’s ability • Class C: Fine ground cement similar to ASTM type III,
to perform its necessary functions over the life of the well. useful for low temperature cementing applications;
Many regulatory agencies have requirements for WOC peri- • Class G: Most common oil well cement, universally used
ods. Regulatory requirements may specify the time to reach for all well conditions;
a minimum compressive strength, a minimum time interval • Class H: Coarser ground cement than a Class G, only
available in certain regions of the United States.

CEMENTING CE–15
Table CE-1:Common families of additives and their effects on the slurry
✓ = Major Effect; ✗ = Minor Effect; [blank] = no or insignificant effect
Gas Migration Agents

Extenders (Bentonite,
Additive Type
Sand and silica flour
Free Water Control

or Effect
Weighting Agents
Pozzolans, etc.)

Accelerators
Dispersants
Cement Property Affected
Salt (NaCl)
Retarders

Effect
LCM
Increase ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗
Density
Decrease ✓
More ✓ ✓ ✗
Water Requirement
Less ✓
Higher ✗ ✓ ✗ ✓ ✗
Viscosity
Lower ✗ ✓ ✓ ✗
Longer ✗ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗ ✓
Thickening Time
Shorter ✓ ✓
More ✓ ✗
Early Strength
Less ✓ ✓ ✗ ✗ ✗
More ✓
Ultimate Strength
Less ✓
Better ✓ ✓ ✗
Durability
Worse ✗
Improved ✗ ✗ ✗ ✓ ✓
Fluid Loss
Worse ✗
Less ✗ ✓
Free Water
More ✓ ✓ ✓ ✗
There are also a number of cements used that may not car- Table CE-1 lists several common families of additives and
ry an API or ASTM rating. These include blends of Portland highlights their main function in the slurry. The table is not
cement and other additives inter-ground or blended at the exhaustive and is intended only as a guide.
cement manufacturing site.
Many additives when used together can enhance the prop-
Regardless of the cement type, the final cement slurry, with erties listed. Additionally as the concentration of particu-
the appropriate additives, must be designed and tested for lar additives increases, the effect on slurry properties can
the expected well conditions. Portland cement by itself has change. For example, many fluid additives work better in
a very limited range of properties, and requires the addition conjunction with dispersants. The synergistic effect of vari-
of cementing additives to alter its performance. Additives ous combinations of additives is common in cementing.
are used to alter the working time (or thickening time) of the
cement, alter the rheology, enhance the fluid loss or alter Cement slurry properties
other critical properties of the cement slurry. There are three basic properties inherent in every cement
slurry. These are the desired weight or density to which the
Cement additives slurry is to be mixed, the amount of water required per vol-
Cement alone has a very limited application range. Because ume of dry cement to achieve that density and the resulting
of the various conditions in the wellbore, the cement must yield of the final slurry. Units for these properties are listed
be modified to enable it to be properly placed in the well and below (Table CE-2).
remain stable over time.

CE–16 CEMENTING
can be manually or remotely operated. Drillpipe wiper-

Table CE-2: Units for density, water content and yield plug containers are used in deepwater applications to set
subsurface plugs using balls or darts through the drillpipe.
-- Oil Field Metric
• Casing wiper-plug systems are used to wipe the casing
Density lb/gal kg/cu m ID and separate cement from the drilling fluids. Generally,
Specific Gravity SG g/ml a plug system consists of a bottom and top plug. Bottom
Water Content gal/sack l/metric tonne plugs are hollow and are used or launched ahead of the
Yield cu ft/sack cu m/metric cement slurry. The bottom plug lands on a baffle or float
tonne collar, a diaphragm in the bottom plug ruptures and
cement moves through the plug and into the annulus. A
top plug is run or launched behind the cement to wipe the
casing ID and separate the cement slurry from the drilling
The basic calculation for cement slurry properties is: fluids. The top plug is a solid and signals a positive
pressure indication when landing on the baffle or float
collar once displacement is complete. Some casing plugs
Total of all material mass
Density = are equipped with a non-rotating feature that aids in drill
Total of all material volumes out; teeth or slots on these plugs lock the plugs together
and to the float collar. In this case, the compatibility
The yield and water content of the slurry are used to deter- between the plug and the float collar should be confirmed.
mine how much cement is required to perform a particular • Conventional casing plugs are normally composed of five
cement job, and the amount of water required on the rig to wiper fins and made from an elastomer molded to a hard
mix that volume of cement slurry. core; they are launched from a casing wiper-plug
container. These plugs are color coded and come in two
Bulk volume vs. cement volume types:
Dry cement is delivered with air to the cement mixing unit • Top-casing wiper plugs are typically black and desig-
from the bulk system. A bulk tank with a 1,000-cu ft vol- ned not to rupture;
ume capacity will not hold 1,000 sacks of cement, due to air • Bottom-casing wiper plugs are typically red, yellow or
entrainment within the dry cement or bulk additives blend- orange and are hollow with a rupture disk.
ed in the cement. The bulk loading factor for a cement sys- • Subsea/liner casing plugs are attached to the subsea
tem must be considered when determining the amount of casing-landing string and actuated using balls, darts or
rig bulk storage. This varies with different cement systems, both through a drillpipe wiper plug container.
particularly those containing ultra-lightweight additives, sil- • Casing centralizers Casing centralizers are mechanical
ica or both. devices attached or molded to the casing to increase
casing stand-off, allowing better mud removal and cement
Cementing strings and associated placement. Several types of casing centralizers exist. The
most common type used in vertical wells is the bow spring
hardware, including casing running tools centralizer. Bow spring centralizers are in-stalled with an
uncompressed diameter typically larger than the hole size
Casing cementing string hardware (overgauge) to accommodate — to a certain extent —
variations in hole diameter. The centralizer’s restoring
Cementing head equipment force (representative of bow spring strength) will dictate
• Circulating swages (casing swages) are temporary the resulting stand-off at a particular point in the wellbore.
crossovers that facilitate circulation of the casing string Centralizers are selected for specific casing/hole size
prior to reaching casing TD. They can be threaded to combinations. They also have a minimum compressed
match the casing or have an adaptor that attaches around diameter. It is important to confirm that the smallest
a casing collar. The casing can be circulated using the rig restriction in the well is larger than this number. Special
pump or cementing unit. “Washing casing to bottom” is bow spring models are also available for close-tolerance
one function of a swage. applications. Other types of bow spring centralizers
• Wiper-plug container (cementing head) is a pressure include spiral bow for bridging key seats, and “turbolizers”
chamber or device that attaches to the casing or drillpipe with fins to promote fluid agitation. Semi-rigid or double-
to allow circulation in the casing, the pumping of cement bow spring centralizers offer higher restoring forces and
slurry and the dropping of wiper plugs or subsea plug are commonly used in inclined wellbores. Commonly,
activators. Casing wiper-plug containers can be single or though not always, these centralizers are run close to
double, enabling them to hold one or two wiper plugs, and gage (uncompressed diameter equal to hole diameter).

CEMENTING CE–17
Table CE-3: API Ratings for float equipment (Specification 10F,

Draft as of 1 May 2014, Glen Benge, personal communication )
FLOW DURABILITY TESTS
Flowing Time Reverse Flowing Time* Flow Rate

Category Total Flow, hours Category Reverse Flow, hours Category Flow rate, bbl/min
D8 8 AF4 4 R6 6
D12 12 AF8 8 R10 10
D24 24 AF12 12 R20 20
D36 36 * For casing fill-up equipment
FLOW DURABILITY TESTS
Category Temp. °C (°F) Category Pressure, kPa (psi)

T200 93 (200) P1.5 10 300 (1 500)
T300 149 (300) P3 20 700 (3 000)
T400 204 (400) P5 34 500 (5 000)
T500 260 (500) P10 68 950(10 000)
Installation of bow spring centralizers require placement when centralizers must pass through a restrictions before
around a limiting device, a stop collar or casing coupling. opening to provide standoff in a larger hole size, such as un-
This allows the centralizer to be pulled in either direction, derreamed well sections.
passing through tight spots without being pushed. Pulling a
bow spring centralizer reduces its OD size and pushing it, Centralizer placement programs enable the successful se-
increases its OD. This action will require a larger amount of lection of equipment for applications and ensure proper
pushing force when there are restrictions in the wellbore. placement for a quality primary cement job. An effective
Hinged bow spring centralizers can be installed by lacing centralization program can contribute to getting casing to
them over the casing coupling when flush or semi-flush TD, obtaining complete zonal isolation, and establishing
connections are not being used, or over a stop collars. The long term wellbore integrity. Spacing simulations identify
hinged types are the simplest and quickest to install. Some what type of centralizers should be used in certain wellbore
semi-positive designs cannot be installed over casing cou- sections, their number and placement to achieve the in-
plings, because the coupling will not allow the springs to ful-
ly compress (Figure CE-4).
Solid body centralizers can be attached or molded onto the

casing body. These centralizers are slightly smaller than the
wellbore – often referred to as under gauge – and are used in
deviated and horizontal wells. Rigid centralizers will support
the weight of casing against the wellbore.
Figure CE-4: Bow spring centralizer types: Hinged

Rigid centralizers are also available in special low-coefficient
welded, Double bow, Spiral bow and Turbolizer.
friction materials, such as polymer, and are designed specifi-
cally for horizontal and extended reach wells where drag re-
duction is needed, resulting in significantly reduced friction
that aids getting the casing to bottom. Solid body centraliz-
ers are attached to the casing using set screws located on
the collar or between two stop collars, depending on casing
rotation and its purpose (Figure CE-5).
Deepwater and tight-clearance applications often require

integral centralizer subs, which are pieces of casing with a
built-on centralizer (Figure CE-6). These subs are useful Figure CE-5: Solid body centralizer types.

CE–18 CEMENTING
Figure CE-6: Internal centralizer subs. Figure CE-7: Float shoe and nose types.
tended standoff results. Following a recommended program shoe is made of steel, usually to the same specifications as
is paramount in obtaining a good primary cement job and the casing. The internal body of the shoe is usually made of
reducing mud channeling, thereby eliminating the need for concrete or plastic to allow it to be drilled out. Float shoes
costly remedial cement work. are available with many options including down jets, up jets,
side ports, and a variety of nose types (Figure CE-7).
• API Specification 10F* for float equipment testing outlines
several categories of equipment that are available. When Down jets provide the ability to circulate while running in
purchasing or evaluating float equipment, it is important hole and a means of washing to seat if required.
to fully review all five categories outlined in Table CE-3.
The combination of all five categories describes the Up jets allow cement to be pumped through them for op-
durability and capability of the valve. Valve performance timum placement and to improve circulation, which pro-
is measured in terms circulating time, flow rate, back motes wellbore cleaning. Side ports enable circulation to be
pressure, and temperature. Therefore, it is important to established when casing becomes plugged during running
match the performance of the float equipment to well- or when landed on bottom. A float shoe can also assist in
specific actual casing running and cementing operations. floating the casing to TD and reduce casing hook load by
controlling the rate and amount of fluid used to fill the casing
Guiding and Floating Equipment: (see automatic fill).
Guide shoes are tapered, rounded often bullet-shaped cas-
ing attachments placed at the bottom of the casing. When • Float Collars are similar to float shoes but have a short
casing is being run into a well, the guide shoe helps direct piece of casing with a threaded box and pin that contains
it to the center of the wellbore. The outer body of the shoe a check valve and provides a landing area for the cement
is made of steel, usually to the same specifications as the wiper plugs. The check valve may have a flapper valve or
casing. The internal body of the shoe is usually made of con- spring-loaded poppet valve assembly. Single-valve or
crete or a plastic material to allow it to be drilled out. A guide double-valve configurations are available in float
shoe is opened ended and lacks a check valve. equipment (Figure CE-8). Double valves act as additional
backup when sealing high pressures from below. Double
A Float shoe is a type of guide shoe with an integral check valves are a good option for reliability when longer than
valve to prevent cement from U-tubing when it’s pumped normal circulating times are expected or large amounts of
in the well. The check valve may have a flapper valve or abrasive solids must be circulated.
spring-loaded poppet valve assembly. The outer body of the • Automatic fill up equipment is one type of float equipment
that reduces surge pressures while running casing by
* At print time, API Specification 10F had not been released; allowing some of the mud to flow up through the inside of
the specifications listed may have changed. the casing Once the casing reaches TD, the float valve is
converted from auto-fill mode back to a conventional

CEMENTING CE–19
Figure CE-8: Float collars.
check valve mode by pumping fluid at a predetermined

rate or by mechanical means, such as dropping a ball.
• Shoe track (shoe joint, float joint) is a length of casing
between the landing collar. The shoe is left full of cement
after a cement job to ensure quality cement around the
casing shoe and reduces the risk of over displacing the
casing string by such factors as fluid measurement or
capacity calculations. The length of the shoe track is
planned by the well designer and is usually as long as two
or three casing joints.
• Inner-string cementing involves cementing large diameter
casing strings and eliminates the need to displace internal
capacity and volume of the casing during cementing
operations. Inner-string cementing usually requires a
special sealing float shoe rather than the conventional
guide shoe and float collar (Figure CE-9).
Once the casing has been run, the inner-string cementing Figure CE-9: Inner-string cementing equipment:
equipment (generally tubing or drillpipe) with a special seal latch-down drillpipe wiper plug, stab-in latch in
adapter attached on the end, is run and stabbed into the drillpipe stinger, inner-string float shoe
float shoe. The seal adapter seals against the seal bore of
the float shoe. need to be cemented. Applications for this include situations
when the hydrostatic pressure of the cement column needs
Drilling mud is then circulated around the system to ensure to be reduced as much as possible to prevent breaking down
that the stinger and annulus are clear of any debris. Next, weak formations, encountering lost circulation zones that
the cement slurry is pumped with fluid liquid spacers ahead require cement to be placed above and below the zone or
and behind the cement slurry. Cementing plugs are not typ- when the length of a string is too long to cement and the
ically used in this type of cementing operation. The cement pumping pressure necessary to lift the column to surface
slurry is generally underdisplaced, purposely left in the in- would be excessive.
ner string and allowed to fall out on top of the float shoe.
Underdisplacement ensures that the cement, not the spacer Stage tools are installed at a predetermined point in the cas-
and drilling mud, is left in the casing on top of the shoe. Af- ing string above the float collar and can be operated hydrau-
ter the cement has been displaced, and the float shoe has lically or mechanically. Note that casing, or any other type
been checked for backflow, the work string is removed from of tongs, should not be used on any part of the stage collar
the well. Inner-string cementing is suitable for 16-in. casing body during installation. Stage tool collars can be ordered
diameters and larger. for two- or three- stage cement jobs. These collars feature
one or more internal sleeves that shift during stage cement-
Stage cementing tools (multistage cementers) are used ing operations. These sleeves can be shifted open with hy-
when two or more separate sections behind a casing string draulic pressure or by dropping a dart that will land in the

CE–20 CEMENTING
• Protective slips are recessed in the hanger body and

protected while the liner is run into the wellbore, usually
for drilling or reaming liner applications.
• Hydraulic hangers are set by using differential pressure,
usually a ball and ball seat configuration. These hangers
are used in high-angle wells or deep liner depths. Hydraulic
hangers do not have drag springs and can be rotated.
Circulation pressures before setting the hanger are usually
limited to 50% of the liner’s shear pressure.
• Currently, there are two types of expanablee liner-hanger
systems. The first type incorporates a section of
expandable casing that is connected to the top of the liner
pipe string. The expandable pipe section has an elastomer
bonded to the outside surface, which is used to hang
(support) the liner string and seal the liner/casing annulus
in the “liner lap” (top of liner inside the previous casing).
After the primary cementing operation is complete, the
hanger is activated or “set” by using an expansion tool to
expand the elastomer on the expandable hanger section
of the liner. Since the expanded elastomer suspends the
liner pipe string and also seals the “liner lap” annulus, the
need for a liner top packer is eliminated.
• The second type of hanger uses two different expandable
pipe sections: one for the expandable slips and another
Figure CE-10: Stage cementing tool positions (left to
right) neutral, mechanically opened and closed. for the expandable elastomer. The hanger is set to
suspend the liner pipe string by expanding the expandable
slips before the primary cementing operation. The “liner
opening seat by gravity for mechanical operation. It is im- lap” annulus is later sealed after the primary cementing
portant to note that free fall opening darts can only be used operation and when the cement WOC time has expired.
in wellbore deviations of less than 20° from vertical. Stage This action also eliminates the need for a liner top packer.
collars can be field set to open mechanically or hydraulically
at different opening pressures by adding or removing shear • Liner top packers are compression set packers run in
screws from the tool. conjunction with mechanical or hydraulic set hangers.
After the cementing is completed, these packers are
• Stage collars are closed by pumping a closing plug behind weight activated and locked in place.
second stage cement and applying pressure after
displacement is complete. Different plug set configurations Casing running tools
can be used depending on whether the tool will be Casing was run the same way for over 50 years, using the
operated hydraulically, mechanically, or both (Figure CE- same principles, only slightly influenced by a few changes in
10). tool shapes and the sporadic implementation of additional
features. These tools are commonly known as conventional
Liner cementing tools tools. Some years ago it became evident that the industry
Liner cementing tools are available in multiple configura- needed a new way to run casing and the technology was
tions and are categorized by means of activation, amount of amended to serve one of the most important activities in the
weight they can support or other features or abilities: drilling industry. Taking advantage of the increasingly popu-
lar use of top drive technology a new generation of automat-
• Mechanical hangers consist of a mandrel, j-slot, cones/ ed casing running tools were developed, providing higher
pads, slips and drag springs or both. These hangers are safety and quality standards while also adding new capa-
set by manipulation of the work string. In general the bilities that increased efficiency and reduced costs. At the
number of cones impacts the weight rating of the hanger. same time, conventional tools have evolved into mechanized
• Rotating or non-rotating hangers have a bearing that tools to provide a safer and more efficient environment.
allows the liner to be rotated after the hanger slips have
been energized. The liner’s rotating action improves
cement placement.

CEMENTING CE–21
1: Main mandrel connected

to top drive
2: Torque reaction bracket
3: Torque measurement
system
4: Hydraulic bails
5: Compensation system
6: Hydraulic components
(actuator)
7: Clamping system
8: Hydraulic spider
Figure CE-11: The tool is made up to the top drive by means of a top connection on the main mandrel. The torque reaction bracket is a
required accessory, installed from the tool body to the top drive rails or pipe handler. It has the specific function: reacting to the friction
of the swivel of the tool, avoiding the tool bails and housing to rotate when making up the pipe or rotating the casing string. The torque
measurement system is located in the tool and measures the torque applied by the top drive and transferred by the casing running tool
to the casing. This system also contains a radio frequency module that receives a signal from the tool and sends it to the computer to
display a torque-turns graph in real time. The bails (hydraulically actuated from the control panel) manipulates the pipe from the V-door
to the well center and enables stabbing of the joint pin into the box prior to making up the connection. The compensation system is a
set of hydraulic cylinders incorporated in the tool to cushion the weight of the tool and casing joint, helping to preserve the threads and
enable higher quality makeups. The clamping system can be internal or external depending on the casing size being run. Internal gripping is
mostly used for bigger casing sizes where the pipe is clamped from the ID of the pipe. External gripping, on the other hand, is mostly used
for smaller pipe sizes in which the OD of the pipe is clamped, similar to conventional elevators. Courtesy Weatherford International.
Conventional equipment/tools tools that are part of this equipment are the single-joint ele-
Conventional tools have been used for many years and have vator (SJE); used to manipulate each joint from the catwalk
become recognized as the most common way (and for many and V-door to the well center, the stabbing guide; used to
years the only way) to run casing. Conventional equipment easily insert the pin into the box of the joint prior to make up,
consists of several different tools. The hydraulic power tong and the torque-turn monitoring system which is usually an
(powered by a diesel or electric power unit) used to makeup ex-proof computer used to track and record, in real-time, the
or break out joints of casing. The tong is usually controlled makeup process to ensure the pipe manufacturer’s criteria is
manually by an operator who activates the levers located followed to achieve an integral connection.
to one side of the tool, enabling him to control the speed of
rotation and the application of torque. The tong operator Next-generation tools
works with a stabber who is positioned on the casing board These tools are designed to take advantage of the rotational
(about 40 ft above the rig floor) and is in charge of aligning capabilities of the top drive. These automated casing run-
the casing joints being made up, making it easier to engage ning and drilling tools come in different sizes and complexity
the pipe threads. levels to fit every application. From powerful triple rigs in off-
shore environments to super-single rigs onshore, covering a
To run the casing, an elevator and spider are also needed. The wide range of operations. These advanced casing running
elevator is installed in the bails of the top drive while the spi- and drilling tools enhance safety and increase performance
der is located on the rotary table. Both can be pneumatically by adding several features to the casing running operations.
or hydraulically activated (can be done manually) depending
on the rig conditions and the requirements of the job. Other • Safety – Statistics have proven that tubular handling is an

CE–22 CEMENTING
1: Connection to top drive

2: Hydraulic bails
3: Single joint elevator (SJE)
4: Service loop (hydraulic hoses)
5: Internal clamping system
6: Packer cup
7: Centralizer
8: Mud saver valve (MSV)
9: Remote control panel
Figure CE-12: Most casing-running tools also incorporate a fill-up and circulation tool which is used to fill up or
circulate mud throughout the casing string and the wellbore. Courtesy Weatherford International.
activity with one of the highest incident rates in the drilling All casing running tools, mechanical or hydraulic, are con-
industry. The latest casing running tools greatly reduce nected to the top drive saver sub or the lower internal blow
risks, because they usually combine several conventional out preventer (IBOP) by means of the top connection on the
tools into one, which can be remotely operated to keep tool mandrel (a cross over is commonly used in between).
personnel out of hazardous areas, resulting in a safer The main requirement to use any of these tools is a top drive;
work environment. otherwise the use of this technology is not possible because
• Efficiency and performance – Conventional equipment the tool takes advantage of the rotational capabilities of the
has been used to run casing successfully for many years. top drive to transfer torque to the pipe. The tool can rotate
However, the equipment has certain limitations, using an incorporated swivel. The casing is clamped by slips/
specifically when there are difficult hole conditions due to grapples that can be hydraulically or mechanically activated
formation restrictions, tight spots, trouble zones, or when depending on the tool used. The clamping mechanism can
or when casing must be run in a deviated wells. When be internal or external. Some tools also provide a compen-
these conditions arise, it is particularly helpful to have a sation system and a torque measurement system that are
tool with the capabilities to rotate, reciprocate (move the specially required to monitor and record the torque-turn real
pipe up and down), and push down the casing string while time behavior of the makeup when working with premium
circulating. The combination of these capabilities will connections, ensuring connection integrity by following the
highly increase the chances to land the casing at the pipe manufacturer’s criteria.
intended TD. Most of the latest casing running tools
incorporate these features. Most of these tools also incorporate a fill-up and circula-
tion tool which is used to fill up or circulate mud throughout
Casing running tools can be either mechanical or hydraulic. the casing string and the wellbore (Figure CE-12). The mud
Each category has different features available, depending flows through the ID of the mandrel of the tool to the pipe.
on the tool model, size, manufacturer, and the application. The fill-up tool contains a centralizer (used to guide the fill-
Figure CE-11 shows a typical hydraulic tool with the main up tool inside the pipe), a packer cup (a rubber that seals
components are identified. against the walls of the pipe allowing pressure build up to

CEMENTING CE–23
Figure CE-13: In addition to automated casing running and drilling tools, technology has developed a new generation of casing equipment
Conventional tools have evolved to a mechanized phase that provides different levels of automation, depending on the needs of the
customer and application. These tools can be controlled remotely through pneumatic, hydraulic or even electronic automation.
circulate the mud, and a mud saver valve (a valve used to success of the operation will be determined. The goal of a
avoid mud spillage when the tool is removed from the pipe). cement job may be casing support, zonal isolation, pressure
isolation (associated with a successful shoe test) or other
Mechanized equipment criteria. It is important, before cementing operations begin,
In addition to automated casing running and drilling tools, to establish and document the goals of a cement job, the
technology has developed a new generation of casing equip- methods to be used to evaluate the job and the criteria to be
ment (Figure CE-13). Conventional tools have evolved to a met to ensure the job was successful.
mechanized phase that provides different levels of automa-
tion, depending on the needs of the customer and applica- Regardless of the cementing objectives, and even before any
tion. These tools can be controlled remotely by means of testing is performed, the job history provides strong indica-
pneumatic, hydraulic or even electronic automation. Some tors regarding successes or problems. Assessment of a ce-
of this equipment can be integrated into the control systems ment job is based on many factors:
of a rig and operated from the driller’s cabin. Higher grades • Accurate displacement volumes and surface pressure
of automation and larger equipment are deployed in off- measurements, and the agreement of measured values
shore environments where there is often more space on the with those in the pre-job plan;
rig floor, and the safety requirements are usually the highest • Adequate circulation and cleaning of the hole prior to
in the industry. cementing;
• Centralization;
• Casing movement during circulation and cementing;
Cement evaluation • Using a properly designed spacer and cement slurry;
The objective of cement evaluation is to confirm the ce- • No lost returns;
ment has been successfully placed around the casing and • Mud properties, including gas units, on breaking
the goals of the cement job have been met. To properly per- circulation and CBU on resuming operations after
form a cement evaluation, the objectives of the cement job cementing fall within expected range;
must be understood, and a decision made regarding how the

CE–24 CEMENTING
• Hard cement drilled out or evidence of cement softness Another common goal of cementing is casing support. Cas-
that might indicate contamination; ing support requires the presence of any solid material in the
• Wiper plugs released and seated normally; annulus, but not necessarily 100% circumferential coverage
• Was the top wiper plug observed leaving the cement plug of the casing. Sand, barite, hematite, or other settled solid
container? material can provide casing support providing it occupies the
• Did the plug land at the expected displacement volume, annulus. Collapsed formations can also provide casing sup-
did the float(s) hold? port. In horizontal or high-angle wells, casing support can be
• Were one or more bottom wiper plugs used? established by the casing being in contact with the formation.
• Were the plastic viscosity (PV) and yield point (YP) of the
mud reduced prior to cementing? If there is doubt about cement placement in the annulus, or
• As applicable, did fluid returns at surface occur at the doubt about the cement quality, a cement bond log (CBL)
appropriate displacement volume? may be necessary. The CBL actually measures acoustic cou-
• Was the planned cement slurry density target met? pling; the presence of mechanical coupling between the ce-
• Was a mud/spacer/cement slurry density and rheology ment, formation and pipe is inferred from the ability sound
hierarchy followed, was the spacer compatible with the waves have to travel through the interface between materi-
cement slurry and the drilling fluid? als. A fluid-filled annulus will show up as a high amplitude on
• Was the differential (lift) pressure measured during the the CBL, because there is nothing to dampen the vibration of
cementing operation consistent with the calculated the casing set up by the tool. Similarly, contamination of the
value? cement with mud, other wellbore materials or both decreas-
• Were the cement slurry properties determined at the es its density and strength, and changes its acoustic prop-
appropriate test conditions? erties, decreasing the ability of the cement sheath to con-
• After drilling out of the shoe track, was the formation trol the “ringing” of the casing during logging. Interpreting
integrity test or leak-off test result within expected cement bond logs requires engaging an expert. In one case, a
values? sonic log can show “bonding” to a formation when the casing
is simply laying against the formation, thus making a path
The most common reason for setting cement is to achieve for the sound. Conversely, the perception of “no cement” or
zonal or pressure isolation. Because pressure and fluid con- “poor cement” can occur if testing is conducted prior to ce-
tainment is process-safety crucial, it is good practice and ment being set, which can occur for several reasons:
frequently a regulatory requirement to verify that isolation • Over-estimation of the well’s bottomhole temperature;
has been achieved. This may be done by several pressure • Over-retardation of the cement slurries;
tests: • Underestimation of time required for a wellbore to heat
• Casing pressure test: Any time prior to drill out, the casing up to bottomhole temperature after cement placement.
is pressure tested for integrity;
• Liner top test: A positive or negative pressure test used to The cement in the annulus will appear not to be set or
ensure liner top integrity; deemed poor quality because of the low strength of the ce-
• Formation integrity test (FIT): Conducted after the shoe is ment at the time of logging.
drilled out, pressurizing up to a predetermined equivalent
mud weight at the shoe, this tests if the shoe and the
annulus immediately above it are well cemented and have Outlook
the integrity to allow the next section of hole to be drilled; Advances in the development of more effective cement
• Leak-off test: Conducted after the shoe is drilled out, this sheath evaluation techniques continue to be made. Proper
tests formation strength by pressuring up to the point of use of the newer techniques, incorporated with a clear con-
leak off, into a permeable zone or by fracture initiation. cept of cement slurry design and strength development,
demonstrate improved cement sheath quality and quantity.
The actual conducting of pressure testing and the proper Correct application of the available cement evaluation tools
interpretation of formation integrity testing are beyond the and techniques requires an understanding of the measure-
scope of this chapter. ment principles involved and the developmental stages of
cement structure.

CH
CHAINS AND
SPROCKETS

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CHAINS AND SPROCKETS CH–i
CHAPTER
CH
CHAINS AND
SPROCKETS
company recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual
may conflict with regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.
this book will lead to the result desired by the reader. As technology continues to develop, this manual will be updated. It
is important that the user continue to update their knowledge through research and study.
Principal Author
John R. Wilbur, Timken-Drives LLC
Reviewers
Chuck Springman, Diamond Chain
Chris Wilson, Diamond Chain

CH–ii CHAINS AND SPROCKETS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-0-0

CHAINS AND SPROCKETS Contents CH-iii
CHAPTER CH
CHAINS AND
SPROCKETS Contents
Construction and specifications............................... CH-1 Ensure adequate clearance............................... CH-10
Multiple strand chain.............................................CH-1 Provide adequate lubrication............................ CH-10
Connecting links......................................................CH-2 Install guards.......................................................... CH-10
Offset links................................................................CH-2 Lubrication.................................................................... CH-10
Applicable standards & specifications................... CH-2 Lubrication flow.................................................... CH-10
ANSI Standard ASME B29.1................................CH-2 Lubricant characteristics.................................... CH-10
API Specification 7F 8th edition.........................CH-2 Types of lubrication............................................. CH-11
Roller chain numbering & dimensions.................... CH-3 Type I: Manual or drip lubrication......... CH-11
General dimensions............................................... CH-3 Type 2: Bath or disc lubrication............. CH-11
Roller chain numbering......................................... CH-3 Type 3: Oil stream lubrication................CH-12
Sprockets......................................................................... CH-7 Chain casings......................................................... CH-13
Sprocket types..........................................................CH-7 Maintenance................................................................ CH-14
Sprocket tooth form and diameters...................CH-7 Inspection and service schedule..................... CH-14
Installation...................................................................... CH-7 Inspect lubrication system................................ CH-15
Check condition of components.........................CH-7 Inspect for damaged chains or sprockets..... CH-15
Align shafts and sprockets...................................CH-7 Inspect for chain wear........................................ CH-16
Install chain.............................................................. CH-9 Inspect for sprocket wear.................................. CH-16
Connecting links..................................................... CH-9 Inspect for sprocket misalignment................. CH-17
Offset links............................................................... CH-9 Inspect guards....................................................... CH-17
Adjust chain tension.............................................. CH-9 Glossary.........................................................................CH-21

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
CHAINS AND SPROCKETS CH–1
Construction and specifications the cotter pins from being thrown out of the chain by high
speed or vibration.
Roller chain construction and types
General single strand. Roller chain is a series of alternating
pin links and roller links in which the pins can turn inside the
CH-3
bushings (Figure CH-1).
CH-4
Figure CH-3: Riveted-type single-strand chain.

Figure CH-4 shows a cottered-type single-strand chain.
Figure CH-1: Roller chain construction. Multiple strand chain. Multiple strand chain consists of two
or more single strands assembled on common pins. Multiple
strand chains may be furnished with either riveted or cot-
The pin link (Figure CH-2) consists of two pins (A) assem-
tered-type pins (Figures CH-5 and CH-6). Multiple-strand
bled into two pin link plates (C) with controlled press fits to
chains may also be furnished with either slip-fit or press-fit
prevent the pins from rotating in the pin link plates.
plates (Figure CH-7).
The roller link (Figure CH-2) consists of two bushings (B)
assembled into two roller link plates (E) with controlled
press fits to prevent the bushing from rotating in the roller
CH-5
link plates. Two rollers (D) are assembled, free to turn, on
the outside of the bushings.
CH-6
CH-7
Figure CH-2: Pin link and roller link.
As the chain articulates, turning occurs only between the pin

and bushing, so they are primarily subject to wear. The link
plates mainly bear the tensile loads and securely locate the
pins and bushings. The rollers absorb the impact and provide
rolling action when the chain joint engages the sprocket tooth. Figure CH-5: Multiple strand chain furnished with riveted pins.
Figure CH-6: Multiple strand chain with cotter pins.
Roller chain may be furnished with either riveted or cot- Figure CH-7: Multiple-strand chain may have either
press-fit or slip-fit center plates.
tered-type pins (Figures CH-3 and CH-4). Riveted-type
pins have both ends riveted or swagged. Cottered-type pins
Slip-fit center plates have holes that are slightly larger than
have one end riveted or swagged and the other end cross-
the pin and can be easily moved, or slipped, on and off of the
drilled to accept a cotter pin. Cotter pins for roller chain
pins. Slip-fit center plate multiple-strand chain can be readily
are carefully formed to fit snugly in the hole and are often
disconnected in the field at any cottered pin link in the chain.
heat-treated for high strength and toughness. This prevents

CH–2 CHAINS AND SPROCKETS
Press-fit center plates have holes that are slightly smaller

than the pin and must be driven, or pressed, on and off of
the pins. Press-fit center plate multiple-strand chain nor-
mally can be disconnected in the field only at the connecting
link with special pressing equipment.
Both types have their advantages. Contact the chain manufac-

turer or representative for specific applications and benefits.
Connecting links
A connecting link is a pin link with a quick detachable retain-
er that normally is used to connect the two ends of a chain
together to make it endless on a drive. There are three com- Figure CH-10: Offset link.
mon types of connecting links with respect to retainers. They
are the spring-clip type (Figure CH-8) the split cotter type,
(CH-9) and single hook cotter type, (CH-9A).
CH-8
Figure CH-11: Two-pitch offset section.
CH-9 ing links can be slip fit or press fit. The single-pitch offset
link has a slip-fit, removable “D” flatted pin with a flat milled
on one end that fits into a “D” shaped hole in the link plate
(Figure CH-10).
An offset section may be a two-pitch (Figure CH-11) press

CH-9A fit assembly.
NOTE: Avoid the use of offset links whenever possible. If

an offset link is required, an offset section should be used
because the press-fit pins give it higher working capacity.
Figure CH-8 (top) shows spring-type clip, while Figure
CH-9 (center) shows the split cotter type and Figure CH-9A
shows the single-hook cotter type.
Applicable standards & specifications
The cotter-type connecting links look and sometimes are ANSI Standard ASME B29.1
the same as the pin link in cottered-type chain. The ANSI standard ASME B29.1 defines power transmission
roller chain, establishes a numbering system, and dictates
There also are two common types of connecting links with
limiting dimensions, chain length tolerance, and minimum
respect to cover plates or CO link plates. They are the press-
chain tensile strength. This standard also defines sprock-
fit type in which the cover plate has an interference fit on the
ets for roller chain and sets tolerances or limits on critical
pins. The press-fit cover plate connecting link has the work-
sprocket dimensions.
ing capacity that is virtually equal to single-strand or work-
slip multiple-strand chain and it is preferred for maximum
capacity rating. The slip-fit cover plate connecting link used
API Specification 7F 8th edition
The API specification 7F refers to ANSI B29.1 for chain and
in conjunction with fatigue resistant slip fit center plates and
sprocket definition, numbering, dimensions, and chain ten-
where ease of coupling and uncoupling is important will pro-
sile strength. In addition, API specification 7F dictates min-
vide ample working load in 95% of the applications.
imum dynamic test requirements per the conformance test
described in ASME B29.26 and minimum dynamic strength
Offset links and pin and bushing press-out-forces approved in 2010 for
Offset links are combination links with a specially designed
each chain size. Note: There are no approved API offset/half
bend in the middle so that one end functions as pin link and
links.
the other end as a roller link. Offset links as with connect-

Roller chain numbering & dimensions Table CH-1: Common oilfield chains.
General dimensions Pitch 1/8 ths Std. No. Heavy No.

Table CH-1 lists chains commonly used in the oilfield. The
general dimensions of ASME\B29.1 precision standard roll- 0.25 2 25-Rollerless none
er chain are shown in Tables CH-1A (in.) and CH-1B (mm).
0.375 3 35-Rollerless none
The most important basic dimension of a roller chain is the
pitch (P) which is the nominal distance between consecu- 0.50 4 41-Light Duty none
tive chain pins. Other key dimensions are proportional to
0.50 4 40 none
the pitch. The roller diameter (Dr) and roller width (W) are
approximately 5/8 of the pitch. The pin diameter (Dp) is ap- 0.625 5 50 none
proximately 5/16 of the pitch. The link plate thickness (LPT),
0.75 6 60 60H
for Standard Series chain, is approximately 1/8 of the pitch.
The link plate thickness (LPT), for Heavy Series chain, is that 1.00 8 80 80H
of the next larger pitch standard series chain.
1.25 10 100 l00H
The measuring load and minimum ultimate tensile strength
1.50 12 120 120H
of multiple strand chains is the single strand values multi-
plied by the number of strands. Measuring load is limited to 1.75 14 140 140H
a maximum of 1,000 lb. (4,448 N).
2.00 16 160 160H
Roller chain numbering 2.25 18 180 180H

Standard roller chains are designated by a numbering sys-
2.50 20 200 200H
tem which is defined in ANSI Standard ASME B29.1. This
numbering system is based on standard dimensions that are 3.00 24 240 240H
pitch proportional; that is the major dimensions of a stan-
dard roller chain are proportional to the chain pitch.
Standard single-strand, single-pitch chain is identified by a

two- or three-digit number. The right-hand digit is a zero for
chain of standard proportions and containing a free roller, a 1 for
lightweight chain, and 5 for rollerless bushing chain. The left-
hand digit or digits indicate the number of ⅛-in. increments in
the pitch. For example, a standard ¾-in. pitch roller chain
has 6 increments of ⅛-in. in the pitch, so the number is 60.
“Heavy” series chains have link plate thickness equal to the
next larger standard size chain and are designated by the
letter H immediately following the standard chain number.
IE; 80H or 160H.
Multiple-strand chain is designated by a hyphen and one or

two digits indicating the number of chain strands. IE: 60-10
or 120H-3.

, in.
, in.
, in.
, in.
, in.
Figure CH-12A: General chain dimensions. See Table CH-1A.
Table CH-1A: General chain dimensions, in.
Link Plate Thickness (LPT)

Lenghth Min. Ultimate Tensile Strength
Standard Pitch Max. Roller Nominal Nominal Standard Heavy Measuing Load
Tolerance Standard and Heavy Series
Chain No. P Diam Dr Width W(1) Pin Diam. Dp Series Searies lb(2)
in./ft lb(3)
25 0.250 0.130(4) 0.125 0.0905 0.030 — 18 0.031 780
35 0.375 0.200(4) 0.188 0.414 0.050 — 18 0.022 1,760
41 0.500 0.306 0.250 0.141 0.050 — 18 0.019 1,500
40 0.500 0.312 0.312 0.156 0.060 — 31 0.019 3,125

50 0.625 0.400 0.375 0.200 0.080 — 49 0.018 4,880
60 0.750 0.469 0.500 0.234 0.094 0.125 70 0.017 7,030
80 1.000 0.625 0.625 0.312 0.125 0.156 125 0.016 12,500

100 1.250 0.750 0.750 0.375 0.158 0.187 195 0.016 19,530
120 1,500 0.875 1,000 0.437 0.187 0.219 281 0.015 28,125
140 1.750 1.000 1.000 0.500 0.219 0.250 383 0.015 38,280
160 2.000 1.125 1.250 0.562 0.250 0.281 500 0.015 50,000
180 2.250 1.406 1.406 0.687 0.281 0.312 633 0.015 63,280
200 2.500 1.562 1.500 0.781 0.312 0.375 781 0.015 78,125
240 3.000 1.875 1.875 0.937 0.375 0.500 1000 0.015 112,500
NOTES:
(1) See ANSI ASME B29.1 minimum dimensions
(2) For single-strand chain.
(3) For single-strand chain
(4) Bushing diameter, as these chains have no rollers.

, mm
, mm
, mm
, mm
, mm
Figure CH-12B: General chain dimensions. See Table CH-1B.
Table CH-1B: General chain dimensions, in. (mm)
Link Plate Thickness (LPT)

Lenghth Min. Ultimate Tensile Strength
Standard Pitch Max. Roller Nominal Nominal Standard Heavy Measuing Load
Tolerance Standard and Heavy Series
Chain No. P Diam Dr Width W(1) Pin Diam. Dp Series Searies N(2)
MM/M N(3)
25 6.35 3.30(4) 3.18 2.30 0.76 — 80.1 2.58 3,470
35 9.52 5.08(4) 4.78 3.58 1.27 — 80.1 1.83 7,825
41 12.70 7.77 6.35 3.58 1.27 — 80.1 1.58 6,672
40 12.70 7.92 7.92 3.96 1.52 — 137.9 1.58 13,900

50 15.88 10.16 9.52 5.08 2.03 — 218.0 1.50 21,270
60 19.05 11.91 12.70 5.94 2.39 3.18 311.4 1.42 31,270
80 25.40 15.87 15.88 7.92 3.18 3.96 556.0 1.33 55,600

100 31.75 19.05 19.05 9.52 3.96 4.75 867.4 1.33 86,870
120 38.10 22.22 25.40 11.10 4.75 5.56 1250.0 1.25 125,100
140 44.45 25.40 25.40 12.70 5.56 6.35 1704.0 1.25 170,270
160 50.80 28.57 31.75 14.27 6.35 7.14 2224.0 1.25 222,400
180 57.15 35.71 35.71 17.45 7.14 7.92 2816.0 1.25 281,470
200 63.50 39.67 38.10 19.84 7.92 9.52 3474.0 1.25 347,500
240 76.20 47.62 47.62 23.80 9.52 12.70 5004.0 1.25 520,400
NOTES:
(1) See ANSI ASME B29.1 minimum dimensions
(4) Bushing diameter, as these chains have no rollers

Figure CH-13:
Single and multiple
stand chains.
Table CH-2A: Maximum chain width Table CH-2B: Maximum chain width
dimensions, in. (N−1 ) K + 2B. dimensions, mm (N−1 ) K + 2B. (cont’d)
Standard Number of Chain Strands Standard Number of Chain Strands

Chain No. 1 2 3 4 6 8 Chain No. 1 2 3 4 6 8
25 0.38 0.63 0.88 1.14 1.64 2.14 25 9.6 16.0 22.3 28.9 41.6 54.3
35 0.68 1.08 1.48 1.88 2.67 3.47 35 17.2 27.4 37.5 47.7 67.8 88.1
41 0.74 — — — — — 41 18.7 — — — — —
40 0.84 1.36 1.94 2.50 3.65 4.75 40 21.3 34.5 49.2 63.5 92.7 120.6
50 0.96 1.68 2.40 3.10 4.54 5.95 50 24.3 42.6 60.9 78.7 115.3 151.1
60 1.28 2.14 3.04 3.94 5.78 7.55 60 32.5 54.3 77.2 100.0 146.8 191.7
80 1.58 2.74 3.90 5.04 7.37 9.70 80 40.1 69.5 99.0 128.0 187.1 246.3
100 1.90 3.30 4.72 6.12 9.00 11.80 100 48.2 83.8 119.8 155.4 228.6 299.7
120 2.30 4.10 5.88 7.68 11.30 14.85 120 58.4 104.1 149.3 195.0 287.0 377.1
140 2.54 4.46 6.38 8.30 12.25 16.15 140 64.5 113.2 162.0 210.8 311.1 410.2
160 2.94 5.26 7.56 9.86 14.55 19.10 160 74.6 133.6 192.0 250.4 369.5 485.1
180 3.54 6.00 8.60 11.18 16.45 21.55 180 89.9 152.4 218.4 283.9 417.8 547.3
200 3.82 6.62 9.60 12.30 18.00 23.52 200 87.0 168.1 243.8 312.4 457.2 597.4
240 4.40 7.85 11.31 14.77 21.69 — 240 111.7 199.3 287.2 275.1 550.9 —
60H 1.41 2.39 3.42 4.44 6.53 8.55 60H 35.8 60.7 86.8 112.7 165.8 217.1
80H 1.71 2.99 4.28 5.54 8.12 10.70 80H 43.4 75.9 108.7 140.7 206.2 271.7
100H 2.03 3.55 5.10 6.62 9.75 12.80 100H 51.5 90.1 129.5 168.1 247.6 325.1
120H 2.43 4.35 6.26 8.18 12.05 15.85 120H 61.7 110.4 159.0 206.5 306.0 402.5
140H 2.67 4.71 6.76 8.80 13.00 17.15 140H 67.8 119.6 171.7 223.5 330.2 435.6
160H 3.07 5.51 7.94 10.36 15.30 20.10 160H 77.9 139.9 201.6 263.1 388.6 510.5
180H 3.67 6.25 8.98 11.68 17.20 22.55 180H 93.2 158.7 228.0 296.6 436.8 572.7
200H 4.07 7.12 10.35 13.30 91.50 25.52 200H 103.3 180.8 262.8 337.8 495.3 648.2
240H 4.90 8.85 12.81 16.77 24.69 — 240H 124.4 224.7 325.3 425.9 627.1 —

Sprockets to proper meshing with the chain. The outside diameter may
vary depending on the type of cutter used. The approximate
Sprocket types outside diameter may be calculated as follows:
There are four types of sprockets covered by ANSI B29.1 and
Outside Diameter = Pitch (0.6 + cot (180° ⁄ Nt))
API SPEC 7F, and they are shown in Figure CH-14.
Sprocket flange thickness and tooth section profile
Sprocket flange thickness and tooth section profile dimen-

sions are as shown in Table CH-4.
Caliper Diamete
r
r
Caliper Diamete
Figure CH-14: Types of Sprockets.
Sprocket tooth form and diameters

The ANSI Standard sprocket tooth form is described in Maximum Hub
ANSI B29.1 and is too detailed to show here. Diameter
Bottom
Sprocket diameters are described in the following para- Diameter
graphs and nominal pitch diameters and outside diam- Pitch
Diameter
eters are listed in an appendix. The tolerances and limits
for sprocket diameters are contained in ANSI B29.1 and not Outside
Diameter
repeated here.
Pitch Diameter. The pitch diameter of a sprocket is the di-

Figure CH-15: Representation of key sprocket parameters.
ameter of a circle followed by the centers of the chain pins
as the sprocket revolves in mesh with the chain, and is a
function of the chain pitch and of the number of teeth in the
Installation
sprocket. The pitch diameter may be calculated as follows:
Check condition of components
Pitch Check shafts and bearings and assure that they are in good
( (
Pitch Diameter = , (L) condition. Check shaft supports and bearing mounts and be
Sin 180° sure they are correctly positioned and secure. If the chain is
Nt
not new, be sure that it is clean and well lubricated. If sprock-
Where Nt = Number of teeth ets are not new, be sure that they are not excessively worn or
otherwise damaged.
This is a theoretical dimension, not directly measurable.
Bottom diameter. The bottom diameter of a sprocket is Align shafts and sprockets
the diameter of a circle tangent to the bottoms of the tooth Good drive alignment is necessary to prevent uneven loading
spaces. The tolerance on the bottom diameter must be en- across the width of the chain and damaging wear between
tirely negative to ensure that the chain will mesh properly the sprocket teeth and the roller link plates of the chain.
with the sprocket teeth. Aligning the drive is a straightforward, two-step procedure:
Caliper Diameter. Since the bottom diameter of a sprock- 1. T
he shafts must be parallel within fairly close angular
et with an odd number of teeth cannot readily be measured limits. This is readily accomplished by using a machinist’s
directly, this catalog lists caliper diameter which enable cal- level and feeler bars (See Figure CH-1). First, using the
culating the dimensions across the bottoms of tooth spaces machinist’s level, make sure that both shafts are level or
most nearly opposite. As on bottom diameters, tolerances in the same plane. Then, using the feeler bars, make sure
on caliper diameters must be entirely negative. that the shafts are parallel in that plane. If the shafts can
float axially, lock them in the normal running position be-
Outside Diameter. The outside diameter of a sprocket is
fore attempting to align them.
comparatively unimportant, as the tooth length is not vital

CH–8
CHAINS AND SPROCKETS
Figure CH-16: Sprocket schematics showing key measurement variables.
Chain data for all sprockets Double and triple strand For 4 or more strands
Single Machining Hot-‐rolled
IADC Drilling Manual
ANSI & Pitch Roller Roller strand t1 tolerance on tolerance on
Diamond # (P) width (W) Diam. *h *g *RC and THR t2 M2 M3 t4 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 K t & M tHR
Standard series chain sprockets
25 0.250 0.125 0.130 0.12 0.03 0.26 0.110 0.107 0.359 0.611 0.096 0.348 0.600 0.852 1.104 1.356 1.860 0.252 -007 -021
35 0.375 0.188 0.200 0.19 0.05 0.40 0.168 0.162 0.561 0.960 0.149 0.548 0.947 1.346 1.745 2.144 2.942 0.399 -008 -027
41 0.500 0.250 0.306 0.25 0.06 0.53 0.227 † † † † † † † † † † † -009 -032
40 0.500 0.312 0.312 0.25 0.06 0.53 0.284 0.275 0.841 1.407 0.256 0.822 1.388 1.954 2.520 3.086 4.218 0.566 -010 -035
50 0.625 0.375 0.400 0.31 0.08 0.66 0.343 0.332 1.045 1.758 0.311 1.024 1.737 2.450 3.163 3.876 5.302 0.713 -011 -036
60 0.750 0.500 0.469 0.38 0.09 0.80 0.459 0.444 1.341 2.238 0.418 1.315 2.212 3.109 4.006 4.903 6.697 0.897 -012 -036
Copyright © 2015
80 1.000 0.625 0.625 0.50 0.12 1.06 0.575 0.557 1.710 2.863 0.526 1.679 2.832 3.985 5.138 6.291 8.597 1.153 -014 -040
100 1.250 0.750 0.750 0.62 0.16 1.33 0.692 0.669 2.077 3.485 0.633 2.041 3.449 4.857 6.265 7.673 10.489 1.408 -016 -046
120 1.500 1.000 0.875 0.75 0.19 1.59 0.924 0.894 2.683 4.472 0.848 2.637 4.426 6.215 8.004 9.793 13.371 1.789 -019 -057
140 1.750 1.000 1.000 0.88 0.22 1.86 0.924 0.894 2.818 4.742 0.848 2.772 4.696 6.620 8.544 10.468 14.316 1.924 -020 -057
160 2.000 1.250 1.125 1.00 0.25 2.12 1.156 1.119 3.424 5.729 1.063 3.368 5.673 7.978 10.283 12.588 17.198 2.305 -019 -062
180 2.250 1.406 1.406 1.12 0.28 2.39 1.301 1.259 3.851 6.443 1.197 3.789 6.381 8.973 11.565 14.157 19.341 2.592 -020 -068
240 3.000 1.875 1.875 1.50 0.38 3.19 1.738 1.682 5.140 8.598 1.601 5.059 8.517 11.975 15.433 18.891 N/A 3.458 -025 -087
Heavy series chain sprockets
60H 0.750 0.500 0.469 0.37 0.09 0.80 0.459 0.444 1.472 2.500 0.418 1.446 2.474 3.502 4.530 5.558 7.614 1.028 -011 -036
80H 1.000 0.625 0.625 0.50 0.12 1.06 0.575 0.557 1.840 3.123 0.526 1.809 3.092 4.375 5.568 6.941 9.507 1.283 -012 -040
100H 1.250 0.750 0.750 0.62 0.16 1.33 0.692 0.669 2.208 3.747 0.633 2.172 3.711 5.250 6.789 8.328 11.406 1.539 -014 -046
120H 1.500 1.000 0.875 0.75 0.19 1.59 0.924 0.894 2.818 4.742 0.848 2.772 4.696 6.620 8.544 10.468 14.316 1.924 -016 -057
140H 1.750 1.000 1.000 0.88 0.22 1.86 0.924 0.894 2.949 5.004 0.848 2.903 4.958 7.013 9.068 11.123 15.233 2.055 -016 -057
160H 2.000 1.250 1.125 1.00 0.25 2.12 1.156 1.119 3.555 5.991 1.063 3.499 5.935 8.371 10.807 13.243 18.115 2.436 -019 -062
200H 2.500 1.500 1.562 1.25 0.31 2.65 1.389 1.344 4.427 7.510 1.278 4.361 7.444 10.527 13.610 16.693 22.859 3.083 -021 -072
TABLE CH-4: FLANGE THICKNESS AND TOOTH SECTION PROFILE

The l and M dimensions are for machined finish.
The T tolerances apply to hot-rolled plates used for plate sprockets and welded-hub sprockets.
*Exact dimensions for sprocket tooth chamfers are not of critical importance. For nonstandard and narrow width chains, the dimension
“g” is 1/6 P but should
† No.
be no
41greater
chain isthan
not 1/3W.
made inh multiple
= .5P strands.
Figure CH-17: Align shafts. Figure CH-18: Align sprockets.
Most single-strand drives will perform acceptably if the together on one sprocket, using the sprocket teeth to hold
shafts are parallel and in the same plane within .050 in./ft or the chain ends in position. With large heavy chains it may
¼ degree. However, high-speed, high-horsepower, or mul- be necessary to block the sprockets to prevent them from
tiple-strand chain drives should be aligned within the toler- turning while the chain ends are brought together. Insert
ance obtained from the following formula: the pins of the connecting link through the bushing holes
to couple the chain endless. With long chain spans, it may
.01 C
Tolerance (in./ft) = be necessary to support the chain with a plank or rod while
12 P n the connection is made. Then, install the cover plate and the
spring clip, hook cotter or cotters. After the fasteners have
Where: C = center distance, in.
been installed, the ends of the pins should be pressed back
P = chain pitch, in.
until the fasteners are snug against the cover plate. This re-
n = number of chain strands
stores the intended clearances across the chain and allows
2. The sprockets must be mounted on the shafts as closely the joint to flex freely as it should. Again, the connection
in line axially as practicable. This normally is done with a procedure is well described in the brochure, “Connect & Dis-
straightedge or a length of piano wire (See Figure CH-18). connect Instructions for ANSI B29.1 Chains.” (www.mpta.org)
In practice, the maximum amount of axial misalignment is
obtained from the following formula:
Connecting links
Max. Offset (in.) = 0.045 P Connecting links should use interference fit cover plates be-
cause their capacity is virtually the same as the rest of the
Where: P = chain pitch, in.
chain. The use of fatigue resistant slip fit cover plates are
This formula applies to both single and multiple strand chains. acceptable for ease of assembly and will work fine for 95%
of applications.
Install chain
A new chain should be kept in its box until ready for installa- Offset links
tion to preserve the factory lubrication and prevent contam- The use of offset links should be avoided whenever pos-
ination by dirt and debris. If the new chain is not the correct sible because their capacity can be much less than the rest
length, in pitches, to fit on the drive, a long stock length may of the chain, up to 40% less. Offsets are not API approved
have to be shortened or several sections may have to be or tested.
connected to make a chain the correct length. A brochure
entitled “Connect & Disconnect Instructions for ANSI B29.1 Roller Adjust chain tension
Chains,” published by the American Chain Association, de- First, turn one sprocket to tighten one span of chain. Then use
scribes how to do this. a straightedge and scale to measure the total mid-span move-
ment in the slack span (Figure CH-19). Adjust the drive cen-
This can be downloaded free at www.MPTA.org. All chain
ter distance or the idler to produce 4 to 6% mid-span move-
and links in a given drive should be from the same manufac-
ment for drives that are on horizontal centers to 45 degrees
turer—otherwise, the drive may surge or run rough.
inclined, and 2 to 3% for drives that are inclined 45 degrees to
Fit the chain around the sprockets and bring the free ends vertical, subject to high shock loads, or on fixed centers.

Table CH-5: Recommended possible mid-span movement. AC in inches.
Target length between sprockets (in.)
Drive
10 20 30 50 70 100
Center Line
Horizontal 45° 0.4–0.6 0.8–1.2 1.2–1.8 2.0–3.0 2.8–4.2 4.0–6.0
45° to Vertical 0.2–0.3 0.4–0.6 0.6–0.9 1.0–1.5 1.4–2.1 2.0–3.0
Ensure adequate clearance wear life. In addition to resisting wear between the pin and
Check the drive carefully to ensure that there is no contact bushing, an adequate flow of lubricant smooths the engage-
between the drive and adjacent objects. Ample clearance ment of the chain rollers with the sprocket, cushions roll-
must be provided to allow for chain pulsations, chain elon- er-to-sprocket impacts, dissipates heat, flushes away wear
gation from wear, and possible shaft-end float. debris and foreign materials, and retards rust.
The lubrication should be applied to the upper edges of the

Provide adequate lubrication link plates in the lower span of the chain shortly before the
Before starting the drive, be sure that the specified lubrica-
chain engages a sprocket (Figures CH-20 and CH-21). Grav-
tion system is working properly. See the section on Lubrica-
ity and centrifugal force both will aid in carrying the lubri-
tion for details.
cant to the critical pin and bushing surfaces. Surplus lubri-
cant spilling over the link plate edges will supply the roller
Install guards and bushing surfaces.
If the roller chain drive does not run in a chain casing, it
should be enclosed by a guard that will prevent people from
being injured by inadvertent contact with moving compo-
nents of the drive. More detailed information about guards
can be found in the ANSI Standard ASME B15.l; Safety Stan-
dard for Mechanical Power Transmission Apparatus.
Before installation, inspect the guard to be sure it is not bro-
ken or damaged, especially at or near the mounting points.
Then, install the guard; making sure that all fasteners are se-
cure and all safeguarding devices (such as presence sensors
and interlocks) is functioning.
Lubrication
Lubrication flow
Each joint in a roller chain is a journal bearing, so it is es-
sential that the pin and bushing surfaces receive an ade- Figure CH-20: Guide to lubrication.
quate amount of the proper lubricant to achieve maximum
Lubricant characteristics
off
Figure CH-19: Chain tension adjustment. Figure CH-21: Lubricate on the inside of the chain.

Table CH-6
Recommended Temperature,
Grate Deg. F (Deg C)
SAE 5 -50 to + 50 (-46 to + 10)
SAE 10 -20 to + 80 (-29 to + 27)
SAE 20 +10 to + 110 (-12 to + 43)
SAE 30 +20 to + 130 (- 7 to + 54)
SAE 40 +30 to + 140 (- 1 to + 60)
SAE 50 +40 to + 150 (+ 4 to + 66)
Note: When the temperature range permits

a choice, the heavier grade should be used.
Lubricants for roller chain drives should have the following

characteristics:
• Sufficiently low viscosity to penetrate Figure CH-22: Drip-free lubrication.
to the critical internal surfaces;
• Sufficiently high viscosity or appropriate edges from a drill lubricator. Drip rates range from 4 to 20
additives to maintain the lubricating pin drops/min or more, depending on chain speed. Here again,
under prevailing bearing pressures; the drip rate must be sufficient to prevent a red-brown (rust)
• Clean and free from corrosives. discoloration of the lubricant in the chain joints. Care must
• Capability to maintain lubricating qualities under the be taken to avoid misdirection of the oil drops by windage.
prevailing operating conditions. The requirements
For multiple strand chains, a distribution pipe is needed to
usually are met by a good grade of non-detergent,
feed oil to all link plates, and a wick packing is usually re-
petroleum-based oil. Detergents normally are not
necessary, but anti-foam, anti-rust, or film-strength quired to distribute oil uniformly to all the holes in the pipe
improving additives often are beneficial. Heavy oils or (Figure CH-22).
greases should not be used because they are too thick
to penetrate to the internal surfaces of the chain. The Type 2: Bath or disc lubrication
recommended oil viscosity for various surrounding For oil bath lubrication, a short section of the lower strand
temperature ranges is shown in Table CH-6. of the chain runs through a sump of oil in the drive housing
(Figure CH-23). The oil level should just reach the pitch-line
Types of lubrication of the chain at its lowest point in operation. Long sections
There are three types of lubrication for roller-chain drives. of chain running through the oil bath, as in a nearly horizon-
The recommended type is based on chain speed and is se- tal lower span, should be avoided because it can cause oil
lected from Table CH-7. These should be regarded as mini- foaming and overheating.
mum lubrication requirements. The use of a better type may
For slinger-disc lubrication, the chain operates above the
be beneficial.
oil level. The disc picks up oil from the sump and slings it
against a collector plate. Then the oil usually flows into a
Type 1: Manual or drip lubrication trough which applies it to the upper edges of the link plates
For manual lubrication, oil is applied periodically with a
in the lower span of the chain (Figure CH-24). The diam-
brush or spout can, preferably once each 8 hours of oper-
eter of the disc should produce rim speeds to pick up the
ation. The time between applications may be longer than 8
oil effectively, while higher speeds may cause oil foaming or
hours, if it has proven adequate for that particular drive.
overheating. For both oil bath and slinger-disc lubrication,
The volume and frequency of oil application must be suffi- the temperature of the oil bath and the chain should not ex-
cient to prevent a red-brown (rust) discoloration of the oil ceed 180°F. Also, the volume of oil applied to the chain must
in the joints. The red-brown discoloration indicates that the be great enough to prevent a red-brown (rust) discoloration
lubrication in the joints is inadequate. When rust discolor- of the lubricant in the chain joints.
ation is found, one should remove, clean, re-lubricate, and
For both oil bath and slinger-disc lubrication, the oil level in
reinstall the chain before continuing operations.
the sump should be checked after each eight hours of running
For drip lubrication, oil is dripped between the link plate time, and oil added when needed. At the same time the system

Table CH-7: Lubrication type for pitch and speed
Chain Pitch Chain speed, fpm (m/min.) lubrication type

in. (mm) Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
0.50 (12.70) Up to 290(88) Up to 2200(670) Over 2200(670)
0.625 (15.88) 240(73) 1930(588) 1930(588)
0.75 (19.05) 210(64) 1740(530) 1740(530)
1.00 (25.40) 170(52) 1480(451) 1480(451)
1.25 (31.75) 145(44) 1300(396) 1300(396)
1.50 (38.10) 125(38) 1170(357) 1170(357)
1.75 (44.45) 110(34) 1080(329) 1080(329)
2.00 (50.80) 100(30) 1000(305) 1000(305)

2.25 (57.15) 90(27) 930(283) 930(283)
2.50 (63.50) 85(26) 880(268) 880(268)
3.00 (76.20) 75(23) 790(241) 790(241)
Figure CH-23: Oil bath lubrication. Figure CH-24: Slinger-disc lubrication
should be checked for leaking, foaming, or overheating. diation from the external surfaces of the reservoir or by a
separate heat exchanger.
Type 3: Oil stream lubrication Oil stream lubrication is always recommended for chains
For oil stream lubrication, a pump delivers oil under pressure running at relatively high speeds and loads, and is absolutely
to nozzles that direct an oil stream or spray onto the chain. essential for roller chains operating in the indicated galling
The oil should be applied evenly across the width of the region for any extended period.
chain, and be directed onto the lower span from inside the
chain loop (Figure CH-25). Excess oil collects in the bottom
of the casing and is returned to the pump suction reservoir.
A pressure-regulating valve may be used to return excess
pump discharge to the reservoir. Oil cooling may be by ra-

Table CH-8: Required oil flow for chain drives.
Horsepower Minimum oil flow

Transmitted (gal/min)
50 1/4
100 1/2
150 3/4
200 1
250 1 1/4
300 1 1/2
400 2
500 2 1/2
600 3
Figure CH-25: Oil stream lubrication. 700 3 1/4
800 3 3/4
900 4 1/4
1000 4 3/4
1500 7
2000 10
Figure CH-26: Typical oil-retaining chain casing.
The oil stream not only lubricates the chain, but also cools chain wear elongation accumulates in the slack span, chain
the chain and carries away wear debris from a drive chain sag can become great enough to allow the chain to strike the
being operated at or near full rated capacity. Table CH-8 bottom of the casing, damaging both the chain and casing.
shows the minimum oil flow rate based on the amount of Casing clearance for maximum wear elongation percentag-
horsepower transmitted. es may be determined from Figure CH-27. In addition to the
clearance to allow for chain sag, there should be at least 3
Here again, the oil level in the sump should be checked af-
inches of clearance around the periphery of the chain and 3/4
ter each eight hours of operation time and oil added when
inch on each side of the chain.
needed. At the same time the system should be checked for
leaking and overheating. When a chain casing is used for oil bath, slinger disc, or oil
stream lubrication, it may need to be sized for adequate heat
dissipation. The temperature rise of the oil in a chain casing
Chain casings may be estimated by the use of Figures CH-28 and CH-29
Chain casings (Figure CH-26) are used to facilitate lubrication
and their accompanying procedures.
and to protect the drive from being damaged by debris or con-
tamination. Chain casings are usually made of sheet metal,
stiffened by steel angles or embossed ribs, and have access
doors or panels for inspection and maintenance of the drive.
Adequate clearances must be provided inside the chain cas-

ing or the useful wear life of the chain may be restricted. As

Wear Elongation, Percent To estimate the probable temperature rise of a chain case,
the following formula may be used:
T = 50.9 HP = °F above ambient
AK
T = Temperature rise, °F
where HP = Transmitted horsepower
A = Casing area exposed to air circulation in sq. feet
K = Radiation constant in BTU per sq ft per hour

per hour per degree Fahrenheit temperature
difference
K = 2.0 for still air

2.7 for normal free air circulation
4.5 for rapid air circulation
Good practice limits the allowable operating temperature to

approximately 180°F (temperature rise plus ambient). If the
Figure CH-27: Casing clearance wear limit calculated temperature is greater than this value, a larger cas-
ing could be used or an oil cooler added to reduce the operat-
ing temperature to allowable limits. Figures CH-28 and CH-29
can be used for a quick approximation of possible temperature.
To estimate the probable temperature rise of a chain case,
Explanation:
the following formula may be used:
1. Compute value of “X” and plot point *1
50.9 HP
T = = °F above ambient 2. Draw vertical line from “X” value (point *1) to
AK
intersect appropriate centers (pt. *2)
T = Temperature rise, °F
3. Draw horizontal line from “centers” (pt. *2) and
where HP = Transmitted horsepower read exposed projected casing area (pt. *3)
4. At intersection of appropriate HP & horizontal line
A = Casing area exposed to air circulation in sq. feet
(pt. *4) from step 3, draw a vertical line and read
K = Radiation constant in BTU per sq ft per hour per
hour per degree Fahrenheit temperature difference approximate casing temperature rise. (pt. *5)
K = 2.0 for still air
2.7 for normal free air circulation Maintenance
4.5 for rapid air circulation
Inspection and service schedule
Good practice limits the allowable operating temperature to A roller chain drive requires proper and timely maintenance
approximately 180°F (temperature rise plus ambient). If the to deliver satisfactory performance and life. It is assumed
calculated temperature is greater than this value, a larger that the shafts, bearings, and supports, the chain and
casing could be used or an oil cooler added to reduce the sprockets, and the lubrication type have been properly se-
operating temperature to allowable limits. Figures CH-28 lected and installed. A maintenance program must also be
and CH-29 can be used for a quick approximation of possi- established to assure that:
ble temperature. • The drive is correctly lubricated;
• Drive interferences are eliminated;
Explanation: • Damaged chains or sprockets are replaced;
1. Compute value of “X” and plot point *1 • Worn chains or sprockets are replaced;
• The sprockets are properly aligned;
2. Draw vertical line from “X” value (point *1) to
• The chain is correctly tensioned;
intersect appropriate centers (pt. *2)
• Guarding is in good condition and is properly installed.
3. Draw horizontal line from “centers” (pt. *2) and read
A roller chain drive should be inspected after the first 50
exposed projected casing area (pt. *3)
hours of operation. After that, drives subjected to heavy
4. At intersection of appropriate HP & horizontal line shock load or severe operating conditions should be in-
(pt. *4) from step 3, draw a vertical line and read spected after each 200 hours, and more ordinary drives
approximate casing temperature rise. (pt. *5) may be inspected after each 500 hours of operation. Expe-

VALUES OF X
Standard Casing
P
x = (t + T) + Wc + 9
6
Oversize Casing
x = R 1 + R 2 + W
P = Chain pitch, in.
t = Number of teeth, small
sprocket
Wc = Chain width, inches
R1 = Casing radius, small end, in.
R 2 = Casing radius, large end, in.
W = Casing width inches
HP = Horsepower
T = Number of teeth, large
sprocket
A = Area, sq ft
Figure CH-28 Figure CH-29
riences may indicate a longer or shorter interval between the chain correctly. Change the oil after the first 50 hours of
inspections. operation and after each 500 hours thereafter (200 hours
in severe service).
At each inspection, the following items should be checked
and corrected when necessary.
Inspect for damaged chains or sprockets
Inspect the chain for cracked, broken, deformed, or corrod-
Inspect lubrication system ed parts and for tight joints or turned pins. If any are found,
For manual lubrication, be sure that the lubrication schedule
find and correct the cause of damage and REPLACE THE
is being followed and the correct grade of oil is being used. If
ENTIRE CHAIN. Even though the rest of the chain appears
the chain is dirty, clean it with kerosene or a nonflammable
to be in good condition, it very probably has been damaged
solvent and re-lubricate it.
and more failures can occur in a short time.
For drip lubrication, check the flow rate and be sure that the
Inspect sprockets for chipped, broken, or deformed teeth.
oil is being directed onto the chain correctly.
If any are found, correct the cause of the damage, and RE-
For oil bath, slinger-disc, or oil-stream lubrication, be sure PLACE THE SPROCKET AND CHAIN. Sprockets are stron-
that all orifices are clear and that oil is being directed onto ger and less sensitive to damage than chain, but running a

Table CH-9: Chain wear elongation limits

Measured Length
ANSI Chain Nominal
Chain, in. Pitch, mm No. of Pitches At 3% in. Elongation mm
Number
in. mm
25 .250 6.35 48 12.00 305 12.375 314
35 .375 9.52 32 12.00 305 12.375 314
41 .500 12.70 34 12.00 305 12.375 314
40 .500 12.70 24 12.00 305 12.375 314
50 .625 15.88 20 12.50 318 12.875 327
60 .750 19.05 16 12.00 305 12.375 314
80 1.000 25.40 12 12.00 305 12.375 314
100 1.250 31.75 20 25.00 635 25.750 654
120 1.500 38.10 16 24.00 610 24.719 628
140 1.750 44.45 14 24.50 622 25.250 641
160 2.000 50.80 12 24.00 610 24.719 628
180 2.250 57.15 11 24.75 629 25.500 648
200 2.500 63.50 10 25.00 635 25.750 654
240 3.000 76.20 8 24.00 610 24.719 628
worn chain on new sprockets can ruin the new sprockets in new section of chain into a worn section because it will run
a short time. rough and damage the drive.
Inspect for chain wear Inspect for sprocket wear

In most roller chain drives, the chain is considered worn out
A worn out sprocket is not nearly as well defined as a worn
when it has reached 3% wear elongation. With 3% plus wear,
out chain. However, there are some sprocket characteristics
the chain does not engage the sprockets properly and can
that indicate when a sprocket should be replaced.
cause damage to the sprockets or chain breakage. In drives
with large sprockets (more than 66 teeth), allowable wear is Check for roughness or binding when a new chain engages
limited to 200/N which may be substantially less than 3%. or disengages the sprocket. Inspect for reduced tooth thick-
And, in fixed-center, non-adjustable drives, allowable wear ness and hooked tooth tips (Figure CH-31). If any of these
may be limited to as little as one-half of one chain pitch wear conditions are present, the sprocket teeth are excessively
elongation. N = Number of teeth on the large sprocket. worn and the sprocket should be replaced.
To determine chain wear elongation, rotate the sprockets in Do not run new chain on worn out sprockets because it will
opposite directions to make one span tight. Then measure a cause the chain to wear rapidly. Also, do not run a worn
representative section of the tight span, as shown in Figure chain on new sprockets because it will cause the sprocket
CH-30 and Table CH-9. If wear elongation exceeds 3% or a to wear rapidly.
functional limit, replace the entire chain. Do not connect a

Figure CH-30: Measurement of chain length for wear. Figure CH-32: Chain misalignment wear.
Figure CH-31: Worn sprockets. Figure CH-33: Sprocket misalignment wear.
Inspect for sprocket misalignment Inspect guards

Inspect for significant wear on the inside surfaces of the Inspect the guards to ensure that they are in serviceable con-
chain roller link plates and on the sprocket flange faces. dition. The guards must not be bent or deformed so that in-
If this type of wear is present, the sprockets may be mis- tended clearance is reduced. Designed openings in the guards
aligned. Realign the sprockets as described in the installation (mesh) must not be enlarged. The guards must not be broken
instructions to prevent further abnormal chain and sprocket or damaged, especially at or near the mounting points.
wear. If 5% or more of the link plate thickness is worn away
If the guards are found to be in serviceable condition, rein-
(Figure CH-32), or if there are any sharp gouges in the link
stall them on the drive; making sure that all fasteners are
plate surface, the chain should be replaced immediately. If
secure and that all safeguarding devices (such as presence
10% or more of the sprocket-tooth flange thickness is worn
sensors and interlocks) are functioning.
away, (Figure CH-33), the sprocket should be replaced.
Measure the total mid-span movement (Figure CH-19). If

it exceeds the tabulated limit, adjust the center distance to
obtain the required amount of slack. If elongation exceeds
the available adjustment, and wear elongation still has not
exceeded 3% or the functional limits, remove two pitches
and reinstall the chain. If the minimum adjustment limit will
not permit shortening the chain two pitches, the chain may
be shortened by one pitch using an offset link or an offset
section. Avoid this if at all possible.

Table CH-10: Roller chain drive troubleshooting guide

CONDITION / SYMPTOM POSSIBLE CAUSE WHAT TO DO
Chain striking on obstruction Replace chain and eliminate interference.
Loose casing or shaft mounts Tighten bolts, realign drive, and re-tension chain.
Excess chain slack Re-tension chain.
Excessive chain wear Replace chain and sprockets and realign sprockets.
Sprocket misalignment Replace chain and sprockets if indicated.
Excessive noise Inadequate lubrication Realign sprockets.
Chain pitch too large Re-tension chain.
Too few sprocket teeth Replace chain if indicated. Re-establish proper
lubrication.
Redesign drive for smaller pitch chain. Check to see if
larger sprockets can be used.
Excess chain slack Re-tension chain.

Chain climbs Excessive chain wear Replace and re-tension chain.
sprocket teeth Excessive sprocket wear Replace chain and sprocket and realign sprockets.
Extreme overload Replace chain and eliminate cause of overload.
Excessive sprocket wear Replace chain and sprockets and realign sprockets.
Chain clings to sprocket Sprocket misalignment Replace chain and sprockets if indicated.
Realign sprockets.
Wear on inside of Sprocket misalignment Replace chain and sprockets if indicated.

link platesand on one Realign sprockets.
side of sprocket

Table CH-11: Roller chain drive troubleshooting guide

CONDITION/SYMPTOM POSSIBLE CAUSE WHAT TO DO
Tight joints Dirt or foreign material in Clean and re-lubricate chain.

chain joints
Inadequate lubrication Replace chain and sprockets if indicated and realign sprockets.
Corrosion or rust Replace chain and sprockets if indicated and realign sprockets.
Overloads bends pins or Replace chain and eliminate cause of overload.

spreads roller link plates
Turned pins Inadequate lubrication Replace chain and re-establish proper lubrication.
Overload Replace chain and eliminate cause of overload.
Elarged holes
Overload Replace chain and eliminate cause of overload.
Cracked link plates

(fatigue)
Loading above chain’s Replace chain and eliminate cause of high loading, or redesign
dynamic capacity drive for larger chain.
Cracked link plates

(stress corrosion) Exposure to corrosive
environment combined with Replace chain and protect from hostile environment.
stress from press fit
Broken pins
Replace chain and eliminate cause of overload, or redesign

Extreme overload
drive for larger chain.
Broken Link Plates
Broken Link Plates
Broken, cracked, or
High speed impact, or Replace chain. Possibly redesign drive for smaller pitch chain
deformed rollers
sprockets too small or larger sprockets.
Chain riding high on

Replace chain and readjust tension more often.
sprocket teeth
Broken, Cracked, or Deformed Rollers
Pin galling Reduce speed or load. Possibly redesign drive for smaller pitch
Speed/load too high
chain.
Inadequate lubrication Provide or re-establish proper lubrication.

Worn link plate
Chain dragging on case, Replace chain when 5% of contour worn away.

guide, or obstruction Re-tension chain and eliminate interference.
Battered link plate edges
Chain striking obstruction Replace chain and eliminate interference.
Missing at assembly Replace chain.

Missing parts
Broken and lost Replace chain.
Exposure to moisture Replace chain and protect from moisture.
Rusted chain Water in lubricant Replace chain and protect from moisture.
Inadequate lubrication Provide or re-establish proper lubrication.
Exposure to corrosive
Corroded or pitted chain Replace chain and protect from hostile environment.
environment
Vibration Replace chain. Reduce vibration. Use larger sprockets.
Replace chain. Reduce speed.

High speed
Redesign drive to use smaller pitch chain.
Missing or broken
cotters
Striking obstruction Replace chain. Eliminate interference(s).
Cotters installed improperly Correct installation.

ROLLER CHAIN
TERMS Glossary
ANSI: American National Standards Institute. LINKPLATES: Total of four, two inside and two outside.
Holds chain together. Ref. Figure CH-1.
API: American Petroleum Institute.
MASTER LINK: Also known as CONNECTING LINK.
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Used to connect the chain into a continuous strand. Ref.
BUSHING: Fits inside rollers, similar in looks but smaller Figures CH-8, 9 and 9A.
in diameter and longer. Pressed into inside link plates. Ref.
OFFSET LINK: Same as half link.
Figure CH-1.
PIN: Fits inside bushing and holds the outside link plates
CONNECTINGLINK: Same as above.
together. Pressed into outside link plates. Ref. Figure CH-1.
COTTER-PIN CHAIN: Chain with pins riveted on one end
PITCH: Distance from the centerline of one pin to the next.
and cotter pin holes on the other end. Ref. Figure CH-4.
Width of the rollers. Ref. Figures CH-12A, CH-12B.
COTTERS: Heat-treated spring steel wires formed into
RIVETED CHAIN: Chain with both ends of the pin riveted
a shape with an eye that is used to help hold link plates
or side mashed. Ref. Figure CH-3
on pins. Ref. Figures CH-9, CH-9A.
ROLLER WIDTH: Width of the rollers. Ref. Figures CH-12A,
HALF LINK: Also known as OFFSET LINK. Used to shorten
CH-12B.
chain by one pitch. Replaces one pin link and one roller link.
Ref. Figure CH-10.

DD
DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING

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DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-i
CHAPTER
DD
DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING
nance and repair.
by the reader.
CONTRIBUTORS
Greg Devenish, Baker Hughes Inc.
Blaine Dow, Schlumberger
Chris Maingot, Weatherford
REVIEWERS
Carl Butler, Cobalt International Energy
Barry Gabourie, Cobalt International Energy
Chris McCartney, Consultant
João Luis Vieira, Schlumberger
DD–ii DIRECTIONAL DRILLING


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-4-8

DIRECTIONAL DRILLING Contents DD-iii
CHAPTER DD
DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING Contents
Evolution of directional drilling since 1900........... DD-1 Survey accuracy....................................................DD-12
1900-1920s.............................................................. DD-1 Trajectory design considerations....................DD-12
1930s.......................................................................... DD-2 Well-profile types.................................................DD-14
1940s-1960s............................................................DD-3 Deviation control.........................................................DD-16
1970s..........................................................................DD-5 Borehole patterns................................................DD-17
1980s..........................................................................DD-6 Borehole patterns, keyseats and doglegs....DD-17
1990s-Present.........................................................DD-6 Control of hole angle..........................................DD-17
Directional surveying............................................. DD-7 Bottomhole assemply components...................... DD-20
Magnetic and gyroscopic sensors: instruments and Vertical drilling systems........................................... DD-20
theory............................................................................... DD-7 Positive displacement motors (PDM).................. DD-20
Magnetic sensors................................................... DD-7 Steerable turbines...................................................... DD-22
The geomagnetic field..........................................DD-9 Rotary steerable systems (RSS)............................. DD-22
Gyroscopic sensors................................................DD-9 High build rate rotary steerable systems............ DD-23
Free gyros...............................................................DD-10 Open-hole whipstocks...............................................DD-24
Rate gyros (north-seeking gyros)...................DD-10 Sidetrack drivers...................................................DD-24
Inertial navigation systems................................DD-10 Sidetrack categories............................................DD-24
Directional surveying essentials.............................DD-10 Design considerations.........................................DD-24
Regulations.............................................................DD-10 Open-hole motor sidetrack
Operator..................................................................DD-10 with cement plug..................................................DD-25
Services...................................................................DD-10 Open-hole motor sidetrack
Anti-collision..........................................................DD-10 with no cement plug............................................DD-25
Rig personnel involved (operations only).....DD-11 Casing whipstocks/window cutting...............DD-25
Safety and handling.............................................DD-11 Measuring tools..........................................................DD-26
Defining the directional drilling objective............DD-11 Measurement while drilling/logging
Surface locations..................................................DD-11 while drilling.........................................................DD-26
Subsurface targets...............................................DD-11 Bits................................................................................. DD-28
Sizing of the target...............................................DD-11 Other components.................................................... DD-29
Anti-collision..........................................................DD-12

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DIRECTIONAL DRILLING DD-1
Evolution of directional drilling since 1900 viated wells so that multiple boreholes could be drilled from
Directional drilling is the science of controlling or correcting one location and at various angles. These techniques allow
a wellbore, along a predetermined trajectory, to one or more drilling to contact larger quantity of oil and gas reserves,
underground targets or locations at given horizontal dis- thereby minimizing associated drilling costs, as well as envi-
placements (HD) and true vertical depths (TVD) from the ronmental impact.
point of origin. The central advantage of drilling directionally
is that significantly more of the production formation is ex- 1900-1920s
posed to the well, compared to vertical wells (Figures DD-1 Directional drilling has come a long way since its origins.
and DD-2). Through most of the 1800s, wells ostensibly went in only
one direction—straight down. It was in the 1920s that the
These techniques have been integral parts of the oil and gas industry first became aware of wellbore deviation of appar-
industry since the 1920s. Operators must maintain well- ently vertical holes. Once these holes could be surveyed,
bore verticality, construct curves (inclination builds and/or operators discovered that, having had no prior method for
drops) and maintain tangents all in a specific direction. Ap- measuring inclination or direction, they had unknowingly
plications include drilling to difficult-to-access locations and drilled holes with up to 50° +/- of inclination. Deviation ten-
at river crossings as well as drilling relief wells, sidetrack- dencies caused by formation dips, faults, bedding planes,
ing, drilling multiple wells from one surface location or main etc., acting on the drill bit were causing the drift away from
wellbore (multilaterals) and drilling with wellbores having vertical. The bending characteristics of the drillstring, cou-
inclinations up to and exceeding 90°. High-inclination wells pled with the amount of weight applied to the bit, were also
(80°+) are considered horizontal and have significantly aug- factors affecting the desired outcome. Ultimately, surveys
mented production due to their increased reservoir expo- consisting of depth, inclination and direction would be used
sure as compared to their low-angle counterparts. Extend- to accurately calculate a well’s position.
ed-reach (ER) wells push the horizontal limits of directional
drilling even further. The acid bottle technique, developed in the late 1800s in
South African diamond mines to survey boreholes, became
Directional drilling has found a respected place in oilfields in the 1920s, the first method to be utilized solely for mea-
worldwide. Historically, engineers have used established suring inclination. A glass bottle filled with acid was lowered
methods based on years of prior experience to advance into the borehole where the acid would settle at an angle
the science toward modern techniques. Directional drilling in the bottle lying parallel to the angle of inclination. After
techniques were designed to improve the mechanics of de- some time, the acid etched the glass, which allowed calcu-
Entirely Magnetic
Vertical/blind Single Shot Multilateral
“Straight Holes” in Russia
Steel
Whipsticks Rotary
Bent Steerable
Hardwood Housing Systems
Wedges Mud Motor Motors
Gyroscopic Surface Measurement

technology Readout While Drilling Gyro
development Relief Well Gyro (MWD) MWD
1900 1910 1920
Acid bottle Totco Drift Horizontal

Jetting Adjustable
Surveying tool Drilling
method Gauge Stabs
Viable
Magnetic Gyro
Stabilized North
Steering tools Steering
Rotary BHAs Seeking Gyro
Tool Extended
Reach Record
* Set by Exxon Neftegas Ltd on the Sahkalin Shelf during 2013 41,667 ft*
Figure DD-1: Evolution of directional drilling.

DD-2 DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
In 1926, Sun Oil enlisted Sperry Corporation to use gyro-

scopic-based technology to make survey instruments for
accurately measuring borehole inclination and direction.
The rotating gyroscopes provided accurate measurements
across three different axes and allowed drillers to accurately
determine a borehole’s azimuth and inclination.
The first magnetic single-shot and multi-shot instruments,

which measured both inclination and direction, were devel-
oped in 1929 by H. John Eastman. These instruments used
sensors employing magnetic compass needles and plumb
bobs. They also featured mechanical timers that triggered
a simple camera to record the survey on photographic film.
The science of controlled directional drilling did not come
about until the development of these magnetic single-shot
and multi-shot instruments.
There were three natural consequences of these accurate

surveying methods: intentionally deviating wells to precise
bottomhole locations; restricting vertical wells to at most a
few degrees in inclination; and limiting the resultant well-
bore drift. The first deliberately deviated wells were drilled
in the late 1920s. Hardwood wedges were used, pushing the
bit to one side of the hole and producing a deflection to di-
rect the wells from vertical toward an intended direction.
1930s
In 1930, a French inventor named René Moineau discovered
Figure DD-2: Key parameters in directional drilling.
the principle of the progressive cavity pump which led to
the development of downhole positive displacement motors
lation of the wellbore’s inclination at a given depth. In the (PDMs). PDMs would eventually become the most effective
1920s, Totco developed the mechanical drift recorder, which and commonly used deviation tools in the industry.
could only measure borehole inclination but was more accu-
rate than the acid bottle and other early techniques. Records from two wells drilled in Huntington Beach, Cali-
fornia, in 1930 are the first records from directionally con-
Unfortunately, neither of these methods shed light on the trolled boreholes drilled from an onshore location to oil/gas
direction of well drift. The drive for wellbore control tech- deposits under the ocean (offshore). The steel whipstock
niques and improved surveying methods was partly ac- was the main deflection tool used from the 1930s until the
celerated by the possibility that wells were drifting across 1950s. Early whipstocks were simply lowered into the bore-
lease lines. This led to court decrees that lease holders only hole, oriented with the whip face in the desired direction
owned deposits found within the downward vertical projec- and mechanically anchored at the bottom of the main well-
tion of their lease lines. Few at the time possessed technol- bore (Figure DD-3). When the wellbore drifted off course, a
ogy enabling control of well drift. Among those leaseholders whipstock was set and drilling operations would be divert-
who did, some could not resist the temptation to produce oil ed along the whip face. No attempts were made to retrieve
from an unaware neighbor. these whipstocks and they were typically abandoned in
the well. Beginning in 1932, directional wells were regularly
Another method, developed by George Maas, used an ac- drilled along the beachfront beneath the ocean. In 1933, the
id-etch test tube in parallel with a compass needle that Signal Hill field was developed in Long Beach, Calif.
would lock into cooling gelatin, to record both inclination
and direction. A vacuum flask was used to protect the gel- The orientation of directional tools, including whipstocks,
atin from external heat in the borehole. This development was accomplished by using a visual surface reference and
was first described around 1912, yet the heat-shield principle maintaining the tool facing while it was lowered into the
is still used in modern survey instruments. hole. Another method entailed running in a survey instru-
ment so that it landed in a special mule-shoe key designed to

align it with the tool facing (Figure DD-4). This was record-
Ready to Start Drilling Ahead Drilling Ahead
ed as a reference to the magnetic direction or high side of an In Closed Position Drilling on Whipstock in New Hole
inclined wellbore and the deviation tool could then be turned

to the desired facing/direction.
In 1934, a blowout occurred in a field owned by Humble Oil

Whipstock Pin
Locked for Setting Sheared
Company of Conroe, Texas. A gas kick from a high-pressure

zone ignited, and the entire rig was engulfed in flames. After
many months and attempts to bring the fire under control,
other nearby rigs had to be closed down and the entire field
was threatened. H. John Eastman, with his experience using
whipstocks and surveying instruments, used a mobile drill-
ing truck to drill a directional relief well close enough to the Muleshoe
stinger
blowout well, killing the blowout on the first attempt. The
oil industry subsequently accepted directional drilling as a
reliable technique (Figure DD-5).
Figure DD-3: Wellbore deviation with whipstocks.
1940s-1960s
It’s likely that basic stabilized rotary bottomhole assembly
(BHA) designs with drill collars for weight and stiffness, to-
gether with stabilizers precisely positioned for inclination
control while drilling, originated in the 1940s. Historically,
it had been possible to control the angle of directional wells
during rotary drilling by correct design of the assembly and
use of suitable drilling parameters. The three basic princi- Key
ples included holding inclination (locked/packed), building
inclination (fulcrum) and dropping inclination (pendulum).
Drill collars, when used without stabilization, tended to
Muleshoe
buckle and cause unwanted deviation and poor hole quality. stinger
Multiple stabilizers were positioned to increase the stiffness
or to promote the natural bending of the drill collars, thereby
pointing the drill bit or applying a side force to encourage the
Figure DD-4: One method to orient directional tools was
wellbore in a specific trajectory.
running in a survey instrument to land in a special mule-
shoe key designed to align it with the tool facing.
Control of hole direction had traditionally been poor with
basic rotary assemblies. Roller-cone bits usually walked to
the right (clockwise), and directional control was previous-
ly limited to using well-stabilized assemblies to reduce this
tendency. The normal prior practice with non-steerable as-
semblies was to lead the well an estimated amount to the
Key
left of the plan, thereby compensating for anticipated turns.
Magnetic instruments naturally needed to be seated in

a nonmagnetic environment if they were to run inside the
drillstring to accurately measure direction. In the 1940s,
nonmagnetic drill collars (NMDC) were placed in the lowest
possible position of the drillstring with a crow’s foot baffle
plate inserted below it. This allowed the drilling fluid to pass
through the drillstring and, at the same time, provide a con-
venient seat for the survey instrument.
Figure DD-5: Directional drilling is well accepted as a
reliable technique to drill relief wells to kill blowouts.
Gyroscopic surveying, developed as early as 1929, was First recorded application was in 1934.
continuously improved from the 1940s to the 1960s. Gy-
ros were also used to measure inclination, azimuth and the

deviation tool orientation. While magnetic instruments are ti-collision scenarios exist in surface holes. Other notable
dependent on the Earth’s natural lines of magnetic force, gy- points about jetting include:
ros use a gyroscopic compass to maintain a fixed-reference •• It is relatively inexpensive compared to conventional
direction and to measure relative changes in direction at se- deflection tools;
lected depths with the aid of a timer. This surveying technol- •• It allows surveys to be taken closer to the bit than any
ogy enabled even more directional drilling applications, as it other deflection method;
could be used in magnetic environments, e.g., for accurately •• Jetting dogleg response can be inconsistent and difficult
sidetracking from inside the casing in a vertical hole where to predict;
magnetic toolfaces would otherwise be impossible to orient •• Effectiveness is reduced as bit diameter and BHA
or when drilling suffers from magnetic interference from tubular diameter increase;
nearby wells. •• Hole-opening runs are often required, as jetting is often
performed in 8 ½ in. and 12 ¼ in. holes.
The jetting technique was developed in the mid-1950s.
Rarely used in the 21st century, it is still a valid and inexpen- The first downhole drilling motors or mud motors were de-
sive deviation method for soft formations. A special jet bit signed and manufactured by Dyna-Drill in 1958. The mo-
may be used, but it is also common practice to use a stan- tor was based on the 1930 Moineau design for progressive
dard soft formation tri-cone bit with one very large nozzle cavity pumps. The mud motor’s molded elastomeric insert,
and two smaller ones. The idea is to point the big jet in the which is bonded to the inside of a cylindrical steel case,
desired direction. With the majority of flow passing through comprises the stator of the pump or motor unit. A helical
the large-bore nozzle (big jet), the hole preferentially wash- rotor with one or more lobes rotates eccentrically within the
es in the direction of the large nozzle and forms a pocket. stator (which contains one more lobe than the rotor). When
Drilling can continue with the assembly following the direc- differential pressure (i.e., mud flow through this power sec-
tion of the pocket (Figure DD-6). tion) is applied across the assembly, the rotary power ex-
tracted from the rotor/stator assembly functions as a motor
While jetting is not common today, it can be useful tight an- driving the drill bit. Many power section configurations have
been developed, from those that generate high bit speeds
Figure DD-6: Jetting was developed in the mid-1950s. Rarely used today, it is still a valid and
inexpensive deviation method in soft formations. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.

Figure DD-7: Downhole drilling motors were introduced by Dyna-Drill in 1958. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
but are limited to relatively low torque, to those allowing for

slower-bit speeds but at a much higher-torque output (Fig-
ure DD-7).
Magnetic
Mud motors were first used for directional control of bore-
holes in the 1960s. A bent sub (a short component for con- single shot
necting two longer collars) was positioned directly on top
of the mud motor (Figure DD-8). This directional drilling
assembly would normally be used whenever the wellbore Bent sub
reached a depth that required deviating, normally to initi-
ate/drill a curve or correct the wellbore. With the drillstring
not rotating (rotary drive locked), drilling was accomplished
by the motor-driven drill bit. This bit still rotated as long as
there was mud flow and the ability to make new hole by slid-
ing the drillstring. This would in effect kick off the wellbore in Downhole
the direction of the bent-sub toolface. The BHA was usually mud motor
pulled back out of the hole to prevent twisting off (breaking)
the motor due to high stresses caused when trying to rotate
the bent-sub configuration. Basic rotary assemblies would
be run to continue controlling the well path until another
motor run was necessary.
Drill bit
Mud motors were sometimes used in vertical applications
where high bit speeds were desirable. They had the added Figure DD-8: By the 1970s, mud motors dominated
benefit of minimizing erosion and wear on the drillstring directional drilling. As above, they were used
and casing strings since the drillstring would not need to be with a bent-sub for directional kick off.
turned as fast due to the reduction of the surface revolutions
per minute (RPM). The majority of mud motors were used to measure drift, direction and toolface during semi-contin-
in directional (deviated) wells. In these wells, one run with uous drilling and with downhole directional data available in
the bent-sub configuration could accomplish the same goal real time on surface. An instrument assembly containing a
as multiple runs with other methods of steering the bit, but magnetic survey package was sent downhole connected by
with greater accuracy, thus reducing time and cost. a wireline. It was seated in a mule-shoe orienting sub (also
called Universal Bottomhole Orienting sub or UBHO) that
The rebel tool was introduced in the 1960s. It was one of was connected to the top of a mud motor, thereby aligning it
the first directional drilling tools to control the direction of with the motor’s toolface. A coder converted data measure-
lateral wellbore trajectory while rotating and could be set up ments to electrical pulses and transmitted the measure-
on surface for a left or right tendency. Inconsistent reliability ments to the surface through a shielded electric conduit to
of these tools led to their declined use in the industry. digital or video displays. Measurements were thus available
immediately in real time at the surface for use in directional-
1970s ly controlling the wellbore. Even though these early steering
Magnetic-steering tools were first used in 1969 but became tools provided the directional driller with valuable data in
more common in the 1970s. The steering tool was also used real time, the tools would have to be pulled out of the drill-

The arrival and combination of bent-housing motors and

measurement while drilling (MWD) surveying in the early
1980s was a significant, although costly, step toward over-
coming the drawbacks of previous deviation systems (Fig-
ure DD-9). MWD allows downhole measurements from
sensors at or near the bit to be sent to the surface contin-
uously by mud-pulse telemetry, electromagnetic (EM) fre-
quency communications or wired drillpipe. This allows for
faster, more accurate and safer drilling. The survey tool’s
accelerometers and magnetometers measure the inclina-
tion and azimuth of the wellbore and then transmit the in-
formation from a specific location to the surface in real time.
The extra cost incurred from using the steerable system is
counteracted by the savings in survey and trip time. MWD
surveys allow the directional driller more control over survey
intervals. It has become common to survey with every single
stand of drillpipe (i.e., 90 ft) in the kickoff and curve phases
without the additional time required by single-shot surveys.
Figure DD-9: Introduction of an adjustable bent housing In 1985, the first continuous north-seeking gyro was intro-
within the motor body allowed rotation (right), as well as duced. 1987 saw the addition of the first gyro-steering tool.
“sliding” drilling (left). Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
In the late 1980s, adjustable-gauge stabilizers (AGS) were
string every time another joint or connection of drillpipe was introduced to the industry. They were designed to change
added and then rerun. the characteristics of a rotary assembly by adjusting their
effective blade diameter while drilling ahead. By strategical-
Steering tools were eventually used with side-entry subs ly placing the AGS near or 15 to 30 ft above the bit, the gauge
that made drilled sections with mud motor assemblies con- adjustment controls the inclination build or drop tendency
tinuous because the wireline entered the drillstring below and mitigates costly, time-consuming trips. The stabilizers
the surface. This early real-time method of surveying made are also used with steerable systems.
it possible to drill in deeper and more difficult scenarios by
enabling precise directional control of the downhole tools. The first purposeful horizontal well was drilled in Toxemia,
Texas in 1929. Numerous horizontal wells attempted during
In the late 1970s, surface readout gyros (SRG) came onto the 1950s and 1960s in the Soviet Union and China yield-
the directional landscape. They needed to be oriented to a ed only limited success. As weak oil prices during the late
known location on surface prior to surveying or orientation. 1970s and early 1980s pushed the industry toward cost-ef-
These gyros are extremely durable and are most common- fective techniques, interest in horizontal drilling picked up.
ly used in applications where movement is present such as By the late 1980s, horizontal drilling finally became econom-
drilling offshore or from floating rigs. ically viable.
1980s Of the three categories of horizontal wells—short-, medium-

The mud motor evolved into an even more versatile direc- and long-radius—medium radius is the most widely used.
tional drilling option when the bent-sub configuration was Medium-radius wells can be drilled relatively quickly, have
replaced by an adjustable bent housing in the motor body less curvature and do not require use of specialized equip-
itself. The shorter bit-to-bend distance reduced the lever ment.
arm (bit offset), which in turn reduced the stress at the bend
and led to single BHA runs, i.e., being able to drill contin- 1990s-Present
uously in rotary mode with the option to stop rotation and In the late 1990s, rotary steerable systems (RSSs) were in-
slide the drillstring in the direction required, thereby making troduced. When drilling in the sliding mode, steerable mo-
corrections or maintaining build/turn rates without trips for tors produced a level of wellbore tortuosity that not only
any configuration changes. There are still limits regarding negatively impacted critical follow-up operations, e.g., for-
the severity of the bend, above which rotation is not recom- mation evaluation and running casing, but also hampered
mended. further sliding in ER wells. Unlike steerable motor assem-
blies, rotary steerable technology allows for remote-con-

trolled directional drilling with continuous rotation from the A directional survey, either magnetic or gyroscopic, is taken
surface without the need for sliding. using one or more of a selection of available tools. The sur-
vey instrument measures the hole inclination (inc) and the
There are two main categories of RSSs: push-the-bit and hole azimuth or direction (azi). The inclination denotes the
point-the-bit methods. The push-the-bit method uses ex- angle of the hole, with 0° meaning that the hole is vertical
ternal pads that push against the formation, directing the and 90° meaning the hole is horizontal. The azimuth is the
bit in the opposite direction. Point-the-bit systems normally direction from north: 0° is due north and 180° is due south
bend or deflect the main shaft and, by using a pivot device, as on a compass. The MD at which the survey is taken is
effectively point the bit in the desired direction. recorded at surface, and a well deviation or survey record is
then generated (see Table DD-1).
Drilling with an RSS provides many advantages over previ-
ous systems: The MD is referenced to the well’s zero reference point,
•• More efficient weight transfer to the bit; which could be the wellhead, rotary table, mean sea level
•• Much improved hole quality leading to deeper/longer (MSL) or other reference the operator or the local authori-
achievable wellbores with reduced wellbore drag; ties designate for their operations. Likewise, the north/east
•• Improved formation evaluation and ease of running zero point reference can be the wellhead, well center, plat-
casing strings; form center or other reference point chosen by the operator
•• Improved hole cleaning during drilling operations due to or local authorities. The north reference can be true north
continuous rotation; (TN), grid north (GN) or magnetic north (MN). It is import-
•• Reduced risk of getting the drilling assembly stuck as ant to use the correct reference coordinates as the results of
there is continuous rotation; the survey record are used for other operations as explained
•• Increased rates of penetration (ROP) compared to later in this chapter.
motor sliding;
•• More accurate placement of wellbores; With the MD, inc and azi input variables, the position of the
•• Overall cost savings due to fewer BHA-related trips and wellbore is calculated in terms of TVD, as well as north/
faster ROPs. south (N/S) and east/west (E/W) departures from the
reference point of the well. Several calculation methods
RSS technology has made access to difficult-to-reach reser- can be used to approximate the well profile between survey
voirs possible with precise directional control in previously stations, with the most commonly used being the minimum
inaccessible or uncontrollable formations. Horizontal ap- curvature method.
plications like extended-reach drilling (ERD) have naturally
benefitted greatly from RSS technology with wells drilled In Table DD-1, the well starts off roughly in a northwest
regularly with horizontal departures of 5,000 to 20,000 ft. direction (azi ~300°) and the distance from the reference
point increases in that direction. It should be noted that
The first gyro MWD was introduced in 2000. In 2013 in the south and west in this example are expressed as negative
Sahkalin Shelf, Exxon Neftegas Limited drilled the deepest numbers. Toward the bottom of the interval, the well turns
wellbore ever recorded: 41,667 ft (12,700 m) with a horizon- in a westerly direction (azi ~260°) as the well is built to an
tal reach 38,514 ft of (11,739 m). inclination of ~70°. The departure continues to increase in
the westerly direction and starts to slightly decrease in the
Current costs related to hydrocarbon production are driving northerly direction. The tool column notes that the top part
the development of newer directional drilling technologies. of the well (down to 1,105 ft) was surveyed using a gyro-sur-
Today, directional drilling has become a normal part of the vey tool and the rest with an MWD survey tool.
drilling landscape, whereas once it was understood by very
few. Probably the most significant advantage of this evolu- Magnetic and gyroscopic sensors:
tion is that oil-producing companies worldwide can now de-
velop subsurface deposits that previously could never have instruments and theory
been reached economically using other methods.
Magnetic sensors
Directional surveying Magnetic survey instruments use electronics to measure
Directional surveys are taken to determine the position of the Earth’s gravity and magnetic field, most commonly along
the borehole being drilled and to determine the orientation, three orthogonal axes. For magnetic sensors to be accurate,
or toolface, of directional drilling tools, e.g., mud motors, ro- they must be used within an environment far from materials
tary steerable tools and whipstocks. that disturb the Earth’s magnetic field, e.g., steel casing and
drill collars. These sensors can only be used in open hole

Table DD-1: Sample directional survey. This wells starts off heading northwest (azi ~ 300°), and the distance
from the reference point increases in that direction.
MD INC AZL TYD N/S E/W
Tool
(ft) (*) (*) (ft) (ft) (ft)
679.0 2.89 299.16 678.9 3.6 2.7 SR-Gyro-55(1)
725.0 4.49 297.38 724.8 5.0 0.1 SR-Gyro-55(1)
775.0 5.09 297.86 774.6 7.0 -3.6 SR-Gyro-55(1)
821.0 6.25 296.89 820.4 9.1 -7.6 SR-Gyro-55(1)
870.0 6.52 296.43 869.1 11.5 -12.5 SR-Gyro-55(1)
916.0 6.47 297.18 914.8 13.8 -17.1 SR-Gyro-55(1)
964.0 6.72 300.83 962.5 16.5 -21.9 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1010.0 7.59 303.62 1008.1 19.6 -26.8 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1059.0 8.84 304.73 1056.6 23.5 -32.6 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1105.0 10.33 306.26 1102.0 28.0 -38.8 SR-Gyro-55(1)
1154.9 10.97 306.14 1151.0 33.4 -46.2 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1249.7 12.79 310.01 1243.8 45.5 -61.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1345.4 14.25 306.47 1336.8 59.3 -79.1 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1441.5 16.46 305.59 1429.5 74.3 -99.7 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1535.5 17.50 301.31 1519.4 89.3 122.7 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1630.4 18.59 302.17 1609.7 104.8 -147.7 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1696.7 18.80 298.73 1672.4 115.5 -166.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1757.0 18.77 298.18 1729.5 124.8 -183.1 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1852.5 20.92 295.54 1819.3 139.4 -212.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
1947.6 25.06 292.03 1906.8 154.3 -246.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2042.1 27.21 292.05 1991.7 169.9 -284.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2137.0 30.84 291.63 2074.7 187.0 -327.3 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2232.3 31.42 292.38 2156.3 205.5 -373.0 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2327.4 35.63 292.98 2235.5 225.8 -421.4 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2422.5 38.40 290.54 2311.4 246.9 -474.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2517.3 42.48 288.71 2383.6 267.5 -532.5 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2613.4 46.37 284.64 2452.2 286.8 -596.9 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2708.4 48.97 279.31 2516.2 301.2 -665.6 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2803.3 51.29 273.38 2577.0 309.2 -737.9 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2899.4 54.08 268.08 2635.4 310.1 -814.3 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
2994.4 56.77 265.45 2689.3 305.7 -892.4 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3090.2 59.62 263.56 2739.7 297.9 -973.4 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3185.3 63.02 262.45 2785.4 287.7 -1056.2 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3279.1 65.81 261.16 2825.9 275.6 -1139.9 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
3374.8 70.37 260.38 2861.6 261.4 -1227.5 MWD+IFR2+MS+sag(2)
away from nearby casing and positioned within one or more Hole direction or azimuth is measured by using both gravity
sections of nonmagnetic material. The electronic-magnetic accelerometers and magnetometers which measure com-
survey systems in use today are solid-state self-contained ponents of the Earth’s magnetic field orthogonally, i.e., in
directional surveying instruments. the same three axes as the accelerometers. From this mea-
surement, the vector components can be used to determine
Inclination is measured by gravity accelerometers. From this hole direction.
measurement, the vector components of each of the three
axes are most often used to calculate hole inclination. These sensors can be employed in different modes such as
single-shot, multi-shot and MWD. The electronic-magnetic

single-shot records a single-survey

record while drilling the well and is
usually run on a wireline for quick
retrieval. The data are stored down-
hole in the memory and retrieved
at the surface to calculate the hole
direction, inclination and toolface.
The electronic-magnetic multi-shot
uses the same components as the
electronic single-shot. The sole dif-
ference is that electronic multi-shots
record multiple survey records.
During drilling operations, the MWD

instrument acquires downhole in-
formation to allow drillers to make
timely decisions. The magnetic sur-
vey information is obtained with the
same sensors, but, unlike previously
mentioned systems that only stored
the information, the MWD encodes
the survey data in mud pulses that
are decoded at the surface.
Figure DD-10: Magnetic sensors rely upon detecting the Earth’s magnetic field
The geomagnetic field to determine hole direction. The Earth can be imagined as having a large bar
Magnetic sensors rely upon detect- magnet at its center, lying barely off the north/south spin axis. The normal lines
of the magnetic field will emanate from the Earth’s core in a pattern.
ing the Earth’s magnetic field to de-
termine hole direction. The Earth
can be imagined as having a large bar magnet at its center, Models are generally updated annually because even the
lying barely off the north/south spin axis (see Figure DD- field of the Earth’s core and mantle varies with time. It
10). The normal lines of the magnetic field will emanate from should be noted that these models do not include effects
the Earth’s core in a pattern. At the MN and south poles, from crustal anomalies and materials near the surface of
the lines of force (flux lines) will lie vertically, or at 90°, to the Earth which can be quite significant. They also do not
the Earth’s surface. At the magnetic equator, the lines of separate effects from various electrojets in the Earth’s at-
force will be horizontal, or at 0°, to the Earth’s surface. At mosphere, the effects of solar storms or the diurnal variation
any point on the Earth, a magnetic field has strength and in the Earth’s magnetic field. At high latitudes, these effects
direction (vector). The strength is called magnitude and is can be quite significant as well. One mitigation method is
measured in units of tesla. Usual measurements are ap- to make magnetic-observatory-quality measurements di-
proximately 60 microtesla at the magnetic north pole and rectly at the wellsite; however, this is rarely possible. A use-
30 microtesla at the magnetic equator. The direction is al- ful alternative is to interpolate the field at a given location
ways called magnetic north; however, the magnitude will be and time, as measured by at least three nearby magnetic
parallel to the surface of the Earth at the equator and point observatories, the triangle of which preferably includes the
steeply into the Earth closer to the north pole. The angle that wellsite being surveyed. This is referred to as interpolated
the vector makes with the Earth’s surface is called the mag- in-field referencing.
netic dip.
Gyroscopic sensors
The prevailing models used to estimate the local magnetic Gyroscopic surveying instruments are used when the accu-
field are provided by the British Geological Survey (BGS) or racy of a magnetic survey system could be corrupted by ex-
the US Geological Survey (USGS). These models carry out traneous influences such as cased holes, production tubing,
a high-order spherical harmonic expansion of the Earth’s geographic location or nearby wells. A rotor gyroscope is
magnetic field and provide a very accurate global calculation composed of a spinning wheel mounted on a shaft. It is pow-
of the magnetic field rising from the Earth’s core and mantle. ered by an electric motor and is capable of reaching speeds
exceeding 40,000 rpm. The spinning wheel (rotor) can be

oriented, or pointed, in a known direction. The direction in may be required for anywhere from every 100 ft (30 m) of
which the gyro spins is maintained by its own inertia and can wellbore drilled to every 500 ft (152 m) drilled. The position
therefore be used as a reference for measuring azimuth. An of the wells is important for future reference should a well
outer and inner gimbal arrangement allows the gyroscope to intervention or well intersection for well control, workover
maintain its predetermined direction regardless of how the or abandonment purposes be required. A survey is also re-
instrument is positioned in the wellbore. quired to ensure future wells can be drilled safely away from
existing wellbores, especially those producing hydrocarbons
Gyroscopic systems (gyros) can be classified into three cat- and/or under pressure.
egories: free gyros, rate gyros and inertial navigation sys-
tems. Operator
The operator will generally need to acquire survey data to
Free gyros satisfy regulatory requirements and to ensure that the well
There are three types of free gyros: tilt scale, level rotor and is drilled to the desired subsurface location. Accurate posi-
stable platform. The tilt scale and level rotor are film sys- tional data is needed to confirm that the well is in the right
tems. The stable platform uses the electronic system which location. Subsurface maps for drilling and production pur-
has a shorter run time and faster data processing while mon- poses rely on accurate well-placement information.
itoring continuously. Most free gyros are the stable-platform
type. They use a two-gimbal gyro system like the level-rotor Services
gyro, but with the gimbals remaining perpendicular to each Almost all services need survey data to plan and execute the
other even when the instrument is tilted during use. The in- work. Directional drilling, MWD and logging while drilling
ner gimbal remains perpendicular to the tool axis (platform) (LWD) contractors are generally responsible for acquiring
instead of perpendicular to the horizon. the data and performing the needed quality assurance/qual-
ity control (QA/QC) on the data prior to handing it to the
Rate gyros (north-seeking gyros) operator and all other parties on the wellsite. A dedicated
Rate gyros use the horizontal component of the Earth’s rota- survey company may be needed to perform survey services,
tional rate to determine north. The Earth rotates 360° in 24 especially when using gyro-based surveys. The surveyors
hours, or 15° in one hour. The horizontal component of the work on their own or in conjunction with the directional drill-
Earth’s rate decreases with the cosine of latitude; however, ing and/or MWD/LWD contractors. On simple wells where
a TN reference will always be resolved at a latitude of less no collision risks exist, the survey services can be performed
than 80° north or south. The rate gyro, therefore, does not by the rig contractor.
have to rely on a known reference direction for orientation.
Inclination is measured by a triaxial gravity-accelerometer Anti-collision
package. Rate gyros have a very precise drift rate that is Between the operator and the directional drilling company,
small compared to the Earth’s spin rate. The Earth’s spin rate the survey data are used to ensure the well is being drilled
is lower at higher latitudes and affects the gyro’s ability to in such a way that it penetrates the earth safely away from
seek north, i.e., the fastest spin rate is at the Equator and the other wells. This process is called anti-collision or collision
lowest are near the North and South Poles. This effect also avoidance.
increases the time required to seek north accurately and de-
creases the accuracy of the north reference. Both in the planning phase and during the actual drilling,
care must be taken to ensure the well path is at a safe dis-
Inertial navigation systems tance from other wells. This is particularly true for those
Inertial navigation systems, the most accurate surveying wells that are under pressure and/or producing hydrocar-
method, use groups of gyros to orient the system to north. bons. Accidental collision with such wells can lead to serious
The systems measure movement in the x, y and z axes of the incidents. If a well cannot be drilled at a safe distance from
wellbore with gyros and gravity accelerometers. Because of under-pressure or producing wells, these wells should be
the sensor design, this instrument can survey in all latitudes closed in and depressurized prior to continuing the drilling
without sacrificing accuracy. of the hole section through and past the danger zone.
All survey instruments have a small element of error in their

Directional surveying essentials measurement. To account for these errors, along with the
wellbore position (TVD, N/E, etc.), an ellipse of uncertainty
Regulations around the position is calculated. The magnitude of the er-
Generally, regulatory agencies require drillers to take sur- ror and size of the ellipse depend on the survey instrument
veys to map the position of the wells being drilled. A survey used—small for accurate instruments (e.g., north-seeking

gyros), a little larger for most other surveys (e.g., MWD mag- Surface locations
netic surveys) and largest for poorly controlled surveys (e.g., Many constraints determine a surface location. On land,
single-shot magnetic surveys). A well can be safely drilled there may be physical constraints such as lease location and
if and when the ellipses between two wells do not touch or size; road access; waterways such as lakes, rivers, ponds or
overlap and are a minimum distance from each other. If the swamps; topography such as hills, valleys and mountains;
ellipses touch or overlap, resurveying one or both wellbores and developments such as buildings, roads and parks. Oth-
using better survey instruments may remedy the situation. er conditions, such as proximity to publicly- sensitive loca-
tions or sites of historic or social significance, may also be
Rig personnel involved (operations only) determining factors. Offshore, the surface location will be
Members of the drilling contractor’s crew may be needed to constrained by the physical location of the drilling unit. If it
help perform the survey. is a mobile drilling unit (e.g., a drillship, jackup or semisub-
mersible drilling unit), the rig may be located directly above
MWD/LWD survey instruments are run in hole with the the desired drilling targets. Occasionally, however, this may
drilling BHA. The driller and the personnel on the rig floor not be possible due to obstructions on the sea floor or sea
are required to help make up and install the various pieces current patterns. Additionally, the driller may be attempting
of the BHA. In most cases, the MWD/LWD crew and the to penetrate multiple subsurface targets that are not directly
directional driller must measure the offset between the above one another. In this case, the mobile drilling unit can-
MWD/LWD survey instruments and other drilling tools not be located directly above all the desired well objectives.
(e.g., rotary steerable tool, whipstock, mud motor, MWD or Fixed drilling units offshore on platforms of any type will
surface equipment) prior to running in hole. require both directional drilling to navigate away from the
existing wells on the platform and penetration of subsurface
Gyro instruments are usually run on wireline into the drill- targets in achievable proximity to the platform.
string. Besides the needed rig floor personnel, the gyro-sur-
vey engineer and the wireline operator are also needed for Subsurface targets
this operation. The reservoir to be exploited is typically much larger than the
surface area of the platform. Additionally, reservoirs gen-
Single-shot surveys are run on slick line or dropped in the erally require multiple wells to efficiently recover as much
drillstring to be retrieved later. The survey engineer, rig floor hydrocarbon from the field as possible. Depending on the
personnel and/or a slick line operator are needed for this characteristics of the reservoir, a blend of production and
operation. injection wells may be required to facilitate optimal recov-
ery. As a result, strategic placement of the wells is required
Safety and handling to achieve best production. For example, in simplest form,
As with all rig floor procedures, care must be taken when placing injection wells around the periphery of the field with
dealing with heavy equipment moving up, down and side- producer wells in the middle will allow the injection pressure
ways. to push the reservoir fluids from the boundaries of the field
toward the production wells in the center, thus enhancing
Particular care must be taken when running tools on slick and optimizing field production. In reality, reservoirs are
lines. Stay away from moving parts, sheaves and the wireline often dipping in various directions, as subsurface pres-
drum if at all possible. Keep hands and other extremities, as sures may have broken up the stratigraphy into various fault
well as hair and clothing, away from moving parts and the blocks, complicating well placement requirements and add-
line when you must be in the vicinity. Use the appropriate ing to the complexity of the directional drilling requirements.
personal protective equipment (PPE). Drilling targets are therefore typically derived by the sub-
surface experts within the operating company – petrophysi-
cists, geophysicists, geologists and reservoir engineers.
Defining the directional drilling objective
The basic premise of directional drilling is to drill a well from Sizing of the target
a fixed-surface location to desired subsurface locations or The sizing of the target is not arbitrary. Depending on the ob-
targets. Directional drilling objectives are governed by sur- jectives of the well and the anticipated reservoir pressures,
face locations and subsurface targets; however, consider- placing the well in the correct spot becomes critical to pro-
ations are required beyond merely connecting the dots from duction success. In very new fields, large fault blocks may
point to point. Surface locations offshore from fixed plat- have trapped very high reservoir pressure. On entry into any
forms offer the best explanation. part of the fault block, it is quite possible the well will be an
immediate success as the pressure is suitably high to push
the reservoir fluids to surface easily. If the well penetrates

only the top part of the reservoir, however, this pressure will the magnetic field varies more when drilling east to west
ease over time as the well produces. This pressure easing is across magnetic lines of flux. It therefore becomes evident
called drawdown. Recoverable reserves may be left behind that maintaining survey quality within even a single well is a
if the wells are not optimally placed in the beginning of the significant challenge. Wells that are drilled in close proximi-
life of the field. Nevertheless, a good understanding of the ty to other wells present complex survey problems because
various subsurface structural challenges is only understood the MWD sensor will pick up magnetic readings from offset
as the field produces over time. As a result, attempting to wells that are close-by. If the proximity cannot be avoided,
size targets continually results in a catch-22. The more one gyro-survey instruments may be required to properly survey
drills, the more one becomes aware about the best place to the well. Although a gyro survey is not influenced by nearby
drill wells to optimize recovery. It is important to remember magnetism, the gyro measurement is influenced by vibra-
though that the best recovery is already influenced by pre- tions, shocks and other motions typical in drilling environ-
viously-drilled wells. From a directional drilling perspective, ments. An absolute best measurement between magnetic
and with respect to reservoir requirements, directional drill- versus gyro is not likely; trade-offs will be required at differ-
ing targets become more challenging as a field ages. ent points in the well.
Anti-collision Survey accuracy

Anti-collision is an additional directional drilling challenge Survey accuracy will also influence target size. Regardless
that presents itself as a field ages. As more wells are drilled of the survey instrument used, there will be a small mea-
in a field, the risk for potential well collisions grows; thus, the surement error. This error can be affected by several fac-
anti-collision objectives when drilling new wells can become tors such as the survey instrument quality and calibration;
very complicated. Some platforms offshore may have more the surveying technique; pipe movement; survey frequency;
than 50 individual well slots with potentially multiple wells hole size and condition; the BHA ; the well trajectory; and
per slot. Furthermore, multiple platforms may be required the geographic location to name only a few. In addition, sur-
to fully produce the field. Each platform may have an equal veying errors compound over the length of the well and the
number of wells. Because of anti-collision issues, the well well position can be somewhere within a cone of uncertainty
design trajectory required to ultimately penetrate the reser- that reflects the maximum accumulated survey error. Un-
voir target can be so complex that the well may be steered in derstanding this cone of uncertainty is important when de-
completely the opposite direction from the final target mere- signing the geological targets for the well. The target defined
ly to get away from the platform and avoid collision risk. This by the subsurface team must account for this error to ensure
situation presents yet another challenge for the well, as this the well penetrates the desired reservoir target.
departure will increase the length of the well and will also
add what may seem like erroneous well curvature along the This uncertainty presents another challenge because this
borehole path. Related torque and drag considerations will type of departure will also increase the length of the well
be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. and add what may seem like erroneous well curvature along
the borehole path. The tortuosity of the well as a result of
Multiple wells also present issues with survey quality. Today, this complex curvature puts added strain on the drillstring
the most common MWD tools utilize magnetic sensors to and rig-drive system. Detailed torque-and-drag modeling
determine the direction of the well path. They are often cou- becomes a requirement during the design stages of the well
pled with a gravity sensor or direction and inclination (D&I) to ensure that the well can be drilled to the desired location
package that determines the inclination of the well. This D&I with the equipment available. Enhancements to a drilling
package continuously measures the magnetic field, which system, such as high-torque drillpipe, casing protectors,
translates to a corresponding azimuth, or direction, of the roller reamers, etc., could be required as a result.
well. The sensor must be isolated from nearby magnetic ma-
terial in order to deliver a clean measurement. Obtaining this Trajectory design considerations
clean measurement within the drillstring itself is achieved Once the surface location and subsurface targets are known,
by isolating the MWD tool from the rest of the steel drill- the trajectory planning can commence. Trajectory design,
string with nonmagnetic collars and/or nonmagnetic heavy- however, is not as straightforward as it would appear. The
weight drillpipe (HWDP). The length of nonmagnetic mate- well design with its respective casing and liner sizes and
rial, and the spacing of MWD sensors within the BHA, is a depths will constrain the trajectory. The rock properties in
function of the latitude of the drilling location and the direc- each hole section must also be considered. Certain direc-
tion in which the well will be drilled. tional drilling objectives cannot be achieved if the hole size
and rock properties are not conducive. The BHA and drill-
The Earth’s magnetic field is much stronger at the poles string components, such as the drive system and bit type,
than at the equator. The measurement of the strength of

will also influence the trajectory design, or vice versa, and deflection of BHA components, enhancing the dogleg capa-
will be selected based on trajectory design. bilities of the drilling assembly.
Designing a directional well will require blended consider- Drilling fluid

ation of several factors. It is easiest to lay out the factors The drilling fluid has a significant impact on BHA directional
one at a time and describe how each plays a role in optimum performance for several reasons. First, the fluid type will im-
trajectory design, both positively and negatively. pact hole gauge. If the hole is out of gauge, borehole contact
with the BHA components required to impart bending force
Hole depth on the BHA will be thrown off and achievable dogleg will be
Shallow-set casing is generally drilled vertically, as the rock impacted. In most cases, the DLS will deteriorate. In excep-
near the surface is not competent enough to support large tional circumstances, however, the wellbore may be so out
deviations in well trajectory. The larger casing strings are of gauge that excessive deflection occurs. In either case, the
also not flexible enough to support much change in direc- results will be unplanned and the outcome less than desir-
tion. In addition, the more well deviation that occurs in the able. Wellbore friction is also affected by the drilling fluid.
shallow part of the well, the greater the friction losses will High friction will impact weight transfer and torque transfer
be deeper in the well. The majority of shallow directional to the BHA, negatively affecting directional performance
requirements in large holes are for collision- avoidance pur- and achievable dogleg.
poses.
Hole cleaning will impact DLS as weight transfer is more
The best trajectory design will attempt to achieve the direc- limited if the hole is filled with cuttings. Mud design must
tional drilling objectives of the well as efficiently as possible. be appropriate for the trajectory design to ensure that hole
This is best done in the shallower part of the well where the cleaning and borehole stability are effective.
rock is softer and drilling can proceed faster once the larg-
er-surface casing strings are run. Weight and torque trans- Mud weight is an additional factor affecting directional
fer to the bit is more efficient at shallower depths; however, performance. Higher mud weights result in slower drilling
a few drawbacks must be counterbalanced. First, it is neces- and directional drilling becomes more difficult. If filter cake
sary to account for the overall depth of the well, as well as builds up along the wellbore due to the higher mud weights,
torque and drag considerations deeper down. The formation it will impact weight transfer as the drillstring drag will in-
must also be competent enough to accommodate wellbore crease. If this situation deteriorates, there is a serious risk of
deviations, or doglegs, if they are required to reach the tar- stuck pipe, particularly during slide drilling.
gets.
Hydraulics
Hole size Proper hydraulics is essential for effective bit performance
As a rule, it is more difficult to achieve a larger dogleg in a big and hole cleaning. Good jet-impact force at the bit will
hole because of the reduced flexibility of the larger diameter improve the ROP which will facilitate good directional re-
BHA components and the competency of the rock at shal- sponse. The orientation of the jets may also impact direc-
low depths. Large weight on bit (WOB) is required to bend tional response of the drilling system as the jet may cause
the BHA components and achieve the necessary deflection hole washout ahead of the bit and undermine the directional
to redirect the wellbore. Shallower depths do not typically efforts. Further up the hole, good hydraulics will keep the
have rock competent enough to support the WOB required hole clean and improve weight transfer to the bit. At sur-
to achieve the deflection. face, pressure limitations on the pumps will affect flow rate,
which in turn will impact the power supplied to the bit either
Rock competency through a motor, across the bit or through a RSS. All of these
Rock competency determines the limits of achievable dog- aspects will influence the directional capabilities of the drill-
leg severity (DLS). Soft rock may not support large deviation ing system.
as the hydraulic power through the bit will cause hole en-
largement before deviation can be achieved. On the other Drillstring RPM
hand, if the rock is too hard, deviations will be difficult as Drillstring rotating speed in revolutions per minute (RPM)
the drilling process is too slow to redirect the well efficiently. is often the best means of agitating cuttings to help carry
them out of the well; however, RPM will have an impact on
Wellbore inclination trajectory. At higher RPMs, the string will stiffen and this will
Deflecting a well from vertical will require a higher ratio of negatively impact the directional response of the BHA. High
steering. As inclination increases, wellbore deflection be- RPMs are also more prone to wipe out doglegs achieved in
comes easier. Gravity will begin to play a role in aiding the

the well after steering because wall contact with the drill- the hole size. J- profile wells are common for single-target
string will be more forceful. wells, multi-target wells at angle or wells that are a good dis-
tance from the rig location. S-profile wells may be designed
Well profile types for multiple stacked targets and wells closer to the rig. Sim-
Directional wells are often classified based on the type of ilar to vertical wells, the J- and S-profile wells are generally
profile. Directional profiles dictate the type of BHA compo- not limited by hole size or rig capabilities. The depth of the
nents required and may also dictate the rig requirements well and drawworks load will determine the rig require-
needed to achieve the well objectives. A list of profiles, the ments.
well requirements dictating the need for such profiles, and
BHA and rig considerations are described below. Horizontal wells
Horizontal wells are designed to intersect a target reservoir
Vertical Wells laterally at a designed vertical depth and remain within this
Vertical wells are the simplest directional profile. If the for- reservoir for the length of the designed well section. The
mation allows, no directional control is required to maintain length of the lateral may be governed by reservoir size, lease
vertical. As formation strength increases, however, more boundaries or rig capabilities. The type of reservoir may
WOB is required to achieve the ROP. As the WOB increas- vary from an ancient sandy riverbed to a limestone cave sys-
es, the BHA components can flex and cause deflection of tem. The objective may also be to intersect multiple natural
the well profile. In these cases, directional drilling may be fractures along the horizontal section that will flow hydro-
required to return the well to vertical and ensure target pen- carbons into the wellbore. More common now in unconven-
etration. tional reservoirs, the desired target may be a shale known
to contain hydrocarbons that are released when the well is
Basic directional wells – J- and S-profile hydraulically fractured along the reservoir. Horizontal wells
This well type is required when the rig cannot be located commonly use some means of LWD measurements to help
above the desired subsurface target (Figures DD-11a and geo-steer the well and remain within the reservoir target.
DD-11b). The kickoff point (KOP) is the depth in the well at From a rig perspective, rotary torque, hoisting capability and
which point the direction begins to deviate toward the de- hydraulic horsepower (pump-pressure rating) are consider-
sired target. The depth of the KOP is a function of the dis- ations for drilling a designed horizontal profile.
tance required to drill to the target, the formation type and
KOP
Build section
EOB
}
True True
vertical Tangent
KOP vertical
}
depth depth
}
Build section
EOB
} Drop section
Horizontal departure
Horizontal departure
Figures DD-11a and 11b: Examples of J- and S-profile wells (left and right, respectively).

Extended-reach drilling high angle has the well direction established beyond repair
Extended-reach (ER) wells are very long wells with signif- by the time the early surveys are taken. The only recourse
icant lateral reach to vertical depth ratio. Horizontal wells for correcting deviation errors is cementing off the well
often fit this classification. Other types of ERD wells are and redrilling. Rig requirements are generally benign as the
required if a rig cannot be located close to the reservoir. drillstring has a small interior diameter (ID); the hole size is
In the early 1990s, ERD wells gained attention because of small; and consequently hook load and pump requirements
a BP Wytch Farm development campaign in Poole Harbour are not taxing. Short- radius wells can even be drilled with
offshore Southern England. The region was a well-known coiled tubing units. The limitation with short-radius wells
tourist destination and offshore platforms were not desir- usually comes from completion and production sides, since
able. Wells were drilled from a very powerful land rig, reach- the very small well diameter reduces the volume of produce-
ing out under the sea with ERD wells stretching more than able oil and gas.
10 km offshore at a vertical depth of 1,600 m. The drilling
campaign led to the development of new directional drilling Coiled tubing directional drilling
technology, such as AGSs and RSSs. The technology pushed As with short-radius wells, coiled tubing directional drill-
the boundaries of ERD drilling. As with horizontal wells, ERD ing (CTDD) wells are typically limited due to the diameter
wells challenge the limits of the rig from torque, hydraulics of the coiled tubing. Because the coil is not able to rotate,
and hoisting standpoints. Additionally, wellbore drag due to directional drilling applications require special tools. A typ-
the tremendous depth may limit the ability to slide drill with ical CTDD BHA requires a downhole motor to rotate the bit
motors or turbines. This means rotary assemblies or rota- as well as a means of orienting the motor. Orienting devices
ry steerable technology may be required. Rotary steerable have a ratchet-type lock at various toolfaces that are acti-
technology, combined with downhole motors to help rota- vated either electrically or hydraulically depending on the
tion, may also facilitate the drilling of this type of well. design.
Reentry wells Due to the inability of this type of application to rotate, the
Capitalizing on the costs spent drilling an original wellbore, wells are steered continuously, alternating the toolface to
a reentry well will deviate from an existing borehole, usual- achieve the desired well profile. Alternatively, recent ad-
ly through a casing exit. The casing exit is facilitated with a vances in small-diameter rotary steerable technology have
mechanical whipstock oriented toward the desired reservoir enabled a BHA system that uses a motor to rotate a rotary
target. Special milling and casing exit equipment is usually steerable tool and bit at the end of the coil, eliminating the
required to initially exit the wellbore. Whipstocks can usu- need for the orienting device. This combination allows for a
ally be set at any depth, provided the casing size accommo- straight well path between steering sessions and improves
dates the desired hole size to exit the well and still reaches the overall well profile.
the target reservoir objective with single or multiple casing/
liner sections. Additionally, the rig must be capable of set- Coiled tubing units use an injector head to push the coil into
ting and triggering the mechanical anchoring device for the the well. The push power must overcome wellbore drag
whipstock. along the length of coil in the well while also providing the
desired WOB. Because the coil cannot rotate, this drag can
Short-radius wells be substantial. Due to the tubing diameter, buckling is a high
Short-radius wells have extreme doglegs exceeding 36°/100 risk. Advances in coiled tubing hybrid rigs that combine
ft drilled. Such wells may often be reentries. To accommo- coiled tubing and drillpipe have expanded the range of wells
date such high DLS, one’s BHA and drillstring components that can be drilled with coiled tubing. In some rig designs,
must be very flexible. Tubulars with small outside diam- the entire coil reel can be rotated at surface, eliminating
eters of 3 ½ in. or less should generally be used. Special- many of the limitations of coiled tubing drilling.
ly designed downhole motors are commonly required for
short-radius wells. These motors may have multiple bends Multilateral wells
to help accomplish such high doglegs. They may also have The first multilateral well was drilled in the Soviet Union
articulated bends, which are like a loose knuckle when rotat- in 1953. Multilateral wells incorporate multiple departures
ed, but during sliding will lock into place and allow the well to from a main wellbore. This type of well may be used to de-
be directed at high dogleg. Short-radius drilling can be very velop fields with low-reservoir pressures that require res-
challenging, because directional control is complicated by ervoir contact to move hydrocarbons such as heavy oil ap-
the articulated motor. MWD survey packages must also be plications. Additionally, multilateral wells may be a means
at a sufficient distance from the magnetic BHA components of reducing overall development costs by eliminating the
to prevent interference and deliver good surveys. This dis- expense of drilling multiple wells from surface to reach the
tance is often 50 ft or more. A well that deviates at such a reservoir. Departure from the main wellbore is achieved

The drill bit will try to climb uphill, or up dip, in laminar for-
mations. In general, it is much easier to drill a straight or
nearly vertical hole in soft formations than in very hard for-
mations. The effect of the drillstring bending and the influ-
ence of formation dips may be much less significant when
drilling soft formations. Drilling hard formations at high dip
Hole gauge angles requires high bit weights and works against drilling a
Side force straight or vertical hole.
at bit
Side force Vertical wellbores are essential because operators must:
Resultant at stabilizer •• Stay on a particular lease and not drift over onto
force at bit adjacent property;
Bit tilt Hole axis •• Drill a near-vertical hole to meet field rules and legal
Formation
angle requirements from regulatory agencies;
ansitropy
•• Ensure drilling into a specific pay zone, e.g., a
Figure DD-12: Forces acting on the drill bit and stabilizer. stratigraphic trap, a lensing sand or a fault block;
•• Avoid production problems such as rod wear, tubing
through sidetracking off specially- designed mechanical de- leaks, trouble setting packers and distorted casing;
vices or in open hole, depending on the competency of the •• Ease the running of casing, ensuring better cement
rock and the completion plans for the well. The limitation bonds and minimizing casing wear;
of this approach is the hole size of the lateral legs off the •• Limit torque-and-drag due to curvature.
main wellbore and the degree to which this wellbore size
may impact wellbore production. Additionally, post-well in- The need to control the rate of build is driven by the need to
tervention is important to consider. It may also be necessary drill a functional hole with a full-gauge smooth bore that is
to isolate different legs of the laterals along the wellbore de- free from excessive doglegs, keyseats, offsets, spirals and
pending on how the production engineer wishes to develop ledges.
the field. As the complexity of the multilateral production
and intervention requirements change, the complexity of In the early 1960s Arthur Lubinski made the point that rate
the multilateral system requires changes as well. of change in angle (expressed in degrees per 100 ft) is more
important that the total deviation from vertical. At the time
Steam-assisted gravity drainage wells tables were used to determine the maximum permissible
Steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) wells are essential- dogleg that would be acceptable for rotary drilling and com-
ly a pair of horizontal wells drilled in close proximity, one atop pletion (Lubinski, 1990). In the modern era, torque and drag
the other. This is a common application in heavy oil sands and finite element analysis mathematical models determine
where heat is required to facilitate the flow of hydrocarbons. each well’s maximum allowable dogleg.
The top well is used to inject steam into the reservoir while
the oil is produced from the bottom well. From a directional Generally, the tolerance for high dogleg increases with
drilling perspective, the proximity between wells must be a depth. The deeper the point of maximum curvature, the less
precise distance in order to achieve the desired thermal ef- the tension in the pipe. This is due to the fact that there is
fect and melt the oil without having too much steam break less weight hanging below the bend and therefore less lat-
through into the producing well. Specialized magnetic-rang- eral force exerted at the apex of the bend. The tension in the
ing technology is required to steer one well relative to the drillpipe forces itself laterally into the inside of the curve and
other and maintain this distance. The first lateral will be wears a groove into the rock. This lateral force is proportion-
cased off after drilling; the second lateral will have special al to the weight below the dogleg.
instruments that can measure the magnetic field of the cas-
ing in the offset well, guiding the steering. A keyseat, a small-diameter groove worn into a large-diam-
eter borehole, is usually formed in soft formations where
drillpipe is pulled through an abrupt change in hole angle or
Deviation control direction. When large-diameter drillstring components are
A common problem in the drilling industry is the delivery pulled into the groove, the string is restricted from moving
of a smooth, cylindrical, vertical borehole. It is surprising- upward. Keyseats can be prevented by restricting the DLS
ly difficult to maintain verticality while drilling as formation and can be removed by enlarging the diameter of the groove
effects, BHA bending, bit-side cutting force and drilling dy- with downhole tools such as keyseat wipers and reamers.
namics all act to deviate the well path. (Figures DD-12 and -13).

DOG-LEG KEY SEAT Borehole patterns, keyseats, and doglegs

Tension Tension
Drillpipe (DP) fatigue
•• Failure of the DP tube caused by stress reversals as pipe
is rotated across the bend.
Top View of Stuck pipe

Key Seat •• Large-diameter tools are pulled into keyseat;
Section
•• Poor hole cleaning due to hole enlargement and
Lateral
Force irregular hole geometry;
B •• Collapse of borehole wall.
A
Wellbore positioning
•• Loss of steering control in directional wells;
•• Inability to intersect desired target.
Wireline logging
Tension Tension
•• Stuck tools in keyseats;
•• Increased line tension due to capstan effect (wireline
Figure DD-13: Problems related to severe doglegs. A
keyseat (right) is a small-diameter groove that wears
operations);
into a large-diameter borehole. Key seats are usually •• Poor log quality, particularly from image logs, from
formed in soft formations when drillpipe is pulled damaged borehole wall.
through an abrupt change in hole angle or direction.
Casing
•• Stuck casing;
•• Distorted casing;
•• Inability to run completion equipment.
Figure DD-14a, b and c: Conceptual examples of three

undesirable borehole patterns—from left, spiraling, Casing wear
hourglassing and rippling. Courtesy Baker Hughes. •• Hole in casing caused by friction from drillpipe;
•• Loss of pressure integrity.
Borehole patterns
Spiraling, corkscrewing, hourglassing, rippling and the for- Cementing
mation of ledges and other borehole patterns are additional •• Poor cement bond caused by off-center casing.
undesirable effects commonly encountered while drilling.
These patterns are a consequence of bit tilt, bit side- cutting Production problems
force, bit design, stabilizer spacing and BHA bending as well •• Rod wear;
as formation variability, formation dip and bedding planes •• Tubing leaks;
(Figure DD-14). •• Difficulty running packers.
Lateral movement of the bit, while drilling, occurs when an Control of hole angle
oscillation in the drillstring is transferred to the bit. This is Dumb-rotary BHAs, assemblies with neither mechanical
common when low WOB is used with high rotary speeds. nor electronic deflection devices, are the most economical
The lack of engagement of the bit face allows side cutting approach to drilling simple trajectory wells. While fine con-
by the bit shoulders. This movement, or whirl, is repeated trol of azimuth is not always possible, a reasonable ability
at high frequency and causes hole enlargement as the bit to control inclination is available with rotary BHAs. Gravity
moves about the borehole from one side to the other. Once deflects and pulls on the BHA, allowing for inclination con-
started, the pattern is self-generating and can be difficult to trol. An inclined borehole is necessary for this method to be
stop even when additional weight is placed on the bit. Drill- effective.
ing with whirl reduces drilling efficiency by causing hole en-
largement, accelerated bit wear, spiraling, lateral vibration The hole is drilled by the bit, and the BHA follows the bit.
and stabilizer wear. Two factors determine the directional behavior of the bit:
the side force acting on the bit and the bit tilt angle. Both the
force and the angle are controlled in rotary drilling assem-

Figure DD-15: Two factors determine the directional behavior

of the bit: the side force acting on the bit and the bit tilt angle.
blies by varying the size and spacing of the stabilization and

by modifying the weight and rotary speed of the bit. (Figure
DD-15). Figures DD-16a, b and c (from Figures DD-17a and -17b (from
left): 90-ft pendulum BHA, left): Fulcrum assemblies
10-ft pendulum BHA and 8-ft typically utilize a full-gauge
Three principles guide BHA design and influence bit, most- locked BHA to maintain vertical. near-bit stabilizer and under-
ly in the vertical plane: the pendulum principle, the fulcrum Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. gauge second stabilizer. From
principle and the stabilization principle. top, a 90-ft fulcrum BHA
and a 60-ft fulcrum BHA.
Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Pendulum principle: drop inclination
The pendulum principle was the first directional control prin- High rotary speed (120-160 rpm-plus) helps keep the pen-
ciple to be formulated, and was originally analyzed for slick dulum straight to avoid the situation mentioned above. Ini-
assemblies drilling straight holes. The major design feature tially, low WOB should be used. Once the dropping trend has
of a pendulum assembly is that there is either no near-bit been established, moderate weight can be used to achieve
stabilizer or an under-gauge near-bit stabilizer. For deviated a respectable ROP.
wells, the portion of the assembly from the bit to the first
string stabilizer hangs like a pendulum, and the weight of the Pendulum assemblies are prone to vibration and the cre-
pendulum presses the bit to the low side of the hole. In most ation of undesirable borehole patterns caused by a lack of
cases where a pendulum assembly is used, the main factor stabilization at the bit. The low WOB required also results
causing deviation is the vertical component of the forces at in slow ROP. Current thinking prescribes, rather than an
the bit acting on the low side of the hole (Figures DD-16a, un-stabilized bit, a near-bit stabilizer and a closely spaced
-16b and -16c). (6- to 12-ft) string stabilizer to create a pendulum while mit-
igating vibration and improving hole quality.
The length of collars from the bit to the first string stabiliz-
er, the ‘pendulum,’ must not be allowed to bend too much Fulcrum principle: build inclination
toward the low side of the hole. If the collars make contact Fulcrum assemblies typically utilize a full-gauge near-bit
with the low side of the borehole, the effective length of the stabilizer and under-gauge second stabilizer. A side force is
pendulum and the side force are both reduced. This situa- applied to the low side of the hole at the near-bit stabilizer
tion could result in the bit axis tilting upward in relation to which acts as a fulcrum to cause the bit to tilt toward the
the hole axis, thus possibly reducing the dropping tendency high side of the hole. The upward tilt of the bit cuts against
and producing a build tendency. Careful selection of drilling the high side, increasing the inclination. The greater the
parameters is therefore required. WOB applied, the greater the force exerted on the high side
(Figures DD-17a and -17b).

Figures DD-19a and b (from left):

The performance of a packed
assembly can be fine-tuned by
changing the length between the
near-bit stabilizer and the first
string stabilizer. This is particularly
true at higher angle and bit
weights. From top, a 10-ft packed
BHA and a 20-ft packed BHA.
Figure DD-18: Schematic illustrating tool behavior with and without Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
stabilizers (right and left, respectively. At right, three stabilizers
placed in quick succession behind the bit are separated by short
and stiff drill collar sections. The three stabilizers will resist
rounding a curve and forcing the bit to drill a reasonably straight
path. The first of the three stabilizers should be immediately
behind the bit, i.e., a near-bit stabilizer, and should be full gauge.
Rate of build can be increased by the following:

•• Increase the distance from the near-bit stabilizer to the
first string stabilizer;
•• Increase hole inclination;
•• Reduce drill collar diameter;
•• Increase WOB;
•• Reduce rotary speed directional wells, maintaining angle and direction. High rota-
•• Reduce flow rate in soft formations. ry speeds (120-160 rpm-plus) will augment the tendency to
drill straight (Figures DD-19a and -19b).
Stabilization principle: maintain inclination and
direction The performance of a packed assembly can be fine-tuned by
Stabilized or packed assemblies are most effective when changing the length between the near-bit stabilizer and the
full-gauge stabilizers are used. The aim is to have the bit drill first string stabilizer. This is particularly true at higher angle
along the hole axis. and bit weights.
Full-gauge or near full gauge stabilizers are used at relatively Azimuth control
short spacing to prevent bit tilt and bending in the drill col- In reality there is very little control of hole direction when
lars as weight is applied to the bit. using dumb rotary BHAs.
Three stabilizers placed in quick succession behind the bit The BHA will wander depending on the following:
are separated by short and stiff drill collar sections. The •• Formation effects (dip, bedding planes, anisotropy,
three stabilizers will resist rounding a curve and forcing the etc.);
bit to drill a reasonably straight path. The first of the three •• BHA (stabilization, stiffness and drive mechanism);
stabilizers should be immediately behind the bit, i.e., a near- •• Turbine assemblies (typically walk left).
bit stabilizer, and should be full gauge (Figure DD-18).
Bit type and design
Assemblies which utilize this principle are called packed- •• Roller-cone bits typically walk right;
hole assemblies and are used to drill the tangent sections of •• PDC bits lack predictable walk tendency.

jetting, positive-displacement motors (PDMs), drilling tur-

bines, whipstocks and rotary steerable tools. These tools
are used to initiate the kickoff from vertical to drill a planned
trajectory to a specified target or to drill a sidetrack from an
existing wellbore to a revised target at a controlled rate of
curvature.
As the various systems each have their own strengths and

weaknesses, the choice of deflection device is determined
by a variety of factors including the trajectory design, for-
Figures DD-20a and b: Two mation strength, well depth, drilling rig capability, daily cost,
variations of positive displacement reservoir type and completion design. By any measure,
motors. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc. the majority of directional wells worldwide are drilled with
steerable PDMs.
Vertical drilling systems

Automated vertical drilling systems were the forerunner of
today’s rotary steerable tools. They were initially developed
in deep vertical wells drilled for research purposes. These
automated systems detect any deviation from vertical and
apply force to the borehole wall to drive the bit back toward
vertical. Most service companies offer these vertical drilling
tools in both stand-alone surface rotary driven and down-
hole motor-assisted variants.
Drilling parameters Positive displacement motors (PDM)

•• Slow RPM generally walks right (direction of rotation); Positive displacement motors (PDM) operate by convert-
•• High WOB generally walks right (direction of rotation). ing the hydraulic energy generated by the rig pumps into
mechanical energy to turn the bit. These motors have gone
The importance of stabilization in the control of wellbore through enormous generational changes from their origins
trajectory cannot be understated and many technologies as a single high-speed, low-torque, high-RPM system mated
such as variable-gauge stabilizers have been developed to with a bent sub to today’s steerable motors which come in a
enhance the directional control of dumb-rotary BHAs. In ad-
dition, many automated vertical drilling systems, which con-
tinuously correct any deviation from vertical, have recent-
ly been developed by the large drilling service companies.
Discussion of these various downhole tools are covered in
another section of this manual.
Bottomhole assembly components

The BHA includes everything screwed to the drillpipe. The
BHA comprises several components, all serving a particular
purpose to help accomplish the objectives of the particular
hole section being drilled. The directional driller ensures
that all components meet the objectives of the run, validates
the physical measurements of each component and visual-
ly inspects each component’s mechanical integrity. Typical
BHA components, along with information on their influence
on wellbore trajectory, are described below.
Figure DD-21: Positive displacement motor. The drive mechanism
is displacement by mud. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Deflection tools currently used in directional drilling include

Steel
Elastomer
Even wall stator

Standard stator 80% less elastomer
Steel tube with cylindrical ID Thin & “equidistant” elastomer layer
Varying elastomer layer thickness Less distortion results in greater volumetric efficiency
Steel
Elastomer
Figure DD-22: Contoured steel vs. contoured elastomer. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
variety of speed and power ranges (Figures DD-20a, -20b, by the ratio of rotor lobes to that of the stator, such that a
and -21). 5:6 motor features five lobes on the rotor and six on the sta-
tor. Fluid pumped through the drillstring displaces the rotor
Today’s motors are capable of a wide range of build rates as inside the progressive cavities of the stator, forcing the rotor
they can be configured with different bend and stabilization to turn.
options. The housing-bend angle and stabilization geome-
try determine the maximum RPM that can be used in rotary The mechanical characteristics of a PDM are such that as
mode and whether the motor can even be rotated. the number of rotor/stator lobes increases, RPM and me-
chanical efficiency decreases and torque output increases.
Motors are available with a variety of bent-housing geome-
tries which influence bit-side force and buildup rate (BUR). Development of even-wall power section technology has
Today, this includes adjustable and fixed-bend housings and greatly increased the power output of downhole motors.
short bit-to-bend configurations. This stator technology uses a constant thickness of elasto-
mer covering a variable thickness of steel to deliver torque
Stabilization options which influence BUR and rotary drill- and power increases of up to 100% over traditional stators,
ing behavior include slick, fully-stabilized and partially-sta- which have a variable thickness elastomer inside a con-
bilized motors; clamp-on stator stabilizers; and a variety of stant-thickness steel tube. The contoured steel distorts less
kick pads to enhance the effect of the bent housing. Curved than contoured elastomer, resulting in greater volumetric
trajectory is achieved by the alternation of oriented-sliding efficiency (Figure DD-22).
(curved) intervals with rotary drilling (tangent) intervals.
In general:
Motor-bearing sections have both axial and thrust bearings •• With PDMs, torque is proportional to differential
to deal with WOB and side forces. They are available in a va- pressure; RPM is proportional to flow;
riety of options including diamond bearings, sealed bearings •• The majority of PDM drilling is done with mid-range
and ball-and-race bearings. motors (5:6 or 7:8 lobes) to optimize between steering
control and ROP;
Motor power sections are available in a variety of torque, •• High-speed, low-torque motors are used to drill very
RPM and efficiency ranges. The stator of the power section hard rock with diamond-impregnated bits;
has one more lobe than the rotor. PDMs are characterized •• Low-speed, high-torque motors are used to drill with

Figure DD-25: PDM versus a turbodrill. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
higher temperatures than mud motors;

•• The operating life of turbines in terms of circulating
hours can be 50-100% longer than PDMs;
Figure DD-23: Drive mechanism for a •• The BUR capability of turbines is less than that available
turbine is the impact of mud flow.
from PDMs;
•• Turbines generally have higher pressure drop across the
large diameter PDC bits or with reamers; tool than PDMs;
•• Increasing the bend in the motor increases both hole •• Turbines are less tolerant of lost circulation material
totuousity and vibration; (LCM) than PDMs.
•• BUR capability is governed by the motor contact points
with the borehole (3-point geometry), which define a
circle. The same geometric principles apply for RSSs. Rotary steerable systems (RSS)
Rotary steerable systems (RSS) operate on three basic de-
sign principles:
Steerable turbines •• Point the bit: the bit is angled to the desired direction as
Turbines have been utilized in the drilling industry for a with a PDM;
number of years, primarily to drill very hard rock with dia- •• Push the bit: the hydraulic side force is activated near
mond-impregnated bits or to drill through troublesome for- the bit face pushing the well trajectory to a desired
mations as quickly as possible. They have also been used to direction;
reduce stress on the drillstring by reducing the rotary speed •• Combination of push-point principles.
at surface (Figure DD-23).
Figure DD-25 compares PDMs and turbodrills.
In general:
•• Turbines induce rotation by the impact of mud flow on Like any BHA, the forces applied (either through gravity or
the rotor blades; by machine force) will act on the BHA and flex the com-
•• With turbines, torque and RPM are inversely ponents while redirecting the wellbore. The relationships
proportional. As torque increases, RPM decreases; between the BHA component flexibility, gravity effect and
•• The RPM is directly proportional to flow rate at a mechanical-applied force will all impact the directional per-
constant torque; formance of the system.
•• Off bottom, turbine RPM will reach runaway speed and
the torque is zero; The introduction of rotary steerable tools enabled the drill-
•• On bottom, just at stall, a turbine achieves maximum ing of wells previously thought impossible (Figure DD-26).
torque and the RPM is zero; RSSs carried a premium price, but offer significant increases
•• Maximum horsepower is achieved at half the stall in efficiency. The RSS tools allowed the addition of extensive
torque and at half the runaway speed (optimum formation evaluation sensors to the BHA, allowing for real-
performance); time evaluation of the geologic space as well as optimized
•• Turbines operate at very high RPM and can operate at wellbore placement within the reservoir.

Figure DD-26: Rotary steerable system. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Figure DD-27: High build-rate rotary steerable system. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
With steerable motors, the forces necessary to overcome Shale play wells are typically drilled to maximize reservoir
friction in oriented drilling meant that horizontal reach from exposure for fracturing operations, which are the largest
surface was limited. Overall drilling efficiency was increased component of the well cost. Correlation of the target for-
with RSSs due to higher overall ROPs achieved by reducing mations via a gamma ray measurement is required for well
the time spent orienting and slide drilling (without rotation). placement, but the difficulty of formation evaluation in shale
In addition, as 3D steering was continuous, the same targets precludes the need for traditional measurements such as re-
could be achieved more precisely with reduced curvature sistivity and neutron density.
(2°-4°/100 ft) when compared to wells drilled with steer-
able motors. This reduced curvature also enabled the drill- Constraints of tight boundaries and small leasing units re-
ing of more complex profiles. quire rapid build rates to maximize the lateral length. Wells
are drilled to KOP and the angle built to horizontal at 8°-
Continuous rotation enhanced the quality of formation-eval- 12°/100 ft. Finally, an extensive lateral section is drilled
uation measurements, particularly those yielding borehole through the reservoir. These wells require three different
images, and enabled the deployment of reaming while drill- steerable PDM BHAs as the tool configuration needs to be
ing devices for hole enlargement. Additionally, service com- adjusted for each of the vertical, curve and lateral sections.
panies developed rotary steerable tools with incorporated These multiple trips are not efficient, and the hole quality
motor power sections near the bit, further increasing effi- issues caused by fractional orientation, often require a clea-
ciency and extending horizontal reach. The ability to drill a nout trip before any casing or completion can be run.
smoother trajectory while continuously rotating allowed the
drilling of more complex profiles and increased the available High build rate rotary steerable tools were developed to drill
reach from fixed platforms, allowing field development with the entire well in one run Figure DD-27). These tools can
fewer wells and reduced capital investment. maintain a vertical hole to the KOP, then build angle (capable
of ± 15°/100 ft) through the curve and finally hold inclination
Typically, RSSs are capable of delivering 6°-7°/100 ft dog- in the long horizontal section. They contain only gamma ray
legs in 8 ½-in. hole size. Dogleg capability decreases as col- sensors. This simplicity reduces the tool costs and increases
lar size and hole diameter increase. Conversely, dogleg ca- drilling efficiency.
pability increases as collar size and hole diameter decrease.
From a client perspective, the superior hole quality allows
immediate running of casing or completion and yields a bet-
High build rate rotary steerable systems ter cement job or better production. The reduction in drill-
Initially, rotary steerable tools were only deployed offshore ing time and subsequent well-construction savings lead to
where operating costs and rig rates were high, but the ad- fewer days to deliver a well and a faster return on invest-
vent of unconventional resources in US land plays and the ment (ROI). One drawback is that rotary steerable tools can
unique needs of those wells drove the development of a new generate undesirable borehole patterns if used with short-
generation of rotary steerable tools. gauge bits or if used with excessive deflection force.

Figure DD-28a and b: Examples of whipstock slides. At top is a short whipstock ,with a 3° slide angle, short radius, tight
doglegs. The bottom shows a long whipstock, with 1 ½°-2° slide angle and a smooth window exit. Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
Open-hole whipstocks can be executed as part of the original well plan or as the
Open-hole whipstocks are often used to initiate sidetracks result of an unexpected situation, e.g., fish in the wellbore.
in hard formations and also to perform sidetracks in hori-
zontal sections where there is difficulty in laying a good Sidetrack drivers
cement plug. These whipstocks can be used in conjunction There are a variety of reasons to sidetrack a well:
with other deflection tools to achieve difficult sidetracks. In •• To exit the existing casing for reentry;
fact, they can be used on sidetracks in place of cement plugs •• To create the new legs or laterals of a multilateral well;
to save time. Stable anchors are a key to success with open- •• To bypass fish or other obstructions in the original hole;
hole whipstocks (Figures DD-28a and -28b). •• To straighten a deviated hole;
•• To develop a field with few slots;
When using open-hole whipstocks, there are a number of •• To land a well where a pilot well has already determined
planning considerations involved including: the correct zone;
•• Anchor type (dependent on compressive strength of •• To hit a new zone or redefined target.
the formation);
o Retrievable: mechanical, inflatable; Sidetrack categories
o Permanent : cemented, mechanical, cemented in- •• OHST with motor:
flatable; o Cement plug;
•• Cased-hole anchors (used with stuck liner or casing); o No cement plug.
•• Open-hole anchors (usually inflatable systems); •• Cased-hole sidetrack:
•• Cemented tail pipe; o Section milling;
•• Attachment to a fish (screwing into a fish, latching with o Whipstock.
an overshot).Anchor set mechanism;
o Hydraulic; Design considerations
o Inflatable. The three main considerations for selection of a sidetrack
•• Slide geometry; point are formation, depth and inclination.
o Short (3° slide angle; short radius, tight doglegs);
o Long (11/2°-2° slide angle; smooth window exit); 1. Formation: To maximize the chances of success, the side-
o Note: The equivalent DLS of the whipstock slide track point should be selected in the softest formation. Ide-
curvature should be calculated to avoid exceeding ally, the formation should be softer than any cement plug
connection tolerances. used or should be between harder formations. Formation
•• Orientation Method; hardness will influence bit selection. It is better to choose a
o••MWD; location of higher ROP—softer rock, for example. Trying to
o••Gyro. enter a hard rock would be considerably more difficult since
the bit will always try to follow the path of least resistance.
Sidetracks When using a motor or RSS, it is best to sidetrack at a place
A sidetrack is defined as creating a new wellbore from an ex- where the original hole has a build, drop or turn dogleg, i.e.,
isting wellbore to the same or a different target. Sidetracks sidetrack away from the original trajectory.
can be performed when casing is already in place; by cutting
a window or milling a section of the casing; or in open hole 2. Depth: The depth of the sidetrack point determines the
with a cement plug, without a cement plug or with a perma- distance needed to be drilled (MD) to achieve the target
nent/removable whipstock. An open-hole sidetrack (OHST) and thereby the DLS required. The dogleg required will de-

Figure DD-29: At top is a long slide whipstock (1 ½ - 2° slide angle) bottom short
slide whipstock (3° slide angle). Courtesy Baker Hughes Inc.
termine the choice of deflection tool and the BHA design to If cement is firm, drill ahead to the planned KOP.
achieve the sidetrack.
Test the quality of the plug by applying weight with 50% of
3. Inclination: The inclination at the sidetrack point is im- the motor-minimum flow rate and by rotating the string +/-
portant because it dictates the sidetrack orientation relative 30 rpm. A WOB of ±0.5-1.5 k lb./in. of diameter is consid-
to the high side of the hole. In an open-hole near-vertical ered a strong cement plug. If the cement plug takes weight
sidetrack scenario, the sidetrack can be in any direction off and the motor starts to stall, the plug is firm enough to start
a cement plug. In an inclined hole, gravity can be used to sidetrack. If the weight drops off and the cement washes
assist in getting away from the original hole by orienting the away, the plug is not firm.
deflection tool to the low side of the hole. Orienting to the
low side does not work with cased-hole whipstocks. Once firm cement is found, the string should be picked up,
the pumps brought up to operating flow and the toolface ori-
If the wellbore to be sidetracked is vertical, a sidetrack will ented to the desired direction. The timed drill-off of the plug
be more difficult to achieve since there is no support from should occur at an ROP no greater than 50% of the penetra-
the borehole to the BHA. In addition, the stabilizers will not tion rate at which the formation would drill with the param-
be touching the borehole in a consistent manner. The best eters and bit used. This rate may be adjusted per customer
results would be obtained by using a whipstock or a good request. Make sure to mark the pipe at known intervals.
hard cement plug. Whenever possible, a drill-off test should
be performed to evaluate the cement’s quality, i.e., strength. Open-hole motor sidetrack with no cement plug
It is best to begin the sidetrack at the start of a joint/stand to When performing an OHST without a cement plug and with
avoid making a connection during the operation. Always try a motor assembly, it is recommended to orient it toward the
to stay on bottom. If it is necessary to make a connection, do low side of the hole, either left or right. If sidetracking in a
not allow the pipe to rotate. curved interval, set the sidetrack toolface against the curve.
The same applies for a rotary assembly and for jetting as-
While attempting a sidetrack in hard formation (unconfined semblies.
compressive strength [UCS]>25k psi), a whipstock is the
preferred choice since the cement will not be harder than
the formation. For medium formations (UCS 15-25k psi), a Casing whipstocks/window cutting
motor with a good cement plug is the base for a success- Sidetracks involving a casing exit using a whipstock involve
ful sidetrack. For soft formations (UCS<15k psi), it is best to two stages: a milling phase and a drilling phase, Casing
sidetrack with a motor toward the high side of the hole with a whipstocks are available in 1-, 2- or 3-trip variants. See Fig-
good cement plug or to the low side if no cement is set. Drill ure DD-29.
purely in slide mode until the desired well path is achieved. A
high percentage of formation returning to the shakers would Milling phase
normally be a good indication of successful sidetracking. Initially, the whipstock should be oriented (gyro or high-side
measurement) and set in the desired direction. A window
Open-hole motor sidetrack with cement plug is then milled in the casing wall and into the formation. The
As a precaution to avoid running into green cement, washing milling BHA is usually tapered, resulting in an undergauge
down should be started to +/- 2 stands above the expect- borehole outside of the casing. Some points to adhere to in-
ed top of cement (TOC) with minimum motor flow rate and clude:
+/- 30 rpm to tag TOC. The depth at which the BHA takes •• Avoid setting the whipstock in a position which requires
weight should be noted and compared to the expected TOC. a casing collar to be milled;

•• Set the whipstock in a position where there is good reactions that correspond to unique rock properties. Based
cement behind the casing; on these measurements, petrophysicists and geologists are
•• Set the whipstock in the target direction in a vertical able to interpret the rock type downhole and improve their
well; understanding of the reservoir and its surroundings. Com-
•• Set the whipstock a maximum 45-50° right or left of mon measurements are described briefly below.
high side in an inclined well;
•• Avoid magnetic interference or tool damage by using Gamma ray
ditch magnets to remove the metal cutting generated Shales are very high in potassium, uranium and thorium con-
by milling the casing from the circulating system. It tent. These formations emit photons that can be measured
should be noted that some whipstocks have a severe with a gamma ray detector, technically known as a scintilla-
whipstock face angle and can generate a 16-20°/100 ft tion detector. The greater the shale content, the higher the
equivalent dogleg. Rotating tools through this curvature gamma ray counts. Very low gamma ray counts indicate
can cause failure. a high concentration of either sand or carbonate which is
common reservoir rock.
Drilling phase
In this phase, a drilling assembly is run in the hole and a new Resistivity
borehole is drilled away from the existing casing toward the Resistivity is the opposite of conductivity. Rocks have pore
target. Some points to consider include: space that is filled with fluids that are either water or hydro-
•• Care should be taken to trip slowly and carefully over carbons, such as oil or gas. The resistivity measurement is
the whipstock face and through the window to avoid made by measuring the strength of an electric current trans-
damaging the window or moving the whipstock mitted from the LWD tool out into the formation and then
anchors; received again by the LWD tool.
•• Traditional milling systems use a series of tapered
cutting tools ( e.g., pilot mill, taper mill and watermelon A high-resistivity measurement indicates low-water content
mill) which start undergauge and increment to full and higher hydrocarbon content. Because drilling fluid will
gauge. Any rathole drilled outside the window with invade the rock near the wellbore as the hole is drilled, resis-
these systems will be undergauge; tivity tools are designed to measure at various depths into
•• Newer starter mill designs utilize PDC cutters and are the formation so that deep formation resistivity can be com-
able to drill a full gauge hole; pared with near wellbore resistivity and interpretation can
•• Care should be taken to orient the motor toolface to the be made over the fluid mobility within the rock. It is import-
whipstock face before opening the undergauge rathole; ant to understand how the drilling fluid will impact resistivity
•• To avoid movement or damage to the whipstock, measurements so that interpretations are not distorted by
rotating stabilizers across the whipstock face should be the wellbore fluid.
avoided.
Neutron and density
Radioactive material has a natural decay, constantly emit-
Measuring tools ting atomic particles. While some sources will emit neutrons
Downhole tools have developed from providing basic mea- while they decay, others will emit electrons. The particles
surements of toolface inclination and azimuth to the provi- that are emitted during this decay move at speeds faster
sion of sophisticated formation evaluation and mechanical than light. They will collide with other atomic particles in the
measurements. formation creating additional atomic activity.
Measuring while drilling/logging while drilling Low-level radioactive sources are loaded into the LWD tools
Directional drilling targets are based on geology and petro- prior to running in the well. During drilling, the neutrons
physics analysis during well design. LWD helps confirm the emitted from the radioactive source collide with the hydro-
analysis applied to design the well targets. These LWD tools gen in the formation, either water or hydrocarbons. This
incorporate various petrophysical measurements built into leads to excitation that releases gamma rays, which are then
NMDC that are part of the BHA. These measurements will measured by receivers in the LWD tool. Depending on the
help the directional driller geosteer the well toward targets. quantity of gamma rays received, an interpretation of rock
While drilling in a reservoir, the measurements will also help porosity can be derived. Additional wellbore characteristics
the directional driller remain inside the reservoir. such as hole size, filter cake thickness, mud weight, type, sa-
linity and tool position in the wellbore must be incorporated
Each LWD measurement uses unique sensors to take phys- to get an accurate interpretation.
ical measurements of either electrical, acoustic or chemical

The density source in the LWD tool will emit gamma rays with the borehole wall. Over a period of time, ranging from
that collide with electrons in the formation rock, causing ex- a few to several minutes, the formation pressure will build
citation that can be measured by the receivers in the tool. up within the seal and a pressure sensor will measure ac-
Because different rock types have different signatures of tual formation pressure. This measurement is valuable for
electron excitation, an interpretation of the rock type can be assessing where casings should be set during exploration
made. Combining both the density and porosity measure- drilling. It is also a useful measurement for the analysis of
ments helps geologists understand the type of rock being formation productivity, particularly in highly deviated wells
drilled. where pressure measurements are not easily achievable on
wireline. Knowing what the pressures are across the well-
Exposure to radioactive sources used in LWD tools can be bore helps to distinguish productive zones from non-pro-
dangerous over long periods of time. At the wellsite, special ductive zones; for example, best identifying where to perfo-
controls are required to properly handle these sources and rate the production casing.
eliminate exposure to untrained individuals. The crews in-
volved in handling radioactive sources are specially trained Formation sampling while drilling
and use strict procedures to ensure the risk of exposure is This tool is a new addition to LWD options. Forma-
minimized. tion-sampling tools use a probe similar to formation pres-
sure-while-drilling tools. Rather than taking pressure-only
Acoustic measurements measurements, the tool will draw in reservoir fluid and store
Sonic tools are LWD tools that measure sound waves in the it in a canister to be brought back to surface once the BHA
formation. They generate a high-frequency chirping sound is tripped out of hole. Collecting fluids from the reservoir al-
that transmits into the formation and then listens for reflec- lows reservoir and production engineers to best determine
tive sound coming back to the tool. Based on the speed of how to design field production to maximize total recoverable
the returning sound wave, interpretation of rock density can reserves.
be determined.
Drilling mechanics measurements
Seismic While Drilling: This method is similar to sonic tools, MWD tools are commonly equipped with drilling mechan-
but the acoustic measurement is much deeper. This mea- ics measurements that help interpret downhole conditions.
surement replicates surface or marine seismic, in the sense Monitoring the drilling mechanics data helps to identify cur-
that the tool is listening for a noise source generated at sur- rent drilling conditions and to make any necessary changes
face; however, having the tool in the drillstring allows for at surface required to continuously improve drilling or to
a more local assessment of the seismic environment and prevent drilling problems.
helps geophysics experts better tie their field seismic in-
terpretation to the well being drilled. While surface seismic Downhole WOB, downhole torque, azimuthal bending
generally allows geophysicists to identify formation tops moment and string RPM are measured with strain gauges
accurate to within hundreds of ft, LWD seismic can localize mounted in specialized subs connected to the MWD tool.
the measurement to exact depths. This helps drillers to bet- Downhole string RPM and shock and vibration in the BHA
ter place casing strings before large-pressure changes are are measured with sensors similar to those used to take sur-
encountered. veys.
Magnetic resonance Vibration measurements

This LWD tool emits a magnetic field that will energize elec- Low-level vibrations and high-level shocks can be measured
trons in the formation. Based on the energy absorbed, a re- to indicate drilling conditions downhole. If shocks and/or vi-
sponse measurement can be made that will determine the brations are high, drilling parameters must be changed. The
fluid type in a well. This measurement is particularly useful type and severity of the measurements will indicate the like-
for determining different hydrocarbon density measure- ly cause, at which point corrective actions can be applied.
ments, allowing for interpretation between heavy oil, tar,
light oil, condensate and gas. In addition, formation porosity Torsional vibrations are caused by the slowing and speed-
can be derived from the measurement. ing up of the drillstring or bit. Low to moderate vibrations
may be overcome by changing the rotating speed or mak-
Formation pressure while drilling ing small adjustments to the WOB. In cases where torsional
This measurement uses a probe in the tool to take an abso- vibrations grow, the onset of stick-slip can occur and this
lute pressure of the formation at any desired spot along the can cause the drillstring to stop completely downhole while
wellbore. The drillstring is held stationary while the probe rotation continues at surface. The stored rotational ener-
presses against the formation and creates a pressure seal gy is absorbed by the drillstring until eventually it releases,

causing excessive speed downhole. In severe cases, at sur- of torque required to effectively turn the bit. The torque is
face with rotary speed of 100 rpm, downhole speed can go affected by the cutter size, type and layout. In the case of
from full stop (0 rpm) to in excess of 500 rpm. Over time, PDC bits, cutter-back rake will have a significant influence
this drilling dysfunction can lead to catastrophic failure of over the torque required to drill with the bit. In the case of
the BHA components such as drill bits, drive systems and slide drilling, delivering the appropriate WOB to drill without
MWD/LWD tools. In the worst cases, there is a significant stalling the motor can be very challenging, particularly when
risk of string twistoff or back-off if such conditions are not hole drag due to fluid type, hole cleaning and trajectory all
properly managed. have influence.
Lateral vibrations occur when the BHA moves from side to Roller-cone bits most easily deliver good DLS because they
side within the wellbore. As this vibration grows, it can reach accommodate large WOB. They deliver good BHA flex with
a point at which the BHA will slam into the borehole wall virtually no gauge length, accommodating good hole redi-
at g-forces exceeding 200. Clearly, this type of vibration is rection at the bit face. The weaknesses of roller-cone bits,
damaging to the BHA and hole. however, are slower ROP and shorter bit life than fixed-cut-
ter bits.
Axial vibration occurs along the direction of the borehole. In
severe cases, it can lead to bit bounce, where the bit actually Polycrystalline diamond compact bits were introduced in
leaves bottom and then slams back to bottom. Over time, the late 1980s. From a directional drilling perspective, they
this can damage bits and BHA components. were very difficult to steer as motor drilling could not deliver
adequate torque in a sufficiently steady fashion to keep the
Drilling dysfunctions can begin as one type and compound bit on bottom. The directional driller was constantly chasing
to a blend of types, eventually reaching levels that force the a toolface to achieve the desired directional path until the
driller to pick up off bottom, stop all drilling and let the BHA point when too much weight would fall on the bit, causing
settle out before resuming. the motor to stall. Advances in bit design to improve steer-
ability have produced more directional-friendly bits through
Measuring annular pressure changes to bit profile, cutter size, orientation, rake angle and
Measurements of annular pressure can also be made with count. Gauge design and protection have evolved to deliver
MWD/LWD tools. The measurement uses a pressure gauge consistent DLS with varying gauge length. The durability of
downhole that is exposed to the annulus. Monitoring chang- PDC cutters has also improved to the point at which PDC
es in annular pressure while the pumps are on will give in- bits can drill across a wide spectrum of formation types
dications of potential hole issues . If the annular pressure encountered throughout the bit run. The advance of rotary
readings with pumps on gradually increase, it is a good steerable technology, with longer bit runs across more for-
indication that the hole may be loading up with cuttings. mations, has also forced the advancement of PDC technolo-
If annular pressure suddenly increases, this may be a sign gy. With the advances in computing today, fixed-cutter bits
of pack-off, or possibly even an indication of a well influx. can now be customized for specific field applications with
Recorded annular pressure measurements are also valuable ease and efficiency. The trajectory response of these bits is
for determining the results of casing shoe, formation integ- now much more predictable.
rity and leak-off tests.
Hybrid Drill Bits: Recently hybrid bits that combine both
fixed cutters and roller cones have been developed. These
Bits bits are particularly effective in inter-bedded and high com-
Drill bits are either fixed-cutter or roller-cone. A fixed-cut- pressive strength formations. In the appropriate applica-
ter bit removes rock through shearing or grinding away the tion, hybrid bits produce more stable drilling, have better
rock, depending on the cutter type and size. A roller-cone side-cutting ability, have precise tool-face control, and can
bit removes rock through impact. Different bits are selected run higher WOB than traditional drill bits.
based on the formation type and hardness. An appropriate
drive system must be selected to match the bit type. Diamond and Diamond-Impregnated Bits: Another form
of fixed-cutter bits. The face of the bit is fitted with a dia-
From a directional drilling perspective, the choice of bit is mond-grit matrix that blends natural and manufactured
as critical as the selection of any other component in the diamonds specific to the objective formation. Blade count
well design. The achievable DLS will be a function of the bit- and height, as well as bit profile and gauge length, can be
gauge length, gauge profile, side-cutting ability, cutter lay- tailored. These bits are typically used at very high- bit RPM,
out and many other factors on the bit. The achievable WOB, most commonly delivered with downhole turbines or high-
or ability to flex the BHA, will be determined by the amount speed PDMs. The directional response of these bits is very

good due to the low torque at the bit face so steerability is BHA components. The blades may be welded or integrated
good. Due to the high RPM, gauge protection is absolutely into the main collar material. In addition, stabilizer profiles
necessary so these bits may have gauge lengths well over vary widely: by spiral or straight blade type, by wrap profile,
12 in. Compared to some PDC bits with 1-2 in. of gauge by taper and by material makeup. The size of the outside di-
length, or roller-cone bits with virtually no gauge length, ameter of the blades will determine how much offset within
long gauges make for difficult directional responsiveness as the borehole will be expected and, consequently, how this
the turning radius of the BHA is impacted by gauge length. offset will impact deflecting of the bit. All BHA touch points
Furthermore, diamond-impregnated bits are used in hard work together, helping to create the turning radius the bore-
rock, which is not the most effective place to achieve direc- hole will follow. The collar size and stiffness of each BHA
tional objectives; however, with certain well designs, drilling component consequently will affect BHA performance.
through hard rock may be unavoidable.
Drill collars provide weight to the drill bit. Depending on the
For more details on drill bits, refer to the separate chapter on well profile, drill collars may also add some stability to the
Bits in the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edtion. BHA. NMDC are commonly required in directional BHAs to
prevent magnetic fields from influencing surveys. Drill col-
lars may be omitted from the BHA in high angle wells (>65°)
Other components as their weight and large OD increases friction against the
Stabilizers add stability to the BHA and provide touch points borehole wall.
across the BHA to help deflect the bit and redirect the well-
bore. The BHA may include a variety of stabilizers which HWDP is now more often used than drill collars to provide
may be incorporated into other tools in the BHA such as weight to the drill bit. This component is lighter and more
motors or MWD/LWD tools. The stabilizer may be clamped flexible than drill collars, but heavier and stiffer than drill-
or screwed onto the component or integrated into the ma- pipe. HWDP generates less friction and is more flexible;
chined collar of the particular component. Stabilizers may therefore, it is commonly run as a transition from the drill
also be components that screw into the BHA between other collars to the drillpipe in most directional wells.

DH
DOWNHOLE
TOOLS

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DOWNHOLE TOOLS DH–i
CHAPTER
DH
DOWNHOLE
TOOLS
CONTRIBUTORS
David Herrington, National Oilwell Varco Dean Enterline, Baker Hughes Inc.
Lindsey Hughey, National Oilwell Varco Ron Dirksen, Halliburton
Harald Witzler, National Oilwell Varco Anthony Plana, Varel International
R.D. Morrison, National Oilwell Varco Greg Hawley, Mesquite SWD Inc.
Scott Powell, National Oilwell Varco Jaime Aros, Boretek.net
Ken Deringer, National Oilwell Varco
REVIEWERS
Greg Devenish, Baker Hughes Inc.

DH–ii DOWNHOLE TOOLS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-8-6

DOWNHOLE TOOLS Contents DH-iii
CHAPTER DH
DOWNHOLE
TOOLS Contents
Borehole enlargement ............................................................ DH-1 ‘Point-the-bit’ tool...........................................................DH-13
Physical operating principles......................................... DH-1 Benefits...............................................................................DH-14
Common dimensions, weights, capacities............... DH-1 General maintenance.....................................................DH-14
Related equipment............................................................ DH-1 Vibration, torque and drag....................................................DH-14
Safety and handling.......................................................... DH-1 Description and basic theory......................................DH-14
Applications........................................................................DH-2 Physical operating principles.......................................DH-14
Specialized situations.......................................................DH-3 Buckling..............................................................................DH-15
Circulating subs ....................................................................... DH-3 Drilling vibrations............................................................DH-15
Single cycle/single ball circulating sub......................DH-3 Vibration analysis tools and software......................DH-16
Multi-cycle/multi-ball tools.......................................... DH-4 Advanced torque and vibration technologies........DH-17
Multi-cycle dart activated tools.................................. DH-4 Measurement while drilling (MWD).................................DH-19
Multi-cycle single ball tools.......................................... DH-4 Description and basic theory......................................DH-19
Applications....................................................................... DH-5 Safety and handling........................................................DH-21
Safety and handling......................................................... DH-6 Applications......................................................................DH-21
General maintenance...................................................... DH-6 General maintenance.....................................................DH-21
Downhole mud motors........................................................... DH-6 Logging while drilling (LWD)................................................DH-21
Top sub (saver sub)......................................................... DH-6 Description and basic theory......................................DH-21
Dump sub........................................................................... DH-6 Physical operating principles.......................................DH-21
Rotor catch assembly...................................................... DH-6 Important for what and to whom?........................... DH-23
Power section.....................................................................DH-7 Standard location on a rig...........................................DH-24
Adjustable assembly and fixed housings................. DH-8 Safety and handling.......................................................DH-24
Applications....................................................................... DH-9 Applications.....................................................................DH-24
General maintenance.....................................................DH-10 General maintenance....................................................DH-24
Air hammers..............................................................................DH-10 Wireline logging......................................................................DH-24
Compressed air................................................................DH-10 Description and basic theory.....................................DH-24
Top sub...............................................................................DH-10 Important for what and to whom?...........................DH-26
Case.....................................................................................DH-10 Standard location on a rig...........................................DH-26
Piston....................................................................................DH-11 Safety and handling.......................................................DH-26
Driver sub...........................................................................DH-11 Applications.....................................................................DH-26
Drill bit.................................................................................DH-11 General maintenance.................................................... DH-27
Check valve........................................................................DH-11 Jars............................................................................................... DH-27
Bit retaining systems.......................................................DH-11 Why do we need to jar?............................................... DH-27
Choke...................................................................................DH-11 Sticking.............................................................................. DH-27
Air flow................................................................................DH-11 What is a jar?.................................................................. DH-27
Lubrication..........................................................................DH-11 Mechanical jars...............................................................DH-28
Safety and handling.........................................................DH-11 Hydraulic jars ...............................................................DH-28
Rotary steerable systems (RSS)...........................................DH-11 Applications.....................................................................DH-29
RSS development.............................................................DH-11 General Maintenance...................................................DH-30
‘Push-the-bit’ tool...........................................................DH-13 Reference...................................................................................DH-30

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
DOWNHOLE TOOLS DH–1
Borehole enlargement
Hole enlargement, underreaming, and hole opening are all Physical operating principles
methods of increasing a wellbores diameter through the use Generally, expandable reamers are activated (or deacti-
of a fixed blade or expandable reamer during or after a well vated) by dropping a ball or applying weight on bit to shear
is drilled. pins within the tool. New expandable reamers can activate
the blades by adjusting the flow rate by dropping electronic
This section will only focus on expandable reamers, while chips. In the reamers, once the blades are activated, back
the fixed blades reamers information may be found in the pressure in the BHA will operate the tool and move the
drill bits section. blades. This pressure is created from the restrictions of noz-
zles in the bit, small IDs of MWD/LWD tools, turbines, etc.
The term hole enlargement is often used interchangeably The flow rates and back pressures to operate the tool are
with underreaming and hole opening. These operations are often calculated by the company providing the BHA or ex-
considered sub operations encompassed by the term hole pandable hole enlargement tool. For this reason, it is import-
enlargement, and are the methods of enlarging formation ant to follow the setup procedures recommended by these
from an existing pilot hole. Hole opening is generally consid- companies. Alternatively, the service company may provide
ered as the enlarging of a wellbore starting from the surface, a representative to support the reaming operations and con-
with the expanded formation equal to or close to the inner figure the BHA and tools according to the calculated values.
diameter of any restrictions in the borehole. Underreaming
is the method of enlargement formation at some point below Expandable reamers are becoming more complex, and there
the surface and beneath a restriction. The most frequently operation is no longer dependent on the drilling fluid prop-
encountered restrictions are the ID of the casing and the erties, instead they rely on internal mechanisms to function.
wellhead or landing ring. All hole enlargement operations, The operation of the reamer blades begins with a signal sent
like most drilling operations, limit the maximum outside di- from surface through pressure pulses in the drilling fluid or
ameter (OD) of the tools that can pass through. RPM variations. This signal is received by the tool where in-
ternal electronics, hydraulics, and motors move the blades.
Historically, hole enlargement has been viewed as an un- These tools will have service company support on the rig
desirable, yet an often inevitable, operation for many wells. site to support the more complex functions.
Expandable underreamers are often considered as a con-
tingency, or necessary evil, when used in certain condi- Common dimensions, weights, capacities
tions—tight annulus, poor borehole formation conditions, The dimensions for most expandable reamers is determined
and crooked boreholes. Running expandable underreamers by the casing and drill bit sizes. As the tool is intended to
in these applications aids in getting casing strings to TD and pass through a restriction and then open the hole, the larg-
ensures an adequate annular volume for cementing. The est outer diameter with the blades closed will be less than
practice of hole enlargement has increased over the years, the restriction. In many cases the outer diameter of the tool
beyond contingencies, wellbore remediation, and sidetrack- body is approximately equal to the drill bit preceding the ex-
ing. pandable tool. The tool body may be 1/4”– 1/2” less than the
bit diameter to reduce friction and account for hole diameter
Especially in deeper drilling applications, the need for ad- variations.
ditional casing strings in straight and directional wells now
requires tighter clearances between consecutive casing Related equipment
strings, and the need for increased annual area below a pre- In addition the expandable hole enlargement tools, a fixed
vious casing point. Historically this was achieved through blade stabilizer may be provided and run below the tool
dedicated expandable reamer runs or fixed blade ream- and an expandable stabilizer may also be placed in the BHA
er BHA’s. Expandable underreamers have become a more above the tool. These additional tools are intended to aid in
advanced solution to allow the running of fewer BHA’s for stability and to reduce vibration transmission along the BHA
minimum clearance casing programs, which optimizes cas- or from the drill pipe.
ing sizes.
Safety and handling
A growing need in hole enlargement applications, is the
elimination of “rat hole”, the remaining pilot hole section Safe handling
below a standard reamer in the upper BHA. This remaining Safe handling procedures will often be provided by the ser-
restriction limits the depth that casing may be set, and often vices company, and these tool may vary in length and other
requires a dedicated reamer run to enlarge this formation. complexities, requiring special handling procedures.

DH–2 DOWNHOLE TOOLS
weight and drill down about 10ft, then circulate for

Operational risks about five (5) minutes.
With expandable reamers, as with many mechanical down- 5. Note the torque during reaming.
hole tools, various failure modes are present and have dif- 6. Maintaining flow, stop pipe rotation.
fering signals. 7. Make a second mark on the drill pipe at surface, just
above the rotary table.
A primary failure mode for reamers is washout, this failure 8. Slowly pull the drill pipe up to surface pipe mark #1.
is one of the most common as the expandable reamers re- 9. Continue to pull on the drip pipe, once additional over
quire seals for blades functioning mechanism operated by pull of approximately 5,000-10,000 lb is noticed,
high back pressure. If these seals fail, a decrease in pressure STOP. This over pull indicates the blades have
is often visible at surface, as with any washout. Addition- activated and are open.
al washouts may occur with expandable tools with nozzle 10. Slack off on drill string, shut off the flow, and rotate
cavities. These nozzles, intended to clean and cool the cut- (30 to 40 RPM) to help de-activate the cutter blades
ting may washout and a similar decrease in pressure will (allow 1 minute).
be visible. To prevent washout, it is important to follow the 11. Pull up on the drill string until it clearly passes the
drilling practices recommended by the tool provider includ- surface pipe mark #1 as has entered into the
ing; drilling fluid properties, flow rates, and nozzle configu- previously drilled hole or the casing. This shows that
rations. Recommendations may vary by tool, tool provider, the cutter blades are de-activated.
and application. 12. RIH close to mark #2. Start pipe rotation and bring up
the pumps as required. Apply weight and begin the
Other risks associated with expandable hole enlargement drilling reaming operation.
tools are less evident at surface. These risks are related to
vibrations and drilling dysfunctions in the BHA. These drill- A major challenge when drilling and reaming, is the potential
ing vibrations are prevalent in hole enlargement applica- for drilling off weight between the two cutting structures.
tions, as traditional stabilization is less affective in enlarged This is most prevalent when drilling through transition zones
wellbores. Most services companies have procedures to aid in formation.
in the recognition and mitigation of the vibrations. Addition-
ally, the services companies may have BHA and/or drill bit Actions to Prevent premature damage to the bit and reamer
recommendation intended to prevent the vibrations from when drilling through transition zones:
occurring. 1.• When the bit enters the top of the inclusion or hard
stringer a sharp decrease in ROP will be noticed.
Applications a.•Always monitor drilling dynamics and adjust
All procedures for reamers may vary by tool provider. It is parameters accordingly.
best to confirm specific procedures for a tool. The following 2.• Keep parameters until ROP increases. Indication that
information is provided for general reference. the bit exited the bottom of the inclusion.
a.•Register approximate depth of the top and bottom
Drop ball preparation procedures of the inclusion.
1.• Rabbit the drill string to ensure the drop ball will pass b. Confirm with MWD gamma ray and resistivity RT
through the drill string, especially the HWDP and DC’s. logs.
2.• If running multiple drop ball reamers or stabilizers. c.•Register ROP and drilling parameters used while
These tools will likely require various ball sizes to drilling the inclusion or hard stringer.
activate. These ball should be identified and marked so 3.• When the reamer is about to approach the top of the
they are dropped in the correct order. inclusion/stringer.
a.•ROP should not be higher than the ROP recorded
Blade activation test (“window test”) when the bit drilled the same interval. Regardless
1. Note the torque of the pilot bit while drilling the rat of the bit ROP capabilities at the current point.
hole. b. RPM management is key to maximizing the hole
2. From the pipe tally and BHA measurements, position enlargement tools cutter durability when drilling
the expandable reamers cutter blades at the point to through the inclusions or hard / abrasive
begin reaming and mark the drill pipe at surface, just formations.
above the rotary table.
3. Activate the cutter blades.
4. Increase flow and RPM to required parameters. Apply

Specialized situations
Housing
Casing window exit

Sleeve
When milling the casing window, 1-3 additional stands
should be drilled to ensure the expandable reamer, Drilling fluid flow
expandable stabilizer, and any directional tools are clear
from the casing or liner. Take valid directional surveys to “O” ring
Shear pin
ensure the directional plan is being followed. Make sure
there is no risk that the pilot bit has tracked the cement Spacer
thread sealant
outside the casing.
Pipe plug
Backreaming
•• Care should be taken once the pilot bit is pulled off
bottom. At that point, the BHA will be in tension and
low string RPM is critical to prevent pilot BHA whirl.
•• Care should be taken as the bending moments increase
while backing reaming drop sections.
•• The pilot BHA stabilization is compromised as the lower Figure DH-1: Single cycle circulation sub
BHA stabilizers are being pulled into the enlarged hole with shear pin and sliding sleeve.
while back-reaming.
though this chapter will focus on the two primary issues.
1.• Design the BHA in order to prevent the pilot bit from These are the main uses for circulation subs.
being pulled into the enlarged hole while back-reaming 1.• Using the tool to bypass the BHA to pump LCM for lost
full stand. circulation situations
a.•The distance between the reamer blades and the bit 2.• Bypassing flow of drilling fluids to the annulus to
should be greater than 1 stand (approximately 10 increase annular velocities and turbulence.
0ft), especially when heavy back-reaming is
expected. The latter is used in promoting efficient cutting transport to
b. If the pilot BHA is shorter than one stand, back surface.
ream only half the stand if required.
2.• Any evidence of formation change or stringers will There are a great number of variations of this technology,
cause increased torque as the cutters are pulled into some of which are described below:
those formation sections.
a.•High torque spikes can cause damage to the cutting Single cycle/single ball circulating sub
structure. If the hole enlargement tool causes The single cycle, single drop ball circulation sub is com-
stick/slip, the pilot BHA may continue to rotate. prised of a ported body, a sliding sleeve, and a shear pin. The
This may cause a pilot BHA twist-off. It is therefore sleeve is shear pinned in place to maintain flow through the
important to know when these formation changes inside diameter, as well as closure of the annular ports (See
will occur and adjust the drilling parameters to Figure 1-1). This style of tool is activated by simply floating
suit. an activation ball down the drill string to land on a seating
surface atop the sleeve. When the ball is landed, pressure
builds above the tool shearing the pin and releasing the
Circulating subs sleeve which travels downward within the tool, opening the
A circulation sub is a drilling tool used downhole (Figure annular ports. The ball then blocks flow to the bit and di-
DH-1). It can be placed in a variety of locations in the drill verts it to the annulus. For years this technology has served
string, depending on the desired use. In simple terms this the industry well, but the ports of this tool cannot be closed
tool is used to divert drilling fluid flow and circulation path once the shear pin has broken and required the driller to pull
from the typical flow through the ID of the drill string, out the string to remove the tool making it less than efficient in
from the end of the string and back to surface. The tool cre- today’s drilling world and so it is seen less often in the field.
ates an alternative flow path by blocking the ID of the drill
string and opening flow ports that direct fluid to the annulus.
Circulation subs can be used in a number of applications,

around the BHA while boosting annular velocities above the

circulating sub.
Multi-cycle single ball tools

These tools are operated by landing a steel ball on a steel
ball seat, and creating differential pressure across the tool.
This differential pressure forces the piston/sliding sleeve
downward and opens the tool to the annulus once an acti-
vation flow rate has been achieved. These tools utilize a ball
seat atop a ported valve piston (sleeve), an indexing mech-
anism, fixed mandrel, and a return spring. Once a ball has
been landed on the seat, the valve piston is actuated axially
on the fixed mandrel within the tool, landing in one of two
different positions when the minimum activation flow rate
is applied, depending on the position of the indexing mech-
anism.
In the bypass position (in which flow is directed to the an-

nulus), the piston travels the full axial distance available for
Figure DH-2: Circulation sub with piston return spring movement within the tool. This places the ports on the valve
in bypass position. Courtesy BICO Drilling Tools. piston below the top of the mandrel which effectively seals
off flow to the ID of the drill string, protecting the compo-
nents therein from LCM or high flow rates. When the cir-
Multi-cycle/multi-ball tools culating pumps are shut down, a spring, located below the
More advanced tools have added a spring mechanism be- valve piston and indexing mechanism forces the piston back
low the sleeve to cause the valve piston to return to a closed into its resting or “reset” position. When the pumps are re-
position when pumps are shut down or when a ball is not started and flow is resumed above the activation flow rate it
on-seat, as well as the ability to pass the ball through the allows the indexing mechanism to shift to a secondary po-
sleeve into a ball catch sub after bypassing operations are sition which restricts the axial distance that the piston can
complete. (See Figure DH-2). This requires either the ball travel downward.
or the ball seat to be made from an easily extruded material
such as nylon so that on or the other can deform, allowing To allow for a non-bypass position, ports are located on the
the ball to pass thru. This effectively provides the ability to circumference of the valve piston which provides a flow path
open and close the tool more than once. Confirmation of by- between the OD of the piston and the ID. The ports are posi-
pass or non-bypass positions can be determined by noting tioned below the ball and seat to allow fluid flow that travels
the pre-activation stand pipe pressure at a base line flow around the ball and seat to continue on a flow path into the
rate. In bypass position, a drop in SPP should be seen due ID of the piston and then through the ID of the mandrel and
to an increased total flow area (TFA) relative to the TFA of on to the BHA and bit. The ports are designed to align above
the bit and BHA. The number of cycles for this type of tool the top of the mandrel opening, while sealing off flow to the
is proportional to the capacity of the ball catch sub. Due to external ports, when the landing position of the valve piston
the deformable materials used, these tools can be sensitive coincides with the non-bypass position. This provides the
to temperatures and special attention must be paid when secondary flow path to the bit through the ID of the man-
landing the activation ball to avoid premature extrusion of drel. To shift the tool from non-bypass back to bypass, the
the ball thru the seat. driller will shut down the pumps for 1 minute. Once flow is
resumed above a specified flow rate the tool will be in the
Multi-cycle dart activated tools Bypass position. To shift back to non-bypass, this operation
Additional tools also offer multiple cycles by way of a re- is repeated and can be done an infinite number of times. The
trievable dart. They are for the most part identical in func- above described positions can be viewed in Figure DH-2.
tion to the multi-cycle/multi ball tools except that rather
than collecting the activation balls below the tools, the dart This technology operates by utilizing differential pressure
must be fished each time the tool us used to deactivate. Ad- across the tool to actuate the piston; if flow is stopped or re-
ditionally, thru-drilled darts offer the ability to split flow be- versed due to sudden pressure below the tool, the valve will
tween the annulus and the bit allowing continued circulation close. Only one ball drop is needed to activate the tool into
its cycling mode. The current position of the tool can easily

be determined by comparing stand pipe pres-

sure between shifts of the tool. A noticeable
psi difference in SPP will be seen when shifting
between flow to the bit and flow to the annulus
(Figure DH-3). The amount of pressure differ-
ential seen depends on the size of the tool and
restrictions in the BHA below. Temperature
will not affect the maximum flow rate of the
tool since a steel ball and seat are used.
Applications
LCM Placement
The most common application for circulating
subs today is placing aggressive LCM pills in
lost circulation zones in the formation. Due to
LCM’s nature to plug holes in the formation it
is inherently hard to pass through BHA com-
ponents with small through bores or passag-
es, such as bits, downhole motors and MWD
tools. Circulating subs are typically placed
above these components and allow the use
of aggressive LCM pills that would generally Figure DH-3: The 4 possible conditions in a multi-opening
clog up these BHA components. Circulating circulating sub. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
sub ports have large annular port diameters
that are much harder to clog than bit jets or
MWD bores. Once the circulation sub is activated, fluid only
passes through these large OD ports and on to the annulus,
thus bypassing the more sensitive BHA below. It is not un-
common to need to bypass the BHA multiple times during a
single run due to lost circulation. For this reason, circulation
subs with the ability to shift from bypass (flow to annulus
only) to non-bypass (flow to the bit) are often used.
Wellbore cleanout
In wellbore cleanout applications, whether while drilling or Figure DH-4: Multi-opening circulating sub
tool in lost circulation application.
during completion phases of the well, the tool permits an in-
creased circulation rate to be applied by opening flow paths
to the annulus of the well above the flow-restricting compo- the bit, gravity is more likely to act on cuttings and debris
nents of the BHA. Bypassing the BHA allows the maximum and cause it to fall to the low side of the wellbore. As cut-
amount of fluid to be forced through the circulating sub OD tings build up on the low side of the drill string and around
ports to the annulus, thus increasing the total flow area and its sides, the contact area on which the string rests increas-
lowering the stand pipe pressure. In most cases, this is done es, increasing the frictional forces between the drill string
while rotating the drill string to provide an evenly distributed and the wellbore. This of course causes increases in overall
360 degree turbulence path where fluid is entering the an- torque while decreasing the ability to effectively transfer
nulus. ‘Bottoms-up’ circulating time is greatly reduced and weight to the bit. The end result is a drilling condition that
hole cleaning is improved by bypassing flow to the annulus. raises the potential for stick slip, vibration, and stuck pipe
events. Proper annular velocity and turbulence is required
Deviated drilling to suspend the cuttings in the fluid and make them available
In deviated wells and especially in extended-reach laterals, for transport up the annulus and back to surface. In wells
the increased fluid velocity and turbulence aid in lifting cut- such as these, where mud motors, MWDS, and other flow
tings up off the low side of the wellbore and homogenizing restricting components are present, it is often difficult to
the distribution of cuttings within the drilling fluid. As veloc- achieve flow rates high enough to generate turbulence and
ity and turbulence decrease, farther away from the flow at annular velocity high enough to effectively transport cut-

Top sub/ Power section - Driveshaft Adjustable Bearing

Dump sub Rotor and stator assembly assembly assembly
Figure DH-5: Components of a downhole mud motor.
tings without over spinning the motor. In some cases, flow the motor used to ensure proper connection type and to ex-
rates above a mud motors maximum flow rate are needed to tend the usable life of the stator (Figure DH-6). The top con-
clean the hole. By bypassing the motor and preventing over- nection is typically an API tool joint box, and is available with
run, a circulating sub can increase the motor’s reliability and an optional “float bore” to accommodate API float valves.
operating hours. This reduces wear on the motor and reduc- The lower connection usually uses a proprietary thread de-
es the chance of damage caused by high rpm seen when ex- pending on the manufacturer that connects to the upper box
cessive flow rates are used to clean the hole. of the stator housing.
Safety and handling Dump sub

Circulating subs are picked up and installed in the drillstring The dump sub allows fluid to bypass the motor and fill the
like most other smaller drillstring components. In most cas- bore of the drill string when tripping into the hole. It also al-
es tongs should only be placed at the top and bottom of the lows the drill string to drain when tripping out of the hole.
sub for the purpose of torqueing and un-torqueing the con- When no dump sub is used, a wet trip out of the hole will
nections. Tongs should not be placed around the area where occur if no other means of drainage is employed. There is
the ports are located. Regular pipe dope is to be used. little pressure loss through the dump sub when operating.
Care should be taken when dropping balls and/or darts The dump sub is also referred to as the bypass valve, dump
down the drill-pipe to (de)-activate the subs. valve and bypass sub.
General maintenance Rotor catch assembly

Maintenance of the subs are mostly performed at the site Extreme torque is generated at and near the power sec-
of the supplier of the technology being used, however the tion and the joint connections are the weakest points in the
threads that make up the connections should be maintained string. For this reason some manufacturers include a rotor
by applying proper pipe-dope and protected with the cor- catch system that maintains a connection to the BHA even
rect thread protectors.
API
connection
Downhole mud motors Proprietary
These are also referred to as mud motors, positive displace- connection
ment motors (PDM), Moineau motors, performance mo-
tors, and progressive cavity pumps. See the separate chap-
ter on Directional Drilling in the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th
edition, for more information. Figure DH-5 diagrams the
main components of a downhole mud motor.
Top sub (saver sub) Figure DH-6: Top sub of a downhole mud motor.
The top sub is simply a cross-over housing at the top end of

Rotor catch Rotor

Rotor catch top sub
ring Stage
Stator
Stator
?
6⅜ 4/5 7.0
Rotor catch stem Surge power
Nozzle section shown
Rotor or plug
Figure DH-7: Rotor catch assembly. Figure DH-9: Stage power section.
Rotor
Stator
elastomer
Stator major
(valley) Rotor major
(peak)
Stator minor
(peak)
Stator Rotor minor

tube (valley)
Figure DH-8: Rotor and stator cross section. Figure DH-10: Common lobe configurations with
a generic summation of performance.
if the connection between the power section and top sub •• The cavity moves down through the stator, emptying
breaks. This is a back-up mechanism to help prevent signif- out the bottom end
icant loss of equipment if the BHA were to break off at this •• Pressure continues to fill the spiral cavities and they
point. continue rotating to empty
•• Each cavity is a fixed (constant) volume, so the higher
Power section the flow rate, the faster the rotor turns
Power sections are the portion of the motor which transfer
the axial force of mud flow into torsional force for transmis- A stage is the distance measured parallel to the axis be-
sion to the bit. The primary components are the rotor and tween two corresponding points of the same spiral lobe
stator (Figure DH-8). The rotor is a long helical steel com- (Figure DH-9). This distance is commonly referred to as the
ponent that sits inside the stator. The stator is a long tubular lead of the stator.
component with elastomer lining.
A power section’s design is identified by its outer tube diam-
The two parts fit together with a complimentary helical ge- eter, rotor/stator lobe configuration and number of stages.
ometry that allows the conversion of axial force to torsional Tube sizes range in general from 1 11/16-in. to 11 ¼-in. tube
force. The rotor and stator are designed as helical elements OD. The lobe configuration selection is dependent on the
with a major and minor diameter. The stator will have one application need. As a general rule, a high rotational speed
more lobe than the rotor. The lobe is the curved spiral shape power section will produce lower torque; inversely a low
formed by the difference in the major and minor dimension. speed power section generates higher torque. Figure DH-10
This difference in lobe count creates a fluid inlet area (cav- shows common lobe configurations with a generic summa-
ity) where fluid can be pumped through to create rotation. tion of performance:
Transmission of axial to torsional force The rotational speed generated by the power section is pro-
•• The surface pump pressure forces mud into the power portional to the rate of fluid flow through the power section,
section inlet i.e. increasing the flow rate through a given power section
•• The first cavity at the top takes the mud in directly increases the output speed. To increase the output
•• As this fluid cavity moves down through the stator, it speed of a power section without changing the flow rate,
pushes against the rotor, creating rotation the cavity size is changed. A high speed power section will

Conventional Even wall and a thin elastomeric liner of even thickness. Backed by the
contoured tube, the thinner elastomer liner maintains its
sealing ability up to 75% higher differential pressure across
each stage.
Adjustable assembly and fixed housings
Rubber Adjustable assembly

An adjustable assembly (Figure DH-12) connects the stator
Figure DH-11: Conventional vs even-wall power
section. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. to the sealed bearing assembly and encloses the driveshaft
assembly. The angle setting is field adjustable to produce a
wide range of build rates.
Fixed housing
Fixed, non-adjustable housings are available (special order)
in straight or fixed bend configurations.
Driveshaft assembly
The driveshaft assembly converts the eccentric motion of
Figure DH-12: The adjustable assembly connects the the rotor into concentric rotation for the bearing assembly.
stator to the sealed bearing assembly and encloses the
driveshaft assembly. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. It also accommodates any angle set on the adjustable bent
housing (or fixed bend housing) and carries the thrust load
from the rotor caused by the pressure drop across the pow-
require a larger fluid inlet area (cavity) to allow more fluid er section. The assembly consists of a driveshaft and two
throughput into the cavity. sealed and lubricated universal joints connecting to the ro-
tor and the sealed bearing assembly.
The torque generated by the power section is proportional
to the differential pressure applied across the power section Bearing Assembly
and is independent of fluid flow. Generally, the more weight
applied to the bit, the higher the torque needed to keep the- »» Oil sealed bearing assembly
bit turning, so the higher the differential pressure across the The bearing assembly transmits the rotation of the drive-
power section. shaft assembly to the drill bit. It transmits the compressive
thrust load created by the weight of the collars and drill
The maximum recommended differential pressure is lim- string to the rotating bit box, and supports the radial and
ited by the stator elastomer. If pressure increases beyond bending loads developed while directional or steerable drill-
the limits of the elastomer, the stator elastomer will deform, ing. It also carries the tensile “off-bottom” thrust load pro-
breaking the cavity seal so the mud flow leaks past the ro- duced by the pressure drops across the rotor and the drill bit,
tor and rotation stops – this is commonly known as a stalled as well as any load caused during back reaming. In oil-sealed
motor. bearing assemblies the radial bearings and thrust bearings
are lubricated by and sealed in an oil chamber balanced to
An increase in torque output can be achieved by three meth- the internal tool pressure (Figure DH-13).
ods:
•• Use a power section with more stages. As torque is
proportional to the applied differential pressure, a
power section of similar tube diameter, lobe
configuration and profile construction will generate
more torque as the number of stages increases;
•• Use a high performance elastomer. Specially designed
elastomers can allow as much as 50% higher
differential pressure across each stage, generating 50%
more torque with the increase in differential pressure;
•• Use an even wall power section (Figure DH-11).
Figure DH-13: Oil sealed bearing assembly.
Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Even wall power sections have a contoured stator tube ID

•• Make up the drill bit to the proper torque with a bit

breaker and the rig tong placed on the output shaft
directly above the bit. Do not put rig tongs on the sealed
bearing assembly housings. Inspect the output shaft
seal area for any indication of an oil leak.
Note: Avoid long periods without circulation if possible.
Figure DH-14: Mud-lubricated bearing assembly. »» Starting the motor

Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. Begin circulating “off bottom” with the bit turning freely. Per-
form circulation and pressure tests at the same circulation
rates as the surface test, and note the readings. The pres-
»» Mud lubricated bearing assembly sure will be higher due to the restrictions of the drill string
The mud lubricated bearing assembly is interchangeable components added. The “off bottom” pressures noted may
with the sealed bearing assembly and performs the same be higher than calculated. This is caused by bit dragon the
basic function (Figure DH-14). In a mud lubricated assem- side of the hole due to the bent sub, adjustable housing an-
bly, a small percentage of the drilling mud is allowed to pass gle, and stabilization.
through the bearing chamber, to lubricate the bearings. Mud
lubricated bearing assemblies can be used in the hottest »» Drilling
holes with the lowest aniline point drilling fluids, as there are After a short hole-cleaning circulation period, slowly lower
no elastomeric seals. the bit to bottom. When bottom is tagged, the standpipe
pressure gauge will show an immediate increase. Increase
Applications the bit weight slowly to achieve the desired build up rate
and/or rate of penetration. Do not exceed the recommend-
Directional drilling ed maximum differential pressure across the motor.
Most motors are used with adjustable housings to provide a
method of drilling directionally downhole. The desired angle The “off bottom” pressure is the total system pressure (read
is obtained by selecting an appropriate fixed bend housing or on the stand pipe gauge), from the standpipe, through the
is set in the adjustable housing sufficient to alter hole course drillstring, the annulus, and back to the drilling nipple, while
with the drillstring not rotating and the tool face oriented. circulating with the bit “off bottom” (i.e., zero weight on bit).
When the drill string is rotated with the motor operating, the Periodically recheck the “off bottom” pressure. The stand-
system drills straight ahead. pipe pressure will slowly increase after hole cleaning due to
the hydraulic energy required to lift the cuttings.
»» Run preparation & rig site testing
•• Set the motor in the slips and install a safety clamp. The torque applied to the bit while “on bottom” is direct-
Remove the lift sub and make up the Kelly/top drive. ly proportional to the difference between the “on bottom”
Remove the safety clamp and slips and lower the motor and “off bottom” pressures (i.e. there are no friction losses
until the dump sub is below the drilling nipple, but through the rotating drillstring). An increase in the weight on
visible. bit produces an increase in torque. As the bit drills off, the
•• Start the rig pumps slowly; fluid should flow out of the weight on bit decreases and correspondingly the pressure
dump sub ports. and torque decrease. The standpipe pressure gauge can
•• Increase the pump rate slowly until the dump sub therefore be used as a torque indicator.
closes. Leave the pumps running and make note of the
circulation rate and stand pipe pressure when the dump »» Stalling
sub closes. With the pump running and the dump sub If too much WOB is applied, the torque required to keep the
closed, check to ensure that there is no drill fluid bit turning creates a higher differential pressure than the
leakage through the ports. It is advisable to increase the seal between the rotor and stator elastomer can maintain.
pump speed in two or three steps, to the maximum The drilling fluid breaks the seal and leaks through the pow-
circulation rate expected downhole, and note the er section without turning the rotor, so bit ceases rotation,
circulation rate and standpipe pressure in each case. or ‘stalls’. An increase in standpipe pressure will occur and
•• Shut down the pump. The dump sub may not open due penetration will cease. As the fluid leaks past, it erodes the
to a pressure lock in the short hydraulic test circuit. If elastomeric liner, which makes further stalling more likely
this occurs, bleed off the pressure to permit the dump and damages the liner, eventually leading to chunking.
sub to open.

Figure DH-15: Schematic of a down the hole (DTH) air hammer. Courtesy of Boretek.net.
Also, stalling generates large pressure pulses, creating

torque spikes that can cause chunking, connection back-off, Air hammers
or fracture of driveline components. Motor stall should be Down the hole (DTH) hammers are used to drill in medium
avoided, but when it occurs, it should be quickly remedied. to hard formations when high penetration rates are required
with minimal deviation (Figure DH-15). DTH hammers use
If the bit is picked up off-bottom while drilling, the “trapped” the energy of compressed air to alternatively lift and drive
torque within the drill string will be released uncontrollably, an internal piston against a percussion bit. Penetration
potentially causing damage to down-hole components or is achieved by the transmission of energy from the piston
causing connections to back-off. This is especially true when through the bit into the formation. In contrast with rotary
a stall has occurred. Careful attention must be given to redrilling, DTH hammers only require enough weight on bit
lease the trapped torque in a controlled manner. (WOB) to maintain contact between the bit face and drill-
ing formation. RPM should be matched to percussion rate
»» Over-running the bit to ensure the bit inserts are positioned over new material
Rotating the drillstring with any positive displacement mo- with each blow. DTH hammers require greater air volume
tor in a stalled condition may cause the upper portion of the but less weight on bit when compared to rotary drilling.
motor (and drillstring) to over-run the bit. This condition can
damage the stator elastomer liner and cause connection Compressed air
back-offs within the motor. Compressed air is supplied to the hammer from the drill
string through the top sub. The pressure and velocity of the
General maintenance fluid provide the motive energy to operate the piston. Oil is
The mud motors should be cleaned and flushed with clean injected into the compressed air to lubricate the DTH ham-
water after use, prior to laying down the tool. Drilling fluid mer and in some applications foaming agents may be added
left in the motor will cake and cause the bearings to seize. to assist in cutting evacuation. After transferring energy to
Chemicals in the drilling fluid can cause damage, or wear on the piston, low pressure exhaust air is directed through the
the motor if not removed promptly. face of the bit to flush the hole and transport cuttings to the
surface.
Proper pipe dope should be applied to the threaded con-
nections at the top and bottom of the motor and applicable Top sub
thread protectors installed. Dump subs should not be left in The top sub connects the DTH hammer to the drill string and
an “open” position. transmits the pressurized air, thrust, and rotary torque from
the drill. Sometimes referred to as the “backhead.”
Other maintenance will be performed at the facility of the
supplier of the motor. Case
The case provides the central interface for assembly of the

DTH hammer. The piston strokes within the inner volume of in the range of 3000 ft/min and 5000+ ft/min. For mist
the case, and the spaces above and below the piston form drilling or directional drilling applications, air volume should
the drive and lift chambers. The drive and lift chambers are be increased by 30% (i.e. 2400 SCFM for Dust Drilling vs.
filled with compressed air in an alternating manner in order 3120 SCFM for Mist/ Directional). Air must remain on when
to drive the piston into the bit and then lift it to reset for an- the hammer is in the hole to prevent debris from entering.
other cycle.
Under normal drilling mode, the DTH hammer efficiently
Piston consumes air to operate the piston with sufficient exhaust
The only moving part of the air hammer, the piston imparts air to flush the hole. In the event additional pressure is need-
energy through the bit to the formation. The piston recipro- ed, the tool may be retracted slightly to remove the bit face
cates at a rate of 600 to 2000 beats per minute with a typi- from hole bottom. In this “flushing mode,” compressed air
cal stroke length ranging from 60mm to 90mm. The piston’s bypasses the piston for improved hole cleaning. Switching to
design and air porting cause it to act as a valve, controlling Flushing Mode is usually the first troubleshooting step when
the filling and discharging of the drive and lift chambers de- the hammer is not firing consistently or cab pressure is too
pending on its location. high.
Driver sub Lubrication

This sub aligns with the splined section of the drill bit to An on-board oiler is required whenever drilling with a DTH
transmit rotational force from the air hammer and drill string hammer. Oil is used to lubricate and cool the moving com-
to the bit. Sometimes referred to as the “chuck.” ponents as well as to create an air seal, preventing bypass
for efficient operation. Injection rate is dependent on air vol-
Drill bit ume. The oiler must remain on during hammer operation to
The bit is impacted by the piston at the bottom of each piston prevent piston damage
cycle. Elastic waves from impact travel through the shank of
the bit to its head. Tungsten carbide inserts are then pressed Safety and handling
against the rock face for a few milliseconds generating small Standard lifting and handling procedures must be followed
craters and rock cuttings. when removing or handling DTH hammers and bits.
Check valve Eye and ear protection are required when drilling or con-
Some DTH designs use a check valve in the top sub to elimi- ducting live surface tests due to the hazards of high pressure
nate potential air leakage and back flow. air discharge.
Bit retaining systems

Systems vary by design, but most DTH hammers use a re- Rotary steerable systems (RSS)
taining system to prevent bit loss in the event of a down hole
failure. Bit retaining rings between the drive sub and bit bear- RSS development
ing allow the bit to extend from the tool without separation, The first commercial RSS revolutionized directional drilling
while external bit head retainers are used prevent the head in the 1990s. The technology has made improvements in
from falling down hole in the event of a shank separation. reliability and is now a standard drilling tool, with both push-
the-bit and point-the-bit RSS applied in directional and ver-
Choke tical wells worldwide. Their use is not limited to high-cost
Some hammers use a choke to regulate the air flow through offshore markets has become more common in lower-cost
the tool. The choke contains an orifice that passes a portion land markets. Initially targeted and utilized in applications
of the airflow directly through the tool to the hole face, im- that were extreme in directional nature (extended-reach
proving flushing capacity. The choke may be replaceable or and high-DLS build or turn), they have matured over the
factory-set depending on design. past 20 years and are now considered an appropriate tech-
nology option in all forms of directional applications, includ-
Air flow requirement ing vertical.
DTH hammer air requirements depend on three variables:
design, bottom hole pressure, and inlet pressure. With a The advantages of this technology are many for both main
given design, a target bottom hole pressure is selected for groups of users: geoscientists and drillers (Figure DH-16).
optimal hole cleaning. The air supply requirement can then A cleaner hole is also achieved when using rotary steerable
be expressed as a function of the inlet pressure. For effective systems. When slide drilling, cuttings are pulled downward
hole cleaning, the air velocity through the annulus should be by gravity and deposited around the low side of the drill-

Steerable rotary drilling system
Steady deviation Continuous Cleaner hole

Controlled by downhole servo independent Effect of high inclination
of bit torque. No problems of toolface rotation is offset by continuous
control with elastic drillstring while steering pipe rotation
Smooth hole Less drag Less risk

Tortuousity of well bore is reduced Improves control
of stuck pipe
by better steering of WOB
Greater reservoir Longer Save time

Completion exposure extended reach
Higher daily ROP,
cost is reduced less wiper trips
by geosteering
AND
Work over
is made easier Fewer wells and
/or
Fewer platforms and
/or
Less cost
to exploit a reservoir to develop a field per foot
Less cost per barrel
Figure DH-16: Rotary steerable system benefits tree. Source: M.A. Colebrook, S.R. Peach, “Application of Steerable Rotary Drilling
Technology to Drill Extended Reach Wells” , F.M. Allen, G. Conran, IADC/SPE Paper #39327 Presented Dallas, Texas 3–6 March 1998.
string on their return to the surface. This buildup of cuttings the well where mechanical sticking may occur. RSS technol-
reduces the clearance between the drill string and wellbore, ogies do not produce the instantaneous doglegs that bent
adding additional contact around the low side of the string housing motors do, and so result in a smoother wellbore
and increasing both torque and drag. The cuttings reduce with less risk of sticking.
the flow path for circulation, and can produce enough drag
to pack off the bottom hole assembly (BHA), creating a Maintaining wellbore quality, particularly borehole gauge, is
stuck pipe event. Drilling with rotary steerable systems al- crucial for obtaining predictable directional response in both
lows these cuttings beds to be continuously churned up and push- and point-the-bit systems. Rotary-steerable system
more evenly distributed in the flow of fluid back to surface. (RSS) delivers accurate wellbore placement and comple-
This results in more effective cuttings transport out of the tion-ready wellbores in applications ranging from deep, hot
well. holes to extended-reach underbalanced wells. This last ben-
efit concerns geoscientists, because better measurements
Continuous rotation of the drill string allows for improved of the properties of the formation can be obtained, and the
transportation of drilled cuttings to the surface resulting in drillers, because the well casing or production string can be
better hydraulic performance, better weight transfer for the more easily run to the bottom of the hole.
same reason allows a more complex bore to be drilled, and
reduced wellbore tortuosity due to utilizing a steadier steer- Commonly, RSS are segmented into two broad categories;
ing model. The well geometry therefore is less aggressive Push-the-Bit and Point-the-Bit RS tools. Their distinct oper-
and the wellbore (wall of the well) is smoother than those ating mechanisms are briefly described below. However, it
drilled with a motor. Tortuosity and excessive dogleg sever- should be noted that ‘Push’ and ‘Point’ are broad categoriza-
ity can create significant challenges to overcome when get- tions of these systems and their operating mechanisms vary
ting casing to TD, resulting in excessive downtime and trips considerably between suppliers. Operationally, these tools
to ream the hole smooth. High tortuosity also increases the can be run either as a stand alone or in combination with
risk of stuck pipe events by creating multiple points within

Mandrel Concentric Offset Ledge

connection stabilizer stabilizer wiper
Eccentric Orientation
mass housing
Stationary section
Figure DH-17: High-temperature applications might require fully mechanical RSS tools. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Figure DH-18: Offset stablizer dynamics.

Video DH-1: Animation of a push-the- ‘Point-the-bit’ tool

bit RSS. Courtesy Schlumberger. Point the bit controls the direction of build by pointing the
bit in the desired direction while continuously rotating the
mud motors. These variations can result in quite diverse op- drill string
erational and performance characteristics.
There are two primary categories of point tools:
‘Push-the-bit’ tool •• Tools that deviate via deflection of an internal shaft.
The tool uses mud actuated pads to change the direction of This deflection, using a near-bit pivot point, will result in
drilling by pushing against the formation (Video DH-1). ‘tilting’ of the drill bit in the desired wellbore direction.
The method of shaft deflection varies enormously, but
These tools are typically composed of a steering section and most of these tools employ a static steering section;
control unit. The steering section contains a number of pads •• Point via fixed offset. Typically, the steering unit
(typically 3 or 4) that apply a lateral force against the well- contains a bit shaft that has a fixed offset angle from
bore to achieve deviation at the bit. These pads are either the axis of the collar. This shaft passes through a
mud powered (powered by drilling fluid diverted from the universal joint and is connected to an internal drive
main flow) or use an internal hydraulic system and provide a mechanism. The operation of the mechanism allows the
constant force to the bit. offset of the tool face to be held geostationary (via
rotation in opposing direction) when steering, whereas
While certain systems have full external rotation of the en- the tool face is allowed to rotate when in straight mode.
tire RSS tool when in operation, a number of RSS suppliers Directional control is managed by changing the timing
utilize varied mechanisms to ‘hold’ the steering section stat- or speed of the internal mechanism. These tools are
ic within the borehole. When no deviation is required, most predominantly fully rotational when operating i.e. they
systems can be set into a neutral mode. RSS tool settings are do not have a static steering section;
typically set using a series of mud pulse or RPM sequences •• There are pros and cons to both broad segments of RSS,
sent from the surface. as well as specific strengths and weaknesses due to the
different steering mechanisms and mechanics
employed by each RSS supplier. Actual tool selection

will be resultant from a collective evaluation of the

drilling challenges, directional requirements, cost, General maintenance
reliability, geographical service limitations, and prior Like all other equipment tongs used for torqueing and
experience / relationships. un-torqueing the connections should be placed on the sec-
tions of the tools identified accordingly. Typically this will be
Recent years have seen further significant advancement in at the extreme top and bottom of the tool.
RSS technology and tool availability. Notable advances in-
clude: Use proper pipe dope on the threaded connections and in-
•• RSS for extreme diameter hole sizes i.e. tools that can stall thread protectors when they are not in use.
directionally drill 3 7/8 in. and 26 in. hole sizes;
•• Advances in DLS capability (tools that can deliver (15 + For more information on rotary steerable systems, see the
°/100 ft. [30 m]); separat chapter on Directional Drilling in the IADC Drilling
•• Casing while directionally drilling with RSS; Manual, 12th edition.
•• Coiled Tubing Drilling with RSS;
•• Powered RSS: combination of RSS and downhole motor
to improve drilling efficiency; Vibration, torque and drag
•• Vertical drilling with RSS.
Description and basic theory
Benefits Vibration, torque and drag are present in every well drilled,
•• Reduce drilling time to drill the vertical, curve and and should always be considered when planning and exe-
lateral section in one BHA with no sliding intervals or cuting a drilling program (Figure DH-19). Proper modeling
added trips for downhole motors; and monitoring is essential to preven torque and drag from
•• Increase reservoir exposure—kick-off deeper and land causing severe drilling problems. When preparations and
in the reservoir sooner ; proper mitigation techniques are not performed for drill-
•• Reduce sail angle required in extended reach drilling, ing vibrations, the result will be increased drilling time and
reducing torque and drag, and facilitating faster, costs, damaged tools and additional problems.
smoother tripping;
•• Reduces drillstring buckling in long horizontals, greatly Physical operating principles
extending reach; Torque and drag are usually in reference to surface. These
•• Continuous rotation improves hole cleaning and are very important measurements and values to observe
reduces risk of getting stuck; when drilling ahead or running casing. Any axial movements
•• Increases ability to drill with more aggressive bits; when drilling, tripping pipe, or running casing creates torque
•• Smoother wellbore curvature reduces torque and drag; and drag.
•• Lowers operating and lost-in-hole costs;
•• Helps improve instantaneous and average rate of Rotating the pipe will increase your torque in the string, but
penetration; resist or decrease the drag. When no rotation is applied to
•• Helps reduce trips;
•• Helps ensure precise wellbore placement in all drilling
environments;
•• More energy is directly applied to the bit improving
cutting efficiency and rate of penetration while also
overcoming stick-slip.
The considerable benefits of using rotary steerable tech-

nology have been embraced by the industry and reflected
in the continuation of exponentially growing demand, irre-
spective of business cycle. The initially obvious benefits of
using these systems has now grown to include a whole host
of “less tangible” benefits, which are probably of greater real
value than the tangible ones. Bit technology has grown to
keep pace with the need to obtain the best performance out
of each of the very different available systems. It is becom-
ing increasingly common to tailor-design bits to push per- Figure DH-19: Any axial movement during drilling, tripping
pipe or running casing creates torque and drag.
formance limits.

the string, the drag is a critical factor and failure component

to the action being attempted.
FCR = 2 x E x I x KB x W x sin θ
Torque will be the calculation we see at the top drive, and r
drag will be measured for the hook load with block weight. E = 30 x 106 (steel)
A typical T&D analysis starts by dividing the pipe into small
π 4 4
I= x (OD – ID )
elements. Calculation begins from the element at the bot- 64
tom of the pipe, where weight on bit (WOB) or torque on bit FCR = Critical sinusoidal buckling load (lb)
(TOB) is expected. For each element, force and torque are θ = Inclination of the hole at the point of interest (degrees)
balanced and the T&D at the top of the element are calcu- E = Young's Modulus
lated step by step and from bottom to top, calculation is per-

KB = Buoyancy factor (unitless)
I = Moment of inertia (in.4)
formed for each pipe element, until it reaches the rig floor. W = Unit weight in air (lb/in.)
The deeper and more deviated wells will have significantly r = Radical clearance between pipe tool joint and hole (in.)
more T&D than the more basic vertical wells.
Figure DH-20: Calculation of critical buckling factor..
Buckling
Buckling is the sudden axial collapse and lateral displace-
ment of a drill string column when the forces that destabilize
it exceed the forces that stabilize it. In other words, when
weight stacking becomes great enough, buckling of the drill
pipe occurs. Buckling in sliding mode drilling will generally
cause little or no structural damage to the drill string, where
drillpipe is the least tolerant to buckling and HWDP is the
most buckling tolerant. Figure DH-20 defines the equation
for the critical buckling factor. Two types of buckling exist,
and are explained below. Figure DH-21: Sinusoidal buckling.
Sinusoidal buckling occurs when the pipe buckles in a “si-

nusoidal” wave pattern (Figure DH-21). With this type of
buckling the pipe is engaging the wall at points, directing the
drilling forces into the borehole wall rather than downhole to
the bit. This can result in reduction in weight on bit (WOB)
than what is expected to be from surface.
Helical buckling is caused with the weight stacking contin-

ues past sinusoidal buckling. At this point, the drill pick col-
lapses into the dimensional configuration of a coiled spring
or helix(Figure DH-22). This type of buckling results in the
same or an increased loss of downward force and WOB, due Figure DH-22: Helical buckling.
to the redirection of these forces onto the borehole wall.
Tubular buckling typically occurs in a long horizontal well in

Weight “stacks”
the vertical section, and right after the curve section due to
the axial force (WOB), downhole friction and the side force
in the curve section. Figure DH-23 illustrates these loca-
tions. All buckling causes drill-string compression and will
push the neutral point close to the surface . Ultimately, the
drill team will consequently be unable to add further WOB.
Drill bit
Drilling vibrations
Drilling vibrations are common and present in every well, Static friction
in some form. It’s typically only severe levels of vibrations
that we actually notice from surface or after tools are pulled, Figure DH-23: Tubular buckling typically occurs in the vertical
secdtion of long horizontal well, and right after the curve section.
through dull grading and excessive wear. Any level of vibra-

Figure DH-26: Due to torsional vibrations (stick slip), the BHA/

Figure DH-24: Three forms of drilling vibration exist — bit slows down and winds up. When the wound-up string breaks
transverse (or lateral), axial and torsional (or stick slip). free, the bit rotates at very high speeds, often causing heat
checking on the bit and even “ring out” wear on the shoulder.
Torsional vibrations, also known as stick slip, can potential-

ly be the worst of all, sometimes inducing a lateral vibration
or whirl into the string during the ‘slip’ or spin-up phase.
Torsional vibrations are defined as the the slowing down &
speeding up of the BHA and bit, as they alternately rotate
more slowly and more rapidly than the drill pipe. This is a
Figure DH-25: Lateral vibrations cause the BHA to beat against result of the string periodically torquing up, then spinning
the wellbore, enlarging the borehole and damaging gauge cutters, free accelerating the bit to higher speeds. In severe cases
fatiguing connections and damaging downhole electronics. the bit/BHA stops regularly, causing the string to wind up;
the torque increases until the string finally breaks free and
accelerates the bit to high rotational speeds.
tions downhole will reduce the effeciency of drilling opera-
tion, causing a reduction in rate of penetration (ROP) and During stick-slip, bit RPM can be 2-3 times surface RPM.
therefore take longer to drill a given well, and costing more This can cause severe damage to even the best cutters,
money to complet the project. Three main forms of vibration which can experience due to the rapid spinning three times
exist: lateral or transverse, axial, and torsional (stick slip). the abrasion at a given moment during the ‘slip’ or release
See Figure DH-24. of built-up torque. The accelerated wear on the bit is usually
in the form of heat checking and even ‘ring out’ wear on the
Lateral vibrations are described as lateral displacement shoulder of the bit. Often, severe stick-slip can be observed
and beating of the BHA against the borehole. This is usu- in top-drive RPM and torque readings. See Figure DH-26 for
ally in the form of an eccentric rotation of the bit, BHA, or an example of the torsional and severe stick-slip effects on
drill pipe in a backward motion, known as backward whirl. bit wear.
even causes damage to gauge cutters, increased torque in
the string, an enlarged borehole, and fatigue to connections. For more information on drilling vibrations, refer to the sep-
During backward or even chaotic whirl, downhole electron- arate Drilling Practices chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual,
ics, such as the MWD, can be damaged (Figure DH-25). 12th edition.
Axial vibrations are up and down resonant motions in the Vibration analysis tools and software
BHA, typically seen with roller cone bits. The bit does not Drillstring dynamics modeling software, otherwise known
actually leave the formation during this mode of vibration, as critical speed analysis, enables pre-well analysis of the
but the ‘bounce’ could cause decreased effeciency in drilling, BHA and drillstring. The software predicts parameters that
uneven wear or broken cutters and cones, or even pinched initiate vibration and high impact loading that can lead to
and failed bearings in the bit. premature bit and/or downhole tool failures, utilizing finite

Figure DH-27: Two examples of reamers,

which feature cutting structures comprising
carbide chunks mixed into a durable
hardfacing material. Most tools offer a tapered
profile front to back, otherwise known as a
‘watermelon’ profile, to reach back and ream
while going downhole, or while tripping out
of hole, if the formation is undergauge.
element analysis to model the dynamics of the entire drill- Many reamer and wiper produces exist on the market. The
string from the bit to the rig floor. most common are roller reamers and ledge wipers, or ledge
reamers.
Drillstring dynamics modeling software identifies combina-
tions of operational conditions and/or drilling parameters Typically these are string tools; however, some near-bit op-
that are more likely to result in detrimental axial, lateral, tions exist too. An industry standard for a reamer would be
and/or torsional vibration while drilling. The results deliver a a cutting structure made of carbide chunks mixed into a
recommended set of drilling parameters based on a proven, durable hardfacing material on the profile of the tool. This
scientific approach that minimizes the risk of vibration. allows for an active cutting contact area when engaged with
the borehole wall. Most tools offer a tapered profile front to
Downhole drilling dynamic sensors/tools collect drilling back, otherwise known as a ‘watermelon’ profile, in order to
data and store it in memory for detailed analysis on surface reach back and ream while going downhole, or while tripping
post well. Some tools can acquire an array of measurements out of hole if the formation is undergauge.
including multi-axis vibration, load, torque, pressure, tem-
perature and rotation at around 800Hz. Surface data ac- Other forms of cutting structures exist beyond the more
quisition, visualization and software analysis capabilities economical jagged edge carbide pieces coating, such as car-
provide well construction teams with the information to op- bide inserts, and the most premium design including PDC
timize performance. An example of the measurement capa- cutters. Such an example is shown below. This particular
bilities of top level drilling dynamics tools include: design allows for a passive gauge contact area in the center,
•• Weight on bit (WOB) and Torque on bit (TOB) ; to increase stabilization in the string, but allows for a cut-
•• Weight transfer indication; ting action while drilling or backreaming if the formation is
•• Torque loading; at all tight or under gauge. This same design is effective in
•• Multi-axis vibration; removing torque building ledges in directional wells. Due to
•• Shock impact; the premium PDC feature, this type of tool will be the most
•• Damage determination; durable tool design on the market.
•• Annular pressure;
••Temperature; Roller reamers are initially used to ensure the diameter of
•• Stick-slip, whirl, torsional event detection and the hole is cut to the true desired hole size. With the carbide
characterization. insert teeth on the rollers, the tool is capable of removing
formation not within gauge, due to a swelling formation or
Advanced torque and vibration technologies undergauge bit. This cutting action is also beneficial when
directional ledges and deviations come into contact with
Integral reamers and wipers the tool. As directional wells are formed, doglegs and micro
These tools are used to reduce torque and drag, increase the ledges are created in the wellbore, causing increased torque
rate of penetration, and improve operational efficiency. The and drag in the well. When a roller reamer comes into con-
tapered blade reamer should be considered standard BHA tact with these areas, the cutting action of the rollers help to
equipment for the removal of ledges and abrupt doglegs remove or soften these ledges.
created while drilling. They can effectively removes keyseats
encountered while tripping in and out of the hole, ultimately The second function of this technology is to stabilizer the
reducing the torque and drag on a given drill string (Figure drill string in the well, and lower the torque necessary to
DH-27). rotate the stabilized section of the bha. As the rollers are

Chisel cutter Figure DH-29: In many

Dome cutter cases, roller reamers can be
serviced at the rig site. Roller
cartridges can be removed and
replaced. The illustrrations
Figure DH-28: Chisel and dome cutters (above) are two options at left show an example of a
replaceable cutter cartridge.
for roller reamers. A chisel cutter will be more aggressive and
useful in soft to medium formations, whereas the dome-
shaped cutter is designed for a harder formation.
rotating, and not static, less torque in the string is required Threaded connections need to be treated with pipe dope
to rotate the tools and the surrounding BHA. and thread protectors installed when not in use. For more
on thread protectors, see the separate Drill String chapter of
Sealed bearing roller reamers the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.
Drilling fluid causes early bearing pin and cutter-bore wear
to traditional unsealed reamer cutters. However, sealed Ring gauge technology
bearing reamer features sealed and lubricated cutter as- Ring gauge technology is the only true continuous borehole
semblies using specially treated bearing pins and cutters contact design in a drilling tool. This concept can be added
fitted with low friction bearing materials. This results in a as a near-bit or string tool to maximize stabilization at the bit
reamer that minimizes bearing wear and fully utilizes the or in the BHA and to prevent harmful vibrations, such as lat-
cutting structure. Sealed-bearing roller reames are available eral defections, whirl, and even micro stick-slip. The addition
in three-point or six-point configurations. of a ring to a spiral stabilizer can add up to 100% more pas-
sive contact area to the tool over the most optimized drill-
Roller reamer options ing stabilizer designs. The increased borehole contact has
Numerous variations of roller reamers have been developed, also been tested to maximize the deflection potential when
offering options for various applications. These include type ran as a gauge extension on point-the-bit rotary steerable
of bearing assembly, drilling-mud lubed or sealed-bearing systems. These tools are fitted with a premium hardfacing,
lubricated, different angles of roller placement, and differ- allowing them to be ran in the most extreme and harshest
ent cutter types on each roller. Two of the many options are drilling applications, where severe vibrations often exist,
displayed in Figure DH-28. A chisel cutter will be more ag- without failure.
gressive and utilized in soft to medium formations, whereas
the dome-shaped cutter is designed for a harder formation. Tool sizes for this technology range from 8 3/8 in. to 24 in.,
with the potential to get tool designs in sizes as small as 6 in.
In many cases, roller reamers are serviceable on-site. Roller
cartridges can be removed and replaced with the use of a A connection exists for any drive type, from rotary drilling
few specific tools, so that the tool can be rerun with new BHAs, to mud motor applications, and even used on unique
seals and cutters. See Figure DH-29 for an example of a re- point-the-bit rotary steerable systems (RSS).
placeable cutter cartridge.
Each tool has a four-blade design, wrapped at or near 360°,
General maintenance with full and partial ring options for each tool size, but the
Reamers and especially roller reamers require regular main- calculated junk slot area (JSA: Not to be confused with the
tenance and inspection. The features of the reamer and, in same acdronym for job safety analysis) does not change
the case of roller reamers, the pockets and holes used to in- between the two designs. Recent designs have yielded high
stall, remove and carry the cutting structures require NDT flow passages, allowing for continuous flow of cuttings and
testing after every job. Cutter surfaces should be visually drilling fluids to pass through the tool without interruption.
inspected for broken or missing cutting elements and exces- This is achieved by utilizing the strength of the ring to re-
sive wear and erosion damage. Manufacturer-supplied doc- move material from the body under the ring. The resulting
umentation should detail allowable wear and erosion limits JSA calculations near equal between that of a ring passage
For more on types of damage to cutters, see the separate and non-ring flow areas. It should also be noted that each
Bits chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition. high flow design is typically significantly higher in terms of

JSA calculations than that of a standard bit in the same size, MWD telemetry. MWD components are also called MWD
therefore a restriction in pressure and flow does not exist. survey tools and MWD directional tools.
Proper circulating fluid dynamics (CFD) studies were used
in validating the final high flow designs. See figure 3 for CFD MWD provides directional information, including the incli-
cutaway image, showing positive flow with little to no turbu- nation and direction of the borehole. Other information that
lence or restrictions. can be gleaned using MWD includes:
•• Pressure information: downhole pressure inside and
Asymmetric vibration dampening outside the drillstring;
Asymmetric vibration dampening technology mitigates vi- •• Vibration information: accelerations experienced in the
bration using a simple eccentric-designed stabilizer that drillstring during the drilling process;
orbits the borehole, rather than centralizing itself in the cen- •• Drilling parameters – weight and torque on bit and
ter or the borehole. The unique orbit within the borehole is bending moment;
completely different than any other stabilizing technique, •• Gamma-Ray – natural gamma radiation emitted by the
and should be carefully reviewed and placed within the BHA formations downhole.
before use.
All other data and information measured downhole in re-
The technology utilizes the simple effects of rotation to neu- al-time and telemetered to surface would fall in the category
tralize vibration. Using rotational speed of the string, the ge- of formation evaluation data and is typically referred to as
ometry forces the surrounding BHA, usually drill collars, to logging while drilling, or LWD.
rotate off center. This off-center rotation is controlled and
initiates an orbit or jump rope effect to the drill collars above Description and basic theory
and below. The controlled orbiting motion of this section in The purpose of the MWD technology is to provide real-time
the BHA, dampens out lateral vibrations and minimizes or data related to the borehole being drilled so that the well can
prevents stick-slip at the bit or in the BHA. be drilled in the right location and along the correct trajecto-
ry and to monitor the forces being applied and experienced
Asymmetric vibration dampeners rotate differently than by the drilling tools downhole such that the process may be
drill collars or stabilizers that have begun backward whirl optimized and performed as efficiently as possible.
harmonics. Due to the geometry, it will not enter the same
backward vibration mode, and therefore eliminate the dam- Physical operating principles
aging high frequency vibration from entering this section of A MWD tool will typically consist of the following compo-
drill pipe. It should be noted that careful placement tech- nents:
niques and a specially designed software calculator are al- •• Telemetry device. The telemetry device is used to
ways utilized before running this tool. transmit the acquired downhole data to the surface for
recording and analysis. There are several types of
Due to the basic orbiting nature of the tool, it is a vibration telemetry devices, such as:
mitigation tool in almost any application, standing out espe- • Mud pulse telemetry: device creates pressure
cially in borehole enlargement (BHE) wells, where pass thru pulses in the drilling fluid that are detected at the
tools and stabilizers cannot properly stabilize the enlarged surface and decoded. The device is most
hole above an underreamer. This is the original application commonly some type of valve that for a short
for which the technology was initially developed in the late period partially blocks the flow of the drilling fluid
90s. The tool also functions in applications such as ultra through the drillstring creating a pressure increase
deep vertical rotary wells, and even high angle wells utilizing seen at the surface. The device can be integral to a
Rotary Steerable Systems. drill collar, or sub, or as a sonde that is inserted
into a custom, or standard drill collar. This
Industry technical papers and articles also refer to this technology requires that drilling fluid is present in
technology as an Asymmetric Vibration Damping System the well and circulating;
(AVDT). • Electromagnetic (EM) telemetry: device that
creates an electromagnetic field downhole. The
field propagates through the rock to the surface
Measurement while drilling (MWD) where the small changes in current flow and/or
Measurement-while-drilling (MWD) technology is com- magnetic properties inside the rock are detected
monly used to provide real-time measurements of drilling and decoded. This technology works with and
related parameters measured by special instrumentation without a drilling fluid in the well and is thus
downhole and transmitted to surface using some form of suitable in areas where air, or foam drilling takes

places, or with gasified drilling fluids, such as used the MWD tool string. These could be one or more of the
in some underbalanced drilling operations. The EM following:
signal propagates well in formations with low • Pressure while drilling: device with one or more
porosity and high impedence, but will die quickly in (usually two) pressure gauges measuring fluid
areas of high conductivity (such as in shallow pressure in the wellbore at the instrument depth.
offshore settings) and non-porous rocks (such as The measurements can be internal to the bore of
anhydrite, some salts and some volcanic rocks); the drillstring or external in the annulus between
• Acoustic telemetry: device that creates acoustic the drillstring and the borehole wall. The gauges,
sound waves in the drillstring that are detected on electronics and associated equipment are usually
the drillpipe at surface and decoded. This contained in a special sub that can be connected to
technology works well in vertical wells, but the rest of the MWD string;
becomes increasingly difficult with wells where the • Vibration measurements: a device containing a
drillstring makes a lot of contact with the borehole number of accelerometers capable of measuring
wall, with tapered drillstrings and in high mud string accelerations along different axes (axial,
weights; lateral and angular), each indicating movement
•• Power supply: device that creates and supplies power to and shocks in the drillstring. The accelerometers
the telemetry device and the instruments and sensors can be integral to the directional measurement
downhole. The most commonly used are: device, the pressure measurement device, or other,
• Batteries: all types of batteries, depending on or used as a stand-alone sonde or sub connected
power requirements and environmental to the rest of the MWD tool string;
(temperature) conditions downhole. The batteries • Drilling parameters: a device containing a number
are usually carried in a special battery tube, or of strain gauges to measure the weight, torque and
pressure case, or in a special insert within a sub. (on some devices) bending moment in the
The advantages of batteries are that they are bottomhole assembly. This device is typically a
highly reliable and do not require additional gear to dedicated sub, which may contain pressure and
make the function. The downside is that they have vibration measurements as well. For accuracy, the
a finite life; strain measurements typically need to be
• Turbines: electromagnetic turbines powered by the corrected for pressure and temperature;
drilling fluid are commonly used either on their • Gamma ray: a device with instruments capable of
own, or in combination with batteries to provide detecting gamma radiation emitted from the rock
power to the downhole tool. The turbine only being drilled. Many different devices exist and they
delivers power when circulating drilling fluid can be in the form of a sonde connected to the
causes the rotor on the turbine to spin. Therefore, directional sensor or as a dedicated sub.
no power is available from the turbine when the
drilling fluid is not present or not being circulated Important for what and to whom?
(pumped). The turbines also must be set up to MWD data is important for a number of reasons and can
deliver the correct amount of electric power and, provide:
since it is dependent on circulation of the fluid, •• Directional data: acquiring regular directional data is a
must be set up according to the velocity of the fluid regulatory requirement and is thus important to all
passing by the turbine. The turbines are usually levels within the well's oil-company operator. In
incorporated into the telemetry device as one unit; addition, it is important to the directional driller and
•• Directional sensor: instrument to measure the borehole company representatives on location to ensure the well
inclination and direction. This instrument typically is is being drilled is on target. It is also important to all
contained in a pressure case positioned in the center of other personnel that will need to access, run and install
the bore of a non-magnetic drill collar and connected equipment into the well and for production specialists
directly to the telemetry and/or power supply device. to include in their production models;
Centralization is accomplished by the use of one or •• Pressure data is important to ensure the well is being
more sets of centralizers on the pressure case. Consult cleaned, remains in good condition and to provide more
with the MWD supplier on the correct placement within accurate measurements during pressure tests and well
and the amount of non-magnetic drill collar required to control situations;
make a good measurement; •• Vibration data is important to drilling engineers, drillers,
•• Optional sensor packages: on occasion, more than the toolpushers and service company personnel to ensure
bare minimum directional measurement is included in the drilling process stays efficient and does not do
preventable damage to the wellbore and the drillstring;

•• Drilling data can be used by those reviewing the

vibration data to better manage the drilling process; General maintenance
•• Gamma ray is used to confirm or fine-tune geological Repair and maintenance will be performed by the equipment
models and predictions and to assist in placing the well provider. Tools and equipment should be flushed with clean
in the right formations. water prior to laying down and shipping after downhole use.
The material being used is mostly non-magnetic and thus an
The MWD equipment requires certain enabling surface appropriate pipe dope must be used.
equipment. This can range from a small console with a com-
puter and display on the rig floor to a dedicated unit pro-
vided by a MWD contractor. Pressure transducers, displays, Logging while drilling (LWD)
communication equipment, depth-measurement equip- Loging while drilling (LWD) technology is commonly used
ment and cabling will all be installed around the rig to detect to provide real-time measurements of formation related pa-
the telemetry signals, decode and display them. rameters measured by special instrumentation downhole
and transmitted to surface using some form of MWD telem-
Safety and handling etry. LWD is also refered to as MWD logging and formation
MWD tools come in a variety of sizes, configurations and evaluation while drilling (FEWD).
dimensions. Each has unique requirements for safe handling
and operation. Common among most systems: Measurements available from LWD are:
•• Most systems will include service company personnel •• Gamma ray: natural gamma radiation emitted by the
to assist in the safe handling; formations;
•• Most systems will recommend the use of filters or •• Resistivity: Resistance, or conductance of the different
screens in the drillstring to keep debris in the drilling rocks and fluids;
fluid invading the mud puls, or power turbine devices. •• Density: Specific gravity of the rocks;
Care should be exercised in the handling, installing and •• Neutron porosity: Fluid filled pore space volume of the
removing these from the rig floor; rocks;
•• Sonde-based systems usually must be installed into and •• Sonic: velocity of sound through the rock formations;
removed from special drill collars on the rig floor. •• Formation pressure and sampling: pressure of the fluids
Special handling tools are required. Installation typically inside the formations and collection of fluid samples;
requirse a hoist (air hoist, or similar). Mud solids might •• Non-magnetic resonance (NMR): Magnetic resonance
have settled into the tools, rendering removal more of the fluids in the rock.
difficult. They might "jump" during removal, as well;
•• Some tools can harbor a risk of trapped pressure. It is Description and basic theory
good practice for personnel to stand behind either end LWD systems provide real-time data about the formations
of the tool during disassembly — not in front; being drilled. The information is used to ensure the well is
•• Some tools require testing at surface. Caution should be drilled in the correct location. The data collected is also pro-
taken with fluid flow and pressure. vided to personnel engageed in planning and executing drill-
ing, completion and production operations.
Applications
Follow the directions of the service company, or supplier on Physical operating principles
operational procedures. Surface testing is recommended A LWD tool will typically consist of the following compo-
for some tools. Follow guidelines and directions provided for nents:
minimum or maximum flow rates and pressures, minimum •• MWD Telemetry device. The telemetry device is used
depth etc. to transmit the acquired downhole data to the surface
for recording and analysis. There are several types of
Specialized situations can also occur. The mud pulse device telemetry devices, such as:
and/or turbine for power will be sensitive to mud additives, • Mud pulse telemetry: device creates pressure
loss circulation material and debris in the drilling fluid. Typ- pulses in the drilling fluid that are detected at the
ically, the maximum amount of loss circulation material the surface and decoded. The device is most
system is tolerant to is appoximately 40 ppb medium nut commonly some type of valve that for a short
plug or equivalent. Please consult with the provider on rec- period partially blocks the flow of the drilling fluid
ommendations related to the exact type of LCM to be used. through the drillstring creating a pressure increase
seen at the surface. The device can be integral to a
drill collar, or sub, or as a sonde that is inserted
into a custom, or standard drill collar. This

technology requires that drilling fluid is present in detecting the gamma radiation emitted from the
the well and circulating; rock being drilled. Many different devices exist and
• Electromagnetic (EM) telemetry: device that they can be in the form of a sonde connected to
creates an electromagnetic field downhole. The the directional sensor, or a dedicated sub;
field propagates through the rock to the surface • Resistivity: a device that generates a current flow
where the small changes in current flow and/or in the formation and measures the resistance of
magnetic properties inside the rock are detected the rock. The current can be generated in a
and decoded. This technology works with and number of ways. The most commonly used in
without a drilling fluid in the well and is thus LWD applications are:
suitable in areas where air, or foam drilling takes Currents induced by an electromagnetic field,
places, or with gasified drilling fluids, such as used using tools commonly referred to as induction,
in some underbalanced drilling operations. The EM or propagation tools. An alternating current is
signal propagates well in formations with low applied to a coil antenna placed on the LWD
porosity and high impedence, but will die quickly in collar. The current in the coil will generate a
areas of high conductivity (such as in shallow magnetic field, which in turn will induce current
offshore settings) and non-porous rocks (such as flow in the formation, which in turn will
anhydrite, some salts and some volcanic rocks); generate another magnetic field and so on,
• Acoustic telemetry: device that creates acoustic propagating through to the formation. The
sound waves in the drillstring that are detected on speed with which the field propagates and the
the drillpipe at surface and decoded. This rate at which the field attenuates (becomes
technology works well in vertical wells, but weaker) are measured by secondary coil
becomes increasingly difficult with wells where the antennae on the LWD tools and are a function
drillstring makes a lot of contact with the borehole of the resistivity of the formation, i.e. the rock
wall, with tapered drillstrings and in high mud and fluids contained in the rock;
weights. Current injected into the formation and
•• Power supply, which creates and supplies power to the collected further along the LWD collar. This will
telemetry device, instruments and sensors downhole. require a drilling fluid that is conductive,in
The power supplies most commonly used are: order for the current to flow from the tool into
• Batteries: all types of batteries, depending on pwer the formation. The amount of current that can
requirements and environmental (temperature) be injected based on the potential difference
conditions downhole. The batteries are ususally between the point of injection and return on
carried in a special battery tube, or pressure case, the LWD collar is a function of the resistance of
or in a special insert within a sub. The advantages the formation between the 2 points. The tools
of batteries are that they are highly reliable and do are normally referred to as lateralog tools;
not require additional gear to make the function. • Density: A device that measures the density of the
The downside is that they have a finite life; rock by using gamma radiation. A gamma-ray
• Turbines: electromagnetic turbines powered by the source, normally a source containing a very small
drilling fluid are commonly used either on their amount of radioactive material such as Cs-137,
own, or in combination with batteries to provide emits gamma radiation into the formation. The
power to the downhole tool. The turbine only gamma radiation is scattered and absorbed in the
delivers power when circulating drilling fluid formation, but some will make its way back to
causes the rotor on the turbine to spin – thus no gamma-ray detectors in the LWD tools. The
power is available from the turbine when the amount of gamma radiation detected is a function
drilling fluid is not present, or not being circulated of the density of the formation. The more radiation,
(pumped). The turbines will also need to be set-up the lower the densit,y and vice versa;
to deliver the correct amount of electric power • Neutron porosity: A device that measures the
and, since it is dependent on circulation of the amount of the formation that is filled with fluid, i.e.
fluid, needs to be set up according to the velocity not solid rock, by using neutron radiation. A
of the fluid passing by the turbine. The turbines are neutron source, normally containing a very small
usually incorporated into the telemetry device as amount of radioactive material, such as Am-241/
one unit. Be, emits fast neutrons into the formation. These
•• Sensor packages:One or more logging measurement is neutron are slowed down through collisions with
included in a LWD toolstring: the atoms in the formation. The neutrons will slow
• Gamma ray: a device with instruments capable of faster in fluid than in solid rock. Some of the

neutrons will return to the LWD tool’s neutron •• Gamma ray is used to confirm, or fine-tune geological
detector where the slower neutron are counted. models and predictions and to assist in placing the well
The more slow neutrons the higher the fluid in the right formations. The readings will be used for
content and thus the higher the porosity. The tools lithology determination and to provide corrections in
are calibrated in pure limestone and sandstone the processing of some of the data;
formations, with the pore space filled 100% with •• Resistivity is used to identify zones where hydrocarbons
water. Corrections need to be applied for are present and to calculate the amount of
hydrocarbons and different rock types. The hydrocarbons. Resistivity should increase with depth as
presence of gas will indicate an artificially low the rocks become more compacted, and thus tighter
porosity – therefore the neutron porosity tool is and bearing less fluid within. Trend analysis of the
often used to identify gas bearing zones in the change in resistivity with depth is used to identify and
formations drilled; approximate changes in pore pressure in the
• Sonic: a device that measures the speed of sound formations. Changes in the slope of resistivity change
through the formation. The tool will have a sound can be an indication of a change in pore pressure and an
source and a number of microphones evenly early warning of possible well control problems;
spaced along the length of the LWD tool. The •• Density/neutron porosity are normally used together to
acoustic tool will set up a number of different calculate the amount of porosity in the formations and
sound waves through the rock – the most common to identify hydrocarbosn, especially gas-bearing
waves are referred to as compressional and shear formations. The data is an important input parameter in
waves. The microphoneswill pick up these waves calculating the amount of hydrocarbons present in the
as they pass by and the tool will calculate the time formation. The density tool can be used like the
difference between passing by subsequent resistivity tool to indicate changes in formation
microphones. The measurement is used to pressure, as well;
supplement the density and neutron tools in •• Sonic data is used to correlate and calibrate seismic
estimating formation density and porosity as well data and thereby improve the accuracy of the
as to determine rock strength; subsurface models used to determine where to drill.
• Formation pressure and sampling: A device that The data is also used to estimate formation porosity
uses a probe pressed against the formation to and can be used in combination with neutron/density
measure the pressure of the fluid within the rock. tools to provide better estimates of that important
The rate with which the pressures build up and parameter. The data is also used as inputs into
bleed-off provide a measure of the permeability of geomechanical calculations to estimate rock strength
the rock and the rate at which the fluids can flow and stresses. Finall,y the compressional wave velocity
from the rock. Some newer tools have the data can be used, just like the resistivity data, to identify
capability to also pump some of that fluid out of and estimate changes in formation pore pressure;
the formation and into special containers. The fluid •• Formation pressure data is used while drilling to
is retrieved when the tool returns to surface for determine the correct mud weight required to maintain
laboratory analysis. The full analysis of the fluid is a stable hole and safe drilling conditions. The data is
a critical factor and step in the development and also used as an input into reservoir production models
exploitation of a reservoir bearing formation; and algorithms to calculate expected rates of
• NMR, or MRIL/MRI-WD: Uses a magnetic field to production and to determine where more complete
polarize the protons within the fluids of the pressure a production tests need to be conducted;
formation and a electro-magnetic “pulse” to set up •• Formation fluid sampling and analysis is important ion
a signal that will enable the logging engineer to determining whether or not formation fluids are of
break down the fluid into the different types of sufficient quality for production and, if so, to determine
fluids contained in the formation. The types of how they will be produced, treated, processed, stored,
fluids typically analyzed are free water, bound and so on.
water (i.e., water attached to the rock grains), oil •• NMR data are used to further refine reservoir
and gas. The measurement will also provide an production models and determination of what will and
indication of the mobility of the fluids and the what will not be produced form the well, especially in
permeability of the rock. formations that are dififcult to analyze with the more
traditional tools described above. The tool’s
Important for what and to whom? measurement can be used as an alternative to neutron/
The LWD data is important for a number of reasons, de- density tools for porosity measurements in some cases;
tailed here by measurement type: •• Imaging tools are used as an input into geological

models to more fully understand the geology of the rock directions for minimum, or maximum flow rates and pres-
formations. They are also used in “geosteering” to assist sures, minimum depth etc.
in determining how the well is intersection the
formations and to correct the trajectory if needed. Specialized situations can also occur. The mud pulse device
and/or turbine for power will be sensitive to mud additives,
Standard location on a rig loss circulation material and debris in the drilling fluid. Typ-
LWD equipment will have some surface equipment to make ically, the maximum amount of loss circulation material the
it work. This can range from a small console with a com- system is tolerant to is appoximately 40 ppb medium nut
puter and display on the rig floor to a dedicated unit pro- plug or equivalent. Please consult with the provider on rec-
vided by a LWD contractor. Pressure transducers, displays, ommendations related to the exact type of LCM to be used.
communication equipment, depth measurement equipment
and cabling will all be installed on the rig in various locations General maintenance
to detect the telemetry signals, decode and display them. Repair and maintenance will be done by the provider of the
Some tools (density and neutron porosity) will require the equipment. Tools and equipment should be flushed with
use of radioactive sources, which will be stored in a special clean water prior to laying down and shipping after use
container on the rig and installed into and removed from downhole. The material being used is mostly non-magnetic
the LWD tool on the rigfloor. Special equipment, monitors and thus appropriate pipe dope will need to be used.
and personnel are required at those times. Other personnel
should not be close to these operations.
Wireline logging
Safety and handling Openhole wireline logging does what LWD technology
LWD tools come in a variety of sizes, configurations and di- does; however, the measuring tools are run into the well
mensions. Each has unique requirements for safe handling on an electric wireline after a hole section is drilled. Wire-
and operation. Common among most systems: line logging is commonly used to provide measurements of
•• Most systems will have service company personnel to formation-related parameters measured by special instru-
assist in the safe handling of the equipment; mentation downhole and transmitted to surface through
•• Most systems will recommend the use of filters or the wireline. There are a few more measurements available
screens in the drillstring to keep debris in the drilling with wireline logging, compared to LWD, as well as some
fluid from reaching the mud pulse or power turbine services that can only be done after drilling.
devices. Care should be exercised in handling, installing
and removing these on the rig floor; Some wireline logging services are performed in cased
•• Sonde-based systems usually need to be installed into holes, mainly for well integrity and production purposes.
and removed from special drill collars on the rig floor. Most of these are run without a drilling rig present.
Special handling tools will be required. The installation
will typically require the use of a hoist (air hoist, or The measurements available in Logging are:
similar). Mud solids might have settled into the tools, •• Gamma ray: natural gamma radiation emitted by the
rendering removal more difficult. They might "jump" formations;
during removal, as well; •• Resistivity:– Resistance, or conductance of the different
•• Some tools can harbor a risk of trapped pressure. It is rocks and fluids;
good practice for personnel to stand behind either end •• Density: Specific gravity of the rocks;
of the tool during disassembly — not in front; •• Neutron porosity: Fluid-filled pore space volume of the
•• Density and neutron porosity tools use radioactive rocks;
sources that are installed and removed from the tools •• Sonic: velocity of sound through the rock formations;
on the rig floor just prior to and upon completion of the •• Formation pressure and sampling: pressure of the fluids
bit run. Follow the directions of the LWD crew to inside the formations and collection of fluid samples;
minimize exposure to the radiation from these sources; •• NMR: Magnetic resonance of the fluids in the rock;
•• Some tools require testing at surface. Care should be ••Seismic.
taken with fluid flow and pressure.
Description and basic theory
Applications Logging technology provides data about the formations
Follow the directions of the service company, or supplier on through which the borehole is being drilled to glean informa-
operational procedures. Surface testing is recommended tion relating to the rocks and fluids present in those forma-
for some tools – please follow the provided guidelines and tions can be provided to the right folks for the planning and
execution of drilling, completion and production operations.

will slow more quickly in fluid than in solid rock. Some

Physical operating principles of the neutrons will return to the logging tool’s neutron
A logging tool will typically consist of the following compo- detector, where the slower neutron are counted. The
nents: more slow neutron,s the higher the fluid content and
•• Sensor packages –One or more logging measurement is thus the higher the porosity. The tools are calibrated in
included in a Logging toolstring: pure limestone and sandstone formations, with the pore
• Gamma ray: a device with instruments capable of space filled 100% with water. Corrections need to be
detecting the gamma radiation emitted from the applied for hydrocarbons and different rock types. The
rock being drilled. Many different devices exist; presence of gas will indicate an artificially low porosity.
• Resistivity: a device that generates a current flow Therefor,e the neutron porosity tool is often used to
in the formation and measures the resistance of identify gas bearing zones in the formations drilled;
the rock. The current can be generated in a • Sonic: a device that measures the speed of sound
number of ways, the common being: through the formation. The tool will have a sound
Currents induced by an electromagnetic field, source and a number of microphones evenly spaced
using tools commonly referred to as induction along the length of the Logging tool. The acoustic tool
tools. An alternating current is applied to a coil will set up a number of different sound waves through
antenna placed on the logging collar. The the rock. The most common waves are referred to as
current in the coil will generate a magnetic field, compressional and shear waves. The microphones will
which in turn will induce current flow in the pick up these waves as they pass by. As the waves
formation, which in turn will generate another propagate along the tool, it will calculate the time
magnetic field, and so on, propagating through difference between subsequent microphones. The
the formation. The speed with which the field measurement is used to supplement the density and
propagates and the rate at which the field neutron tools in estimating formation density and
attenuates (becomes weaker) are measured by porosity as well as to determine rock strength;
secondary coil antennae on the tools and are a • Formation pressure and sampling: a device that uses a
function of the resistivity of the formation, i.e., probe pressed against the formation to measure the
the rock and fluids contained in the rock; pressure of the fluid within the rock. The rate with
Current injected into the formation and which the pressures build up and bleed off provide a
collected further along the logging collar. This measure of rock permeability and the rate at which
will require a drilling fluid that is conductive, in fluids can flow from the rock. Some tools have the
order for the current to flow from the tool into capability to also pump some of that fluid out of the
the formation. The amount of current that can formation and into special containers. The fluid is
be injected based on the potential difference retrieved when the tool returns to surface for laboratory
between the point of injection and return on the analysis. The full analysis of the fluid is a critical factor
logging collar is a function of the resistance of and step in the development and exploitation of a
the formation between the 2 points. The tools reservoir bearing formation;
are normally referred to as lateralog tools; • NMR or MRIL use a magnetic field to polarize protons
• Density: A device that measures the density of the rock within formation fluids and an electromagnetic pulse to
by using gamma radiation. A Gamma ray source, set up a signal that will enable the logging engineer to
normally containing a very small amount of radioactive break down the fluid by type. The types of fluids
material, such as Cs-137, emits gamma radiation into typically analyzed are free water, bound water (i.e.,
the formation. The gamma radiation is scattered and water attached to the rock grains), oil and gas. The
absorbed in the formation, but some will make its way measurement will also provide an indication of the
back to gamma-ray detectors in the logging tools. The mobility of the fluids and the permeability of the rock;
amount of gamma radiation detected is a function of • Imaging: “pictures” of various parameters of the rocks;
the density of the formation: the more radiatio,n the • Seismic is a service in which a strong acoustic source is
lower the densit,y and vice versa; placed at surface, while a set of geophones and
• Neutron porosity: A device that measures the amount hydrophones are lowered into the well on wireline to a
of the formation that is filled with fluid, i.e., not solid desired depth. The acoustic source, which can be a
rock, by using neutron radiation. A neutron source, strong vibrating tool, air or water gun, or an explosive
normally containing a very small amount of radioactive charge, will send acoustic waves into the formation.
material, such as Am-241/Be, emits fast neutrons into These will be picked up by the geophones and
the formation. These neutron are slowed down through hydrophones in the logging tool. As with the sonic tools,
collisions with the atoms in the formation. The neutrons

compressional and shear waves are transmitted and production models and to determine what formations
detected where possible. will be produced from the well. This is especially
important in formations that are dififcult to analyze with
Important for what and to whom? the more traditional tools described above. In some
The importance and use of logging data by measurement cases, the tool’s measurement can serve as an
source is: alternative to neutron and density tools for porosity
•• Gamma ray is used to confirm, or fine-tune geological measurements;
models and predictions and to assist in placing the well •• Imaging tools are used as an input into geological
in the right formations. The readings will be used for models to more fully understand the geology of the rock
lithology determination and to provide corrections in formations. They are also used in “geosteering” to assist
the processing of some of the data; in determining how the well is intersection the
•• Resistivity is used to identify zones where hydrocarbons formations and to correct the trajectory if needed;
are present and to calculate the amount of hydro- •• Seismic is used to supplement traditional surface
carbons. Resivity should increase with depth, because seismic acquired prior to drilling the wells, for
the deeper rocks become more compacted and tighter, calibration, additional inputs into models, or to resolve
leaving less room to hold fluids. Trend analysis of the some features typically poorly resolved with surface
change in resistivity with depth is used to identify and seismic. The service is also referred to as VSP.Picture
approximate changes in pore pressure in the
formations. Changes in the slope of resistivity change Standard location on a rig
can be an indication of a change in pore pressure and an The logging equipment will have some surface equipment to
early warning of possible well control problems; make it work. This is normally in the form of a logging skid,
•• Density and neutron porosity are normally used or truck, which houses the surface computing system, as
together to calculate the amount of porosity in the well as the winch and cablespool with the wireline. A sheave
formations and to identify hydrocarbons, especially system will be installed on the rig floor and in the derrick
gas-bearing formations. The data is an important input to guide the control wireline movement into and out of the
parameter in calculating the quantity of hydrocarbons wellbore. Density and neutron porosity tools require radio-
present in the formation. Like the resistivity tool, the active sources. These should be stored in a special container
density tool can be used to indicate changes in on the rig and installed into and removed from the logging
formation pressure, as well; tools on the rig floor or catwalk. Special equipment, mon-
•• Sonic data is used to correlate and calibrate seismic itors and personnel are required at those times. All other
data and thereby improve the accuracy of the personnel should avoid these operations.
subsurface models used to determine where to drill.
The data is also used to estimate formation porosity Safety and handling
and can be used in combination with neutron and Logging tools come in a variety of sizes, configurations and
density tools to provide better estimates of that dimensions. Each has unique requirements for safe handling
important parameter. The data is also used as inputs and operation. Common among most systems:
into geomechanical calculations to estimate rock •• Most systems will have service company personnel to
strength and stresses. Finally, the compressional-wave assist with safe handling;
velocity data can be used, just like resistivity data, to •• Density and neutron porosity tools use radioactive
identify and estimate changes in formation pore sources which are installed and removed from the tools
pressure; on the rig floor just prior to and upon completion of the
•• Formation pressure data is used while drilling to bit run. Follow the directions of the logging crew to
determine the correct mud weight required to maintain minimize exposure to the radiation form these sources.
a stable hole and safe drilling conditions. The data is
also used as an input into reservoir production models Some tools require testing at surface. Care should be taken
and algorithms to calculate expected rates of with fluid flow and pressure.
production and to determine where more complete
pressure a production tests should be conducted; Applications
•• Formation fluid samples and analysis are important Follow the directions of the service company, or supplier on
inpust into determining whether formation fluids are of operational procedures. Surface testing is recommended for
sufficient quality for production and, if so, to determine some tools. Please follow the provided guidelines and direc-
how they will be produced, treated, processed, stored, tions for minimum, or maximum pressures, minimum depth
and so on. and so on.
•• NMR data are used to further refine reservoir

Figure DH-30: Hole problems that can lead to mechanical sticking.
The wireline can also be used for special operations such as

setting bridge plugs, running freepoint tools, running perfo-
rating guns and so on. These might contain explosives, so
appropriate precautions should be made. Follow the direc-
tion of the logging crew and any documentation from a job
safety analysis.
General maintenance
Repair and maintenance will be done by the provider of the
equipment. Tools and equipment should be flushed with
clean water prior to laying down and shipping after use
downhole.
Jars Figure DH-31: In differential sticking, a major loss of

Jars are used to free pipe stuck in the hole when normal pull- fluid into the formation creates a pressure differential
ing forces created by the rig’s drawworks are incapable of that forces the pipe against the wellbore.
exerting enough force on their own to free the pipe. The pipe
can be stuck for several reasons. Jars are also called accel-
erators, fishing jars and intensifiers.
Differential Sticking
Why do we need to jar? Differential sticking occurs when there is a significant loss of
It’s very simple. The sticking force is often much greater fluid to the formation which causes a differential in pressure
than the force that can be created by pulling or pushing on between the annulus of the well and the formation. When
the string. The pulling force may be limited by the tensile pressure in the wellbore is greater than that of the forma-
strength of the pipe or the lifting capacity of the rig. The tion, fluid is forced to the lower pressure area. Differential
pushing force is limited by the ability of the string to fall sticking occurs when migration of fluid from the well occurs
downward in the hole. A jar allows us to greatly multiply at a rate which causes a vacuum effect in the wellbore that
these forces without exceeding the strengths of the pipe or pulls the drill sting onto the wellbore wall, trapping it there
the rig. (Figure DH-31).
Sticking What is a jar?

Very early jars were simply a tool with a sliding mandrel
Mechanical Sticking similar to a slide hammer that had a given distance of free
Mechanical sticking occurs when a component or external stroke. An example of a very early jar was the bumper jar
feature of the drill string, such as the uphole shoulder of the (with a sliding mandrel). The tool allowed for a set amount
bit or the edge of a stabilizer, becomes hung or caught on or of free stroke of the string. An impact occurred when the
within the formation (Figure DH-30). stroke length was reached and motion suddenly ceased.
When up firing, the string would be pulled rapidly upwards
until the bumper jar reached its full stroke. Then, two shoul-

Figure DH-32: Mechanical latch mechanism.
ders would collide inside the tool, like a hammer striking an Figure DH-33: Hydraulic jars use hydraulic pressure
anvil, creating an impact. When down firing, the string could to hold the mandrel from stroking and a piston to
slowly bleed off or meter the hydraulic pressure..
be dropped rapidly to stroke the bumper jar from fully open
to a fully closed position, where again, the two shoulders
collided and an impact created. The disadvantage of these energy in the stretched string and the string snaps upward
types of jars was the inability to store any energy. The im- or downward, depending on the direction of force applied,
pacts were limited by how fast the string could be raised and accelerates for the free stroke length of the mandrel un-
stroking the bumper jar from fully closed to fully open. til impact. If you cannot reach the set load the jar will not fire.
Also, these jars fire at one and only one intensity, the one for
To apply additional energy to the impact event and to the which the latch is set. The jar cannot be fired at a higher load
stuck point, a system was created allowing additional over- than the preset (Figure DH-32).
pull or weight to be applied to the string while delaying the
stroke of the mandrel. This was essentially like stretching The disadvantage of these jars is that the jar will not fire if
the spring on a mouse trap. The delay mechanism on me- the tensile load at the jar cannot be lowered at or below the
chanical jars, called a latch, has a preset release point. Once preset release load.
enough weight or pull is applied to the string and transferred
down to the jar, the latch releases and all the stored energy Hydraulic jars
is released rapidly and the hammer accelerates towards the A hydraulic jar uses hydraulic pressure to hold the mandrel
anvil to create a much stronger impact. There are generally from stroking and a piston to slowly bleed off or meter the
two types of jar delay mechanisms, hydraulic and mechan- hydraulic pressure. This gives you from 30-90 sec at max-
ical. The term hydraulic or mechanical refers to the mech- imum overpull to several minutes at a low overpull to apply
anism that the jar uses to delay the mandrel from stroking a load. Following a hydraulic delay, the load is released once
while the string is being either stretched or compressed, the load exceeds the hydraulic force holding the mandrel
thus storing energy for improved impact. from stroking (Figures DH-33 and -34).
•• Overpull creates a high pressure and a low pressure
Mechanical jars area inside the hydraulic chamber;
A mechanical jar, the first iteration in the industry, uses a •• The fluid is forced through a restriction producing a
mechanism with a release load that is preset either at the delay period;
service shop or the rig site. The mandrel is machined on the •• After a certain metering stroke length, the jar is free to
outer diameter with grooves that match rings cut on the in- move through its free stroke and fires.
ner face of a series of collets that are positioned around the
circumference of the mandrel. A stack of Bellville springs Once the energy is released, simply apply force in the op-
provides compression that squeezes the collet plates inward posite direction of the firing to reset or “cock” the jar again.
on the mandrel to a predetermined level. The overpull or set These jars can be reset hundreds of time downhole. The jar-
weight must equal or exceed the preset latch release load in ring load is infinitely variable ,simply by pulling or pushing
order to fire the jar. As a tensile load is applied to the string more or less on the jar. By pulling a low tensile force, the jar
and the set release load is reached, the force of the collets will fire and create a small impact. By pulling the maximum
on the mandrel is overcome. The device releases the stored

Top sub Knocker Metering section
Mandrel Spline body Bottom sub
Figure DH-34: Schematic of key components of a hydraulic jar.
Figure DH-35: Clamps onto the exposed

mandrel hold the jar in the open position
while being racked back in the derrick.
It must support the weight of at least
two drill collars above the tool.
recommended load, the jar will fire and create a large im-
pact.
It is sometimes said that hydraulic jars have no minimum

tensile load required, but in reality they do. There is some
seal friction from seals on seal surfaces and a slight inter-
ference fit of the piston in the detent portion of the hydraulic
chamber. Typically these forces are quite small and will vary
depending on jar size and type. The hydraulic jar will fire
with any reasonable minimum load up to the maximum rec- Figure DH-36: Proper jar placement and setup depends
on the type of sticking being encountered. Impact must
ommended load. Hydraulic jars are load and time sensitive. exceed the sticking force for all sticking, but additional
impulse is required to move differentially stuck pipe.
Hydraulic jar safety
Special care MUST be taken when racking a hydraulic jar in the jar to prevent the tool from stroking shut and firing (Fig-
the pipe rack. When tripping out of the well, sufficient over- ure DH-35).
pull is applied to cock the jar and prepare it for a down-fir-
ing event. Hydraulic jars are designed to fire with very little Applications
weight applied. If a jar is tripped out and sitting on the bot- There are some rules of thumb that have been around for a
tom of a stand of tools or drill pipe, and there is any addition- long time. Some are fairly accurate in a few instances, but
al weight above the jar, this weight will begin the process of the only way to be sure in all instances is to use a jar place-
metering the fluid through the hydraulic delay mechanism. ment program or impact analysis software.
This will likely lead to a firing of the tool on the rig floor, com-
promising the safety of the entire rig and rig staff. Jar placement in a fishing assembly
Refer to Figure DH-36. Jar placement, or “how many collars
If the jar is not equipped with an internal safety lock, then should I run between my jar and intensifier”, is a very com-
a safety collar must be applied around the open mandrel of mon question. From the data entered into the program it will

calculate “impact” and “impulse” at the stuck point based on is not greater than the sticking force, the fish will not move.
a selected overpull applied to the jar and for the number of In any case, if the fish does not move, you are likely not ex-
total collars input. ceeding the sticking force and it is common to switch to a
higher impact fishing assembly. A general rule of thumb is
What is impact? to not sacrifice more than 20% of maximum impact to gain
Impact is the force created when the jar comes to the end of additional impulse.
its free stroke after being accelerated by the energy stored
in the string and in the intensifier. The impact force can be General maintenance
as much as two to eight times the initial overpull. The im- Maintenance of the jars, accelerators and intensifiers are
pact force must be greater than sticking force for the fish usually performed at the supplier's facility. However, the
to move. threads that make up the connections should be maintained
by applying proper pipe-dope and protected with the cor-
What is impulse? rect thread protectors. Always install the safety clamp when
Impulse is how long the impact lasts (force x time). If the the equipment is not being used.
impact force is greater than the sticking force, the fish will
move and impulse determines how far it moves. For more information on protecting connections and thread
protectors, see the separate chapter on Drillstring in the
How do impact and impulse affect jar placement? IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.
There are two main types of sticking situations, mechanical
and differential. Mechanical sticking is often over a relatively For more on fishing operations, see the separate chapter on
short length, and the fish may only need to be moved a short Special Operations in the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.
distance to come free. In this case, impact will typically be
favored, with less concern for impulse.
Reference
In differential or hydrostatic sticking situations where the 1.• M.A. Colebrook, S.R. Peach, “Application of Steerable
stuck pipe may be several hundred feet long, it is common Rotary Drilling Technology to Drill Extended Reach
to use more impulse. Greater impulse usually comes at the Wells” , F.M. Allen, G. Conran, IADC/SPE Paper
cost of a decrease in impact, and if the lower impact force #39327 Presented Dallas, Texas, 3–6 March 1998.

DS
DRILL STRING

4 Worldwide QUALITY leader providing Drill Pipe since 2001
4 Manufacturing products ENGINEERED for long wear-life
4 Offering API products and HIGH TORQUE products
4 Unique manufacturing processes designed for DRILLING SUCCESS
TSC Drill Pipe manufactures best in class Drill String components designed for all
drilling applications including ERD and long laterals. We are focused on technical
I .. c ..
*See our high torque product tables in the

appendix of this section, page DS-A2*
www.drillpipe.com
sales@drillpipe.com
Tel: 832-230-8228
DRILL STRING DS–i
CHAPTER
DS
DRILL STRING

T he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for his
own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology advances
quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise
is required, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the contributors to this
chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book will lead to
the result desired by the reader.
PRINCIPAL CONTRIBUTORS
Ludivine Laurent, Vallourec
Marta LaFuente, Vallourec
Michael Jellison, NOV Grant Prideco
Phillippe Machecourt, Vallourec
David Pixton, NOV
Vincent Flores, Vallourec
Terry Howard, TIW
Tom Smith, Consultant
Yannick Mfoulou, Vallourec
REVIEWER
Robert W Schultz, Alcoa

DS–ii DRILL STRING


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-3-9

DRILL STRING Contents DS-iii
CHAPTER DS
DRILL STRING
Contents
Drill string & components........................................... DS-1 Make-up torque vs drilling torque....................DS-15
API/ISO specifications.......................................... DS-1 Fishing operations.................................................DS-16
Drillpipe description and basic theory.....................DS-2 Pulling out stuck pipe.................................DS-16
General information................................................ DS-2 Jarring.............................................................DS-16
Grades and lengths of steel drillpipe................DS-3 Torque in washover operations...............DS-16
Marking......................................................................DS-3 Dynamic loading of drillpipe during
Weld-on tool join description/basic theory..........DS-3 tripping.................................................................DS-16
Tool-joint selection.................................................DS-3 Operations and applications................................... DS-29
Torsional strength...................................................DS-4
Drillpipe problems................................................ DS-29
Elevator shoulder design.......................................DS-4
Breaking in new tool joints...................... DS-29
Tool-joint markings.................................................DS-5
Tripping......................................................... DS-29
Drillpipe upsets for weld-on tool joints............DS-5
Lowering the elevators...................... DS-29
High strength drillpipe...........................................DS-5
Breaking out.......................................... DS-29
Cleaning and inspection........................................DS-5
Alternating breaks...................... DS-30
Picking up the drill string....................................... DS-7
Standing back............................... DS-30
Thread compounds................................................. DS-7
Going in the hole................................. DS-30
Operating limits, safety and handling..................... DS-7
Lubrication practice................... DS-30
Effect of doglegs and floating operations........ DS-7
Stabbing......................................... DS-30
Extent of fatigue damage......................................DS-8
Spinning up................................... DS-30
Cumulative fatigue..................................................DS-8 Make-up and tonging.................DS-31
Floating drilling operations.................................DS-11 Running In......................................DS-31
Notch fatigue..........................................................DS-12 Laying down drill string......................DS-31
Steel stenciling.............................................DS-13 Damages and failures:
Electric arc burns.........................................DS-13 Causes and prevention..................DS-31
Rubber protector grooves.........................DS-13 Visual examination for damage
Tong marks....................................................DS-13 while tripping..........................DS-31
Slip marks......................................................DS-13 Failures........................................... DS-33
Crooked pipe fatigue............................................DS-13 Torsion........................................... DS-33
Corrosion fatigue...................................................DS-13 Downhole torque........................ DS-33
Critical rotating speed..........................................DS-14 Other obvious forms of
Collapsed pipe from drill-stem and torsional failures................... DS-34
BOP tests............................................................DS-14 Overtorquing in the
Transition from drill string to drill collars.......DS-14 rotary table............................. DS-36
Maximum allowable pull and rotary torque..DS-15 Other damage.............................. DS-36

DS–iv DRILL STRING
Repair of tool joints.............................................. DS-37 Blowout preventers.............................................. DS-55

General.......................................................... DS-37 Elevators.................................................................. DS-55
Field repair of damanged tool joints..... DS-37 Maintenance.......................................................... DS-56
Shop repair of damaged tool joints....... DS-38 Coating.......................................................... DS-56
O-ring use..................................................... DS-38 Worn rotary tables and bushings.......... DS-56
Welding procedures for downhole drilling Straightening................................................ DS-56
tools................................................................ DS-38 Operating limits.................................................... DS-56
Transportation....................................................... DS-39 Elasticity........................................................ DS-56
Truck transportation.................................. DS-39 Mixed strings............................................... DS-56
Offshore service vessels.......................... DS-39 Stuck pipe and fishing............................... DS-56
Floor handling procedures................................ DS-40 Heavy weight drillpipe............................................... DS-57
Slips and bushings...................................... DS-40 Connection stress-relief design....................... DS-61
Handling........................................................ DS-40 Cold working thread roots................................. DS-62
Storage........................................................... DS-40 Directional & horizontal drilling....................... DS-62
Replacing slips with double elevators... DS-40 Types of HWDP.................................................... DS-63
Slips alternative........................................... DS-41 Standard HWDP......................................... DS-63
Testing slips and bushings....................... DS-41 HWDP with three spiral wear pads...... DS-63
Proper slip handling................................... DS-41
HWDP with continuous spiral
Using tongs properly................................. DS-42
wear pad.................................................. DS-63
Setting slips on tool joint.......................... DS-42
HWDP material grades...................................... DS-63
Drillpipe corrosion................................................ DS-44
Welded configuration............................... DS-63
Corrosive agents.........................................DS-44
Integral configuration................................ DS-63
Factors affecting corrosion rates........... DS-45
Safety and handling............................................. DS-65
Corrosion damage...................................... DS-45
Failure prevention and troubleshooting......... DS-65
Detecting and monitoring corrosion..... DS-46
Downhole friction induced heating
Sulfide stress cracking........................................ DS-47
failures............................................................... DS-66
Mechanism................................................... DS-47
Critical SSC factors.................................... DS-47 Identifying downhole heating................. DS-66
Minimizing SSC........................................... DS-47 Mitigation methods................................... DS-67
SSC in oil-based drilling fluids................ DS-48 Drill collars.................................................................... DS-68
Drillpipe inspection and classification.................. DS-49 Types of drill collars............................................. DS-68
Inspection standards........................................... DS-49 Hardbanded drill collars........................... DS-68
Limits of inspections............................................ DS-49 Measuring length................................................. DS-69
Definition of a crack............................................ DS-49
Slip and elevator recess...................................... DS-69
Measurement of pipe wall................................. DS-49
Connections........................................................... DS-69
Cross-sectional area............................................ DS-49
Stress relief features............................................ DS-69
Inspection classification marking.................... DS-50
Materials..................................................................DS-70
Tool joints...................................................................... DS-50
Sour service (ERS425)...............................DS-70
Required tool-joint inspection.......................... DS-50
Non-magnetic DC.......................................DS-70
Optional tool-joint inspection........................... DS-50
Operating procedures and best practices.....DS-70
Magnetic particle inspection............................ DS-51
Evaluation, testing and inspection...................DS-70
Gauging and repairing damaged
Calculating bending stress ratio (BSR)...........DS-70
shoulders............................................................ DS-51
Safety valves.................................................................DS-72
Aluminum drillpipe..................................................... DS-54
Kelly cock valve......................................................DS-72
Tool joints............................................................... DS-54
KC2S assembly............................................DS-72
Drill string care and handling............................ DS-55
Kelly cock specifications...........................DS-72
Slips........................................................................... DS-55

DRILL STRING DS–v
RDCV........................................................................DS-72 Drifting wired tubulars........................................ DS-80

RCDV specifications...................................DS-73 Wireline tools........................................................ DS-81
I-BOPs.......................................................................DS-73 Best practices........................................................ DS-82
I-BOP specifications...................................DS-73 Environmental considerations.......................... DS-82
I-BOP design.................................................DS-73 Fluid environment...................................... DS-82
Accessories...................................................................DS-73 Temperature and pressure...................... DS-83
Subs...........................................................................DS-73 Vibration....................................................... DS-83
Linking subs..................................................DS-73 Evaluation and inspection.................................. DS-83
Lift subs..........................................................DS-73 Mechanical evaluation........................................ DS-83
Workover subs.............................................DS-73 Electrical evaluation............................................. DS-84
Pup joints.................................................................DS-75 Standard location at a rig site........................... DS-84
Stabilizers.................................................................DS-75 Troubleshooting and failures............................ DS-84
Kellys.........................................................................DS-75 General maintenance.......................................... DS-84
Wired drill pipe.............................................................DS-76 Surface equipment..................................... DS-84
System overview....................................................DS-76 Network health maintenance.................. DS-85
System components.............................................DS-76 Proper storage considerations................ DS-85
Electronic network devices.................................DS-76 Repairs..................................................................... DS-85
Dimensions, weight and capacity....................DS-78 Surface equipment..................................... DS-85
Drillpipe....................................................................DS-78 Drill-stem tubulars..................................... DS-85
HWDP and drill collars........................................DS-78 Related calculations and tables........................ DS-86
Internal blowout preventers...............................DS-79 Important calculations.............................. DS-86
Related equipment................................................DS-79 Drift size........................................................ DS-86
Safety and handling..............................................DS-79 Cable volume............................................... DS-86
Proper handling......................................................DS-79 Landing string.............................................................. DS-86
Rig setup...................................................................DS-79 Overview................................................................. DS-86
Rig-site handling....................................................DS-79 Common dimensions, weights, capacities... DS-86
Drilling and tripping..............................................DS-79 Glossary......................................................................... DS-87
Common failure modes and mitigation..........DS-79 References.................................................................... DS-90
Uses & applications............................................. DS-80 Appendix.......................................................................DS-A1
Make-up and break-out...................................... DS-80

IADC
Safety Toolbox
IADC SAFETY TOOLBOX


DRILL STRING DS–1
Drill string and components Table DS-1: Drill pipe grades.

This chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual is concerned with Current Grades Grade Code Minimum Yield (psi)
the specifications, operating data, and the care and handling
E-75 E 75,000
of drill string. It will also discuss troubleshooting of the prob-
lems that may occur. X-95 X 95,000
G-105 G 105,000
The IADC definition of a drill string is drillpipe with tool S-135 S 135,000
joints attached. Drill stem is all those members between
Z-140* Z 140,000
the swivel and the bit, and it includes drill string, kelly or top
drive, subs, drill collars, heavy weight drillpipe, stabilizers, V-150* V 150,000
shock absorbers, reamers and any other in-hole equipment U-165* U 165,000
used generally or part-time during drilling operations.
Drill pipe tubes are furnished in the following API length
ranges:
API/ISO specifications
• Range 1: 18-22 ft;
In the worldwide oil industry today, an overwhelming major-
• Range 2: 27-30 ft;
ity of all tubular goods are manufactured to specifications
• Range 3: 38-45 ft.
developed and approved by the American Petroleum Insti-
tute. These specifications cover the mechanical properties
of the steel, the details of manufacture and physical dimen- includes mechanical properties of the steel and physical di-
sions of the pipe. The latter include internal and external mensions of the tubes and their upsets.
diameters, wall thickness, and upset dimensions for each
nominal size, weight and grade, as well as tool joint type, Normal tolerance on yield strength of drillpipe tubes is plus
OD and ID, and length. API Specification 5DP covers drill- 30,000 psi. All grades above E-75 are referred to as high
pipe. Bulletins 5A2, 5C2, and 5C3 cover aspects of the use of strength. Grades marked with an asterisk have been used
and care of drillpipe wall thickness or that joints would mate ,but not been formally recognized.
with similar products manufactured by different companies.
The production of high-strength drill-pipe tube began in the
To mitigate the resulting confusion and loss of time, the API was 1950s. When high strength tubes were accepted by API some
induced to undertake a program of standardization and mark- 10 years later, tool joint dimensions (ODs and IDs) were those
ing. This program is a continuing one which enables changes commonly used on E75 tubes. A committee was appointed,
to occur based upon improved technology and the needs of and tool-joint dimensions recommended, with the result that
users and manufacturers to be disseminated to the industry in the torsional yield of the tool-joint pin was at least 80% as
a minimum amount of time and with a high degree of accuracy. strong as the tube to which it was to be attached.
API Specifications and Recommended Practices cover a wide
range of oilfield equipment in addition to tubular goods. These Good practice is for the tool-joint box to be stronger than
publications are revised as necessary and constitute one of the pin initially, because wear will ultimately make the box
the best sources of information on the design, manufacture, the weaker member.
care, and use of drilling and production equipment.
The attaching of tool joints to upset drillpipe tubes by flash
This section of the Drilling Manual relates not only to the welding was replaced in the 1970s by inertia and friction
API 5DP specifications, but also to Recommended Practice welding. API/ISO specifications require the weld to be
RP7G and RP7A1. These publications relate to the connec- stronger than the tube body, have good ductility, and not be
tions for the drill string and also to the design and operating harder than 37 Rockwell C.
limits of the drill stem.
Most sizes of drill-pipe tubes come in light weight, standard
This section of the Drilling Manual discusses drill string care weight, and one or more heavier than standard weights.
and use and gives examples of the types of problems usually Both the grade code and the weight code should be sten-
encountered when the drill string is improperly used or used ciled on the pin base for finished drill string assemblies. It is
beyond its physical capabilities. This section also recom- recommended that these two codes (grade and weight) also
mends practices which will overcome or eliminate the prob- be stenciled on a milled flat on the pin tong surface for quick
lems often encountered when using the drill stem. identification. The numeric code is 1 for a light-weight tube
and 2 for a standard weight tube. Heavier-than-standard
In the oil industry today, most drillpipe is manufactured to tubes receive a 3, 4, or 5. Most of the tubes today are stan-
specifications developed and approved by API/ISO. This dard weight, and these receive the 2 designation. A complete

DS–2 DRILL STRING
Table DS-2: Tool joint connections.

Grade code Description
IF Internal Flush
EH or XH Extra Hole Figure DS-1: Weld-on tool joint. The
SH Slim Hole flash-welded tool joint, introduced
in 1938, was the industry’s first
OH Open Hole weld-on tool. Inertia welding was
introduced in 1974 and continuous-
SL - H-90 Slim Line-Hughes-90
drive friction welding in 1978.
FH Full Hole
H-90 Hughes-90
WO Wide Open
NC Numbered Connection
list of these may be found in API 5DP in Table C-12. Drill string
Table DS-3: Interchangeability chart for tool joints.
nomenclature and abbreviations are detailed in Table DS-2.
NC NC26 NC31 NC38 NC40 NC46 NC50
Internal flush 2 3/8 2 7/8 3 1/2 4 4 1/2
Drillpipe description and basic theory Full hole 4
Extra hole 3 1/2 4 1/2 5
General information Wide open 3 1/2 4 5
The drill string is required to serve three basic functions:
• Transmit and support axial loads; Slim hole 2 7/8 4 4 1/2
• Transmit and support torsional loads;
• Transmit hydraulics. With the exception of specialty tools, probably no other part
of the drill stem is subjected to the complex stresses which
The design parameters and a step-by-step procedure of drill string must withstand. For this reason, the combined
designing a string are given in API RP 7G, 16th ed, Section 7. skills of steel-industry engineers, with full cooperation from
oil companies and drilling contractors and in conjunction with
Another recommended source document is G. K. McK- API and IADC, have been used in the development of this vi-
own, Drill String Optimization for High-Angle Wells, 1989 tal tool. The same skill was utilized in formulating suggested
SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, SPE/IADC 18650. practices in the care and handling of pipe on the surface, while
making trips in and out of the hole and while drilling. With this
Seamless drillpipe is offered in the grades listed below under information, contractors and operators can extend drill-string
“Mechanical Properties API Steel Drill Pipe”. The drill string life and realize inprove project economics.
is used to transmit power by rotary motion from surface to
a drill bit at the bottom of the hole, to convey flushing media Drill string is an important and expensive part of the rig,
to the cutting face of the tool, and to carry cuttings out of the but suffers from a relatively short life. The cost of the drill
hole. Thus, it plays a vital part in the successful drilling of oil string places it in the category of a capital investment. It is
and gas wells. not strictly expendable. A recommended practice, followed
by many contractors, is to identify each joint upon purchase
Here are commonly used abbreviations for drill-pipe upsets: with an alpha-numeric serial. This serial number, along with
• IU: Internal upset; the length of the joint, should be recorded when it is placed
• EU: External upset;
• IEU: Internal-external upset.
Table DS-4: Mechanical properties of API steel drill pipe.

Grade E-75 X-95 G-105 S-135
Yield Strength (minimum psi) 75,000 95,000 105,000 135,000
Yield Strength (maximum psi) 105,000 125,000 135,000 165,000
Tensile Strength (minimum psi) 100,000 105,000 115,000 145,000

DRILL STRING DS–3
in the string. This practice, along with field support and of- Markings at base of pin: ZZ 6 07 YY E 1 NC50
fice accounting, will facilitate: Tool joint mfctr: ZZ (ZZ Co.)

• Determining the useful life of the joint; Month welded: 6 (June)
Year welded: 07 (2007)
• Recording types of service and stresses the joint might
Pipe upsetter/processor YY
be exposed to;
Pipe grade: E
• Switching within the string to optimize use;
Pipe weight code 1
• Determining causes of failures more accurately; Tool-joint type: NC50
• Preventing or minimizing downhole failures.
Drill pipe grades
Grade Symbol
Grades and lengths of steel drillpipe E-75 E
As discussed in API/ISO Specifications above, drillpipe ZZ 6 07 YY E 1 NC50
X-95 X
tubes are furnished in the following API length ranges: G-105 G
• Range 1: 18-22 ft; S-135 S
• Range 2: 27-30 ft; V-150 V
• Range 3: 38-45 ft.
Figure DS-2: Tool joint markings for component identification.

Marking Note: Pin base marks should be clear and legible and not
Drillpipe identification is marked at the base of the pin by the struck over with manufacturing data.
tool joint manufacturer after the pin is affixed. The marking
will be in accordance with Figure DS-2. It is further recom- Pipe Grade
Code
Pipe Weight
Code
Groove
mended that drillpipe other than standard weight Grade

E-75, be marked according to Figures DS-3 through DS-5.
This is to give the crew rapid identification of high strength
drillpipe on the racks and on the floor during trips when it is Milled
Slot
in a combination string with Grade E-75. With little trouble, 1/4 in.
if necessary cleaning out the milled slot, the specific grade

and weight can be determined from the stenciled figures. L PB
joint OD surfaces should be performed, with an emphasis
on detection of longitudinal cracks.
L PB
2
See note B
• In highly stressed drilling environments or if
evidence of fatigue damage is noted, magnetic
particle inspection should be made of the entire box
threaded area, especially the last engaged thread
area, to determine if transverse cracks are present.
• The wet fluorescent magnetic particle method is Figure DS-3: Identification of standard weight high
strength drill pipe. (Refer to notes on p DS-4.) .
preferred.
Weld-on tool joint description/basic theory

Pipe Grade Pipe Weight
Code Code
The flash welded tool joint was the first weld-on type tool
joint introduced to the industry in 1938. Inertia welding was
offered in 1974 and continuous-drive friction welding in Milled
Slot
1978. Figure DS-1 illustrates weld-on tool joint. 1/4 in.
Both inertia and continuous-drive friction welders use fric- L PB

L PB
tional heat for achieving welding temperatures. However, 2
1”
1/16R min.
the inertia welder uses a flywheel and momentum principle, 45°
See
Note B
whereas the continuous drive-friction welder maintains a
constant rpm motor and brake system.
Tool-joint selection
For many years tool joints have had a minimum yield strength
of 120,000 psi. The old IF, XH, FH, etc., have been replaced Figure DS-4: Identification of heavier-than-standard weight
with Numbered Connection series - NC plus a number in- Grade E-75 drill pipe. (Refer to notes on p DS-4.)

DS–4 DRILL STRING
dicating pitch diameter in inches and tenths. NC46 replac- Pipe Grade
Code
Pipe Weight
Code
es the old 4 ½-in. Extra Hole (XH). The NC series have the
same “V” threads, but with a 0.038-in.rounded root radius.
This offers a slightly better fatigue life and a slightly smaller Milled
cross section. Groove Slot
1/4 in.
Table DS-3 shows the interchangeability between NC con-

nections and the old style designations. L PB
L PB
Torsional strength
2
1”
1/16” R min.
The torsional strength of a tool joint is a function of several 1-1/4”

45° See
Note B
variables. These include the strength of the steel, connec-
tion size, thread form, lead, taper, and coefficient of friction
on the mating surfaces of threads and shoulders. The torque
required to yield a rotary-shouldered connection may be ob-
tained from the equation in Appendix A, API RP7G. Figure DS-5: Identification of heavier-than-standard weight
high-strength drill pipe. (Refer to notes below.)
The pin or box area, whichever controls, is the largest factor
and is subject to the widest variation. The tool-joint outside Note A: Standard weight Grade E-75 drill pipe designated
diameter (OD) and inside diameter (ID) largely determine the by an asterisk (*) in the drill pipe weight code will have no
strength of the joint in torsion. The OD affects the box area and groove or milled slot for identification. Grade E-75 heavier
the ID affects the pin area. Choice of OD and ID determines than standard weight drill pipe will have a milled slot only in
the areas of the pin and box and establishes the theoretical the center of the tong space.
torsional strength, assuming all other factors are constant.
Note B: Groove radius approximately ⅜-in. Groove and milled
slot to be ¼-in. deep on 5 ¼-in. OD and larger tool joints, 3/16
OD wear causes the greatest reduction in theoretical tor- in. deep on 5-in. OD and smaller tool joints.
sional strength of a tool joint. At whatever point the tool-
joint box area becomes the smaller or controlling area, any Note C: Stencil the grade code symbol and weight code num-
further reduction in OD causes a direct reduction in torsion- ber corresponding to grade and weight of pipe in milled slot
al strength. If the box area controls when the tool joint is of pin. Stencil with ¼-in. high characters so marking may be
new, initial OD wear reduces torsional strength. It is possi- read with drill pipe hanging in elevators.
ble to increase torsional strength by making joints with over-
sized OD and reduced ID.
Elevator shoulder design

Tool joint box elevator shoulders are manufactured in both
the square and 18° taper. Most weld-on type tool joints are
furnished with tapered shoulders.
Tool joint pins are generally furnished with 35° tapered shoul-
ders, but can be made available with an 18° tapered shoulder.
Elevators are available to work with either 18° tapered or

square-shouldered joints. Those for use with the 18° tapered
shoulders are generally heavier due to the higher radial loading
that results from the wedging action. API Specification 8C spec-
ifies elevator bores to correspond to dimensions of the box
elevator upset.
On some tool joint assemblies, such as slim hole, lifting

plugs are used to provide the elevator shoulder necessary to
handle the drill string. Figure DS-6: Plastic coating in the pin bore acts as a stress
coat and serves as an early indicator of pin stretch.

DRILL STRING DS–5
Tool-joint markings
It is recommended that weld on tool joints be stenciled on the
base of the pin with the information shown in Figure DS-2. In
addition, it is further recommended that drillpipe weight and
grade identification as shown in Figure DS-3, -4 and -5 be
used.
Drillpipe upsets for weld-on tool joints

Drillpipe must have upsets for installation of weld-on type
tool joints. This allows an adequate safety factor in the weld
area for mechanical strength and metallurgical consider-
ations. The tool joint is made with a welding neck or tang to
facilitate welding API upsets for various sizes, grades and
weights of drillpipe listed in API 5DP.
Figure DS-7: Thread protectors will prevent most tool-joint
damage that can occur during moving or racking.
High-strength drillpipe
Because of deeper drilling and higher stress levels, grades
of drillpipe stronger than Grade E-75 have been developed.
High-strength drillpipe requires heavier and longer upsets
Stress, pounds per sq in. (psi)
50,000 than those used on Grade E-75. Tool joints on high-strength
drillpipe are designed to fit the same elevators as those used
for the Grade E-75 assemblies.
45,000
Cleaning and inspection

40,000
35,000 Pin and box thread and shoulders should be thoroughly

cleaned to prepare them for adding to the string. Cleaning
30,000 pays off in three ways. Cleaning:
• Removes foreign material and permits proper
25,000
make-up, thereby reducing danger of galling and
wobbles;
20,000
• Permits better inspection;
15,000
• Increases the life of connections by eliminating abrasive
10,000 100,0000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,000
materials.
Number of Cycles of Stress
Figure DS-8: S-N curve of mild steel shows number Connections should be thoroughly dried after cleaning so that
of cycles under stress to produce failure. the thread compound will properly adhere to the surface. An
approved way to clean tool joint threads and shoulders is to
wet the connection with kerosene or diesel; then brush with
ordinary gel. Catch the old dope and gel and dispose of prop-
erly. This will leave connections clean and dry for visual in-
spection and for applying fresh thread compound.
After cleaning, inspect thread and shoulders carefully. Dam-

aged connections should never be run in the hole. Even slight
damage will likely cause wobbling or leaking. Slight damage
may be repaired at the rig with a shoulder dressing tool or file.
Test each box and pin shoulder with a shoulder dressing tool
test ring. Use the benchmark to make sure that no tool joint
shoulder has been dressed beyond recommended limits. Check
the plastic coating in the pin bore under the last engaged thread
as a first check on pin stretch (Figure DS-6). After inspection,
protect all boxes and pins with clean, dry thread protectors.
Figure DS-9: Example of pure fatigue in a drill string box.

DS–6 DRILL STRING
Dogleg Angle, Degrees Dogleg Angle, Degrees

0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
0
In corrosive muds reduce dog-leg angle to 1 In corrosive muds reduce dog-leg angle to
1
a fraction (.06 for very severe conditions) a fraction (0.6 for very severe conditions)
2
of value indicated by fatigue curve. of value indicated by fatigue curve. 2
3 50 3
4
50 4
Tension - Thousands of feet of pipe
Tension - Thousands of Feet of Pipe

nt
5
oi 5
Tension - Thousands of Pounds
J
100
ol
6
6
To
Tension-Thousands of Pounds
on
7
bs.
pe
8
t
in
8
Pi
100
ipe
0L
Jo
9 150
ill
ll P
2,00
9
ol
Dr
To
10
Dri
E”
10
On
e “
“E”
11
11
rad
bs
de
i pe 12 200
0 L
lP e 12
of G
Gra
150
Dr
il 13 Pip
2,00
“E
”
Drill 13
e of
igue
de
14 ”
ra e “E 14
u
G 250 ad
Fat
15
of
Fatig
g Gr 15
di
n 16 of
ing
e l
Yi 16
200 17
eld
300
Yi 17
18
18
19
19
B4-4
Figure B4-4: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt

Figure DS-10: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt Figure DS-11:
doglegs Fatigue for
vs. tension damage
4 1/2”conditions
- 16.6 lb/ft in
drillabrupt
pipe.
doglegs vs. tension for 3 ½-in., 13.3 lb/ft drill pipe. doglegs vs tension for 4 ½-in., 16.6 lb/ft drill pipe.
Percent Fatigue Life

Expended in a 30-foot Interval
0 50 100 3-1/2” 4-1/2” 5”
0
Dogleg angle Degrees
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
0
50
In corrosive muds reduce dog-leg angle to 1 50
a fraction (0.6 for very severe conditions)
Tension In Drill Pipe In Dogleg

Length of Drill Pipe Below Dogleg
of value indicated by fatigue curve. B 2 50
(Thousands of Pounds)
50 3 5 Dogleg Severity
Degrees /100 Feet 100
4
(Thousand of Feet)
Tension - Thousands of Feet of Pipe
t 5 10 100
J
Tension - Thousands of Pounds
in
doglegs vs. 6tension for 4 1/2” - 16.6 lb/ft drill pipe.

Jo
100 9 E
ol
7
e
To
Pi p
100 150
Q 8
on
8
ill
A
bs.
Dr
9 B
10 7 150
E”
0L
150 10 C
e“
ip e
2,00
ill P
rad
” Dr 11
D 6 200
fG
“E 12
de
ue o
a
Gr 13 150
200
g of
Fatig
n 5 200
el di 14
Yi 15 250
16 15 3 4
250 R
17
18 For: Drill Pipe, 3-1/2”, 4-1/2” and 5” Grade “E” Steel;
B4-5
Rotary Speed, 100 RPM; Drilling Rate,10 Feet/Hour B4-6
Figure B4-5: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt
Figure DS-12: Fatigue damage conditions in abrupt Figure DS-13: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual
doglegs vs tension for 5-in., 19.5-lb/ft drill pipe doglegs vs tension in a non-corrosive environment.

DRILL STRING DS–7
Percent Fatigue Life

Expended in a 30-foot Interval many cleaning fluids can dilute the compound and keep it
0 50 100 3-1/2” 4-1/2” 5” from adhering properly to the surfaces to be protected.
0
Operating limits, safety and handling

Dogleg Severity
Degrees / 100 Feet
50
10 50
Effect of doglegs and floating operations

9
50
Tension In Drill Pipe In Dogleg

Length of Drill Pipe Below Dogleg
8
5
(Thousands of Pounds)
7 100 Metal is weaker under dynamic loading than under static
conditions. Steel has the capability of absorbing dynamic
(Thousands of Feet)
6 100
loading, or cycles of stress, for an infinite number of rever-

5 100 150 sals if the stress is kept under a certain limit. This is illus-
10 150
trated in Figure DS-8, which is a simple example of an S-N
4 curve, stress vs number of cycles to produce failure. The
200
point at which the curve straightens out is called the endur-
150 ance limits of steel. If the stress never goes above that point,
any number of cycles will not cause failure.
200
3
250
15
2
To illustrate simply, consider a nail bent back and forth until it
For: Drill Pipe, 3-1/2”, 4-1/2” and 5” Grade “E” Steel;
B4-7
breaks. With this mild steel, if the stress is kept below 27,000
Rotary Speed, 100 RPM; Drilling Rate,10 Feet/Hour psi, the nail will not break regardless of the cycles. At 30,000
Figure B4 -7: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual
doglegs vs. tension in a corrosive environment
psi the nail will break with 2,000,000 cycles, and at a stress
Figure DS-14: Fatigue damage conditions in gradual
of 48,000 psi, the elastic limit, the nail will break immediately.
doglegs vs tension in a corrosive environment.
Such failures with cyclic stresses are called fatigue failures.
Picking up the drill string The mechanism of fatigue failure is a progressive one. It starts
Thread protectors will prevent most of the tool joint damage a submicroscopic yielding of the atoms along the crystal slip
which occurs in moving and racking. Threads and shoulders planes. With alternating stress, this movement generates
of both boxes and pins should be protected from damage heat, lowering the cohesive strength of the constituents. As
when drill string is picked up or laid down. Do not permit a result, submicroscopic cracks form, which will progressive-
threads or shoulders to strike steel on walk or ramp. Wood ly unite until the crack becomes visible. The direction of the
splinters from the walk can be packed so tightly into the crack is normally perpendicular to the stress.
threads that they are very difficult to remove. A clean thread
protector made up hand-tight should be used in this opera- Chemical composition, microstructure, surface finish, and
tion. See Figure DS-7. tensile properties are some of the properties of steel that de-
termine the fatigue or endurance limit. A very rough approx-
Thread compounds imation of the fatigue strength of drillpipe when tested in the
Rotary-shouldered connections endure high unit stresses in nor- lab in air is one half of its tensile strength in a small scale RR.
mal service. Galling and seizing may occur if the separating film More metallurgical test sample, or 20% of the tensile strength
is insufficient to prevent metal-to-metal contact. This separating in a full-size sample. In addition, the presence of notches and
film is normally a soft metallic fiber (zinc or copper) in a grease- corrosion has a great effect on the fatigue strength.
based carrier. A good thread compound, properly applied, should
prevent or minimize galling in all but the most severe service, Drillpipe is subjected to cyclic stresses in tension, compression,
and it should also help to minimize make-up while drilling. torsion, and bending. Tension and bending (alternate tension and
compression of the same pipe wall) are the most critical stresses.
The present API RP7A1 gives a method by which the friction The magnitude of any stress can be compounded by the effect
factor may be compared between any thread compound and a of vibration. Pure fatigue failures in straight-hole drilling are be-
reference compound. RP7A1 does not yet offer a way to com- coming less frequent, except for doglegged or deviated holes
pare resistance to additional make-up or resistance to galling. or where failures are associated with notches and corrosion.
Thread compounds should not be thinned for ease of ap- The decrease in pure fatigue failures in straight-hole drilling
plication. Dilution will reduce the percentage of the metallic owes to the general practice of using sufficient drill-collar
constituent, which may make the compound inadequate to weight, so that the drill string is in tension down through the
prevent galling. For best results, thread compound should be top two or three drill collars. Buoyancy and hole inclination
applied to clean, dry threads and shoulders. The presence of must be considered when calculating drill collar weight to

DS–8 DRILL STRING
Dogleg Severity (Hole Curvature) - Degrees/100 ft .

0 5 10 15
0
LB
50
LB
0
Bouyant Wt. Suspended Below the Dogleg
50
100
LB
0
00
LB
1,
Thousands of Pounds
0
50
LB
1,
0
0 LB
00
LB
2,
150
LB
0 LB
0
1,00
LB
50
0
00
2,
2,00
3,
00
LB
LB
3,0
0 00
00
0
5,
4,
LB
LB
200
00 B
0
L
7,0
00
00
8,0
6,
1 2
250 LEGEND
Force on Tool Joints
Force on Drill Pipe
300
B4-8
Figure DS-15: Lateral forces on 3 ½-in., 13.3 lb/ft Range 2 drill pipe with 4 ¾-in. tool joints.
keep drillpipe in tension. crum of the bending force. If the pipe could bend uniformly
throughout its length, stress would be lower and cycles of
Today the major factor in fatigue failures is cyclic bending of stress to failure higher.
pipe being rotated in a hole that is changing direction. This is
commonly called a dogleg and occurs in straight-hole as well Extent of fatigue damage
as directional drilling. Failure can occur even when proper The amount of fatigue damage depends upon:
drill collar weight is maintained and there is no permanent • The tensile load in the pipe at the dogleg;
set in the drillpipe. When pipe is deflected and rotated, it • The severity of the dogleg;
goes through cycles of stress from tension to compression • The number cycles in the dogleg of each portion of the
on each side of the pipe with each rotation. pipe;
• The dimensions and properties of the pipe.
Drillpipe rotating at 100 rpm makes 144,000 rev/day, if left
on bottom continually. Hence, in just seven days there could Since tension in the pipe is critical, a shallow dogleg in a deep
be more than a million stress cycles on the pipe when rotat- hole often becomes the source of difficulty. Further, rotating
ing under conditions creating variable stress. Using the S-N off bottom below a dogleg is not good practice because of
curve in Figure DS-8, if the stress were 32,000 psi, this is the additional load of the drill collars. Figure DS-10 through
sufficient to cause pipe failure. Figure DS-12 from Hansford and Lubinski show conditions
necessary for fatigue damage to occur. It is necessary to re-
The portion of the string right above the drill collars is po- main to the left of the fatigue curve to prevent fatigue dam-
tentially most subject to bending. Drill collar mass will re- age. If these conditions are exceeded, a certain percentage
sist bending, and deflection will occur above in the drillpipe. of permanent damage will occur. The extent depends upon
Also maximum stress on the drillpipe will occur from the the number of cycles under the stressed conditions.
run-out point of the upset to approximately 20 in. from the
tool joint. As above, the tool joint will not bend. The bending Cumulative fatigue
occurs in the relatively thin pipe wall. This change of cross Methods are available for estimating the cumulative fatigue
section in the tool joint acts as a vise and becomes the ful- on joints of pipe which have been rotated through severe dog-

DRILL STRING DS–9
Dogleg Severity (Hole Curvature) - Degrees Per 100 Ft.
0 5 10 15
0
50
Bouyant Wt. Suspended Below the Dogleg
100
LB
0
Thousands of Pounds
LB
0
50
LB
150
0
00
1,
1,000 LB
0 LB
0 LB
LB
2,00
200
0
00
3,00
LB
6,
LB
00
LB
LB
4,0
LB
00
00
LB
00
LB
5,0
1,5
00
LB
2,0
LB
00
250
00
6,0
2,5
0
00
3,0
00
7,0
8,
1 2
LEGEND
300 Force on Tool Joints
Force on Drill Pipe
B4-9
Figure DS-16: Lateral forces on 4 ½-in., 16.6 lb/ft Range 2 drill pipe with 6 ¼-in. tool joints.
legs. The method portrayed in Figure DS-13 and Figure DS-14 is good practice to string-ream the dogleg area. This reduces
is a simple device to be used as a guide in the analysis of joints the severity of the hole angle change.
suspected of suffering fatigue damage. A correction formula
to use for other penetration rates and rotary speed is: When drillpipe in a dogleg is in tension, it is pulled to the
inside of the bend with substantial force. The lateral force
<% Life Expended> = <% Life Expended from Figure DS-13 will increase the wear of the pipe and tool joints. When
and Figure DS14> x <Actual RPM/100> x <10/Actual ft/hr> abrasion is a problem, it is desirable to limit the amount
of lateral force to less than about 2,000 lb on the tool
It’s important to remember that such damage is permanent, joints by controlling the rate of change of hole angle. Val-
even when the stress is relieved and/or the joint passes ues either smaller or greater than 2,000 lb might be in or-
through the dogleg. Similar repetitive stresses on the joint will der, depending on formation at the dogleg. Figures DS-14
eventually cause failure. For example, from Figure DS-14, a through DS-18, developed by Lubinski, show lateral force
tension of 70,000 lb on 3 ½-in. pipe in a 10° dogleg will ex- curves for both tool joints and drillpipe for 3 popular siz-
pend 35% of the life of the joint. If the joint passes through es. The first three figures are for three pipe sizes, Range 2.
this or a similar dogleg with the same rotary speed and pen- Figure DS-18, the last graph, is for 5-in., 19.5 lb/ft, Range
etration rate three times, it will fail. Three times the rotary 3 drillpipe.
speed or ⅓ the penetration rate will give the same effect.
For conditions represented by points located to the left of
Similarly, drillpipe may be damaged on one hole, even curve No. 1, such as Point A in Figure DS-15, only tool joints,
though it does not fail. If it is placed near the top of the string not drillpipe between tool joints, contact the wall of the hole.
on the same or next hole, it may or may not be able to with- This should not be construed to mean the drillpipe body
stand the very nominal bending stresses encountered. Thus, does not wear at all, as Figure DS-15 is for a gradual, rather
failures can occur later and far from the position in the string than an abrupt dogleg. In an abrupt dogleg, drillpipe does
where the trouble started, or in subsequent wells. contact the wall of the hole halfway between tool joints, and
If doglegs of sufficient magnitude are known or suspected, it

Figure B4-10
DS–10 DRILL STRING
Lateral forces on tool joints and range 2 drill pipe 5”, 19.5 lb per foot, range 2 drill pipe, 6 3/4” tool joints.
Dog-leg Severity (Hole Curvature) - Degrees Per 100 Ft.
0 5 10 15
0
0 LB
1,00
50 0 LB
2,00
LB
00
3,0
Bouyant Wt. Suspended Below the Dog-leg
LB
100 00
4,0
LB
00
5,0
Thousands of Pounds
LB
150 00
6,0
LB
00
7,0
LB
200 00
8,0
250
LEGEND
0 LB
0 LB
0 LB
LB
0 LB
300 Force on Tool Joints

0 LB
B
1,000
500 L
2,00
2,50
3,50
1,50
Force on Drill Pipe
1 2 B4-10
Figure DS-17: Lateral forces on 5-in., 19.5-lb/ft Range 2 drill pipe with 6 ⅜-in. tool joints.
the pipe body is subjected to wear. This lasts until the dogleg indicates that if the buoyant weight suspended below the
is rounded off and becomes gradual. dogleg is 170,000 lb and if dogleg severity (hole curvature)
is 10.1°/100 ft, then the force on tool joint is 6,000 lb and the
For conditions represented by points located on Curve No. 1, force on drillpipe body is 3,000 lb.
theoretically the drillpipe contacts the wall of the hole with
zero force at the midpoint between tool joints. Tool joints rotated under high lateral force against the wall
of the hole may be damaged as a result of friction heat
For conditions represented by points located between Curve checking. The heat generated at the surface of the tool joint
Nos. 1 and 2, theoretically the drillpipe still contacts the wall by friction with the wall of the hole when under high radial
of the hole at midpoint only, but with a force which is not thrust loads may raise the temperature of the tool joint steel
equal to zero. This force increases from Curve No. 1 toward above its critical temperature. Metallurgical examination of
Curve No. 2. Practically, of course, the contact between the such joints has indicated affected zones with varying hard-
drillpipe and the wall of the hole will be along a short length ness as much as 3/16 in. below OD surface. If the radial thrust
located near the midpoint of the joint. load is sufficiently high, surface heat checking can occur in
the presence of drilling mud alternately being heated and
For conditions represented by points located to the right of quenched as it rotates. This action produces numerous ir-
Curve No. 2, the drillpipe theoretically contacts with the wall regular heat check cracks often accompanied by longer axial
of the hole—not at one point, but along an arc with the in- cracks and sometimes extending through the full section of
creasing length to the right of Curve No. 2. the joint, and washouts may occur in the splits or windows.
Maintaining hole angle control so that 2,000 lb lateral force
On each of the Figures DS-15 through DS-18, there are, in is not exceeded will minimize or eliminate heat checking of
addition to curves Nos. 1 and 2, two families of curves—one tool joints. See Figure DS-52.
for the force on tool joint, the other for the force on drill-
pipe body. As an example, consider Figure DS-15. Point B

DRILL STRING DS–11
Dog-leg Severity (Hole Curvature) - Degrees Per 100 Ft.

0 5 10 15
0
0 LB
LB
500
50 0 LB
1,00
LB
00
1,5 LB
00 B
2,0 5,000 L
0 LB
2,50
LB LB
00 6,000
100 3,0
Bouyant Wt. Suspended Below the Dog-leg
LB
7,000
0 LB
8,00
150
Thousands of Pounds
200
250
LEGEND
Force on Tool Joints
1,000 LB
2,000 LB
3,000 LB
4,000 LB
300 Force on Drill Pipe
1 2 B4-11
Figure DS-18: Dog leg severity (hole curvature), degrees per 100 ft.
Floating drilling operations a floater:

Roll and pitch of a drilling vessel results in bending of the • Multi-plane bushings should not be used. Either a
kelly and the first joint of drillpipe. Two major factors specif- gimbaled kelly bushing, or a one-plane roller bushing is
ic to floating drilling operations that contribute to drill-pipe preferable;
fatigue are: • An extended-length kelly should be used in order to
• Rotary table is not centered at all times precisely above relieve the severe bending of the limber drillpipe
the subsea borehole; through less severe bending of the rigid kelly extension.
• Derrick is not always vertical, but follows the roll and This extension may be accomplished by any of the
pitch motions of the floater. following means:
a. For Range 2 drillpipe, use a 54-ft kelly, which is ordinarily
This text pertains to prevention of fatigue due to the second used with Range 3 pipe, rather than the usual 40-ft kelly;
factor above. When the derrick is inclined during a part of b. Use a specially made kelly at least 8 ft longer than the
the roll or pitch motion, the upper extremity of the drill string standard length;
is not vertical, while the drillpipe at some distance below the c. Use at least 8 ft of kelly saver subs between the kelly and
rotary table remains vertical. Thus, the drill string is bent. As drillpipe.
drillpipe is much less rigid than the kelly, most of the bend- • If b, above, is not implemented, avoid rotating off
ing occurs in the first length of drillpipe below the kelly. This bottom with the kelly more than half way up for long
subject is studied in the paper, “Effect of Drilling Vessel Pitch periods of time, if the maximum angular vessel motion
or Roll on Kelly and Drillpipe Fatigue,” by John E. Hansford is more than 5° single amplitude. In this text, long
and Arthur Lubinski1. periods of time are:
a. More than 30 min for large hook loads;
Based on the Hansford and Lubinski paper, the following prac- b. More than 2 hours for light hook loads.
tices are recommended to minimize bending and, therefore, • If conditions prevent implementing b or c, above, the
fatigue of the first joint of drillpipe, due to roll and/or pitch of

Figure DS-19: Tongs applied to the pipe body can crush Figure DS-20: Pipe body slip marks can cause failure. The making
the pipe and cause failure through tong marks. up or breaking out of drill string without back-up tongs can
also cause slippage and potentially dangerous notches.
Back-up tongs should always be used.
Stress, pounds/sq in. (psi)
35,000
Air
30,000
Mildly
Corr
osive
25,000
20,000
Co
rro
siv
e
15,000
Ve
ry C
orr
osi
ve
10,000
5,000
0 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000

.
Figure DS-21: Typical S/N curves for drill pipe in various media.
first joint of drillpipe below the kelly should be removed and concentrates the breaking down of the metal structure.
from the string at the first opportunity and discarded.
If a notch occurs upon a portion of the drill pipe which is not
Notch Fatigue subject to stress, it will have little effect, but if located within
After understanding the mechanism of fatigue failure, i.e., a 20 in. of the tool joint where maximum bending moments
progressive propagation of a minute crack, let us examine the occur, it can form the nucleus of a fatigue break. A longitu-
effect of surface discontinuities upon the fatigue strength. dinal notch is fairly harmless, but a circumferential (in the
direction of applied stress) will lead to failure. A relatively
Surface imperfections, either mechanical or metallurgical, de- extensive saucer-shaped notch with a rounded bottom will
pending upon their location, orientation, shape, and magnitude, distribute the stress and be harmless.
greatly affect the fatigue limit. Aside from providing the initial
distortion of the grain of steel, the notch raises the stress level However, even a minute scratch, if sharp-bottomed, will in-

crease stress and lead to failure. The shape of the bottom of are in the direction of applied stress and seldom lead to fail-
the notch is critical. Perhaps this can be understood more ures. This perfectly longitudinal direction is important, as a
readily by considering the problem of cutting a glass pane. If a very slight deviation from the vertical can become a stress
new glass cutter with a sharp roller is used, a very light stroke concentration point. The application of tongs to the body of
with the cutter gives a clean break on bending the pane. If a the pipe instead of to the tool joint is considered bad practice
dull cutter wheel is employed, giving a round bottom notch, due to the possibility of crushing the pipe. See Figure DS-19.
the bending stress is distributed and the break will follow
planes of weakness in the glass, rather than the score. Slip marks
Rotary table slips are made with fine serrations which ordinarily
As most mechanical notches contain cold-worked micro- leave injurious marks on the drillpipe. However, the slips, if mis-
structure (with low ductility and consequent low fatigue treated, worn, or carelessly handled, can score the pipe. Slips
limit), the magnitude of the notch affects the fatigue limit. with worn, mismatched, incorrect size, or improperly installed
gripping elements can allow one or two teeth or portions of teeth
Some steels are more sensitive to notches than other steels. to catch the full load of the drill string, causing deep notching,
This is referred to as notch sensitivity and is related to the cold work, and potential failure. See Figure DS-20.
ductility of the steel.
The practice of rotating drill string with the slips can, if any
Various surface conditions which can, or do, result in notch slippage occurs, leave a dangerous transverse notch in the
fatigue failures are: drillpipe.
• Steel stenciling on drillpipe;
• Electric arc burns; Crooked pipe fatigue
• Rubber protector grooves; It’s critical not to run crooked drillpipe into the well. A crook-
• Tong marks; ed joint is always a potential failure. A crooked kelly can
• Slip marks;
• Formation and “junk” cuts.
Steel stenciling
Inasmuch as any transverse mark can be a dangerous stress
concentration point, it is unsurprising that steel stencil marks
can be the start of fatigue when parts of the letter are trans-
verse to the pipe and the steel stamp is in the wrong place.
No stamps should ever be made on the body of drillpipe.
Electric arc burns

Though rare, attaching a ground lead to the pipe rack instead
of the material being welded does happen. This is particular-
Figure DS-22: Drill pipe will bottleneck when pulled above its yield
ly dangerous in that the subsequent arcing between the rail
strength and will part when pulled to its ultimate tensile strength.
and the pipe goes unnoticed and the pits, though small, are
surrounded by a wide band of burnt metal that is glass-hard
and very prone to rapid fatigue failure. cause bending in the first joint of drillpipe below the rotary
table. If the stress is high enough, failure will occur.
Rubber protector grooves
A cause of notch fatigue failure is the occurrence of a cir- Having a crown block off center can cause failure. This
cumferential groove at the top of the rubber drillpipe pro- throws bending stresses in the kelly and drillpipe.
tectors. Modern protectors are designed to minimize this
condition. This situation occurs when the rubber protectors Corrosion fatigue
are left in storage. The protector rubbers should be removed Corrosion fatigue, or fatigue in a corrosive environment, is
during the storage period. probably the most common cause of drill-pipe fatigue fail-
ure. The fatigue life of drillpipe depends on the corrosive-
Tong marks ness of the environment. As shown in Figure DS-21, drillpipe
Deep tong marks are probably the worst looking surface de- stressed at 27,500 psi in a non-corrosive environment (air)
fects produced on drill string in the field. They are long, deep will not fail by fatigue; will have a fatigue life of 2,300,000
and frequently quite sharp. However, being longitudinal, they cycles in a mildly corrosive environment (salt water); a fa-

tigue life of 1,300,000 cycles in a corrosive environment In carrying out various information tests, drillpipe is run
(magnesium chloride solution); and a fatigue life of 500,000 empty in the well and set into the formation being tested
cycles in a very corrosive environment (hydrochloric acid). before the valve at the bottom is opened. This subjects the
bottom lengths to the full hydrostatic pressure of the drilling
Critical rotating speed fluid and has been known to cause collapse. Worn pipe can
Critical rotating speeds in drill string cause vibrations and contribute to collapse failures in drill stem testing.
are often the cause of crooked drillpipe, excessive wear, rap-
id deterioration, and fatigue failure. Critical speeds will vary During BOP tests using a test string, be certain that the an-
with length and size of drill stem and collars and hole size. nulus is vented if a ram is closed beneath another closed ram
There is evidence in field tests that excessive power is re- or annulus. Failure to do this could result in collapsed pipe,
quired at the rotary to maintain a constant speed at critical since there is no place for the fluid being displaced by the
conditions. This power indicator, surface evidence of vibra- operating rod to go.
tion, or mechanical specific energy measurements should
warn the crew that they are in the critical range. Transition from drill string to drill collars
Frequent failure in the joints of drillpipe just above the drill col-
Various types of vibration may occur, including axial, tor- lars suggests abnormally high bending stresses in these joints.
sional, and lateral vibration. The pipe between each tool When joints are moved from this location and rotated to other
joint may vibrate in nodes, as a violin string. Another type sections, the effect is to lose identity of these damaged joints.
of vibration is of the spring pendulum type. Other types of When these joints later fail through accumulation of additional
vibrations may occur. Each vibration type has critical speeds fatigue damage, every joint in the string becomes suspect.
at which they occur. Presently no generally accepted meth-
od exists to accurately predict critical rotary speeds. One practice to reduce failures at the transition zone and to
improve control over the damaged joints is to use 9–10 joints
Collapsed pipe from drill-stem and BOP tests of heavy wall pipe, heavy weight or smaller drill collars, just
The effects of combination of hoop stress (collapse and above the collars. These joints are marked for identification,
burst) and axial stress (tension and compression) on drill- and used in the transition zone. They are inspected more
pipe yield is discussed in API RP 7G, 16th ed, Section 12. frequently than regular drillpipe to reduce the likelihood
Example 1:
Determine the stretch in a 10,000-ft string of drill pipe freely suspended in 10-lb/gal drilling fluid.
L1 2 10,000 2
e=
9.625 × 10 7 [ 65.44 − 1.44 Wg ] =
9.625 × 10 7 [
65.44 − 1.44 Wg ] = 53.03 in
Where:
L1 = Length of free drill pipe, ft
Wg = Weight of drilling fluid, lb/gal
e = total elongation, in.
Example 2:
Determine the free length in a 10,000 ft string of 4 ½-in. OD 16.60 lb/ft drill pipe which is stuck, and which stretches
49 in. due to a differential pull of 80,000 lb.
L1 2 10,000 2
e=
9.625 × 10 7 [ 65.44 − 1.44 Wg ] =
9.625 × 10 7 [
65.44 − 1.44 Wg ] = 53.03 in
Where:
L1 = Length of free drill pipe, ft
e = total elongation, in.
WDP = Weight of drill pipe, lb/ft
P = Load, lb

of service failures. The use of heavy wall pipe reduces the to a tension load until the previous tension load has been ex-
stress level in the joints and ensures longer life in this severe ceeded, but suffers a reduced compressive yield strength. It
service condition. is dangerous if such a joint is at the bottom of the drill string
where compressive loading occurs. Thus, it is good practice
Maximum allowable pull and rotary torque to discard all stretched lengths, or at least to downgrade
Pure tension failures are involved while pulling on stuck them to less severe service.
drillpipe. As the pull on the pipe exceeds the yield point
(minimum area yield), the metal distorts in a characteristic Drill string torque will reduce the tensile yield. This must be
“necking down” of the weakest area of the pipe wall or small- considered when drilling, tripping (back reaming with top drive)
est cross sectional area. The minimum yields are shown in and fishing, as in washover operations or working stuck pipe.
Table DS-4. Tables DS-5, DS-7 and DS-9 show torsion-
al and tensile data for new, premium and Class 2 drillpipe, Allowable pull and torque combinations for drill string may
respectively. Tables DS-6, DS-8 and DS-10 show collapse be determined with the following formula:
and internal pressure data for the same respective types of
drillpipe. Qr = J YM 2 – P 2
6√3D A2
If pull is further increased to exceed the ultimate strength,
the string will part. See Figure DS-22. Where:
QT = Minimum torsional yield strength under
Such failures normally occur near the top of the string which tension, lb-ft
is subject to the pull plus the weight of the string. When drill- J = Polar moment of inertia
pipe is stuck, the yield or ultimate strengths might be ex- = π / 32 (D4 - d4) for tubes
ceeded due to errors in weight indicators. Such pulls should D = Outside diameter, in.
be tempered with good judgment, proper safety factors, or d = Inside diameter, in.
recognition that an emergency exists. YM = Minimum unit yield strength, psi
SM = Minimum unit shear strength, psi
Tension figures in the above-mentioned tables are for new (SM = YM)
pipe and reductions in cross-sectional area based on the P = Total load in tension, lb
IADC-API used-pipe classification system. Safety factors A = Cross-sectional area – sq in.
should be applied and account taken for wear since pur-
chase or last grading of the pipe. Unless there is an area of An example of the torque which may be applied to the pipe
concentrated tension, loading damage can occur by a uni- which is stuck while imposing a tensile load is as follows:
form linear yielding or stretch of the pipe and downgrading Assume:
of the entire string. • 3 ½-in. OD, 13.30 lb. Grade E-75 drillpipe
• 3 ½-in. IF tool joints
Closely examine the full upper part of a drill string suspect- • Stuck point: 4,000 ft
ed of being pulled beyond yield point determine whether • Tensile pull: 100,000 lb
lengths are correct or stretched. Compare the “before and • New drillpipe
after” length tally or check the outside diameter with cali-
pers. Dangerous elongation can be detected readily and the Then:
damaged lengths discarded. QT = 17,253 lb-ft
For further information on allowable hookloads, torque ap-
But what is “dangerous” elongation? Unfortunately, this is dif- plications, and pump pressure use, refer to Stall and Blen-
ficult to define. Stretching and distortion causes work-hard- karn: Allowable Hook Load and Torque Combinations for
ening of metal with a consequent loss in ductility. Even worse, Stuck Drill Strings.
the stretch might not be as uniform as it appears. If non-uni-
form, this will produce an area of low ductility and reduced Make-up torque vs drilling torque
cross section not discernible by eye or measurement. Use the proper thread lubricant and manufacturer’s recom-
mended make-up torque. API RP 7G now recommends make-
In addition, another phenomenon has taken place which up torque equal to 60% of tool joint torsional yield strength.
is not measurable. This is called the “Bauschinger Effect.”
Simply stated, this means that steel which has been over- Sometimes downhole make-up occurs in spite of the use of
stressed in tension has a reduced yield point in compres- proper thread lubricant and recommended make-up torque.
sion. Thus, a piece of stretched drillpipe will not again yield Downhole make-up causes tight breaks and can result in

damaged threads and sealing shoulders. Torque in washover operations

Although little data is available, torque loads during wash-
The following techniques can be used to prevent downhole over operations are significant. Friction and drag on the wash
make-up: pipe causes considerable torque increases on tool joints and
• Limit rotating torque to 80% of recommended make- drillpipe. Friction and drag effects must be considered when
up torque using rotary table torque limiting devices. pipe is to be used in this type of service. This is particularly
Determine the stretch in a 10,000 ft string of drillpipe true in both directional wells and deep straight holes with
freely suspended in 10 lb/gal drilling fluid; small tolerances. The effect of torque on maximum allow-
• Increase make-up torque to 70% of tool joint torsional able pull should be considered.
yield strength. Never exceed 70% of yield.
Dynamic Loading of drillpipe during tripping
Fishing operations • When running a string of drillpipe into or out of the
hole, the pipe is subjected not to its static weight, but to
Pulling out stuck pipe a dynamic load;
It is not normally considered good practice to pull on stuck • The dynamic load oscillates between values which are
drillpipe beyond the limit derived from the API-IADC Used greater and smaller than the static load, since the
Drill Pipe Classification System. These limits are given in greater values may exceed the yield. This results in
Tables DS-5 through DS-10. Assume the pipe is near the fatigue and shortening of pipe life;
minimum cross-sectional area of its class and will fail in ten- • Dynamic loading exceeding yield may occur only in
sion under excessive loads. For example, assuming a string long strings such as 10,000 ft;
of 5-in., 19.5-lb/ft Grade E-75 drillpipe is stuck, the following • Dynamic loading increases with the length of drill collar
approximate values for maximum hook load would apply: string;
• Premium Class: 311,540 lb; • In the event the smallest value of the dynamic load tries
• Class: 270,430 lb. to become negative, the pipe is kicked off the slips, and
the string may be dropped into the hole;
The stretch caused by the weight of drillpipe suspended in • The likelihood of dynamic loading resulting in a jump off
a fluid should be considered, and the proper formulas for (kicking of the slips) increases as the drillpipe string
stretch when free or stuck should be used. For additional in- becomes shorter and the collar string becomes longer;
formation on fishing, refer to the Special Operations Chapter • For a long drillpipe string, such as 10,000 ft., a jump off is
of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition. possible only if drillpipe, after having been pulled from the
slips, is dropped to a very high velocity, such as 16 ft/sec;
Jarring • Dynamic phenomena are severe only when damping is
It is common during fishing, testing, coring, and other oper- small, which may be the case in exceptional holes, in
ations to run rotary jars to aid in freeing stuck assemblies. which there are no doglegs; the deviation is small; the
Normally the jars are run below several drill collars which cross-sectional area of the annulus is large; and the
act to concentrate the blow at the fish. It is necessary to take mud viscosity and weight are small;
the proper stretch to produce the required blow. The mo- • In case of small damping, the running of a stand of
mentum of the moving mass of drill collars and stretched drillpipe should not be less than 15 seconds.
drillpipe returning to normal causes the blow after the jar
hammer is tripped. A hammer force of three to four times For a more detailed study of the phenomena the following
the excess of pull over pipe weight is possible, depending on references are given:
type and size of pipe, number (weight) of drill collars, drag, • Arthur Lubinski, Dynamic Loading of Drillpipe During
jar travel, etc. This force may be large enough to damage the Tripping, Journal of Petroleum Technology (Aug. 1988).
stuck drillpipe and should be considered when jarring oper- The paper was previously presented at the 1988 IADC/
ations are planned. SPE Drilling Conference, SPE/IADC 17211.

Table DS-5: New Drill Pipe — Torsional and Tensional Data
Nom. Nom.
O.D. Torsional Data Torsional Yield Strength, ft-lb Tensile Data Based on Min. Values Load at Min. Yield Strength, lb
Wt. Wall
in. in. lb/ft E-75 X-95 G-105 S-135 Z-140 V-150 U-165 E-75 X-95 G-105 S-135 Z-140 V-150 U-165
2 3/8 4.85 0.19 4,763 6,033 6,668 8,574 8,891 9,526 10,479 97,817 123,902 136,944 176,071 182,593 195,635 215,198
6.65 0.28 6,250 7,917 8,751 11,251 11,668 12,501 13,751 138,214 175,072 193,500 248,786 258,000 276,429 304,072
2 7/8 6.85 0.217 8,083 10,238 11,316 14,549 15,087 16,165 17,782 135,902 172,143 190,263 244,624 253,684 271,804 298,984
10.4 0.362 11,554 14,635 16,176 20,798 21,568 23,109 25,420 214,344 271,503 300,082 385,820 400,110 428,689 471,558
3 1/2 13.3 0.368 18,551 23,498 25,972 33,393 34,629 37,103 40,813 271,569 343,988 380,197 488,825 506,929 543,139 597,453
15.5 0.449 21,086 26,709 29,520 37,954 39,360 42,171 46,388 322,775 408,848 451,885 580,995 602,513 645,550 710,105
4 14 0.33 23,288 29,498 32,603 41,918 43,470 46,575 51,233 285,359 361,454 399,502 513,646 532,670 570,717 627,789
15.7 0.38 25,810 32,693 36,134 46,458 48,178 51,620 56,782 324,118 410,550 453,765 583,413 605,020 648,236 713,060
4 1/4 15.4 0.33 26,683 33,798 37,356 48,029 49,807 53,365 58,702 304,797 386,077 426,716 548,635 568,955 609,595 670,554
17.1 0.38 29,640 37,543 41,495 53,351 55,327 59,279 65,207 346,502 438,902 485,103 623,704 646,804 693,004 762,304
4 1/2 16.6 0.337 30,807 39,022 43,130 55,453 57,507 61,614 67,776 330,558 418,707 462,781 595,004 617,041 661,116 727,227
20 0.43 36,901 46,741 51,661 66,422 68,882 73,802 81,182 412,358 522,320 577,301 742,244 769,734 824,715 907,187
5 – 0.3 35,431 44,880 49,604 63,776 66,139 70,863 77,949 332,223 420,816 465,113 598,002 620,150 664,447 730,892
19.5 0.362 41,167 52,144 57,633 74,100 76,844 82,333 90,567 395,595 501,087 553,833 712,070 738,443 791,189 870,308
Copyright © 2015
25.6 0.5 52,257 66,192 73,160 94,062 97,546 104,514 114,965 530,144 671,515 742,201 954,259 989,602 1,060,288 1,166,316
5 1/2 21.9 0.361 50,710 64,233 70,994 91,278 94,659 101,420 111,562 437,116 553,681 611,963 786,809 815,950 874,233 961,656
24.7 0.415 56,574 71,661 79,204 101,834 105,605 113,148 124,463 497,222 629,814 696,111 894,999 928,147 994,444 1,093,888
5 7/8 – 0.32 53,065 67,216 74,291 95,517 99,055 106,131 116,744 418,837 530,527 586,372 753,907 781,829 837,674 921,442
23.4 0.361 58,605 74,233 82,047 105,489 109,396 117,210 128,931 469,013 594,083 656,619 844,224 875,491 938,026 1,031,829
26.3 0.415 65,508 82,977 91,712 117,915 122,282 131,017 144,119 533,890 676,261 747,446 961,002 996,595 1,067,780 1,174,558
6 5/8 25.2 0.33 70,580 89,402 98,813 127,045 131,750 141,161 155,277 489,464 619,988 685,250 881,035 913,666 978,928 1,076,821
27.7 0.362 76,295 96,640 106,813 137,331 142,417 152,590 167,849 534,198 676,651 747,877 961,556 997,169 1,068,396 1,175,235
DRILL STRING
– 0.5 98,893 125,264 138,450 178,007 184,600 197,785 217,564 721,585 914,007 1,010,218 1,298,852 1,346,958 1,443,169 1,587,486
– 0.522 102,202 129,455 143,082 183,963 190,776 204,403 224,843 750,628 950,796 1,050,880 1,351,131 1,401,173 1,501,257 1,651,383
– 0.625 116,684 147,800 163,358 210,032 217,811 233,368 256,705 883,573 1,119,192 1,237,002 1,590,431 1,649,336 1,767,146 1,943,860
– 0.75 132,159 167,401 185,023 237,886 246,697 264,318 290,750 1,038,198 1,315,051 1,453,477 1,868,757 1,937,970 2,076,396 2,284,036
– 0.813 139,147 176,253 194,806 250,465 259,741 278,294 306,124 1,113,339 1,410,229 1,558,674 2,004,010 2,078,232 2,226,677 2,449,345
DS–17
DS–18
Table DS-6: New Drill Pipe — Collapse, and Internal Pressure Data
DRILL STRING
Nom. Nom.
O.D. Collapse Pressure Based On Minimum Values, psi Internal Pressure At Minimum Yield Strength, psi
Wt. Wall
2 3/8 4.85 0.19 11,040 13,984 15,456 19,035 19,588 20,661 22,182 10,500 13,300 14,700 18,900 19,600 21,000 23,100
6.65 0.28 15,599 19,759 21,839 28,079 29,119 31,199 34,319 15,474 19,600 21,663 27,853 28,884 30,947 34,042
2 7/8 6.85 0.217 10,467 12,940 14,020 17,034 17,500 18,398 19,650 9,907 12,548 13,869 17,832 18,492 19,813 21,794
10.4 0.362 16,509 20,911 23,112 29,716 30,817 33,018 36,319 16,526 20,933 23,137 29,747 30,849 33,052 36,357
3 1/2 13.3 0.368 14,113 17,877 19,758 25,404 26,345 28,226 31,049 13,800 17,480 19,320 24,840 25,760 27,600 30,360
15.5 0.449 16,774 21,247 23,484 30,194 31,312 33,549 36,903 16,838 21,328 23,573 30,308 31,430 33,675 37,043
4 14 0.33 11,354 14,382 15,896 20,141 20,742 21,912 23,581 10,828 13,716 15,159 19,491 20,213 21,656 23,822
15.7 0.38 12,896 16,335 18,055 23,213 24,073 25,793 28,372 12,469 15,794 17,456 22,444 23,275 24,938 27,431
4 1/4 15.4 0.33 10,743 13,583 14,740 17,994 18,501 19,483 20,864 10,191 12,909 14,268 18,344 19,024 20,382 22,421
17.1 0.38 12,213 15,469 17,098 21,983 22,797 24,425 26,868 11,735 14,865 16,429 21,124 21,906 23,471 25,818
Copyright © 2015
4 1/2 16.6 0.337 10,392 12,765 13,825 16,773 17,228 18,103 19,320 9,829 12,450 13,761 17,693 18,348 19,658 21,624
20 0.43 12,964 16,421 18,149 23,335 24,199 25,927 28,520 12,542 15,886 17,558 22,575 23,411 25,083 27,592
5 – 0.3 7,122 8,346 8,882 10,185 10,355 10,652 10,982 7,875 9,975 11,025 14,175 14,700 15,750 17,325
19.5 0.362 9,962 12,026 12,999 15,672 16,079 16,858 17,926 9,503 12,037 13,304 17,105 17,738 19,005 20,906
25.6 0.5 13,500 17,100 18,900 24,300 25,200 27,000 29,700 13,125 16,625 18,375 23,625 24,500 26,250 28,875
5 1/2 21.9 0.361 8,413 10,019 10,753 12,679 12,957 13,473 14,139 8,615 10,912 12,061 15,507 16,081 17,230 18,953
24.7 0.415 10,464 12,933 14,013 17,023 17,489 18,386 19,636 9,903 12,544 13,865 17,826 18,486 19,807 21,788
5 7/8 – 0.32 5,855 6,704 7,046 7,737 7,801 7,884 8,094 7,149 9,055 10,009 12,868 13,345 14,298 15,728
23.4 0.361 7,453 8,775 9,362 10,825 11,023 11,376 11,793 8,065 10,216 11,291 14,517 15,054 16,130 17,743
26.3 0.415 9,558 11,503 12,414 14,892 15,266 15,976 16,939 9,271 11,744 12,980 16,688 17,306 18,543 20,397
6 5/8 25.2 0.33 4,788 5,321 5,500 6,036 6,121 6,260 6,391 6,538 8,281 9,153 11,768 12,204 13,075 14,383
27.7 0.362 5,894 6,755 7,103 7,813 7,881 7,970 8,157 7,172 9,084 10,040 12,909 13,387 14,343 15,778
– 0.5 10,466 12,938 14,018 17,031 17,497 18,395 19,646 9,906 12,547 13,868 17,830 18,491 19,811 21,792
– 0.522 10,888 13,791 15,121 18,500 19,030 20,057 21,505 10,342 13,099 14,478 18,615 19,304 20,683 22,751
– 0.625 12,816 16,234 17,942 23,069 23,923 25,632 28,195 12,382 15,684 17,335 22,288 23,113 24,764 27,241
– 0.75 15,059 19,074 21,082 27,106 28,110 30,117 33,129 14,858 18,821 20,802 26,745 27,736 29,717 32,689
– 0.813 16,149 20,455 22,608 29,068 30,144 32,297 35,527 16,107 20,402 22,549 28,992 30,066 32,213 35,435
TableDS-7: Premium Drill Pipe — Torsional and Tensional Data
Nom. Nom.
Wt. Wall
2 3/8 4.85 0.19 3,725 4,719 5,215 6,705 6,954 7,450 8,195 76,893 97,398 107,650 138,407 143,534 153,786 169,165
6.65 0.28 4,811 6,093 6,735 8,659 8,980 9,621 10,583 107,616 136,313 150,662 193,709 200,883 215,232 236,755
2 7/8 6.85 0.217 6,332 8,020 8,865 11,397 11,819 12,664 13,930 106,946 135,465 149,725 192,503 199,633 213,893 235,282
10.4 0.362 8,858 11,220 12,401 15,945 16,535 17,716 19,488 166,535 210,945 233,149 299,764 310,866 333,071 366,378
3 1/2 13.3 0.368 14,361 18,191 20,106 25,850 26,808 28,723 31,595 212,150 268,723 297,010 381,870 396,014 424,300 466,730
15.5 0.449 16,146 20,452 22,605 29,063 30,140 32,292 35,522 250,620 317,452 350,868 451,115 467,823 501,239 551,363
4 14 0.33 18,196 23,048 25,474 32,753 33,966 36,392 40,031 224,182 283,963 313,854 403,527 418,472 448,363 493,199
15.7 0.38 20,067 25,418 28,094 36,120 37,458 40,134 44,147 253,851 321,544 355,391 456,931 473,855 507,701 558,472
4 1/4 15.4 0.33 20,886 26,456 29,241 37,595 38,988 41,773 45,950 239,732 303,661 335,625 431,518 447,501 479,465 527,411
17.1 0.38 23,097 29,256 32,335 41,574 43,114 46,193 50,813 271,758 344,227 380,461 489,164 507,281 543,516 597,867
4 1/2 16.6 0.337 24,139 30,576 33,795 43,451 45,060 48,278 53,106 260,165 329,542 364,231 468,297 485,641 520,330 572,363
20 0.43 28,684 36,332 40,157 51,630 53,543 57,367 63,104 322,916 409,026 452,082 581,248 602,776 645,831 710,414
5 – 0.3 27,905 35,346 39,067 50,229 52,089 55,810 61,391 262,386 332,355 367,340 472,294 489,787 524,772 577,249
19.5 0.362 32,285 40,895 45,200 58,114 60,266 64,571 71,028 311,536 394,612 436,150 560,764 581,533 623,071 685,378
Copyright © 2015
25.6 0.5 40,544 51,356 56,762 72,980 75,682 81,088 89,197 414,690 525,274 580,566 746,442 774,088 829,380 912,319
5 1/2 21.9 0.361 39,864 50,494 55,809 71,754 74,412 79,727 87,700 344,780 436,721 482,692 620,604 643,589 689,560 758,516
24.7 0.415 44,320 56,139 62,048 79,776 82,731 88,641 97,505 391,285 495,627 547,799 704,313 730,398 782,569 860,826
5 7/8 – 0.32 41,867 53,032 58,614 75,361 78,152 83,734 92,108 331,209 419,532 463,693 596,177 618,257 662,419 728,660
23.4 0.361 46,134 58,437 64,588 83,042 86,117 92,269 101,495 370,298 469,044 518,417 666,536 691,222 740,595 814,655
26.3 0.415 51,408 65,116 71,971 92,534 95,961 102,815 113,097 420,619 532,785 588,867 757,115 785,156 841,239 925,363
6 5/8 25.2 0.33 55,766 70,637 78,073 100,379 104,097 111,532 122,685 387,466 490,790 542,452 697,438 723,270 774,932 852,425
27.7 0.362 60,191 76,243 84,268 108,345 112,357 120,383 132,421 422,418 535,063 591,385 760,352 788,514 844,836 929,320
DRILL STRING
– 0.5 77,472 98,131 108,461 139,450 144,615 154,944 170,439 567,843 719,268 794,980 1,022,117 1,059,973 1,135,686 1,249,254
– 0.522 79,967 101,291 111,953 143,940 149,271 159,933 175,927 590,230 747,625 826,322 1,062,415 1,101,763 1,180,461 1,298,507
– 0.625 90,745 114,944 127,044 163,342 169,392 181,491 199,640 692,132 876,701 968,985 1,245,838 1,291,980 1,384,264 1,522,691
– 0.75 101,939 129,122 142,714 183,489 190,285 203,877 224,265 809,353 1,025,180 1,133,094 1,456,835 1,510,792 1,618,706 1,780,576
– 0.813 106,846 135,338 149,584 192,322 199,445 213,691 235,060 865,753 1,096,620 1,212,054 1,558,355 1,616,072 1,731,506 1,904,657
Data based on 20% uniform wear on outside diameter.
DS–19
DS–20
Table DS-8: Premium Drill Pipe — Collapse, and Internal Pressure Data
Nom. Nom.
DRILL STRING
Wt. Wall
2 3/8 4.85 0.19 8,522 10,161 10,912 12,891 13,178 13,713 14,407 9,600 12,160 13,440 17,280 17,920 19,200 23,100
6.65 0.28 13,378 16,945 18,729 24,080 24,972 26,756 29,431 14,147 17,920 19,806 25,465 26,408 28,295 34,042
2 7/8 6.85 0.217 7,640 9,017 9,633 11,186 11,399 11,784 12,249 9,057 11,473 12,680 16,303 16,907 18,115 21,794
10.4 0.362 14,223 18,016 19,912 25,602 26,550 28,446 31,291 15,110 19,139 21,153 27,197 28,205 30,219 36,357
3 1/2 13.3 0.368 12,015 15,218 16,820 21,626 22,427 24,029 26,432 12,617 15,982 17,664 22,711 23,552 25,234 30,360
15.5 0.449 14,472 18,331 20,260 26,049 27,014 28,943 31,837 15,394 19,499 21,552 27,710 28,736 30,789 37,043
4 14 0.33 9,012 10,795 11,622 13,836 14,164 14,782 15,603 9,900 12,540 13,860 17,820 18,480 19,800 23,822
15.7 0.38 10,914 13,825 15,190 18,593 19,127 20,162 21,623 11,400 14,440 15,960 20,520 21,280 22,800 27,431
4 1/4 15.4 0.33 8,063 9,565 10,246 12,003 12,252 12,708 13,283 9,318 11,802 13,045 16,772 17,393 18,635 22,421
17.1 0.38 10,302 12,555 13,590 16,461 16,902 17,750 18,924 10,729 13,591 15,021 19,313 20,028 21,459 25,818
4 1/2 16.6 0.337 7,525 8,868 9,467 10,964 11,168 11,533 11,969 8,987 11,383 12,581 16,176 16,775 17,973 21,624
20 0.43 10,975 13,901 15,350 18,806 19,349 20,402 21,892 11,467 14,524 16,053 20,640 21,404 22,933 27,592
Copyright © 2015
5 – 0.3 4,644 5,134 5,290 5,854 5,931 6,054 6,160 7,200 9,120 10,080 12,960 13,440 14,400 17,325
19.5 0.362 7,041 8,241 8,765 10,029 10,192 10,476 10,785 8,688 11,005 12,163 15,638 16,218 17,376 20,906
25.6 0.5 11,458 14,514 16,042 20,510 21,126 22,329 24,048 12,000 15,200 16,800 21,600 22,400 24,000 28,875
5 1/2 21.9 0.361 5,730 6,542 6,865 7,496 7,550 7,612 7,895 7,876 9,977 11,027 14,177 14,703 15,753 18,953
24.7 0.415 7,635 9,011 9,626 11,177 11,390 11,774 12,238 9,055 11,469 12,676 16,298 16,902 18,109 21,788
5 7/8 – 0.32 3,582 4,001 4,191 4,520 4,538 4,546 4,546 6,536 8,279 9,151 11,765 12,201 13,072 15,728
23.4 0.361 4,922 5,495 5,694 6,204 6,296 6,450 6,605 7,374 9,340 10,323 13,273 13,764 14,747 17,743
26.3 0.415 6,699 7,798 8,269 9,368 9,503 9,728 9,949 8,477 10,737 11,867 15,258 15,823 16,953 20,397
6 5/8 25.2 0.33 2,931 3,252 3,353 3,429 3,429 3,429 3,429 5,977 7,571 8,368 10,759 11,158 11,955 14,383
27.7 0.362 3,615 4,029 4,222 4,562 4,582 4,592 4,592 6,557 8,306 9,180 11,803 12,240 13,114 15,778
– 0.5 7,639 9,015 9,631 11,183 11,397 11,781 12,246 9,057 11,472 12,679 16,302 16,906 18,113 21,792
– 0.522 8,286 9,855 10,570 12,435 12,702 13,197 13,830 9,455 11,976 13,237 17,019 17,650 18,910 22,751
– 0.625 10,842 13,733 15,001 18,341 18,863 19,876 21,303 11,321 14,340 15,849 20,377 21,132 22,642 27,241
– 0.75 12,879 16,314 18,031 23,183 24,042 25,759 28,335 13,585 17,208 19,019 24,453 25,358 27,170 32,689
– 0.813 13,887 17,591 19,442 24,997 25,923 27,775 30,552 14,726 18,653 20,616 26,507 27,489 29,452 35,435
Table DS-9: Class 2 Drill Pipe — Torsional and Tensional Data
Nom. Nom.
Wt. Wall
2-3/8 4.85 0.19 3,224 4,083 4,513 5,802 6,017 6,447 7,092 66,686 84,469 93,360 120,035 124,480 133,372 146,709
6.65 0.28 4,130 5,232 5,782 7,434 7,710 8,260 9,086 92,871 117,636 130,019 167,167 173,359 185,742 204,316
2-7/8 6.85 0.217 5,484 6,946 7,677 9,871 10,236 10,967 12,064 92,801 117,548 129,922 167,043 173,229 185,603 204,163
10.4 0.362 7,591 9,615 10,627 13,663 14,169 15,181 16,699 143,557 181,839 200,980 258,403 267,973 287,114 315,825
3-1/2 13.3 0.368 12,365 15,663 17,312 22,258 23,082 24,731 27,204 183,398 232,304 256,757 330,116 342,342 366,795 403,475
15.5 0.449 13,828 17,515 19,359 24,890 25,812 27,655 30,421 215,967 273,558 302,354 388,741 403,139 431,934 475,128
4 14 0.33 15,738 19,935 22,034 28,329 29,378 31,477 34,624 194,363 246,193 272,108 349,853 362,810 388,725 427,598
15.7 0.38 17,315 21,932 24,241 31,167 32,321 34,629 38,092 219,738 278,334 307,633 395,528 410,177 439,476 483,423
4 1/4 15.4 0.33 18,082 22,903 25,314 32,547 33,752 36,163 39,779 207,970 263,428 291,158 374,346 388,210 415,939 457,533
17.1 0.38 19,951 25,271 27,932 35,912 37,242 39,902 43,892 235,406 298,182 329,569 423,732 439,425 470,813 517,894
4-1/2 16.6 0.337 20,908 26,483 29,271 37,634 39,028 41,816 45,997 225,771 285,977 316,080 406,388 421,439 451,542 496,696
20 0.43 24,747 31,346 34,645 44,544 46,194 49,494 54,443 279,501 354,035 391,302 503,103 521,736 559,003 614,903
5 – 0.3 24,230 30,691 33,922 43,614 45,229 48,460 53,306 228,103 288,931 319,344 410,586 425,793 456,206 501,827
19.5 0.362 27,976 35,436 39,166 50,356 52,221 55,951 61,547 270,432 342,547 378,605 486,778 504,807 540,864 594,951
Copyright © 2015
25.6 0.5 34,948 44,267 48,927 62,906 65,236 69,895 76,885 358,731 454,392 502,223 645,715 669,630 717,461 789,207
5-1/2 21.9 0.361 34,582 43,804 48,415 62,247 64,553 69,164 76,080 299,533 379,409 419,346 539,160 559,128 599,066 658,973
24.7 0.415 38,384 48,619 53,737 69,090 71,649 76,767 84,444 339,534 430,076 475,347 611,160 633,796 679,067 746,974
5-7/8 – 0.32 36,385 46,087 50,938 65,492 67,918 72,769 80,046 288,119 364,951 403,367 518,615 537,823 576,238 633,862
23.4 0.361 40,049 50,729 56,069 72,088 74,758 80,098 88,108 321,861 407,691 450,605 579,350 600,807 643,722 708,094
26.3 0.415 44,559 56,441 62,382 80,206 83,177 89,118 98,030 365,201 462,588 511,282 657,362 681,709 730,403 803,443
6-5/8 25.2 0.33 48,497 61,430 67,896 87,295 90,528 96,995 106,694 337,236 427,166 472,131 607,026 629,508 674,473 741,920
27.7 0.362 52,308 66,257 73,231 94,154 97,641 104,616 115,077 367,454 465,442 514,436 661,418 685,915 734,909 808,400
DRILL STRING
– 0.5 67,094 84,986 93,932 120,770 125,243 134,189 147,608 492,739 624,136 689,835 886,931 919,780 985,478 1,084,026
– 0.522 69,214 87,671 96,899 124,585 129,199 138,427 152,270 511,957 648,479 716,740 921,523 955,654 1,023,915 1,126,306
– 0.625 78,310 99,193 109,634 140,958 146,179 156,620 172,282 599,173 758,952 838,842 1,078,511 1,118,456 1,198,346 1,318,180
– 0.75 87,615 110,979 122,661 157,707 163,548 175,230 192,753 698,906 885,281 978,469 1,258,031 1,304,625 1,397,812 1,537,594
– 0.813 91,628 116,063 128,280 164,931 171,040 183,257 201,582 746,632 945,734 1,045,285 1,343,938 1,393,714 1,493,265 1,642,591
DS–21
DS–22
Table DS-10: Class 2 Drill Pipe — Collapse, and Internal Pressure Data
Nom. Nom.
DRILL STRING
Wt. Wall
2 3/8 4.85 0.19 6,852 7,996 8,491 9,664 9,812 10,063 10,324 8,400 10,640 11,760 15,120 15,680 16,800 18,480
6.65 0.28 12,138 15,375 16,993 21,849 22,658 24,276 26,704 12,379 15,680 17,331 22,282 23,107 24,758 27,234
2 7/8 6.85 0.217 6,055 6,963 7,335 8,123 8,204 8,320 8,413 7,925 10,039 11,095 14,265 14,794 15,850 17,435
10.4 0.362 12,938 16,388 18,113 23,288 24,151 25,876 28,463 13,221 16,746 18,509 23,798 24,679 26,442 29,086
3 1/2 13.3 0.368 10,858 13,753 15,042 18,396 18,921 19,938 21,373 11,040 13,984 15,456 19,872 20,608 22,080 24,288
15.5 0.449 13,174 16,686 18,443 23,712 24,591 26,347 28,982 13,470 17,062 18,858 24,246 25,144 26,940 29,634
4 14 0.33 7,295 8,570 9,134 10,520 10,704 11,031 11,407 8,663 10,973 12,128 15,593 16,170 17,325 19,058
15.7 0.38 9,531 11,468 12,374 14,840 15,211 15,917 16,873 9,975 12,635 13,965 17,955 18,620 19,950 21,945
4 1/4 15.4 0.33 6,437 7,458 7,889 8,861 8,974 9,155 9,308 8,153 10,327 11,414 14,675 15,219 16,306 17,936
17.1 0.38 8,527 10,167 10,919 12,900 13,188 13,723 14,418 9,388 11,892 13,144 16,899 17,525 18,776 20,654
4 1/2 16.6 0.337 5,951 6,828 7,185 7,923 7,995 8,094 8,248 7,863 9,960 11,009 14,154 14,678 15,727 17,299
20 0.43 9,631 11,598 12,520 15,033 15,413 16,135 17,118 10,033 12,709 14,047 18,060 18,729 20,067 22,073
Copyright © 2015
5 – 0.3 3,365 3,812 3,980 4,239 4,245 4,245 4,245 6,300 7,980 8,820 11,340 11,760 12,600 13,860
19.5 0.362 5,514 6,262 6,552 7,079 7,115 7,293 7,550 7,602 9,629 10,643 13,684 14,190 15,204 16,724
25.6 0.5 10,338 12,640 13,685 16,587 17,034 17,893 19,084 10,500 13,300 14,700 18,900 19,600 21,000 23,100
5 1/2 21.9 0.361 4,334 4,733 4,899 5,465 5,525 5,613 5,666 6,892 8,730 9,649 12,405 12,865 13,784 15,162
24.7 0.415 6,050 6,957 7,329 8,115 8,196 8,311 8,407 7,923 10,035 11,092 14,261 14,789 15,845 17,430
5 7/8 – 0.32 2,745 3,012 3,085 3,116 3,116 3,116 3,116 5,719 7,244 8,007 10,294 10,676 11,438 12,582
23.4 0.361 3,608 4,023 4,215 4,553 4,572 4,582 4,582 6,452 8,172 9,033 11,613 12,044 12,904 14,194
26.3 0.415 5,206 5,863 6,105 6,561 6,669 6,854 7,058 7,417 9,395 10,384 13,351 13,845 14,834 16,317
6 5/8 25.2 0.33 2,227 2,343 2,346 2,346 2,346 2,346 2,346 5,230 6,625 7,322 9,414 9,763 10,460 11,506
27.7 0.362 2,765 3,037 3,113 3,148 3,148 3,148 3,148 5,737 7,267 8,032 10,327 10,710 11,475 12,622
– 0.5 6,053 6,961 7,334 8,121 8,202 8,318 8,411 7,925 10,038 11,094 14,264 14,792 15,849 17,434
– 0.522 6,639 7,720 8,182 9,252 9,381 9,597 9,802 8,273 10,479 11,582 14,892 15,443 16,546 18,201
– 0.625 9,412 11,314 12,202 14,610 14,971 15,656 16,582 9,906 12,547 13,868 17,830 18,491 19,811 21,792
– 0.75 11,669 14,780 16,336 21,004 21,782 23,173 24,993 11,887 15,057 16,642 21,396 22,189 23,774 26,151
– 0.813 12,620 15,985 17,667 22,715 23,557 25,239 27,763 12,885 16,321 18,039 23,194 24,053 25,771 28,348
Table DS-11: Dimensional data—rotary shouldered connections.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Size OD Nominal Plain End Weight* Wall Thickness ID Section Area Polar Sectional Sectional
Weight Threads Body of Pipe** Modulus *** Modulus
& Couplings
in. lb/ft lb/ft in. in. sq in. cu in. cu in.
D d A Z I/C
2 3/8 4.85 4.43 0.190 1.995 1.3042 1.321 0.66
6.65 6.26 0.280 1.815 1.8429 1.733 0.87
2 7/8 6.85 6.16 0.217 2.441 1.8120 2.241 1.12
10.40 9.72 0.362 2.151 2.8579 3.204 1.60
3 1/2 13.30 12.31 0.368 2.764 3.6209 5.144 2.57
15.50 14.63 0.449 2.602 4.3037 5.847 2.92
4 14.00 12.93 0.330 3.340 3.8048 6.458 3.23
15.70 14.69 0.380 3.240 4.3216 7.157 3.58
4 1/4 15.40 13.82 0.330 3.590 4.0640 7.399 3.70
17.10 15.71 0.380 3.490 4.6200 8.219 4.11
5 16.25 15.06 0.300 4.400 4.4296 9.825 4.91
19.50 17.93 0.362 4.276 5.2746 11.415 5.71
25.60 24.03 0.500 4.000 7.0686 14.491 7.25
5 1/2 21.90 19.81 0.361 4.778 5.8282 14.062 7.03
24.70 22.54 0.415 4.670 6.6296 15.688 7.84
5 7/8 – 18.99 0.320 5.235 5.5845 14.715 7.36
23.40 21.26 0.361 5.153 6.2535 16.251 8.13
26.30 24.20 0.415 5.045 7.1185 18.165 9.08
6 5/8 25.20 22.19 0.330 5.965 6.5262 19.572 9.79
27.70 24.21 0.362 5.901 7.1226 21.156 10.58
* lb/ ft = 3.3996 x A (col. 6)

** A = π / 4 x (D2 - d2)
*** Z = π / 16 x (D4 - d4) / D
NOTE: Table is based on API RP7G, 16th ed, Table 1

Table DS-12: Dimensional data—rotary shouldered connections.

Ctbr Major
Pitch Thds/ Bevel Depth Pin Flat Small
Size Type O.D. I.D. Taper Form Ctbr dia. depth cone
dia. in. dia.1 of length dia. dia.
box dia.
D d C D R Q C L QC L BC L PC D L D LF D S
2 3/8 PAC 2 7/8 1 3/8 2.203 4 1 1/2 V-076 2 45/64 2 13/32 3/8 3 2 3/8 2.366 2.318 2.069
SH 2 7/8 1 1/4 2.230 4 2 V-038R 2 25/32 2 1/2 5/8 3 1/2 2 7/8 2.438 2.328 1.959
NC23 3 1/8 1 1/4 2.355 4 2 V-038R 3 2 5/8 5/8 3 5/8 3 2.563 2.437 2.063
REG. 3 1/8 1 2.365 5 3 V-040 3 1/64 2 11/16 5/8 3 5/8 3 2.625 2.515 1.875
SL H90 3 1/4 1 13/16 2.578 3 1 1/4 90-V-084 3 1/8 2 49/64 5/8 3 7/16 2 13/16 2.725 2.672 2.432
OH LW 3 1/8 2 2.588 4 1 1/2 V-076 3 2 51/64 5/8 3 2 3/8 2.751 2.656 2.454
OH SW 3 1/4 1 3/4 2.588 4 1 1/2 V-076 3 9/64 2 51/64 5/8 3 2 3/8 2.751 2.656 2.454
WO 3 1/8 2 2.605 4 2 V-038R 3 1/16 2 55/64 5/8 3 2 3/8 2.813 2.703 2.417
NC26 3 3/8 1 3/4 2.668 4 2 V-038R 3 17/64 2 15/16 5/8 3 5/8 3 2.876 2.750 2.376
2 7/8 PAC 3 1/8 1 1/2 2.369 4 1 1/2 V-076 3 2 37/64 3/8 3 2 3/8 2.532 2.437 2.235
SH 3 3/8 1 3/4 2.668 4 2 V-038R 3 17/64 2 15/16 5/8 3 5/8 3 2.876 2.750 2.376
REG. 3 3/4 1 1/4 2.740 5 3 V-040 3 17/64 3 1/16 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 3.000 2.890 2.125
OH LW 3 3/4 2 7/16 2.984 4 1 1/2 V-076 3 39/64 3 13/64 5/8 3 1/8 2 1/2 3.147 3.047 2.834
OH SW 3 7/8 2 5/32 2.984 4 1 1/2 V-076 3 39/64 3 13/64 5/8 3 1/2 2 7/8 3.147 3.047 2.787
SL H90 4 1/8 2.151 3.049 3 1 1/4 90-V-084 3 29/32 3 15/64 5/8 3 9/16 2 15/16 3.196 3.157 2.890
XH 4 1/4 1 7/8 3.119 4 2 V-038R 4 1/32 3 23/64 5/8 4 5/8 4 3.327 3.217 2.660
WO 4 1/8 2 7/16 3.121 4 2 V-038R 3 5/8 3 3/8 5/8 3 5/8 3 3.329 3.217 2.829
NC31 4 1/8 2 1/8 3.183 4 2 V-038R 3 61/64 3 29/64 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 3.391 3.266 2.808
FH 4 1/4 2 1/8 3.365 5 3 V-040 4 7/64 3 11/16 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 3.625 3.453 2.750
3 1/2 PAC 3 3/4 2 2.884 4 1 1/2 V-076 3 19/32 3 7/64 3/8 3 7/8 3 1/4 3.047 3.000 2.641
SH 4 1/8 2 1/8 3.183 4 2 V-038R 3 61/64 3 29/64 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 3.391 3.266 2.808
REG. 4 1/4 1 1/2 3.240 5 3 V-040 4 5/64 3 9/16 5/8 4 3/8 3 3/4 3.500 3.390 2.562
XH 4 3/4 2 7/16 3.604 4 2 V-038R 4 17/32 3 7/8 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 3.812 3.702 2.229
SL H90 4 3/4 2 11/16 3.688 3 1 1/4 90-V-084 4 7/16 3 7/8 5/8 3 13/16 3 3/16 3.835 3.780 3.503
OH LW 4 1/2 3 3.728 4 1 1/2 V-076 4 23/64 3 61/64 5/8 3 7/8 3 1/4 3.891 3.797 3.485
OH SW 4 3/4 2 11/16 3.728 4 1 1/2 V-076 4 23/64 3 61/64 5/8 3 7/8 3 1/4 3.891 3.797 3.485
FH 4 5/8 2 7/16 3.734 5 3 V-040 4 31/64 4 3/64 5/8 4 3/8 3 3/4 3.994 3.884 3.056
NC38 4 3/4 2 11/16 3.808 4 2 V-038R 4 17/64 4 5/64 5/8 4 5/8 4 4.016 3.891 3.349
WO 4 3/4 3 3.808 4 2 V-038R 4 37/64 4 5/64 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 4.016 3.906 3.433
H90 5 1/4 2 3/4 3.929 3 1/2 2 90-V-050 4 63/64 4 3/16 5/8 4 5/8 4 4.125 4.052 3.458
NC35 4 3/4 2 11/16 3.531 4 2 V-038R 4 33/64 3 13/16 5/8 4 3/8 3 3/4 3.739 3.625 3.114
4 SH 4 5/8 2 9/16 3.604 4 2 V-038R 4 13/32 3 7/8 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 3.812 3.703 3.229
NC40 5 1/4 2 13/16 4.072 4 2 V-038R 5 1/64 4 11/32 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 4.280 4.156 3.530
H90 5 1/2 2 13/16 4.304 3 1/2 2 90-V-050 5 17/64 4 9/16 5/8 4 7/8 4 1/4 4.500 4.313 3.792
OH LW 5 1/4 3 15/32 4.416 4 1 1/2 V-076 5 3/16 4 41/64 5/8 4 1/8 3 1/2 4.579 4.484 4.141
OH SW 5 1/2 3 1/4 4.416 4 1 1/2 V-076 5 9/32 4 41/64 5/8 4 5/8 4 4.579 4.484 4.079
NC44 6 2 1/4 4.417 4 2 V-038R 5 11/16 4 11/16 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 4.625 4.499 3.875
NC46 6 1/4 3 1/4 4.626 4 2 V-038R 5 17/32 4 29/32 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 4.834 4.709 4.084
WO 5 3/4 3 7/16 4.626 4 2 V-038R 5 17/32 4 29/32 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 4.834 4.709 4.084
4 1/2 SH 5 2 11/16 3.808 4 2 V-038R 4 37/64 4 5/64 5/8 4 5/8 4 4.016 3.906 3.433
REG. 5 1/2 2 1/4 4.365 5 3 V-040 5 19/64 4 11/16 5/8 4 7/8 4 1/4 4.625 4.515 3.562
FH 6 3 4.532 5 3 V-040 5 17/32 4 7/8 5/8 4 5/8 4 4.792 4.682 3.792
NC46 6 1/4 3 1/4 4.626 4 2 V-038R 5 23/32 4 29/32 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 4.834 4.709 4.084
H90 6 3 1/4 4.638 3 1/2 2 90-V-050 5 23/32 4 57/64 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 4.834 4.709 4.084
OH LW 5 5/8 3 31/32 4.752 4 1 1/2 V-076 5 1/2 4 61/64 5/8 4 3/8 3 3/4 4.915 4.828 4.446
OH SW 5 7/8 3 3/4 4.752 4 1 1/2 V-076 5 9/16 4 61/64 5/8 4 3/8 3 3/4 4.915 4.828 4.446
NC50 6 3/8 3 3/4 5.042 4 2 V-038R 5 19/64 5 5/16 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 5.250 5.135 4.500
WO 6 1/8 3 7/8 5.042 4 2 V-038R 6 1/16 5 5/16 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 5.250 5.135 4.500
5 H90 – – 4.908 3 1/2 2 90-V-050 – 5 11/64 5/8 5 3/8 4 3/4 5.104 4.922 4.313
XH 6 5/8 3 3/4 5.042 4 2 V-038R 6 1/16 5 5/16 5/8 5 1/8 4 1/2 5.250 5.135 4.500
5 1/2 H90 – – 5.179 3 1/2 2 90-V-050 – 5 7/16 5/8 5 3/8 4 3/4 5.375 5.188 4.583
REG. 6 3/4 2 3/4 5.234 4 3 V-050 6 15/32 5 37/64 5/8 5 3/8 4 3/4 5.519 5.410 4.332
FH 7 4 5.591 4 2 V-050 6 23/32 5 29/32 5/8 5 5/8 5 5.825 5.715 4.991
NC56 7 3 3/4 5.616 4 3 V-038R 6 47/64 5 15/16 5/8 5 5/8 5 5.876 5.703 4.626
IF 7 3/8 4 13/16 6.189 4 2 V-038R 7 9/64 6 29/64 5/8 5 5/8 5 6.397 6.281 5.564
6 5/8 REG 7 3/4 3 1/2 5.758 4 2 V-050 7 21/64 6 1/16 5/8 5 5/8 5 5.992 5.882 5.158
H90 – – 5.804 3 1/2 2 90-V-050 – 6 1/16 5/8 5 5/8 5 6.000 5.813 5.167
NC61 8 1/4 3 6.178 4 3 V-038R 7 13/16 6 1/2 5/8 6 1/8 5 1/2 6.438 6.266 5.063
FH 8 5 6.520 4 2 V-050 7 45/64 6 27/32 5/8 5 5/8 5 6.753 6.643 5.920
IF 8 1/2 5 29/32 7.251 4 2 V-038R 8 1/4 7 33/64 5/8 5 5/8 5 7.459 7.344 6.626
7 H90 – – 6.252 3 1/2 3 90-V-050 – 6 9/16 5/8 6 1/8 5 1/2 6.500 6.313 5.125
7 5/8 REG 8 7/8 4 6.715 4 3 V-050 8 7/16 7 3/32 5/8 5 7/8 5 1/4 7.000 6.890 5.688
NC70 9 1/2 3 7.053 4 3 V-038R 8 31/32 7 3/8 5/8 6 5/8 6 7.313 7.141 5.813
H90 – – 7.141 3 1/2 3 90-V-050 – 7 29/64 5/8 6 3/4 6 1/8 7.389 7.202 5.858
8 5/8 REG 10 4 3/4 7.667 4 3 V-050 9 33/64 8 3/64 5/8 6 5 3/8 7.952 7.840 6.608
NC77 10 3 7.741 4 3 V-038R 9 11/32 8 1/16 5/8 7 1/8 6 1/2 8.001 7.828 6.376
H90 – – 8.016 3 1/2 3 90-V-050 – 8 21/64 5/8 7 1/4 6 5/8 8.264 8.077 6.608
1
The bevel diameters on drill stem members may vary.
2
The length of perfect threads in box shall not be less than maximum pin length (LPC), plus ⅛ in.
Note: See Table DS-2 for nomenclature.

Table DS-13: Thread form dimensions.
Sm-Srs
Threads/in. Taper in./ft H hn-hs fcn-fcs P Fcn-Fcs Fm-Frs rm-rrs r
fm-frs
V-055
6 1-1/2 0.144150 0.055930 0.040650 0.047569 0.16667 0.055 0.047 0.015 0.015
NC10 thru NC16
0.038 0.015
V-038R
NC23 thru NC50
2-3/8 thru 4-1/2
4 2 0.216005 0.121844 0.038 0.056161 0.25 0.065
SH & WO,
2-7/8, 3-1/2 XH
5-1/2, 6-5/8 IF
0.038 0.015
NC56 thru NC77 4 3 0.215379 0.121381 0.038 0.055998 0.25 0.065
0.020 0.015
V-040
2-/8 thru 4-1/2 Reg, 5 3 0.172303 0.117842 0.020 0.034461 0.20 0.040
2 7/8 thru 4-1/2 FH
0.025 0.015
V-050
4 2 0.216005 0.147804 0.025 0.043201 0.25 0.050
6-5/8 Reg, 5-1/2, 6-5/8 FH
0.025 0.015
5-1/2, 7-5/8, 8-5/8 Reg 4 3 0.215379 0.147303 0.025 0.043076 0.25 0.050
Copyright © 2015
0.015
V-065 4 2 0.216005 0.111459 0.048385 0.056161 0.25 0.065 0.056
0.030 0.015
H-90 (90-V-050)
3-1/2 2 0.141865 0.100000 0.017043 0.024823 0.025714 0.050 0.034
3-1/2 thru 6-5/8 H-90
0.030 0.015
H-90 (90-V-050)
3-1/2 3 0.140625 0.099280 0.016733 0.024613 0.025714 0.050 0.034
7 thru 8-5/8 H-90
0.030 0.015
SL H-90 (90-V-084) 3 1-1/4 0.166215 0.090000 0.034107 0.042107 0.333333 0.084 0.068
0.015 0.015
V-076
DRILL STRING
4 1-1/2 0.216224 0.092504 0.057948 0.065772 0.25 0.076 0.067
PAC, OH
H Thread height, not truncated

hn-hs Thread height, truncated
Sm-Srs, fm-frs Root truncation
fcn-fcs Crest truncation
Fcn-Fcs Width of flat, crest
Fm-Frs Width of flat, root
rm-rrs Root radius
DS–25
r Crest radius
Table DS-14: Minimum OD * and Recommended Make-Up Torque of Weld-On Type Tool Joints Based on Torsional Strength of Box and Drill Pipe
Drillpipe New Tool Joint Data Premium Class Class 2
DS–26
Min Box Make-Up Min Box Make-Up
Nom. Nom. Make-Up Min OD Min OD
Upset Grade Conn OD ID Shoulder, Torque for Min Shoulder, Torque for Min
Size Wt. Torque Tool Joint Tool Joint
Eccentric Wear OD Tool Joint Eccentric Wear OD Tool Joint
in. lb/ft in. in. ft-lbs in. in. ft-lb in. in. ft-lb
2 7/8 10.40 EU E-75 NC31 4 1/8 2 1/8 7,070 3 27/32 5/32 4,970 3 27/32 5/32 4,970
DRILL STRING
2 7/8 10.40 EU E-75 NC31 4 1/8 2 7,890 3 27/32 5/32 4,970 3 27/32 5/32 4,970
2 7/8 10.40 IU X-95 NC26 3 3/8 1 3/4 4,130 3 3/8 11/64 4,130 3 3/8 11/64 4,130
2 7/8 10.40 EU X-95 NC31 4 1/8 2 7,890 3 29/32 3/16 5,730 3 27/32 5/32 4,970
2 7/8 10.40 EU G-105 NC31 4 1/8 2 7,890 3 15/16 13/64 6,110 3 7/8 11/64 5,350
2 7/8 10.40 IU S-135 2 7/8 PAC 3 1/8 1 1/2 3,420 3 1/8 15/64 3,420 3 1/8 15/64 3,420
2 7/8 10.40 EU S-135 NC31 4 3/8 1 5/8 10,100 4 1/16 17/64 7,690 4 15/64 6,890
3 1/2 13.30 EU E-75 NC38 4 3/4 2 11/16 10,800 4 1/2 11/64 7,270 4 15/32 5/32 6,770
3 1/2 13.30 EU X-95 NC38 5 2 9/16 12,100 4 19/32 7/32 8,820 4 17/32 3/16 7,790
3 1/2 13.30 EU X-95 NC40 5 1/4 2 9/16 16,600 4 27/32 13/64 9,600 4 27/32 13/64 9,600
3 1/2 13.30 EU G-105 NC38 5 2 1/8 15,900 4 21/32 1/4 9,880 4 19/32 7/32 8,820
3 1/2 13.30 EU G-105 NC40 5 1/4 2 9/16 16,600 4 7/8 7/32 10,200 4 27/32 13/64 9,600
3 1/2 13.30 EU S-135 NC38 5 2 1/8 15,900 4 13/16 21/64 12,600 4 23/32 9/32 11,000
3 1/2 13.30 EU S-135 NC40 5 1/4 2 9/16 16,600 5 9/32 12,600 4 29/32 15/64 10,800
Copyright © 2015
3 1/2 15.50 EU E-75 NC38 5 2 9/16 12,100 4 17/32 3/16 7,790 4 15/32 5/32 6,770
3 1/2 15.50 EU X-95 NC38 5 2 7/16 13,200 4 21/32 1/4 9,880 4 19/32 7/32 8,820
3 1/2 15.50 EU X-95 NC40 5 1/4 2 9/16 16,600 4 7/8 7/32 10,200 4 27/32 13/64 9,600
3 1/2 15.50 EU G-105 NC38 5 2 1/8 15,900 4 23/32 9/32 11,000 4 5/8 15/64 9,350
3 1/2 15.50 EU G-105 NC40 5 1/4 2 9/16 16,600 4 15/16 1/4 11,400 4 27/32 13/64 9,600
3 1/2 15.50 EU S-135 NC40 5 1/2 2 1/4 19,600 5 3/32 21/64 14,400 4 31/32 17/64 12,000
4 14.00 IU E-75 NC38 5 2 7/16 13,200 4 19/32 7/32 8,820 4 17/32 3/16 7,790
4 14.00 IU E-75 NC40 5 1/4 2 11/16 15,300 4 27/32 13/64 9,600 4 27/32 13/64 9,600
4 14.00 IU X-95 NC38 5 2 7/16 13,200 4 3/4 19/64 11,500 4 21/32 1/4 9,880
4 14.00 IU X-95 NC40 5 1/4 2 11/16 15,300 4 15/16 1/4 11,400 4 27/32 13/64 9,600
4 14.00 EU X-95 NC46 6 3 1/4 19,900 5 13/32 13/64 12,100 5 13/32 13/64 12,100
4 14.00 IU G-105 NC40 5 1/2 2 7/16 17,900 5 9/32 12,600 4 29/32 15/64 10,800
4 14.00 EU G-105 NC46 6 3 1/4 19,900 5 7/16 7/32 12,800 5 13/32 13/64 12,100
4 14.00 EU S-135 NC46 6 3 23,400 5 9/16 9/32 15,800 5 1/2 1/4 14,300
4 15.70 IU E-75 NC38 5 2 7/16 13,200 4 21/32 1/4 9,880 4 19/32 7/32 8,820
4 15.70 IU E-75 NC40 5 1/4 2 11/16 15,300 4 7/8 7/32 10,200 4 27/32 13/64 9,600
4 15.70 IU X-95 NC40 5 1/2 2 7/16 17,900 5 9/32 12,600 4 29/32 15/64 10,800
4 15.70 IU G-105 NC40 5 1/2 2 7/16 17,900 5 1/16 5/16 13,800 4 31/32 17/64 12,000
4 15.70 EU G-105 NC46 6 3 23,400 5 15/32 15/64 13,500 5 13/32 13/64 12,100

4 15.70 EU S-135 NC46 6 3 23,400 5 21/32 21/64 18,100 5 17/32 17/64 15,000
4 1/2 16.60 IEU E-75 NC46 6 1/4 3 1/4 19,900 5 13/32 13/64 12,100 5 13/32 13/64 12,100
4 1/2 16.60 EU E-75 NC50 6 3/8 3 3/4 22,400 5 13/16 13/64 14,100 5 13/16 13/64 14,100
4 1/2 16.60 IEU E-75 NC46 6 1/4 3 23,400 5 13/32 13/64 12,100 5 13/32 13/64 12,100
4 1/2 16.60 EU X-95 NC50 6 3/8 3 3/4 22,400 5 27/32 7/32 14,900 5 13/16 13/64 14,100
4 1/2 16.60 EU X-95 NC50 6 5/8 3 3/4 22,400 5 27/32 7/32 14,900 5 13/16 13/64 14,100
4 1/2 16.60 IEU X-95 NC46 6 1/4 3 23,400 5 17/32 17/64 15,000 5 7/16 7/32 12,800
4 1/2 16.60 EU G-105 NC50 6 3/8 3 3/4 22,400 5 29/32 1/4 16,600 5 13/16 13/64 14,100
4 1/2 16.60 IEU G-105 NC46 6 1/4 3 23,400 5 19/32 19/64 16,500 5 1/2 1/4 14,300
4 1/2 16.60 IEU S-135 NC46 6 1/4 2 3/4 26,600 5 25/32 25/64 21,200 5 21/32 21/64 18,100
4 1/2 16.60 EU S-135 NC50 6 5/8 3 1/2 26,700 6 1/16 21/64 21,000 5 31/32 9/32 18,400
4 1/2 20.00 EU E-75 NC50 6 3/8 3 3/4 22,400 5 13/16 13/64 14,100 5 13/16 13/64 14,100
4 1/2 20.00 IEU E-75 NC46 6 1/4 3 23,400 5 1/2 1/4 14,300 5 13/32 13/64 12,100
4 1/2 20.00 IEU X-95 NC46 6 1/4 2 3/4 26,600 5 21/32 21/64 18,100 5 9/16 9/32 15,800
4 1/2 20.00 EU X-95 NC50 6 3/8 3 1/2 26,700 5 15/16 17/64 17,500 5 7/8 15/64 15,800
Copyright © 2015
4 1/2 20.00 EU G-105 NC50 6 5/8 3 1/4 30,700 6 1/32 5/16 20,100 5 29/32 1/4 16,600
4 1/2 20.00 IEU S-135 NC46 6 1/4 2 3/4 26,600 5 15/16 15/32 25,300 5 13/16 13/32 22,000
4 1/2 20.00 EU S-135 NC50 6 5/8 3 34,500 6 7/32 13/32 25,600 6 3/32 11/32 21,900
5 19.50 IEU E-75 NC50 6 3/8 3 1/2 26,700 5 7/8 15/64 15,800 5 13/16 13/64 14,100
5 19.50 IEU X-95 NC50 6 3/8 3 1/2 26,700 6 1/32 5/16 20,100 5 15/16 17/64 17,500
5 19.50 IEU X-95 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 3/4 38,500 6 1/2 1/4 20,200 6 13/32 13/64 17,100
5 19.50 IEU G-105 NC50 6 5/8 3 1/4 30,700 6 3/32 11/32 21,900 6 19/64 19,200
5 19.50 IEU G-105 5 1/2 FH 7 4 33,400 6 9/16 9/32 22,300 6 15/32 15/64 19,200
DRILL STRING
5 19.50 IEU S-135 NC50 6 5/8 2 3/4 38,000 6 5/16 29/64 28,400 6 3/16 25/64 24,600
5 19.50 IEU S-135 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 1/2 43,300 6 3/4 3/8 28,700 6 5/8 5/16 24,400
5 25.60 IEU E-75 NC50 6 3/8 3 1/2 26,700 6 1/32 5/16 20,100 5 15/16 17/64 17,500
5 25.60 IEU E-75 5 1/2 FH 7 3 3/4 37,700 6 1/2 1/4 20,200 6 13/32 13/64 17,100
5 25.60 IEU X-95 NC50 6 5/8 3 34,500 6 7/32 13/32 25,600 6 3/32 11/32 21,900
5 25.60 IEU X-95 5 1/2 FH 7 3 1/2 37,700 6 21/32 21/64 25,500 6 9/16 9/32 22,300
5 25.60 IEU G-105 NC50 6 5/8 2 3/4 38,000 6 9/32 7/16 27,400 6 5/32 3/8 23,700
DS–27
5 25.60 IEU G-105 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 1/2 43,300 6 23/32 23/64 27,600 6 5/8 5/16 24,400
5 25.60 IEU S-135 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 1/4 47,200 6 15/16 15/32 35,400 6 13/16 13/32 30,900
5 1/2 21.90 IEU E-75 5 1/2 FH 7 4 33,400 6 15/32 15/64 19,200 6 13/32 13/64 17,100
DS–28
DRILL STRING
5 1/2 21.90 IEU X-95 5 1/2 FH 7 3 3/4 37,700 6 5/8 5/16 24,400 6 17/32 17/64 21,200
5 1/2 21.90 IEU G-105 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 1/2 43,300 6 23/32 23/64 27,600 6 19/32 19/64 23,300
5 1/2 21.90 IEU S-135 5 1/2 FH 7 1/2 3 52,100 6 15/16 15/32 35,400 6 13/16 13/32 30,900
5 1/2 24.70 IEU E-75 5 1/2 FH 7 4 33,400 6 9/16 9/32 22,300 6 15/32 15/64 19,200
5 1/2 24.70 IEU X-95 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 1/2 43,300 6 23/32 23/64 27,600 6 19/32 19/64 23,300
5 1/2 24.70 IEU G-105 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 1/2 43,300 6 25/32 25/64 29,800 6 11/16 11/32 26,600
5 1/2 24.70 IEU S-135 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 3 1/2 43,300 7 1/32 33/64 38,900 6 7/8 7/16 33,200
6 5/8 25.20 IEU E-75 6 5/8 FH 8 5 43,900 7 7/16 1/4 26,800 7 3/8 7/32 24,100
6 5/8 25.20 IEU X-95 6 5/8 FH 8 5 43,900 7 5/8 11/32 35,100 7 1/2 9/32 29,600
6 5/8 25.20 IEU G-105 6 5/8 FH 8 1/4 4 3/4 51,300 7 11/16 3/8 38,000 7 19/32 21/64 33,700
Copyright © 2015
6 5/8 25.20 IEU S-135 6 5/8 FH 8 1/2 4 1/4 65,000 7 29/32 31/64 48,200 7 25/32 27/64 42,300
6 5/8 27.70 IEU E-75 6 5/8 FH 8 5 43,900 7 1/2 9/32 29,600 7 13/32 15/64 25,500
6 5/8 27.70 IEU X-95 6 5/8 FH 8 1/4 4 3/4 51,300 7 11/16 3/8 38,000 7 9/16 5/16 32,300
6 5/8 27.70 IEU G-105 6 5/8 FH 8 1/4 4 3/4 51,300 7 3/4 13/32 40,900 7 21/32 23/64 36,600
6 5/8 27.70 IEU S-135 6 5/8 FH 8 1/2 4 1/4 65,000 8 17/32 52,700 7 27/32 29/64 45,200
6 5/8 - IEU S-135 6 5/8 FH 8 1/2 4 1/4 65,000 8 1/2 25/32 65,000 8 5/32 39/64 60,400
6 5/8 - IEU S-135 6 5/8 FH 8 1/2 4 1/4 65,000 8 1/2 25/32 65,000 8 1/2 25/32 65,000
6 5/8 - IEU S-135 6 5/8 FH 8 1/2 4 1/4 65,000 8 1/2 25/32 65,000 8 1/2 25/32 65,000
6 5/8 - IEU S-135 6 5/8 FH 8 1/2 4 1/4 65,000 8 1/2 25/32 65,000 8 1/2 25/32 65,000
* Tool joint diameters specified are required to retain torsional strength in the tool joint
comparable to the torsional strength of the attached drillpipe. These should be adequate
for all service. Tool joints with torsional strengths considerably below that of the drillpipe
may be adequate for much drilling service.
Operations and applications Tool Joint Box

Upset (internal)
Drillpipe problems Weld zone
As a rule, tool joints are weaker in torsion than the tubes to
which they are attached. Input torque while drilling should
be limited to 80% of tool joint make-up torque. The stick/
slip action of PDC bits makes this a difficult rule to follow.
In critical situations, measure breakout torque frequently.
Breakout should be 80% to 90% of make-up torque. If there
are connections above this level, back off on operating con- Pipe body
ditions (bit weights and rotary speeds).
Pay close attention to thread compound and recommended

make-up torques. Never use API TUBING COMPOUND or
API MODIFIED on tool joints. Their effect is to weaken the
connection and cause it to fail at a lower torque value.
Know the OD/ID of every connection that goes in the hole

and also the shoulder-to-shoulder length and grade of the Weld zone
Upset (internal)
tubular member.
Tool Joint Pin
Should a tubular failure occur while drilling, ask that all usu-
al and unusual operating conditions be noted. Call the most
reputable fishing tool professional, and provide him with this Figure DS-23 showing basic components of the drillpipe.
information. Make the top half of the failure available as is.
Place a value on the components of the fish in the hole and • Watch for excess resistance during make-up and break-
the cost of drilling the hole below the failure. Set a limit on out. Galling, cross threading, and crest to crest make-
time to spend on recovery of the fish. up can cause excess resistance during make-up. Galling
or downhole make-up can cause high breakout torques.
Breaking in new tool joints Breakout torques over 90% of make-up are warning
Specific recommendations concerning cleaning, inspection, flags. Galling occurs more often on new or recut
make-up, handling, etc., are extremely important through- threads. See Figure DS-23;
out the life of tool joints. In addition, there are extremely • Alternate breaks on every trip and continue to stab
important factors to consider during the break-in period of carefully, make-up slowly, and tong to full make-up
new joints. The newly machined surfaces are more apt to using both sets of tongs;
gall than those which have had some use. After some ser- • Avoid high torque situations with new tool joints until
vice, the surfaces undergo certain changes which offer more they have received a good breaking in.
resistance to galling. Therefore, the initial make-up and first
few trips are the most critical time, and extra care is essen- Tripping
tial to give longer trouble-free service.
»» Lowering the elevators
The following steps should be specifically observed on new Box shoulder may be badly damaged if struck by elevators
joints: or hook. See Figure DS-70. Severe damage can be properly
• Verify recommended make-up torque. Check condition repaired only by reworking the box in the machine shop.
and/or accuracy of all make-up equipment and gauges.
Include saver sub condition in this check; »» Breaking out
• Observe all threads and shoulders for handling damage; When breaking the connection, use both breakout and back-
repair as necessary; up tongs. After breaking the connections, rotate out slowly.
• Coat all threads and shoulders liberally with thread Keep just enough tension on the hook spring to keep mini-
compound containing 50% by weight finely powdered mum pressure on the disengaging threads; but keep enough
metallic zinc and not more than 0.3% sulfur; tension to avoid the end of the pin striking the box shoulder.
• On initial make-up, and for several trips thereafter, stab See Figure DS-24.
carefully, make-up slowly, and tong to full make-up
using both sets of tongs; When lifting the pin from the box, the joint must be pushed

• Alternating breaks
Come out of hole on a different break each trip so that ev-
ery connection can be periodically broken and its condition
observed and torque rechecked. This may prevent wobbles
and leakage failures. Also, excessive breakout torque may
indicate abnormal downhole torque conditions. Check for
damage due to excessive torque.
• Standing back
When standing the pipe back, be sure setback area is clean.
If the desired position of stand is not achieved, do not use
wrench jaw or other sharp-edged tool to jack it into position.
This will cause shoulder damage and lead to an epidemic
Figure DS-24: Indentation by pin end bumping shoulder of shoulder leakage and washouts. Special handling tools,
face may destroy seal, resulting in leaking and washout. as shown in Figure DS-26, are available to minimize such
trouble.
»» Going in the Hole
• Lubrication Practice
Before each joint is added to the string, it should be cleaned
and dried. This includes complete removal of rust preventa-
tives or previously applied tool joint compound. When the
joint is picked up and on each trip, thread compound should
be evenly distributed over pin and box thread and shoulder,
preferably with a round, stiff bristle brush. See Figure DS-27.
Keep compound and brush clean and free from dirt.
• Stabbing
Figure DS-25: Box shoulder will be damaged when struck by Do not allow the ends of the pins to strike the box shoulders.
elevators. Take care that this does not happen during trips. Such damage may be avoided by achieving coordination be-
tween drillers and floormen. See Figure DS-29.
• Spinning Up
Before spinning up pipe, be sure connections are in align-
ment. Don’t rotate pipe too fast; if a joint wobbles and binds,
high speeds can burn threads. The use of kelly spinners
during high-speed drilling operations has become quite
common on broken-in tool joints. This is particularly true in
the high-cost offshore environment. Kelly spinners rotate
the kelly at high rates into the mousehole joint, and sub-
Figure DS-26: Using a recommended type of pipe

jack will reduce damage to pin shoulders.
to the side to prevent the pin from striking the shoulder

when it drops back down. Breakout torque should be 80-
90% of make-up torque. High breakout torque is a warning.
Look for galling and/or thread damage. If neither is found,
downhole make-up may have occurred. Reduce input torque
while drilling. Figure DS-27: Lubricate threads and shoulders every
trip. A round, stiff bristle brush gives best results.
sequently, the mousehole joint, as it enters the joint in the • Make-up and tonging
rotary table. Extra care is necessary to ensure that the con- When making up the connection, use both make-up and
nection is clean and adequately lubricated and that the joint back-up tongs.
does not wobble and bind. After both spinning operations,
the rotary tongs should be used to tighten the joints to the Avoid forced make-up of improperly engaged threads. In stab-
recommended torque. Failure to follow the procedures may bing, flat thread crests on the pin can land opposite similar
increase the likelihood of damage. crests on the box. This results in jamming action, and forced
make-up will cause serious damage. A slight amount of left
hand rotation with tongs will free them. The stand can be lift-
ed, rotated slightly, and stabbed again. See Figure DS-30.
Tonging tool joints properly is the most important single fac-

tor in prevention of tool joint troubles. Table DS-16 gives the
recommended make-up torques for the various sizes, types,
and classes of tool joints. Torque measuring equipment
should always be used to prevent under torque or over torque
of tool joints. Slicker than normal thread compounds can con-
tribute to torsional problems.
• Running in
Refer to “Floor handling procedures” elsewhere in this chapter.
Figure DS-28: Pure thread galling results from lack of
lubricating film. This allows steel surfaces to freeze together. »» Laying down drill string
When laying down the drill string, specific operations should
include:
• Wash tool joints and drill string internally and externally
with clear fresh water. This will remove any salt or other
corrosive agent which might bring about more rapid
deterioration;
• Apply a rust preventive compound to the threads and
shoulders, particularly if drill string is to be stored for
any length of time. Some thread compound
manufacturers have started adding a rust preventive to
their thread compounds;
• Install thread protectors before swinging through “V”
door and onto walk. Keep walk clear—do not allow joint
coming down to hit another joint or other objects on the
walk. Be sure thread protectors are installed tightly on
Figure DS-29: Bumping of box shoulder by end of pin boxes and pins. See Figures DS-33 and DS-34;
while stabbing is a common cause of damage. • Check drill string for straightness and straighten if
needed. When racking, use wood spacers between
layers. Three spacers are desirable—one in the center
and one close to either end and behind the tool joints.
Spacers should be thick enough to keep tool joints
separated when rolling drill string.
»» Damage and failures—cause and prevention
• Visual examination for damage while tripping

• Look for dry or muddy threads (See Figure DS-35);
check for washing and galling: check for worn threads.
Correct any damage and return to service. Be sure to
Figure DS-30: While stabbing, flat thread crests on pin
may land opposite similar crests on box. Forced make- check that proper make-up torque and procedures are
up causes thread damage and possibly galling. being used. Measure breakout torque periodically;

Damage from tongs
Figure DS-34: When laying down pipe, keep

walk clear. Do not allow a joint coming down to
hit another joint or an object on the walk..
Figure DS-31: Shoulders may be damaged when
tongs are allowed to engage the shoulder.
Watch for dry connections
Figure DS-32: Bucking up is one of the most Figure DS-35: Watch for dry connections when making trips
critical rig activities in the life of a tool joint. as they are positive indications that something is wrong.
Figure DS-36: Gall on the shoulder or threads prevents shoulder

Figure DS-33: Install thread protectors before laying down a joint. from sealing, causing washing of shoulder and threads.

Figure DS-37: Connection will not develop maximum

Figure DS-38: Tension due to excessive torque
strength and will lack shoulder support with insufficient
is normally a cup-and-cone-type fracture.
make-up torque. This can cause fatigue failure in the pin.
• Look for galling on threads and shoulders. See Figure of instability, causing a fatigue crack to occur. When fatigue
DS-36. When galling is encountered, check for proper cracks occur or are suspected, a magnetic particle inspec-
thread compound, proper torque, and adequate tion of the pin thread areas should be made. Some of the in-
shoulder areas; dications that a pin could have been subjected to fatigue are:
• Look for wear on tool joints and drill pipe. If eccentric • Galled face and shoulders;
tool joint wear is noticed, check pipe for straightness; • Worn and lapped threads;
• Watch for undercutting of the tool joint in the area of • Galled threads;
the 18° elevator shoulder. Undercutting may be more • Dry or muddy pins;
prevalent on tool joints with hardbanding but may also • Washed, mud-cut faces and shoulders.
occur on tool joints without hardbanding. Check pipe
for straightness. Check operations for critical rotating • Torsion
speed; Torsional failure and torsional damage to joints are both ob-
• While tripping, watch tool joints for evidence of pin vious and obscure, catastrophic and passive.
stretch and box swelling due to over-torquing.
Over-torquing frequently occurs downhole while • Downhole torque
drilling; The most common cause of torsional failure is downhole
• Watch for washouts in drill pipe in the connection area torque. Apparently the worst condition exists when the bot-
of the joint, in the slip area and in the transition tom portion of the drill stem stops rotation or hangs up, and
between the upset and the pipe nominal wall. the upper portion, the drill string, keeps turning due to mo-
mentum or rotational forces from the rotary table or top drive.
• Failures
• Do not allow a descending joint to hit another joint or One of the most common types of torsional failures is ten-
other object on the walk; sile failure of the pin. The fracture surface appearance is
• Watch for mashes, dents, slip cuts and other similar usually the classical cup/cone type failure as illustrated in
damage. These areas are potential areas to originate Figure DS-38.
failures and should be thoroughly investigated before
running in the hole; The concave portion of the fracture surface will be on the
• Fatigue: Most fatigue failures in a tool joint occur in pin dutchman that remains in the box. The convex portion of
the last engaged thread of the pin. This area lies the fracture surface will be on the pin body. This type of fail-
approximately 1 in. from the pin shoulder. ure occurs instantaneously when the connection suddenly
makes up downhole, and the rotation of the pin into the box
The most common cause of fatigue failures is insufficient produces tensile stresses in the last engaged thread area
make-up torque to stabilize the box and pin shoulders and above the strength of the material.
threads. As a result, stress reversals are permitted that ex-
ceed the endurance limit of the material and result in fail- The torque required to produce this type of failure is much
ures. See Figure DS-37. higher than the recommended make-up torque. This type of
failure is common in new drill strings. To reduce the incidence
Mechanical damage and/or galling can also allow conditions of this type of failure, use the recommended make-up for tool

B3-26
Figure DS-42: Excessive torque may result in swelled

and split tool joint box or a stretched pin.
Figure DS-39: Excessive torque may result

in swelled and split tool joint box.
joint and the recommended tool joint thread compound.
• Other obvious forms of torsional failures

On worn tool joints, boxes may bell or split. Sometimes the
belling may be detected by placing a straight edge on the
box and looking for belling. Sometimes the box OD near the
make-up shoulder may be a bright shiny color caused by a
belled box rubbing in the hole while rotating.
Figure DS-39 shows an example of a split box. Figures DS-

40 and DS-41 show examples of belled boxes.
Another problem occurs with tool joints due to torsion. This

is commonly referred to as stretched pins. Stretched pins
may occur along with other types of torsional failures or
they may be the only evidence of over-torquing. The stretch
is produced by the same mechanism as failures caused by
Figure DS-40: A tool joint belled out by excessive downhole torque and torsion. However, the torque is insuf-
torque also has internal distortion. ficient to produce failure, or the torque is removed before
failure occurs, due, perhaps, to the failure of another tool
joint in the string. This type of torsional damage is difficult to
detect, but dangerous because cracks may be present that
will progress to failure if not detected and removed. Alterna-
tively, cracks may develop from the stretched area.
Stretch may be present in varying degrees and may be de-

tected and measured in several ways. The most accurate
method of detecting and measuring pin stretch is with a dial
indicator lead gauge as shown in Figure DS-42. It is recom-
mended that any pin that has more than 0.006 in. stretch
within 2 in. be re-machined.
Stretch may be detected with a thread profile gauge as

shown in Figures DS-42 and DS-43. The amount of stretch
is difficult to determine by this method.
Stretch may sometimes be detected by other means when

Figure DS-41: Excessive torque while drilling may result in a
belled box if the box is the weaker member. Other connections lead and profile gauges are not available. A straight edge
may show a depressed box shoulder and possibly a sheared may be used by putting it on the crest of the threads. If the
three-sided ring with the box shoulder as one side. pin is stretched, the 3rd, 4th, and/or 5th thread crest from

Figure DS-43: Thread profile gauge indicates necking down Figure DS-47:Insufficient make-up torque allows wobbling and
and stretching of thread lead due to excessive torque. produces lapped, sharp, and broken threads, and broken pins.
Figure DS-44: Excessive torque, either downhole or during make- Figure DS-48: Wobble about two opposite high places on
up in rotary table, results in stretched and necked-down pin. shoulder breaks threads on axis and laps those at 90° from axis.
AXIS OF WOBBLE
90° FROM AXIS OF WOBBLE
Figure DS-45: Lapped threads, indicated by ridge on Figure DS-49:Wobble causes threads to break. When
shoulder and thread flank, are evidence of wobbling connection is backed out, the broken threads become fouled.
connection caused from insufficient make-up torque. Such troubles are often incorrectly referred to as galls.
Shoulder is the Channel

only seal
Box
Pin
Figure DS-46: Lapped threads, indicated by ridge on Figure DS-50: The shoulder is the only area of seal in a rotary-
shoulder and thread flank, are evidence of wobbling shouldered connection. Between crest and root, threads have
connection caused from insufficient make-up torque. a clearance which acts as a channel for lubricant and fluid.

the shoulder will not lie in the plane of the thread crest. Day-
light or space will occur between the crest of the thread and
the straight edge. When checking with a straight edge, use cau-
tion that mechanical damage to the threads is not contributing
to the space between thread crest and straight edge.
If the drill string has been plastic coated, an inspection of the

plastic coating in the stretched area may reveal circumferen-
tial cracks in the plastic coating. The circumferential cracks will
coincide with the pin thread roots near the last engaged thread
Figure DS-51: Washing will occur if the connection is not tightened
with tongs and there is complete absence of a shoulder seal. in the pin bore. Usually the pin will be stretched over 0.006” in
2” when cracks occur in plastic coating.
When torsional failures or damages are detected, all pins left

in the string should receive a magnetic particle thread inspec-
tion to detect any cracks that may have occurred in the thread
roots.
• Overtorquing in the rotary table

Although downhole torque might be the major cause of tor-
sional damage and failures, torsional damage can also be ini-
tiated by over-torquing in the rotary table. This is most preva-
lent on tool joints 3 ½ in. and smaller. Using the recommended
make-up torque and proper tool joint thread compound will
minimize torsional damage due to over-torquing.
• Other damage
Watch for lapped and worn threads for indications of wobble.
Insufficient make-up torque allows wobbling and produces
lapped and worn threads that may result in a broken tool joint
pin. See Figures DS-46, DS-47 and DS-48.
In 1980 API established a benchmark: A circle-bar was sten-

ciled ⅛ in. from the sealing shoulder, so all could understand
Figure DS-52: Heat-checking and resulting fractures are revealed how much a shoulder might have been dressed. This was a step
under blacklight. Examine boxes and pins for longitudinal cracks. forward, but an improvement was soon found in a 360° bench-
Box Benchmark
Pin Benchmark 0.125
+0.010
-0.000
0.020 Min. R0.06

0.032 Max.
R0.028 Min.
R0.034 Max.
Benchmark dia.
C’bore dia. ± 0.016 ±0.008
R0.031
Bevel from bottom
C’bore dia.
of counterbore
±0.008
+0.000
0.125 -0.010
Cylindrical dia. ±0.016

Benchmark dia.
Cylindrical dia. +0.032 ±0.016
Notes:
1. Pin Benchmark is equal to Cylinder Diameter + 0.032.
2. Box Benchmark is equal to Counterbore Diameter + 0.016.
Figure DS-53: A 360° style benchmark.

mark (Figure DS-53) which was also placed ⅛ in. from the rosion, corrosion fatigue, and sulfide stress cracking (SSC).
sealing shoulder on pins and boxes. This more accurate and See “Sulfide stress cracking” within “Drill Pipe Corrosion”
accommodating benchmark should be used on all new and for a discussion of these effects and how to control them.
recut connections, except when it interferes with a pin-base
relief groove. Repair of tool joints
Sandpaper and a half-inch drill have been used to dress General
some shoulders. While this can be performed successful- The repair of damaged tool joints in the field and in the shop
ly, failure to change the sandpaper frequently has resulted is discussed in subsections B and C respectively. The degree
in shoulders which leaked because they were not flat and of damage is the determining factor in deciding whether it can
square within 0.002 in. be repaired in the field by shoulder dressing tools or by shop
machine work. In either event, the following paragraph re-
Washes on faces can be caused by insufficient make- up garding plug and ring gauges adopted by the API Task Group
torque, galled threads, or stabbing damage. The shoulder on Care and Use of Drill String should be considered:
is the only seal in the tool joint and will not prevent leaking
if the connection is not made up to recommended torque. The API Task Group on Care and Use of Drill String has de-
See Figures DS-50 and DS-51. Washed or damaged tool termined that ring and plug standoffs should not be used
joint faces should be repaired immediately. Be careful of to determine whether to reject or retain a tool joint. This is
the dressing method employed. Make-up shoulders are to because, when plug and ring gauges are used, thread wear,
be flat and square within 0.002 inches. The threads should plastic deformation, mechanical damage, and cleanliness
also be inspected for any damage. can lead to incorrect results.
Heat checking or friction cracking is the result of rapid heat- Smooth sealing shoulders are more critical to tool joint oper-
ing and cooling of the tool joint box or pin OD. A pattern ation than gauge stand off. When refacing tool-joint shoul-
of parallel surface cracks is formed perpendicular to the di- ders, material should be removed only when necessary; i.e.,
rection of rotation. Heating above the critical temperature when it appears necessary to dress the make and break
results from the friction developed between the tool joint shoulder so it will seal again. Not more than 1/32 in. should be
OD and the casing, formation, whipstock, or some other removed at one refacing and not more than 1/16 in. cumula-
object that the tool joint may rub against. Drilling fluid pro- tively. Use the benchmark to control this operation.
vides the environment for the rapid cooling. Figure DS-52
shows a blacklight photograph of a heat-checked tool-joint Field repair of damaged tool joints
box which has progressed to a fracture through the wall. Tool joints found to have slightly damaged shoulders can
Blacklight inspections for longitudinal cracking are needed usually be repaired at the rig with handheld tools. Such dam-
to determine the full extent of the damage. Check boxes and
pins and replace affected material. Heat checking/quench
cracking of tool joints occurs frequently because of doglegs
high in the hole. Arthur Lubinski described this first in 1949
and suggested drill string was in danger when side thrust
reached 2,000 lb/joint. If a high dogleg has occurred, re-
duce the hang-down weight below the dogleg to keep the
side thrust in a safe range, inspect for longitudinal cracks,
and replace affected tool joints.
The kelly saver sub should be cleaned and inspected every

time it is removed from the rat hole and always maintained Figure DS-54: Shoulder dressing tool can repair
in good condition. The saver sub mates with every tool joint galled and scored box shoulders.
box in the string as drilling progresses. If a saver sub is dam-
aged, it should be repaired or replaced immediately. For this
reason, a spare sub in good condition should be kept on the age includes slight crowning of the shoulders due to wobble,
rig at all times. Follow recommended break-in practices slight leakage dents or upsets, fins and galls. Where shoul-
when a newly threaded saver sub is placed in service. Al- ders are obviously damaged, as those in Figure DS-54, re-
ways keep the rathole as clean as possible. pairs shouldbe made. In checking over a string of tool joints
all the shoulders not obviously in need of repairs should be
Damage to and failure of tool joints can be caused by cor- checked for flatness with the test ring as shown in Figure

• Thread angles must be maintained and the threads must

be normal to the axis of the connection;
• A radius at the shoulder of the pin connections must be
maintained to specification;
• Specified perfect thread lengths must be maintained;
• All dimensions such as counterbore diameter and
length, pin thread length, shoulder bevel diameter, etc.,
shall be checked against specification drawings;
• All newly-machined threads and shoulders should be
treated to protect against galling during the break-in
Figure DS-55: Shoulder dressing tool can repair period. A phosphate coating is the usual treatment;
galled and scored box shoulders. • All connections shall be properly greased and thread
protectors installed immediately after inspection;
DS-55. • Contact manufacturers for thread and dimensional data
on non-API connections.
Shoulders must be faced flat and square with the threads.
Threads must be deburred and checked with a thread profile O-ring use
gauge before facing. Several years ago, two major operators were testing very
high-pressure drilling methods, and they requested tool
Before using the test ring, be sure the shoulders and the ring joints that could hold 10,000 psi. Two tool-joint manufac-
are clean and dry. Hold the ring, which is flat itself, against turers conducted tests and provided O-ring tool joints that
the shoulder by applying pressure with the fingers at two performed well. Later reports said some pressures ran as
diametrically opposed points, as shown in Figure DS-55 and high as 14,000 psi.
attempt to make it rock. Repeat at points 90° from the first
points of pressure. If the ring rocks at all, the shoulder is ei- The efforts of one manufacturer required special grooves on
ther rough or crowned and it should be faced off flat with a the tool joints’ pin base and box counterbore. (API toleranc-
shoulder dressing tool. es on these two areas are not suitable for the proper fit and
squeeze on an O-ring.)
API specifications require the makeup shoulders on tool
joints to be flat and square within 0.002 in., as related to the The first user reported that they opted for an O-ring with a
threads. The preferred method to dress shoulders is with a harder durometer reading than was recommended. They also
mechanical device. Sandpaper discs have not proven effec- found it necessary to limit the amount of thread compound
tive in attaining this tolerance. used on each connection. An overly generous application
was found to force the O-ring between the mating shoulders,
Shop repair of damaged tool joints which damaged the O-ring, rendering it ineffective.
Threads on pins and boxes must be thoroughly cleaned and
buffed. Magnetic particle inspection must be conducted on If an operation calls for considerably higher pump pres-
the pin-box thread roots. If cracks are found, the connection sures, contact your tool-joint manufacturer and ask for its
must be cut off. After machining, the connections must be version of a “proper” O-ring tool joint. Tool joints designed
rechecked for cracks. No cracks should remain in the newly for O-rings can be used as standard tool joints, but standard
cut connections. tool joints should not be expected to serve as high-pressure
O-ring connections.
The thread gauge stand-off must be checked with hardened
and ground gauges to API specifications. A thread-profile Welding procedures for downhole drilling tools
gauge must fit the threads. Further checking of thread lead, Usually the materials used to manufacture downhole drill-
thread taper and thread forms may be indicated. ing equipment (tool joints, drill collars, stabilizers and subs)
are AISI 4135, 4140 or 4145 steels. These alloy steels are
Pay special attention to the following: normally in the heat-treated state. They are only weldable if
• The specified thread root radius must be maintained. proper procedures are implemented to prevent cracking and
Lack of a proper radius in the root of the thread will to recondition welded sections.
result in premature fatigue failures;
• Thread depth and thread crests must be maintained Welded areas can only be reconditioned. They cannot be re-
within specifications to avoid interference when stored to their original state, free of metallurgical damage,
connection is made up; unless a complete heat treatment is conducted after welding.

Figure DS-56: After refacing a box shoulder, the shoulder

should be flat and square with the threads.
Figure DS-58: A groove can be caused by corrosion

Improper Handling Method
of protectors left on pipe in storage.
• Load so that all pin ends are on the same end of the truck
(and conversely, that all box ends are at the other end);
• Space pipe properly to prevent shoulders from chafing
adjacent joints;
• Do not overload truck, boat, or barge;
• Retighten load-binding chains after hauling the load a
short distance. Load settling can loosen the chains.
Recommended Handling Method

(With Thread Protectors in Place) Offshore service vessels
The following are suggestions for loading and securing drill
pipe and casing on offshore vessels:
Figure DS-57: Use proper handling procedureswhen • Thread protectors must be installed on both ends of
loading drill pipe with hooks, slings, etc. pipe before loading begins;
• Place pipe on wooden stringers spaced roughly 10 ft
When welding is mandatory on downhole drilling tools, it apart and shimmed to the same horizontal plane;
is recommended that procedures outlined by the American • Lay down wooden strips to separate each layer of pipe.
Welding Society be consulted. Strips should be lined up on a vertical plane with the
deck stringers;
The mechanical properties of API rotary-shouldered con- • Secure tubulars to the deck or hull of the vessel with
nections on all drill-stem members will be adversely af- load-binding cables or chains attached at structurally
fected by welding and will likely fail to meet minimum re- sound locations. The number and size of such cable or
quirementsunless proper procedures are used to prevent chains is usually determined by the boat captain
cracking and to recondition the section where welding has according to expected sea conditions. Properly sized
been performed, accoding to API RP76, 16th edtion. steam boat ratchets or turnbuckles are used to maintain
proper chain or cable tension. Each layer of pipe should
Transportation be blocked, unless vertical stanchions are provided;
• Take special precautions when loading and unloading
Truck transportation pipe at offshore wellsites. In rough seas, handling pipe
API tubular goods in general, and threads in particular, loads by crane must be minimized, due to safety
require careful handling in transportation and storage as concerns related to the movement of swinging loads;
well as during drilling operations. • Moving pipe between drilling tenders and the floor of
offshore platforms presents handling problems. Close
The following precautions should be taken for truck supervision is critical to devise and regulate proper
transportation: handling. When possible, trolley lines, whirley cranes,
• Load pipe on bolsters and tie down with suitable chain at and other means for controlled descent of pipe when
the bolsters. In hauling long pipe, tie the middle down lowering it from the derrick floor to the tender are
with an additional chain; recommended to prevent severe damage to drill string.

available and can do a better job in blocking the pipe.
Conventional-
Long
Floor handling procedures
Rotary
Slips and bushings

Slips
The successful handling of drill pipe with rotary slips and

Extra-
4”
Long master bushings for all depths and drilling conditions is di-
Rotary
rectly dependent on the following factors:
Effective Backing
Slips
• Compatibility in design and manufacture of master
Effective Backing
bushings and drill pipe slips;

8- 13/16” 12- 13/16”
• Proper application, based on hookload, of square-drive
and pin-drive type rotating equipment;
• Wear conditions existing in rotary table equipment.
Square-drive master bushings and/or matching bowls with

the appropriate shorter slips can be used successfully when
Standard Bowl Extended Bowl hookload does not exceed 250,000 lb. For greater hook-
loads, use a master bushing designed to accept a 4-pin drive
kelly bushing. This type of bushing has an extended API ta-
Figure DS-59: Extended-bowl, extra-long rotary slips and per, thus increasing back-up support for the slips. Extra-long
pin-drive allow for more effective support for heavy strings.
slips, which are designed to be compatible, will more effec-
tively distribute the forces working to crush or “bottleneck”
Handling the drill pipe. A comparison of conventional and extra-long
The following precautions should be observed in handling pipe: slips and standard and extended-bowl master bushing com-
• Before unloading, ensure that thread protectors are binations can be seen in Figure DS-59.
tightly in place;
• Do not unload pipe by dropping. Avoid rough handling Proper maintenance of master bushings and rotary slips are
which might ding or dent the body of the pipe. central to preventing cutting, gouging, and bottlenecking of
Out-of- roundness will greatly reduce collapse strength; drill pipe. This will prevent unnecessary downgrading and
• When rolling down skids, pull the pipe parallel to the discarding of pipe, and will also minimize washouts and oth-
stack. Do not allow pipe to gather momentum or to er types of downhole failures.
strike ends, because the danger of thread damage
exists even with protectors in place; The damaging effects of worn rotary tables, master bush-
• Stop each length before it reaches preceding length, ings, and rotary slips can be seen in Figure DS-60. Obvious-
then push together by hand. ly, the drill pipe will be damaged under these circumstances.
This is an extreme case; however, the same type of damage
Storage can be incurred with less worn equipment.
The following precautions are recommended for pipe storage:
• Do not pile pipe directly on ground, rails, or steel or Figure DS-60 shows a split master bushing. A similar condi-
concrete floors. The first tier of pipe should be no less tion occurs after several years to the bowls and outer hull of
than 12 in. from the ground to isolate drillpipe from a solid or hinged master bushing.
moisture and dirt;
• Pipe should rest on supports properly spaced to prevent Replacing slips with double elevators
bending of the pipe or damage to the threads. The Some 60% of the tube failures appear to be in the slip area.
stringers should lie in the same plane, be reasonably Unless special care is taken with the maintenance and use of
level and be supported by piers adequate to carry the slips, slip marks can turn into life-shortening stress raisers.
full stack without settling. The slip area is also just beyond the minimum internal upset
• Separate successive layers of pipe with wooden strips (miu) fadeout, which occurs in the high-stress area.
so that no weight rests on the tool joint. Use at least
three spacing strips, placed at right angles to the pipe The first reported use of double elevators instead of slips
and directly above lower strips and supports to prevent was on the first 25,000-ft well in the US. High-strength
bending; tubes were new, and concern existed about notch sensitivity
• Block pipe by nailing 1 in. × 2 in. × 2 in. wooden blocks to in the harder, stronger tubes. The operator and contractor
both ends of the spacing strips. Plastic chocks are initially agreed that double elevators might prove slower

than slips, but experience proved that operations using dou- Gripping area
Pipe is bottlenecked of slips is
ble elevators equalled the speed with slips. greatly reduced
Other applications for double elevators also exist. This could

present another method to extend drill-string life without
lengthening trip times.
Slips alternative
Improperly maintained slips can shorten the useful life of drill
string. Throwing the slips on moving pipe can damage tubes,
as does the use of slips as backup tongs. Review your tube
Worn
failures and consider the use of double elevators on your rig. master Taper
bushing changed
An early application of this idea was on the first 25,000 ft.

well in the United States. High-strength drill pipe was new, Reduced backup Worn rotary table
area causes wear
and concern for notch sensitivity prompted this move. and crushing in
backs of slips Slips deformed
Slower trips were accepted, but double elevators proved to

be as fast on trips as the use of slips.
Quick-release elevators and a short two-piece stool on the Figure DS-60: Drill pipe will be damaged if there is any
rotary table are the items needed. Review your drill pipe combination of worn and new master bushings, rotary
tube failures which have occurred in the slip area and con- table, or slips.
sider elevators on your rig.
Testing slips and bushings

A slip test is an invaluable aid to determining the degree
of rotary equipment wear. Conduct this test every three
months and whenever new master bushings or set of slips
is put into service.
For accurate results, use a hook load of at least 100,000 lb: Excessive stress
• With a wire brush, clean slip inserts and an area of pipe placed on 6 in.
without insert marks; slip segments
• Wrap two layers of test paper or mud sack around the Ribs
cracked
cleaned section of pipe. Tape the paper on top and
bottom to the pipe;
• Place the slips around the pipe and on the paper. Hold
the slips in place while the pipe is lowered at normal
speed; Figure DS-61: Damage is caused to drill pipe if slips of the
• After the slips are set, hold them firmly around the wrong size are used.
pipe as it is raised. The slips should be carefully
removed to prevent damage to the paper. Then and reuse. If the results of the second test indicate top con-
carefully remove the paper. tact only, the master bushing and/or bowls are worn and
should be inspected for replacement.
Observe the inner layer of paper, because the outer will be
marked with misleading slip impressions. If full insert con- Proper slip handling
tact is indicated, the master bushing and slips are in good Slips should always be the correct size for the pipe. Figures
condition. No further analysis is necessary. DS-61 and DS-62 show the effects of using the wrong size
slip in tubular goods. Slips that are smaller than the pipe will
Conversely, absent full contact, the test should be rerun with damage the pipe and the corners of the slips as well as in-
new slips. If the second test results in full contact, discard crease the risk of dropping a string of pipe. Slips that are too
the old slips. They are worn, crushed or otherwise distorted. large will not contact the pipe all the way around and will
Cut off the toes of discarded slipsto prevent refurbishment also increase the risk of dropping the pipe and destroying

Pipe and collars larger than the slips rapidly wear down the out-
er edges of the gripped elements with damage as shown below.
If slips are used on overly large drill-stem elements, the

same slips will quickly damage smaller pipe of the correct
size. This is due to reduced contact surface of the gripping
elements. Using slips for brakes can cause:
4 1/2 in. • Swedges and elongates pipe in slip area;

• Stretches and bottlenecks pipe;
• Transmission of excessive load to rotary table and
master bushing or slip bowl.
Deformed
bodies
Do not let the slips “ride” on the pipe while it is being pulled
out of the hole. This practice accelerates wear on the slip’s
gripping elements. It also might cause the slip to be ejected
from the rotary bowl when a tool joint comes through, with
possible injury to personnel.
Figure DS-62: Damage is caused to drill pipe if slips of
wrong size are used. Never re-sharpen inserts. Doing so causes improper contact
with the pipe, resulting in both pipe and slip damage, as illus-
trated in Figure DS-64.
Setting slips on tool joint

Downward Motion
Be careful not to catch the tool joint box in the slips when the
driller slacks off. This often happens when coming out of the
hole if the driller does not pick up high enough for the slips
to fall around the pipe properly. See Figure DS-65. This can
ruin the slips and damage the tool-joint box and pipe body.
A B Using tongs properly

Tonging tool joints properly is the most important single
factor in prevention of tool-joint problems. The appendix
provides recommended make-up torques for various sizes,
types, and classes of tool joints. Torque-measuring equip-
C
ment should always be used to prevent under-make-up or
over-make-up. Slicker-than-normal thread compounds can
contribute to torsional problems.
Downward Motion
Always use back-up tongs when making up or breaking out
drill pipe stands. Without back-up tongs, the pipe may ro-
tate and cause deep slip cuts.
Figure DS-63: Effects of stopping downward motion of drill
pipe with slips. Avoid using a single tong. Use of only one tong greatly in-
creases the possibility of bending or “hooking” the pipe at
the rotary.
the center part of the slips’ gripping surface.
Keep the tool joint as close to the rotary table as possible
The downward motion of the drill pipe must be stopped during make-up and breakout. There is a maximum height
with the drawworks brakes, not with the slips. Figure DS- that a tool joint can be positioned above the rotary slips with
63 shows the effect of stopping the motion of the pipe with the pipe still enabled to resist bending. See Figure DS-66.
slips. This can occur when the floor hands are not careful to This is while maximum torque is applied. Factors governing
set the slips after the driller has stopped the pipe. the height limitation are:
• Angle of separation between tongs;

New or like-new gripping

elements carry concentrated load
and deeply penetrate the pipe.
Backs
and faces
permanently
deformed
Resharpened gripping
element carries
no load.
Gripping elements which

carry concentrated load are
forced into slip bodies
resulting in permanent
damage to slips.
Figure DS-64: Never use resharpened gripping elements. Figure DS-65: Try to prevent catching the tool
joint accidentally with the slips.
Table DS-15: Section modulus values.

• Minimum tensile yield strength of pipe;
• Length of the tong handles; Pipe OD, in. Nominal pipe I/C, cu in.
• Maximum recommended make-up torque. weight, lb/ft
2-3/8 4.85 0.66
Although it is not recommended to use as single tong, as 6.65 0.87
discussed above, should a lone tong be used with a locked 2-7/8 6.85 1.12
rotary table, the height of the tool joint should not exceed 10.40 1.60
that shown in Case I of Figure DS-66. In addition, line pull
3-1/2 9.50 1.96
should not exceed recommended make-up torque with
13.30 2.57
tongs at 90° to the jerk line.
15.50 2.92
Sample Calculations 4 11.85 2.70
The height above the rotary table can be calculated using 14.00 3.22
the formulas from Figure DS-66, where: 15.70 3.58
4-1/2 13.75 3.59
Hmax Height of tool joint above slips, ft 16.60 4.27
20.00 5.17
Ym Minimum tensile yield of pipe, psi 22.82 5.68
Grade E-75 75,000 5 16.25 4.86
Grade X-95 95,000 19.50 5.71
Grade G-105 105,000 25.60 7.25
Grade S-135 135,000
5-1/2 19.20 6.11
21.90 7.03
LT Tong arm length, ft (measured on rig)
24.70 7.84
P Line pull, lb 6-5/8 25.20 9.79
27.70 10.58

Hmax
LT Hmax LT
P P P
Case 1 Case 2
Hmax = .053 Ym LT (I/C) Hmax = .038 Ym LT (I/C)
T T
Figure DS-66: The sketches and formulas show how to calculate the height of a tool joint above the slips.
T P * LT, make-up torque, Table B1-7 and pitting, leading to washouts, twist-offs and fatigue fail-
ures. Since oxygen is soluble in water, and most drilling fluid
I/C Section modulus of pipe, in., Table DS-16. systems are open to the air, the drill stem is continually ex-
posed to potentially severe corrosive conditions.
Assume: Premium 4 ½-in., 16.60 lb/ft, Grade E75 drill pipe,
with 4 ½-in., XH 6-in. OD, 3 ¼-in. ID tool joints. Carbon Dioxide (CO2) dissolves in water to form carbonic
acid, a weak acid that corrodes steel by hydrogen evolution,
Tong arm 3 ½-ft the same as other acids, unless the pH is maintained above
6. At high pH values, carbon dioxide corrosion damage is
similar to oxygen corrosion damage, but progresses more
Tongs at 90° slowly. When carbon dioxide and oxygen are both present,
Ym = 75,000 psi (for Grade E75) however, the corrosion rate is higher than the sum of the
I/C = 4.27 cu in. rates for each alone.
LT = 3.5 ft
T = 12,085 ft-lb Carbon dioxide in drilling fluids can originate in the make-up
water, gas inflow from a formation, thermal decomposition
Drill pipe corrosion of dissolved salts, organic drilling fluid additives, or bacterial
One of the most prevalent causes of premature drill stem action on organic material in the makeup water or drilling
failures is the damage resulting from corrosion, corrosion fluid additives.
fatigue, and sulfide stress cracking.
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) dissolves in water to form an acid
This section will briefly describe the manner in which the somewhat weaker and less corrosive than carbonic acid,
damage occurs, how to detect it, and how to control it. How- although it may cause pitting, particularly in the presence
ever, because of the complexity of the problem and its serious of oxygen or carbon dioxide. More significantly, H2S greatly
economic and safety effects, expert technical advice should affects a form of hydrogen embrittlement known as sulfide
be obtained when such damage is evident or suspected. stress cracking. Sulfide stress cracking is dealt with in detail
below in this section. Sources of hydrogen sulfide in drilling
Corrosive agents fluids include makeup water, gas-bearing formation fluid in-
Corrosion may be defined as the alteration and degrada- flow, bacterial action on dissolved sulfates, or thermal deg-
tion of material by its environment. The principal corrosive radation of sulfur-containing drilling fluid additives.
agents affecting drill stem materials in water-based drilling
fluids are dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hy- Dissolved Salts (chlorides, carbonates, and sulfates) in-
drogen sulfide), dissolved salts, and acids. crease the electrical conductivity of drilling fluids. Since
most corrosion processes involve electrochemical reac-
Oxygen (O2) is the most common corrosive agent. In the tions, the increased conductivity may result in higher cor-
presence of moisture, it causes steel to rust, the most com- rosion rates. Concentrated salt solutions are usually less
mon form of corrosion. Oxygen causes uniform corrosion corrosive than diluted solutions, due to decreased oxygen

solubility. Dissolved salts also may serve as a source of car-

bon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide in drilling fluids.
Dissolved salts in drilling fluids can originate in the make-

up water, formation fluid inflow, drilled formation, or drilling
fluid additives.
Acids corrode metals by lowering the pH (causing hydrogen

evolution) and by dissolving protective films. Dissolved ox-
ygen appreciably accelerates the corrosion rates of acids,
and dissolved hydrogen sulfide greatly accelerates hydrogen
embrittlement.
Organic acids (formic, acetic, etc.) can be formed in drilling

fluids by bacterial action or by thermal degradation of or- Figure DS-67: Example of a washout
ganic drilling fluid additives. Organic acids and mineral acids caused by pitting corrosion.
(hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, etc.) may be used during work-
over operations or stimulating treatments. can be helpful in planning corrective action. The forms of
corrosion most often encountered with drill string are:
Factors affecting corrosion rates • Uniform or General Attack: During uniform attack, the
Key among the many factors affecting corrosion rates of drill material corrodes evenly, usually leaving a coating of
stem materials are: corrosion products. The resulting loss in wall thickness
• pH: This is a scale for measuring hydrogen ion can lead to failure from reduction of the material’s load
concentration. The pH scale is logarithmic, i.e., each pH carrying capability;
increment of 1.0 represents a tenfold change in hydrogen • Localized Attack (Pitting): Corrosion may be localized in
ion concentration. The pH of pure gas-free water, is 7.0. small, well-defined areas, causing pits. See Figure DS-67.
pH values less than 7 are increasingly acidic, and pH Their number, depth, and size can vary considerably, and
values greater than 7 are increasingly alkaline, like soap. they might be obscured by other corrosive effects. Pitting
In the presence of dissolved oxygen, the corrosion rate is difficult to detect and evaluate, since it can occur under
of steel in water is relatively constant between pH 4.5 corrosion products, mill scale and other deposits; in
and 9.5; but it increases rapidly at lower pH values and crevices or other stagnant areas; in highly stressed areas,
decreases slowly at higher pH values. Aluminum alloys etc. Pits can cause washouts and can serve as points of
however, may show increasing corrosion rates at pH origin for fatigue cracks. Chlorides, oxygen, carbon
values greater than 8.5; dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, especially in combination,
• Temperature: In general, corrosion rates increase with are major contributors to pitting corrosion;
increasing temperature; • Erosion-Corrosion: Many metals resist corrosion by
• Velocity: In general, corrosion rates increase with higher forming protective oxide layers or tightly adherent
rates of flow; deposits. If these films or deposits are removed or
• Heterogeneity: Localized variations in composition or disturbed by high velocity fluid flow, abrasive suspended
microstructure can increase corrosion rates. “Ringworm” solids, excessive turbulence, cavitation, etc., accelerated
corrosion sometimes found near upset areas improperly attack occurs at the fresh metal surface. This combination
heat treated after upsetting is an example of corrosion of erosive wear and corrosion may cause pitting,
caused by non uniform grain structure; extensive damage and failure:
• High Stresses: Highly stressed areas may corrode faster • Fatigue in a Corrosive Environment (Corrosion Fatigue):
than areas of lower stress. The drill stem just above drill Metals subjected to cyclic stresses of sufficient
collars often shows abnormal corrosion damage, partially magnitude will develop fatigue cracks that may grow
due to higher stresses and high bending moments. until complete failure occurs. The limiting cyclic stress
that a metal can sustain for an infinite number of cycles
Corrosion damage is known as the fatigue limit. See Figure DS-68.
Corrosion can take many forms and may combine with other
types of damage (erosion, wear, fatigue, etc.) to cause ex- In a corrosive environment, no fatigue limit exists since fail-
tremely severe damage or failure. Several forms of corrosion ure will ultimately occur from corrosion, even in the absence
may occur at the same time, but one type will usually pre-
dominate. Knowing and identifying the forms of corrosion

Next Page
Stress, psi
as soon as possible, and the elapsed time between collec-
tion and analysis reported. See ASTM (American Society for
45,000
40,000 Testing Materials) D3370, Standard Practices for Sampling

Water from Closed Conduits, for guidance on sampling and
35,000
shipping procedures.
30,000
In Air
When laboratory examination of corroded or failed drill stem
25,000
In S
alt W material is required, use care in securing the specimens. If
ater
20,000 torch cutting is needed, avoid making physical or metallur-
gical changes in the area to be examined. Specimens must
15,000
0 2,000,000 4,000,000 6,000,000 8,000,000 10,000,000
not be cleaned, wire brushed or shot blasted in any manner
and should be wrapped and shipped without damaging the
Figure DS-68: Typical fatigue curves of a corrosion effects or fracture surfaces. Whenever possible,
steel tested in air and in salt water. both fracture surfaces should be supplied.
of cyclic stress. The cumulative effect of corrosion and cy- Drill pipe coatings: Internally coating the drill pipe and at-
clic stress (corrosion fatigue) is greater than the sum of the tached tool joints can provide effective protection against
damage from each. Fatigue life will always be less in a cor- corrosion in the pipe bore. In the presence of corrosive
rosive environment, even under mildly corrosive conditions agents, however, the corrosion rate of the drill stem OD may
that show little or no visible evidence of corrosion. be increased. Drill pipe coating is a shop operation in which
the pipe is cleaned of all grease and scale, sand or grit blast-
Detecting and monitoring corrosion ed to white metal, plastic coated and baked. After baking,
The complex interactions between various corrosive agents the coating is examined for breaks or holidays.
and the many factors controlling corrosion rates make it diffi-
cult to accurately assess the potential corrosiveness of a drill- Minimizing corrosion in water-based drilling fluids: The se-
ing fluid. Various instruments and devices such as pH meters, lection and control of appropriate corrective measures is
oxygen meters, corrosion meters, hydrogen probes, chemical usually performed by competent corrosion technologists
test kits, test coupons (corrosion rings), etc., are available for and specialists. Generally, one or more of the following
field monitoring of corrosion agents and their effects. measures is used, but certain conditions may require more
specialized treatments:
The monitoring systems described in API RP 13B-1 (Rec- • Control the pH. When practical to do so without
ommended Practice for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling upsetting other desired fluid properties, the maintenance
Fluids) and API RP 13B-2 (Recommended Practice for Field of a pH of 9.5 or higher will minimize corrosion of steel in
Testing Oil-Based Drilling Fluids) can be used to evaluate water-based systems containing dissolved oxygen. In
corrosive conditions. Pre-weighed test rings (corrosion ring some drilling fluids, however, corrosion of aluminum drill
coupons) can be placed in recesses at the back of tool-joint pipe increases at pH values higher than 8.5;
box threads at selected locations throughout the drill stem, • Use appropriate inhibitors and/or oxygen scavengers
exposed to the drilling operation for a period of time, then to minimize weight loss corrosion. This is particularly
removed, cleaned and reweighed. The degree and severity helpful with low pH, low-solids drilling fluids. Inhibitors
of pitting observed and the type of corrosion by-products must be carefully selected and controlled, since
can help determine corrective action. different corrosive agents and different drilling fluid
systems (particularly those used for air or mist drilling)
Chemical testing of drilling fluids should be performed in require different types of inhibitors. The use of the
the field whenever possible, especially for pH, alkalinity, and wrong type of inhibitor, or the wrong amount, may
dissolved gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sul- actually increase corrosion;
fide). See API RP 13B-1 and API RP 13B-2. • Use plastic coated drill pipe. Care must be exercised to
prevent damage to the coating. Note: Plastic coating
Laboratory testing: When laboratory examination of drill- does not prevent sulfide stress cracking;
ing fluid is desired, representative samples should be col- •
Use degassers and desanders to remove harmful
lected in a 0.5- to 1-gal (2- to 4-l) clean container, allow- dissolved gases and abrasive material;
ing approximately 1% of container volume for air space and • Limit oxygen intake by maintaining tight pump
sealing tightly with a suitable stopper. Chemically resisting connections and by minimizing pit jetting. Close the
glass, polyethylene, and hard rubber are suitable materials mud hopper throat valve when not mixing sack material;
for most drilling fluid samples. Samples should be analyzed • Limit gas-cutting and formation fluid inflow by

Previous Page
maintaining proper drill fluid weight;

• When the drill string is laid down, stored or transported,
wash out all drilling fluid residues with fresh water,
clean out all corrosion products and coat all surfaces
with a suitable corrosion preventive;
• While generally not affecting corrosion rates, the
following measures will extend corrosion fatigue by
lowering the cyclic stress intensity or by increasing the
fatigue strength of the material:
• Use thicker walled components;
• Reduce high stresses near connections by
minimizing doglegs and by maintaining straight
hole conditions;
• Minimize stress concentrators such as slip marks, Figure DS-69: A brittle fracture caused by
tong marks, gouges, notches, scratches, etc. hydrogen embrittlement.
Sulfide Stress Cracking

Sulfide stress cracking (SSC), a form of hydrogen embrittle- worn box will occur otherwise.
ment, is a frequent cause of drill-stem failures. The combi-
nation of stress and hydrogen (H) absorption in the presence Failures in the threads of drill collars, subs, core barrels and
of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) create this condition. This section at the run out of the upset in the body of drill pipe have been
will discuss SSC in more detail. In SSC, tensile-loaded static recorded. Failures are characteristically perpendicular to the
stresses (not dynamic or cyclic as discussed earlier), drill- principal stress with a flat brittle fracture. See Figure DS-69.
stem components may suddenly fail in a brittle manner at a
fraction of their nominal load carrying capability after per- The latest revision of NACE (National Association of Corro-
forming satisfactorily for extended periods of time. Failure sion Engineers) MR0175 should be consulted for materials
may occur even in the apparent absence of corrosion, but that have been found to be satisfactory for drilling and well
is more likely if active corrosion exists. Embrittlement of servicing operations.
the steel caused by the absorption and diffusion of atom-
ic hydrogen and is much more severe when H2S is present »» Critical SSC factors
(“sour” conditions). Other chemical compositions, hardnesses, and heat treat-
ments should not be used in sour environments without ful-
»» Mechanism ly evaluating their SSC susceptibility in the environment in
Atomic hydrogen (H), the smallest atom, is a product of which they will be used. Susceptibility to SSC depends upon:
most corrosion reactions. It can be absorbed by and diffused • Steel strength: The higher the strength (hardness) of
through steel and other metals. Normally, hydrogen atoms the steel, the greater is the susceptibility to SSC. In
quickly combine to form molecular hydrogen (H2). However, general, steels having strengths equivalent to hardness
H2 is too large to be absorbed by the metal lattice, and it up to 22 HRC maximum are resistant to SSC. Steels of
bubbles off as gas. In the presence of sulfide, however, the hardness up to 26 HRC are SSC resistant, if the chemical
hydrogen remains considerably longer in its atomic form and composition is adjusted to permit development through
therefore has a greater probability of being absorbed. After proper quenching and tempering of a well-tempered,
absorption, hydrogen tends to accumulate in the area of predominantly martensitic microstructure, steels having
maximum stress. When a critical concentration is reached, strengths equivalent to hardness up to 26 HRC maximum
a small crack forms. The hydrogen accumulates at the top are SSC resistant. When strengths higher than the
of the crack, and the crack grows. This process continues equivalent of 26 HRC are required, corrective measures
until the remaining metal cannot sustain the applied load, (see below) must be used. The higher the strength, the
and sudden brittle failure occurs. greater the need to take corrective measures;
• Total Tensile Load (Stress) on the Steel: The higher the
The degree of this effect on a piece of steel is determined total tensile load on the component, the greater the
by the concentration of hydrogen, the strength of the steel, possibility of SSC failure. For each strength of steel used,
applied stress on the steel and time of exposure. Hydrogen there appears to be a critical or threshold stress below
more frequently attaches to tool joints than other to compo- which SSC will not occur; however, the higher the
nents of drill stem. Failures occur at the last engaged thread strength, the lower the threshold stress;
of the pin or at the base of the pin. A longitudinal split in a • Amount of atomic hydrogen and H2S: The more atomic

hydrogen and H2S present, the shorter the time before • After exposure to a sour environment, use care in
failure. The amounts of atomic hydrogen and H2S tripping out of the hole, avoiding sudden shocks and
required to cause SSC are quite small, but corrective high loads;
measures to control their amounts will minimize the • After exposure to a sour environment, remove absorbed
atomic hydrogen absorbed by the steel. hydrogen by aging in open air for several days to several
• Time: Time is required for atomic hydrogen to be weeks (depending upon conditions of exposure) or bake
absorbed and diffused in steel to the critical at 400°-600°F (204°-316°C) for several hours. NOTE:
concentration required for crack initiation and Plastic-coated drill pipe should not be heated above
propagation to failure. By controlling the factors referred 400°F (204°C) and should be checked subsequently
to above, time to failure may be sufficiently lengthened for holidays and disbonding. The removal of hydrogen is
to permit the use of marginally susceptible steels for hindered by the presence of corrosion products, scale,
short duration drilling operations; grease, oil, etc. Cracks that have formed (internally or
• Temperature: The severity of SSC is greatest at normal externally) prior to removing the hydrogen will not be
atmospheric temperatures and decreases as temperature repaired by the baking or stress relief operations;
increases. At operating temperatures in excess of • Minimize time for drill-stem tests in sour environments,
approximately 135°F (57°C), marginally susceptible using operating procedures that will minimize exposure
materials (those having hardness higher than 22 to 26 to SSC conditions.
HRC) have been used successfully in potentially
embrittling environments. The higher the hardness of the SSC in oil-based drilling fluids
material, the higher the required safe operating Corrosion SSC can be minimized by the use of drilling fluids
temperature. Caution must be exercised, however, since having oil as the continuous phase. Because oil is electrically
SSC failure may occur when the material returns to non-conductive, corrosion does not occur if metal is com-
normal temperature after it is removed from the hole. pletely enveloped and wetted in an oil environment.
Minimizing SSC Oil systems used for drilling (oil-based or invert emulsified
The selection and control of appropriate corrective mea- muds) contain surfactants that stabilize water as emulsified
sures is usually performed by competent corrosion tech- droplets. This causes preferential oil-wetting of metal. Agents
nologists and specialists. Generally, one or more of the fol- that cause corrosion in water (dissolved gases, dissolved
lowing measures is used, but certain conditions may require salts, and acids) do not damage the oil-wet metal. Therefore,
more specialized treatments: under drilling conditions that cause serious problems of cor-
• Maintain a pH of 10 or higher, if feasible without rosion damage, erosion corrosion, or corrosion fatigue, drill-
upsetting other desired fluid properties. In some drilling stem life can be greatly extended by using an oil mud.
fluids, aluminum alloys show slowly increasing corrosion
rates at pH values higher than 8.5, and the rate may However, an oil mud must be properly prepared and main-
become excessive at pH values higher than 10.5. tained to provide corrosion and SSC protection. Water will
Therefore, in drill strings containing aluminum drill pipe, always be present in an oil mud, either added intentionally,
the pH should not exceed 10.5; incorporated as a contaminant in the surface system or from
• Limit gas-cutting and formation fluid inflow by exposed drill formations. Corrosion and SSC may occur if this
maintaining proper drilling fluid weight; water is allowed to become free and to wet the drill stem. Fac-
• Minimize corrosion by the corrective measures tors to be evaluated in monitoring an oil mud include:
discussed in this chapter. NOTE: While use of plastic • Electrical stability: This test measures the voltage
coated drill pipe can minimize corrosion, plastic coating required to cause current to flow between electrodes
does not protect susceptible drill pipe from SSC; immersed in the oil mud. The higher the voltage, the
• Chemically treat for hydrogen sulfide inflows preferably greater the stability of the emulsion, and the better the
prior to encountering the sulfide; protection provided to the drill stem. (See API RP 13B
• Use the lowest-strength drill pipe capable of withstanding for details.);
the required drilling conditions. At any strength level, • Alkalinity: The acidic dissolved gases (carbon dioxide
properly quenched and tempered drill pipe will provide and hydrogen sulfide) are harmful contaminants for
the best SSC resistance; most oil muds. Monitoring the alkalinity of an oil mud
• Reduce unit stresses by using thicker walled components; can indicate when acidic gases are being encountered
• Reduce high stresses at connections by maintaining so that corrective treatment can be instituted;
straight-hole conditions, insofar as possible;
• Minimize stress concentrators, such as slip marks, tong
marks, gouges, notches, scratches, etc.;

• Corrosion test rings: Test rings placed in the drill stem tuating stresses having maximum values less than the tensile
bore are used to monitor the corrosion protection strength of the material. Fatigue fractures are progressive, be-
afforded by oil muds. A properly functioning oil mud ginning as minute cracks that grow under the action of the fluc-
should show little or no visual evidence of corrosion on tuating stress. The rate of propagation is related to the applied
the test ring. (See API RP 13B-2 for details.) cyclic load and under certain conditions may be extremely rapid.
The failure does not normally exhibit extensive plastic de-

Drill pipe inspection and classification formation and is therefore difficult to detect until such time
Drill pipe failures quite frequently add to the cost of drill- as considerable damage has occurred. There is no accepted
ing. They cause costly fishing jobs, loss of material, lost means of inspecting to determine the amount of accumu-
time, and occasionally abandoning all or portions of the lated fatigue damage or the remaining life of the pipe at a
hole. The threat of this potential loss requires constant given stress level.
vigilance by drilling crews to the condition of the drill
string. Also many operators, using contractor’s pipe, re- Presently accepted means of inspection are limited to loca-
quire pipe inspection and classification prior to accepting tion of cracks, pits and other surface marks; measurement
a contract for drilling their well. Thus, the purpose of the of remaining wall thickness; measurement of outside di-
inspection of used drill pipe is to determine if it is usable ameter; and calculation of remaining cross-sectional area.
for the job. To be suitable, the pipe must offer sufficient Industry statistics confirm that a major percentage of tube
strength and be free from internal and external defects body in-service failures occur near the upset runout or with-
that could cause failure. in the slip area. Special attention to these critical failure
areas may be required during inspection to facilitate crack
On these bases, the IADC Drilling Technology Committee detection in some drill strings. Drill pipe which has just been
devised a method of classifying drill string, and this is now a inspected and found free of cracks may develop cracks after
recommended practice of the API. Much of the information very short additional service through the addition of damage
contained in this section is extracted from American Petro- to previously accumulated fatigue damage.
leum Institute (API) Recommended Practice (RP) 7G, Sec-
tion 10, 14th Edition, dated August 1, 1990. Definition of a Crack
A crack is a single line rupture of the pipe surface. The rup-
Inspection Standards ture shall (1) be of sufficient length to be shown by magnetic
Through the efforts of joint committees of API and IADC, in- iron particles used in magnetic particle inspection or (2) be
spection standards for the classification of used drill pipe have identifiable by visual inspection of the outside of the tube
been established. The procedure outlined in Table DS-16 was and/or by optical/ultrasonic shear-wave inspection of the
adopted as a tentative API specification at the 1964 Stan- inside of the tube.
dardization Conference and was revised and approved as
standard at the 1968 Standardization Conference. Addition- Measurement of Pipe Wall
al revisions were made at the 1970 Standardization Confer- Tube body conditions will be classified on the basis of the lowest
ence to add Premium Class. At the 1971 Conference it was wall thickness measurement obtained and the remaining wall
determined that the drill pipe classification procedure be re- requirements contained in Table DS-18. The only acceptable
moved from an appendix to API Spec 7 and placed in API RP wall thickness measurements are those made with pipe-wall
7G as a recommended practice. At the 1979 API Standard- micrometers, ultrasonic instruments, or gamma-ray devices
ization Conference, these guidelines were revised to also that the operator can demonstrate to be within 2% accuracy
cover classification of used tubing work strings. by use of test blocks sized to approximate pipe wall thickness.
The guidelines established in this Recommended Practice When using a highly sensitive ultrasonic instrument, care
have been in use for several years. Use of the practice and must be taken to ensure that detection of an inclusion or lam-
classification guide has apparently been successful when ination is not interpreted as a wall thickness measurement.
applied in general application. There may be situations
where additional inspections are required and/or more spe- Cross-sectional area
cific engineering design is required to accommodate higher Determine cross-sectional area by use of a direct indicating
stress or a more corrosive environment. instrument that the operator can demonstrate to be with-
in 2% accuracy by use of a pipe section approximately the
Limitations of inspections same as the pipe being inspected. In the absence of such an
Most failures of drill pipe result from some form of metal fatigue. instrument, integrate wall thickness measurements taken at
A failure is one which originates as a result of repeated or fluc-

1-in. intervals around the tube. Required tool-joint inspection

• Outside diameter measurement: Measure tool joint
Used drill pipe should be classified according to the proce- outside diameter at a distance of 1 inch from the
dure of Table DS-17 and as illustrated in Figure DS-70, di- shoulder and determine classification from data in
mension A. Data for New, Premium and Class 2 drill pipe is Table DS-14. Minimum shoulder width should be used
consolidated in Table DS-17. when tool joints are worn eccentrically;
• Shoulder conditions: Check shoulders for galls, nicks,
Inspection classification marking washes, fins or any other matter which would affect
A permanent mark or marks signifying the classification of the pressure holding capacity of the joint and
the pipe (For example, refer to Table DS-17, Note 1.) should conditions which may affect joint stability.
be stamped:
• On the 35° sloping shoulder of the tool-joint pin (or on Optional tool-joint inspection
the 18° sloping shoulder of the pin if the 18° angle is • S
houlder width: Using data in Table DS-14, determine
furnished); minimum shoulder width acceptable for tool joint in
• On the end of the tool joint pin on flush OD drill pipe; class as governed by the outside diameter;
• Or in some other low-stressed section of the tool joint • Thread profile: Careful inspection will pick up indication
where the marking will normally carry through operations. of over-torque, insufficient torque, lapped threads, galled
Cold-steel stenciling should be avoided on outer surface threads and stretching. A lead gauge of the type
of drill pipe tubes. illustrated in Figure DS-42 should be employed to
determine the amount of stretch;
• Box swell and/or pin stretch: These are indications of
Tool joints over-torquing, and their presence greatly affects the
The classification system for used drill pipe outlined in Table future performance of the tool joint. On used tool joints, it
DS-16 includes a color code designation to identify the drill- is recommended that pins having stretch which exceeds
pipe class. The same system is recommended for tool-joint 0.006 in. in 2 in. should be re-cut. All pins which have
class identification. In addition, it is recommended that the been stretched should be inspected for cracks.
tool joint be identified as (1) field repairable, or (2) scrap or
shop repairable. The color code system for tool joints and It is recommended that used boxes having more than 0.031
for drill pipe is shown in Figure DS-71. in. (1/32-in.) measurable swell be recut. It is recommended
Length covered under tool joint Caution: Length not covered Length covered under tool joint
inspection standard by inspection standards inspection standard
B C C B
A
Length covered under drill pipe
classification system
Length covered under tool joint Caution: Length not covered Length covered under tool joint
inspection standard by inspection standards inspection standard
B C C B
A
Length covered under drill pipe
classification system B6-1
Figure DS-70: Identification of lengths covered by inspection standards.

that the box counterbores (Qc) be checked. Use API 7-2 1st Gauging and repairing damaged shoulders
edition, Tables A.1 and F.5. If the Qc diameter is more than a. Gauging: Thread wear, plastic deformation, mechanical
0.031 in. (1/32-in.) outside the allowed tolerance, then the damage, and lack of cleanliness may contribute to
box should be recut. erroneous figures when plug and ring gauges are applied
• Minimum Tong Space: Refer to Figure DS-72. The to used connections. Therefore, ring and plug standoffs
recommended minimum tong space for pins is 75% of should not be used to determine rejection or continued
the OD but not less than 4 inches. The recommended use of rotary shouldered connections. Scaling shoulders
minimum tong space for non-hard faced boxes is the are more critical to joint operation than gauge standoff;
measured Lbc + 1 inch. On hard banded joints, the b. Repair of damaged shoulders:
space may need to be longer to provide adequate •When refacing a damaged tool-joint shoulder, remove
gripping space for tongs. the minimum amount of material possible. It is good
practice not to remove more than 1/32-in. from a box or
Magnetic particle inspection pin shoulder at any one refacing and not more than
• If evidence of pin stretching is found, magnetic 1/16-in. cumulatively;
particle inspection should be made of the entire pin •It is suggested that a benchmark be provided to
threaded area, especially the last engaged thread determine how much material should be removed
area, to determine if transverse cracks are present. from the tool-joint shoulder. This benchmark should
• Longitudinal or irregular orientation of cracking be stenciled on a new or recut tool joint after facing to
may occur as a result of friction heat checking or gauge. The form of the benchmark should be a 3/16-in.
abnormal box swell. In that case magnetic particle diameter circle with a bar tangent to the circle parallel
inspection of both box and pin tool to the shoulder. The distance from the shoulder to the
• In highly stressed drilling environments or if bar should be ⅛-in. The positioning of the benchmark
evidence of fatigue damage is noted, magnetic in the box counterbore and on the base of the pin is
particle inspection should be made of the entire box shown in Figure DS-72. An alternative benchmark is
threaded area, especially the last engaged thread shown in Figure DS-53. Figure DS-70, dimension A,
area, to determine if transverse cracks are present. indicates the length covered under the drill pipe
• The wet fluorescent magnetic particle method is classification system recommended in Paragraph III.
preferred. Figure DS-70, dimension B, indicates the length

Tool Joint
Cood;t;" Boo',
Classification Paint Bands

for Drill Pipe and Tool Joints
Stencils for Permanent Marking for

Classification of Drill Pipe Body
Tool joint and drill Number and Tool joint Colors

pipe classification color of bands condition of bands
Premium class Two white Scrap or shop R,d
Class 2 One yellow Repairable Green
Class 3 One orange Field repairab le
Scrap One red
Figure DS-71: Drill pipe and tool joint color code identification.
Tong Tong
Space Space
LBC
1/8
1/8
o o
Figure DS-72: Tong space and benchmark position.
covered under the tool-joint inspection standard. The

length not covered by inspection standards is
indicated under a caution heading by dimension C in
Figure DS-70.

Table DS-16: Classification of used drill pipe.

(All Sizes, Weights, and Grades. Nominal dimension is basis for all calculations.)
1 2 3 4
1 2
PIPE CONDITION PREMIUM CLASS CLASS CLASS 3
Two white band Yellow Bands Orange Bands
One center punch mark Two center punch marks Three center punch
marks
I. EXTERIOR CONDITIONS 5
A. OD Wear Wall Remaining wall not less than 80% Remaining wall not less than 70% Any imperfections or
damages exceeding
CLASS 2
B. Dents & Mashes Diameter reduction not over 3% of OD Diameter reduction not over 4% of OD
1. Crushing 2, Necking Diameter reduction not over 3% of OD Diameter reduction not over 4% of OD
C. Slip area mechanical damage

1. Cuts3, Gouges3 Depth not to exceed 10% of the Depth not to exceed 20% of the
average adjacent wall6 average adjacent wall6
D. Stress induced diameter variations

1. Stretched Diameter reduction not over 3% of OD Diameter reduction not over 4% of OD
2. String shot Diameter increase not over 3% of OD Diameter increase not over 4% of OD
E. Corrosion, cuts, & gouges

1. Corrosion Remaining wall not less than 80% Remaining wall not less than 70%
2. Cuts & gouges
Longitudinal Remaining wall not less than 80% Remaining wall not less than 70%
Transverse Remaining wall not less than 80% Remaining wall not less than 70%
F. Cracks 4 None None None
II. INTERIOR CONDITIONS

A. Corrosive Pitting Wall Remaining wall not less than 80% Remaining wall not less than 70%
measured from base of deepest pit
B. Erosion & Wear Wall Remaining wall not less than 80% Remaining wall not less than 70%
C. Cracks4 None None None
Notes on Table DS-16

1
The premium classification is recommended for service where it is anticipated that torsional or tensile limits for Class 2 drill pipe and
tubing work strings will be exceeded. These limits for Premium Class and Class 2 drill pipe are specified in Tables DS-7 and DS-8 and
Tables DS-9 and DS-10, respectively. Premium Class shall be identified with two white bands, plus one center punch mark on the 35°
or 18° shoulder of the tool-joint pin.
2
Inspection of this condition should be made to detect presence of longitudinal and transverse cracks inside and outside.
3
Remaining wall shall not be less than the value in section I.E.2 of the table. Defects may be ground out, providing the remaining wall is
not reduced below the value shown in section I. E.1 of this table and that such grinding to be approximately faired into outer contour of
the pipe.
4
In any classification where cracks or washouts appear, the pipe will be identified with the red band and considered unfit for further
drilling service.
5
An API RP 7G inspection cannot be made with drill pipe rubbers on the pipe.
6
Average adjacent wall is determined by measuring the wall thickness on which side of the cut or gouge adjacent to the deepest penetration.

Aluminum drillpipe
Drill string with aluminum drill pipe may be used where its
physical characteristics, lower weight and greater flexibility,
are advantageous. These areas are: Heavy End O.D.
D2
• Extended-reach drilling;
• Horizontal drilling;
• Directional drilling;
• Helicopter rig drilling;
• Deep drilling with small rigs.
Tapered Transition Zone
Physical characteristics of the aluminum alloy 2014–T6 are: Box End
• Minimum Yield Strength: 58,000 psi;
• Minimum Ultimate Strength: 64,000 psi;
• Minimum Elongation in 2 in.: 7%;
• Brinell Hardness: 135 BHN;
• Modulus of Elasticity: 10.6 × 106 psi; Pipe Body
• Specific Gravity: 2.7984; Wall Thickness
• Weight: 23.33 lb/gal or 0.101 lb/cu in. d Pipe Body I.D.
Tool joints L
Tool joints for aluminum drill pipe are made from steel meet-
D1 Pipe Body O.D.
ing API requirements. The tool joint-to-pipe connection is a
shrunk-on heavy interference fit based on the Super Shrink
Grip (trademarked by Alcoa). This design was originally a
steel tool joint-to-steel tube connection that seals on the
outer land, threads, and the end of the tube. When adapted
to aluminum pipe, this shrunk-on design was called Alstan.
Tapered Transition Zone
Other connection types and diameters are asvailable from Pin End
the manufacturer.
The normal tool joint OD is shown in Table DS-17, while the

tool-joint bore matches the bore of the aluminum tube.
The usual working connection on each nominal size alumi-

num pipe is shown in Table DS-18.
Table DS-17: Working connections for aluminum drill pipe

Pipe, in. Tool joint* TJ OD X ID, in.
3½ NC38 4 ¾ x 2 21⁄32
4 NC46 6x3¼ Figure DS-73: Dimensions of aluminum drill string.
4½ NC50 6 3⁄8 x 3 19/32
5 5 ½ in. FH 7 x 4 3⁄32
Table DS-18: Working connections for aluminum drill pipe

Nominal pipe OD, in. 3½ 4 4½ 5
D1 actual OD 3.700 4.200 4.600 5.150
D2 actual OD 3.875 4.625 5.031 5.688
Taper, EU runout 41-46 41-46 41-46 41-46
L (ft, in.) 29’ 4 ½” 29’ 3 ¼” 29’ 3 ¾” 29’ 2 ¾”
Weight in air (lb) 187 210 245 292
d (Actual ID) 2.675 3.280 3.600 4.100

Slips
Most aluminum drill pipe features a long, tapered exter-
nal-upset zone immediately below the tool joint box. This
design aims to minimize fatigue failures accelerated by slip
damage. This requires slips with the same taper as the pipe
in use. Standard straight slips on this tapered portion are
likely to create deep slip marks and stress concentrations.
At times it might be necessary to set slips on the cylindrical

body (middle portion of the tube). Straight slips should be
used. The use of tapered slips on the straight body is likely to
create deep slip marks and stress concentrations. The dam-
age that results from improper slips depends on the weight
suspended below the slips and the speed with which that
load is set on the slips.
Slip dies for aluminum pipe are modified for minimum pen-
Figure DS-74: Thermal shrink-fit technology connects steel etration and maximum power. Slips should never be used to
tool joints to aluminum drill pipe. Courtesy Alcoa. stop the downward motion of drill string, whether the pipe
is aluminum or steel. Using slips for brakes will subject the
The installation of shrunk-on tool joints requires special tools, pipe to abnormal loading and may cause crushing or other
gauges and a knowledge of the correct procedures. Each drill- damage in the slip area.
string assembly is pressure-tested after tool-joint installation.
If tool-joint wear is expected to limit drill-string life, then hard- Slips should be set so connections for make-up or break-out
facing for boxes and pins should be considered. are close to the rotary table. This is to minimize pipe bending
during these operations. Formulas for calculating maximum
Consider tong lengths exceeding standard for boxes and Table DS-19: Aluminum drill pipe
pins if planning to hardface both tool-joint members. weld neck diameters.
Drill string care and handling Nominal Pipe DTEDPE, Max

The typical Brinell hardness of aluminum drill pipe is 135, OD & Upset, in. Diameter, in.
while grade E-75 steel is approximately 200 BHN. Careless
handling can mark either tube. Clearly, aluminum is more
3½ 3.875
easily marked because it is softer. 4 4.625
4½ 5.031
Drill string with aluminum drill pipe should be transport- 5 5.688
ed on a flat-bed truck with no fewer than three supporting
spacers per layer. box height above the table are shown in API RP7G. If the con-
ditions on your job differ from those shown, calculate height
Loading and unloading drill string should be controlled and carefully so that you do not put end kinks in your drill string.
quiet. Loud noises frequently indicate mishandling and sub-
sequent damage. Aluminum is more easily damaged than Blowout preventers
steel, but these guidelines apply to both. The OD of external upset aluminum drill pipe is slightly larg-
er than steel pipe of the same nominal size. If pipe rams for
Avoid hooks in handling all drill string. Choker slings with not steel pipe are used on aluminum, the aluminum pipe is likely
less than 10 ft separation on a strong back bar or spacer bar to be damaged severely.
are recommended.
Elevators
Aluminum drill pipe is likely to show more wear or erosion in Tool joints on aluminum drill pipe have 18° shoulders on
hard, abrasive formations. The nicks and gouges that appear both boxes and pins. The weld neck diameters (DTE or DPE)
in aluminum pipe rarely lead to fatigue problems, unless the are shown in Table DS-19. You must use elevators with cy-
marks are very deep. lindrical bores which will clear these DTE /DPE diameters.

Maintenance Stuck pipe and fishing

The general procedures in fishing for stuck aluminum drill
Coating pipe are similar to those for steel with these exceptions:
It is recommended that new aluminum drill pipe be plastic • Electro-mechanical free-point indicators are necessary
coated internally, re-coating as necessary during the string because aluminum is non-magnetic;
life. Plastic coating improves hydraulics and reduces the ero- • The OD of external-upset aluminum drill pipe is larger
sive/corrosive effects of drilling fluids. than the equivalent size steel pipe; this, plus the long
taper on each end, means that oven-hot assemblies
Worn rotary tables and bushings must be selected to fit over the fish. Standard overshots
Rotary tables, bushings, and slip segments must be main- with a 3- or 4-ft extension or with a joint long enough to
tained according to original specifications. reach over the next tool joint are normally satisfactory;
• The spring-back energy of aluminum pipe is greater than
Straightening steel. On a heavy pull, safety precautions should be
Slightly bowed pipe tends to straighten under the stretching exercised to prevent injury to personnel;
effect of the drill collar load in a normal drilling operation.
End-to-end bow appears to be the major deformation of im- Table DS-20: Maximum tensile load
portance. This can occur with: (lb) of new and used aluminum drill pipe.
• Abnormal temperature changes when on the rack;
Nominal New Premium Class 2
• Transport without adequate spacers under the tie Class
downs;
Pipe, in. (80% Nom. (70% Nom.
• Running drill string in compression with high RPM and
Wall) Wall)
high torque and without rubber protectors. (This may
also abrade metal from the crest of the bow). 3-1/2 297,660 230,470 198,310
4 313,480 244,610 211,340
Operating limits 4-1/2 373,540 291,540 251,910
5 442,430 345,910 299,160
Elasticity
The modulus of elasticity of aluminum is 10.6 × 106, com-
pared with 29 × 106 for steel. Aluminum has much greater Table DS-21: Maximum torsional load (ft-lb)
flexibility and requires about twice as many turns to reach of new and used aluminum drill pipe.
the same torque level. Nominal New Premium Class 2
Class
The limberness or flexibility of aluminum drill pipe causes Pipe, in. (80% Nom. (70% Nom.
the drill string to behave differently during rig operations. Wall) Wall)
Several joints of aluminum should be picked up at the same
3-1/2 20,160 15,360 13,120
time, using double choker slings separated about 10 ft on a
strong back bar or spacer bar, as discussed above. 4 25,480 19,690 16,930
4-1/2 33,310 25,740 22,150
The flexibility of aluminum drill pipe gives it excellent fatigue 5 44,750 34,690 29,890
resistance. Experience has shown that fatigue life general-
ly exceeds wear life. Thus, aluminum drill pipe can be most • If circulation is lost, or if the fish is without circulation
useful when operating in crooked holes, drilling extend- when temperatures are above 300°F, high torsional
ed-reach or horizontal wells, or other applications where and/or tensile load should be avoided until pipe
pipe is subjected to severe bending during rotation. temperatures can be reduced;
• The consistent lengths of aluminum drill pipe offer greater
Mixed strings accuracy when using free-point indicators, placing back-
Mixed strings of aluminum and steeel can be used to ex- off shots or other instruments, checking pipe tallies and
tend the capacity of rigs or reduce tensile and or torsional determining whether pipe has been stretched;
loads. Aluminum should comprise at least 5% of the total. • Care should be taken that tensile yield is not exceeded.
This minimum amount should be added at once to prevent Measure the mid-length pipe diameter frequently so that the
abnormal axial loading due to operational string vibrations person in charge knows the load his pipe can safely carry.
from being concentrated in the aluminum. Aluminum may
be run in the top of the string, but care should be taken to
keep loading within recommended limits.

Heavy weight drill pipe Some API standards refer to standard drill pipe as heavy
Heavy weight drill pipe (HWDP) is similar to standard drill wall (or heavyweight) if manufactured with a larger wall
pipe, except that its wall is thicker than standard drill pipe. thickness. Do not confuse the HWDP discussed herein with
Further, unlike standard drill pipe, HWDP features at least thick-wall standard drill pipe manufactured to API Spec 5DP.
one wear pad or wear knot to add stiffness, provide added
wear resistance, improve hole stabilization and, in some The wear knot is commonly referred to as the center up-
cases, improve hole cleaning. set, although this section is not formed from an upsetting
Figure DS-75: Standard heavy weight drill Figure DS-76: Heavy weight drill pipe with three
pipe. Courtesy NOV Grant Prideco. spiral wear pads. Courtesy NOV Grant Prideco.

DS–58
DRILL STRING
Table DS-22: Heavy weight drill pipe — dimensions and mechanical properties
Tube Tool Joint Weight (lb)
Mechanical Approx Incl.
Mechanical
Nominal tube dimensions Properties Tube & Tool
properties tube
Tool Joint Joints
(Z) Section Center End Tensile End Connection Tensile Torsional Per Make-up
Wall Area Per
ID Modulus Upsets Upsets Yield Upsets Size and OD(D) ID Yield Yield Joint Torque
Thickness (in. 2 ) foot
(in. 3 ) (C) (B) (lb) (B) Type (lb) (ft-lb) (31 ft) (ft-lb)
Nominal
1-1/2 0.688 4.727 2.161 2.161 2-15/16 520,000 22,400 NC26 (2-3/8 IF) 3-3/8 1-1/2 357,700 357,700 17.26 535 3,800
Size (A)
2-7/8 2-1/16 0.719 6.282 3.702 3.702 3-7/8 345,500 19,600 NC38 (3-1/2 IF) 4-3/4 2-1/8 842,400 842,400 25.65 795 11,500
NC38 (3-1/2 IF) 4-3/4 790,900 790,900 23.48 728 11,500
3-1/2 2-1/4 0.625 5.645 3.490 3.490 3-7/8 310,500 18,500 HT38 4-7/8 2-1/4 790,900 790,900 23.96 743 20,500
Copyright © 2015
XT39 4-7/8 871,400 871,400 23.96 743 24,400

NC40 (4 FH) 5-1/4 838,300 838,300 29.92 928 14,600
4 2-9/16 0.719 7.411 5.225 5.225 4-3/16 407,600 27,600 2-9/16
XT39 4-7/8 729,700 729,700 28.40 880 22,200
4-1/2 2-3/4 0.875 9.965 7.698 7.698 4-11/16 548,100 40,700 NC46 (4 IF) 6-1/4 2-13/16 1,151,100 1,151,100 41.45 1,285 22,500
NC50 (4-1/2 IF) 30,000
5 3 1.000 12.566 10.681 10.681 5-1/8 691,200 56,500 6-5/8 3 1,416,200 1,416,200 50.38 1,562
HT50 53,300
5-1/2 FH 41,200
5-1/2 3-1/4 1.125 15.463 14.342 14.342 5-11/16 850,400 75,900 7-1/4 3-1/4 1,778,300 1,778,300 61.63 1,911
HT55 69,000
5-7/8 4 0.938 14.542 15.630 15.630 6 799,800 82,700 XT57 7 4 1,403,100 1,403,100 57.42 1,780 63,700
6-5/8 4-1/2 1.063 18.574 22.476 22.476 6-15/16 1,021,600 118,900 6-5/8 FH 8 4-1/2 1,896,100 1,896,100 71.43 2,214 50,500
Table DS-23: Heavy weight drill pipe with three spiral wear pads—dimensionals & mechanical properties.
Mechanical
properties tube
Tool Joint Joints
(Z) Section Spiral End Tensile Torsional Connection Tensile Torsional Per Make-up
Wall Area OD Per
ID Modulus Upsets Upsets Yield Yield Size and ID Yield Yield Joint Torque
Thickness (in. 2 ) (D) foot
(in. 3 ) (C) (B) (lb) ft-lb) Type (lb) (ft-lb) (31 ft) (ft-lb)
Nominal
1-1/2 0.688 4.727 2.161 2.161 2-15/16 520,000 22900 NC26 (2-3/8 IF) 3-3/8 1-1/2 357,700 6,300 18.22 565 3,800
Size (A)
2-7/8 2-1/16 0.719 6.282 3.702 3.702 3-7/8 345,500 19,600 NC38 (3-1/2 IF) 4-3/4 2-1/8 842,400 19,200 27.05 839 11,500
Copyright © 2015
NC38 (3-1/2 IF) 4-3/4 790,900 19,200 24.88 771 11,500

3-1/2 2-1/4 0.625 5.645 3.490 3.490 3-7/8 310,500 18,500 HT38 4-7/8 2-1/4 790,900 34,200 25.36 786 20,500
XT39 4-7/8 871,400 40,700 25.36 786 24,400
NC40 (4 FH) 5-1/4 838,300 27,800 31.51 977 14,600
4 2-9/16 0.719 7.411 5.225 5.225 4-3/16 407,600 27,600 2-9/16
XT39 4-7/8 729,700 37,000 29.99 930 22,200
4-1/2 2-3/4 0.875 9.965 7.698 7.698 4-11/16 548,100 40,700 NC46 (4 IF) 6-1/4 2-13/16 1,151,100 43,600 43.31 1,343 22,500
NC50 (4-1/2 IF) 57,800 30,000
5 3 1.000 12.566 10.681 10.681 5-1/8 691,200 56,500 6-5/8 3 1,416,200 52.34 1,623
HT50 88,800 53,300
5-1/2 FH 78,700 41,200
DRILL STRING
5-1/2 3-1/4 1.125 15.463 14.342 14.342 5-11/16 850,400 75,900 7-1/4 3-1/4 1,778,300 63.78 1,977
HT55 115,100 69,000
5-7/8 4 0.938 14.542 15.630 15.630 6 799,800 82700 XT57 7 4 1,403,100 106,200 57.42 1,780 63,700
6-5/8 4-1/2 1.063 18.574 22.476 22.476 6-15/16 1,021,600 118,900 6-5/8 FH 8 4-1/2 1,896,100 87,900 74.67 2,315 50,500
NOTE: 2-7/8-in. Tri-Spiral is manufactured integral only (non-welded).
DS–59
DS–60
DRILL STRING
Table DS-24: Heavy weight drillpipe with a continuous spiral wear pad—dimensions & mechanical properties.
Mechanical
properties tube
Tool Joint Joints
(Z) Section Spiral End Tensile Torsional Connection Tensile Torsional Per Make up
Nominal Wall Area OD Per
ID Modulus Upset Upsets Yield Yield Size and ID Yield Yield Joint Torque
Size (A) Thickness (in. 2 ) (D) foot
(in. 3 ) (B) (C) (lb) ft lb) Type (lb) (ft lb) (31 ft) (ft lb)
3 3/16 2 0.594 4.840 2.687 3 5/16 3 3/16 532,400 28,400 SLH90 3 7/8 2 407,000 12,000 19.48 604 6,300
NC38 (3 1/2 IF) 790,900 22,900 13,100
3 1/2 2 1/4 0.625 5.645 3.490 4 3 5/8 310,500 18,500 HT38 4 7/8 2 1/4 790,900 34,200 30.39 942 20,500
XT39 871,400 40,700 24,400
NC40 (4 FH) 838,300 20,900 12,600
4 2 9/16 0.719 7.411 5.225 4 1/2 4 1/8 407,600 27,600 5 2 9/16 28.90 896
Copyright © 2015
XT39 729,700 40,800 24,500

4 1/2 2 3/4 0.875 9.965 7.698 5 4 5/8 548,100 40,700 NC46 (4 IF) 6 1/4 2 13/16 1,151,100 43,600 49.53 1,535 22,500
NC50 (4 1/2 IF) 57,800 30,000
5 3 1.000 12.566 10.681 5 1/2 5 1/8 691,200 56,500 6 5/8 3 1,416,200 59.16 1,834
HT50 88,800 53,300
5 1/2 FH 55,900 29,200
5 1/2 4 0.750 11.192 11.764 6 5 5/8 615,600 62,200 7 4 1,265,800 55.21 1,712
HT55 77,200 46,300
5 7/8 4 0.938 14.542 14.542 6 3/8 6 799,800 82,700 XT57 7 4 1,403,100 106,200 65.38 2,027 63,700
6 5/8 5 0.813 14.837 14.837 7 1/8 6 3/4 1,483,700 185,500 6 5/8 FH 8 5 1,448,400 73,700 73.40 2,275 38,400
NOTE: 3 3/16-in. Spiral-Wate, previously referred to as 2 7/8-in., is manufactured integral only (non-welded).
Figures DS-78: Use of the Stress Relief Groove feature is

recommended on HWDP API connection pins to enhance
connection fatigue life. A standard API pin (top) and a
pin with the Stress Relief Groove (lower) are shown.
23 and DS-24 for HWDP dimensional and mechanical prop-

erties data. They are typically run between drill collars and
standard drill pipe to act as a transition between the very stiff
drill collars and the relatively flexible drill pipe. HWDP can be
manufactured in integral form (machined from a single bar or
tube) or in welded form (with tool joints friction welded to the
HWDP tube). HWDP is designed to be handled with standard
drill pipe handling equipment (tongs, slips, elevators, etc.) as
that is a design requirement of the product.
By providing a gradual change in weight and rigidity, HWDP

increases drill string life by reducing pipe-body and con-
nection fatigue failures. Since it flexes more easily than drill
collars, HWDP can simplify directional control in high-an-
gle and horizontal drilling applications. HWDP has less wall
contact area than drill collars, reducing differential sticking
tendencies. Both HWDP wear pads and the outside diame-
ter of drill collars can be spiraled to help prevent differential
Figure DS-77: Heavy weight drill pipe with a sticking on more challenging wells.
single continuous spiral wear pad.
Connection stress relief design
To enhance connection fatigue resistance, it is generally rec-
or forging process like the upset ends of standard drill pipe. ommended that HWDP ordered with API rotary-shouldered
The wear knots are machined from tubes or bars bored to connections incorporate API stress-relief features, i.e., pin
form the ID. Consequently, they are not actual “upsets.” This Stress Relief Groove and box Bore Back, see Figures DS-78
center wear pad ranges in length from 24 in. to 26 in. and DS-79. API recommends the Bore Back design feature
for box stress relief, and notes that the box Stress Relief
HWDP has a nominal length of 31 ft. See Tables DS-22, DS- Groove feature is also promotes better fatigue resistance.

Figure DS-79a shows a standard API box; Figure DS-79b, a sive state and retards initiation of fatigue cracks. As noted
box with Bore Back feature; and Figure DS-79c, a box with by API, both laboratory fatigue tests and field service trials
stress relief groove feature. have positively demonstrated that stress-relief features and
cold-rolled threads improve fatigue resistant of connections
Cold working thread roots on HWDP. Note that proprietary and, in particular, some
These features remove threads that include sharp discon- double-shoulder connections do not necessarily come with
tinuities (thread roots) that concentrate stress in already these stress-relief features and may not require them to pro-
highly stressed areas of the connections. The removed vide acceptable fatigue resistance.
threads are replaced by smoother, more fatigue-resistant
geometries that reduce stress concentrations. In addition, API Spec 7-1 lists sizes of HWDP corresponding to drill pipe
it is recommended that connections receive cold rolling of sizes 3 ½-in. through 6 ⅝-in. Additional sizes are available
the thread roots, which cold works the root into a compres- from various manufacturers. The wall thickness of HWDP
varies from approximately 0.625 in. to 1.312 in. The nomi-
nal OD of the wear or spiral wear upset sections is generally
0.500 in. greater than the nominal tube OD.
Typically 10 to 20 joints or more of HWDP are run between

the drill collars and the standard drill pipe in drill strings for
vertical and low-angle directional wells. This HWDP section
is considered part of the bottomhole assembly (BHA). Tra-
ditionally, sufficient drill collars are run to provide the de-
sired weight on bit. Therefore, the neutral point at which the
drill string crosses from compression to tension is located in
the drill collar interval.
Figure DS-79a
Some drillers prefer to use HWDP to provide a portion of the
weight on bit. In these drill strings the neutral point is in the
HWDP interval. Of course, the neutral point should always
be below the standard drill pipe (on conventional wells) or
rapid fatigue failures due to cyclical bending may occur.
Directional & horizontal drilling

On high-angle directional, extended-reach and horizontal
wells, longer sections of HWDP may be required to prevent
drill-string buckling. HWDP can be used in these applications
throughout the lateral or tangent section and potentially even
higher. Often, drill collars are not used in the tangent section
of these applications because the deviation angle is so great
Figure DS-79b
that the drill collar/drill-string weight does not significant-
ly increase weight on bit. Weight on bit is achieved through
drill-string compression. In these applications HWDP is often
used because it can withstand higher axial compressive loads
without buckling than standard drill pipe.
HWDP can be placed higher in the string in and above the

well build-up section. This will apply more weight to the low-
er portion of the string. HWDP may be placed here for three
reasons. First, HWDP is heavier than standard drill pipe,
and, second, it is more resistant to buckling. Finally, HWDP
is more flexible than drill collars. This last point is important,
because a stiff component in the buildup section can sub-
stantially increase torque and drag in the drill string.
Figure DS-79c

Types of HWDP HWDP Material Grades

There are several configurations of HWDP offered by vari-
ous manufacturers designed to suit different drillers’ prefer- Welded Configuration
ences. Three of these configurations are: Standard material grade HWDP in the welded configuration
• Standard HWDP; is manufactured from 55,000-psi minimum yield strength
• HWDP with three spiraled wear pads; tubes. The yield strength of the tool joints is based on the
• HWDP with a single continuous spiral wear pad. bar or tube OD used to manufacture the tool joints. General-
ly, HWDP with a tube OD of 5 in. and smaller is built with tool
See Figures DS-75, DS-76 and DS-77. Dimensional informa- joints that have a minimum yield strength of 110,000 psi.
tion and performance characteristic for the HWDP config- HWDP with tube ODs of 5 ½-in. and larger have 100,000-
urations are included in Tables DS-22, DS-23 and DS-24. psi minimum yield strength tool joints.
Standard HWDP At least one manufacturer supplies HWDP with tool joints
Standard Heavy weight drill pipe has a single wear section that have minimum yield strength of 120,000 psi. In this
in the middle of the tube that is approximately 2 ft long. The section, standard grade refers to HWDP material proper-
center wear section usually includes tungsten carbide-based ties, not the configuration described above. Standard grade
hardband at either end of the center wear pad. Use of cas- HWDP, as well as the other HWDP grades discussed below,
ing-friendly, tungsten carbide-free hardband is generally not can be provided in standard, three spiraled wear pads or sin-
recommended for use on the center wear pad, since it can gle continuous spiral wear pad configurations.
cause cracking in the base metal in this region.
The relatively low yield strength for standard grade HWDP
There are some exceptions to this general recommenda- is offset by the thick wall of the tube and to some extent
tion. In some cases, casing-friendly hardband is applied to because loads at the bottom of the drill string are generally
the center wear section. Casing friendly, tungsten carbide lower than in the upper sections. Consequently, it is com-
free or tungsten-based hardband can be applied to the tool mon and acceptable in most cases,to use standard grade
joints. Since HWDP is heavier than standard drill pipe, it HWDP with S-135 and higher strength conventional drill
will likely encounter higher side loads and corresponding- pipe in the same string.
ly higher drilling wear rates, especially in deviated wells.
Most HWDP receives casing-friendly HB types applied in a The drill string designer and operator should always ensure
raised condition above the tool joint’s OD (typically raised that the selected HWDP is compatible with the drill pipe and
3/32-in. above tool-joint OD on the diameter). Of course, HB expected drilling operating loads. If higher strength HWDP
wear should be monitored, and a HB reapplication program is required, several manufacturers offer higher-strength
should be in place to prevent excessive tool-joint wear. HWDP grades.
HWDP with three spiral wear pads High-strength HWDP can be used where elevated axial and
This HWDP has three spiral wear sections along the length torsional loading is expected. High-strength HWDP is man-
of the joint. The spiral configuration can help with hole clean- ufactured with 95,000-psi or 105,000-psi minimum yield
ing by agitating and removing cuttings, as well as decreasing strength tubes. The 105,000-psi designs provide axial tension
differential sticking tendencies by reducing pipe contact area and compression and torsional capacities equal to or greater
with the borehole. These characteristics can be especially than most types of standard drill pipe tubes. As a result of
beneficial in high-angle directional drilling and horizontal drill- the increased strength, high-strength HWDP may be useful
ing applications. With more pads, the HWDP has more bear- for short-radius, horizontal and extended-reach applications
ing points and will more likely contact on one of these, rather in which using HWDP above the kick-off point is needed to
than the pipe body if the HWDP is deflected in buckling. apply bit weight and provide additional buckling stability.
HWDP with continuous spiral wear pad

The approximately 21-ft spiraled upset section starts near
the pin end of the joint. As with HWDP with three spiraled
wear pads, the spiraled section helps with cuttings removal
and reduces differential sticking tendencies. This version of
HWDP is heavier and stiffer. This presents an advantage in
directional drilling control but can induce higher torque and
drag forces in deviated wells.

DS–64
Table DS-25: Material properties for sour-service HWDP
Tube Data Tool Joint Data Assembly Properties
Standard HWDP High strength HWDP Sour service HWDP Standard tool
Nominal Nominal X-90 tool joint
mechanical mechanical mechanical joint mechanical Adjusted weight
dimensions dimensions mechanical properties
properties 55KSI properties HW-105 properties XD-90 properties
DRILL STRING
Torsional Torsional Torsional
Pipe Tensile yield Tensile yield Tensile yield Connection Make-up Tensile yield Make-up Tensile yield Convntional TREI- SPIRAL-
ID yield yield yield Connection
OD strength strength strength OD torque strenght torque strenght HWDP SPIRAL™ WATE™
strength strength strength
in. in. ft-lb lb ft-lb lb ft-lb lb in. ft-lb lb ft-lb lb
3 1/2 2 1/16 19,600 345,400 37,400 659,400 32,000 565,200 NC 38 4 3/4 11,500 852,700 9,600 710,600 25.58 26.98 31.85
3 1/2 2 1/4 18,500 310,500 35,200 592,700 30,200 508,100 NC 38 4 7/8 13,700 776,500 11,500 647,100 23.90 25.3 30.17
4 2 9/16 27,600 407,500 52,800 778,000 45,200 666,800 NC 40 5 1/4 16,600 822,800 13,800 685,700 29.90 31.49 37.01
4 2 9/16 27,600 407,500 52,800 778,000 45,200 666,800 XT 39 4 7/8 21,200 662,200 17,700 551,800 28.38 29.97 35.49
4 2 9/16 27,600 407,500 52,800 778,000 45,200 666,800 TT 390 5 29,700 686,700 N/A N/A 28.38 29.97 35.49
4 1/2 2 3/4 40,700 548,100 77,700 1,046,300 66,600 896,800 NC 46 6 1/4 26,600 1,166,300 22,200 971,900 41.53 43.30 49.47
Copyright © 2015
5 3 56,500 691,200 107,900 1,319,500 92,400 1,131,000 NC 50 6 5/8 34,500 1,397,200 28,800 1,164,400 50.38 52.34 59.16
5 3 56,500 691,200 107,900 1,319,500 92,400 1,131,000 XT 50 6 5/8 54,400 1,248,800 45,300 1,040,700 50.38 52.34 59.16
5 1/2 3 1/4 75,900 850,400 144,800 1,623,600 124,100 1,391,600 5 1/2 FH 7 1/4 47,200 1,757,000 39,400 1,464,100 61.63 63.77 71.24
5 1/2 3 1/4 75,900 850,400 144,800 1,623,600 124,100 1,391,600 HT 55 7 1/4 55,600 1,427,100 46,300 1,189,200 61.63 63.77 71.24
5 1/2 3 1/4 75,900 850,400 144,800 1,623,600 124,100 1,391,600 XT 54 6 5/8 49,900 1,147,200 41,600 956,000 57.98 60.13 67.59
5 7/8 4 82,700 799,800 157,800 1,526,900 135,300 1,308,800 XT 57 7 56,600 1,200,500 47,200 1,000,400 55.14 57.42 65.38
5 7/8 4 82,700 799,800 157,800 1,526,900 135,300 1,308,800 XTM 57 7 51,600 1,200,500 43,000 1,000,400 55.14 57.42 65.38
6 5/8 4 1/2 118,800 1,021,200 226,900 1,949,600 194,500 1,671,100 6 5/8 FH 8 52,700 1,871,600 43,900 1,559,700 71.08 73.64 82.58
6 5/8 4 1/2 118,800 1,021,200 226,900 1,949,600 194,500 1,671,100 HT 65 8 59,800 1,423,500 49,800 1,186,200 71.08 73.64 82.58
Sour-service HWDP is built using tubes with a tempered mar- must be checked for wear and must be in a good working
tensite microstructure for enhanced resistance to crack initi- condition before making-up and running HWDP.
ation and propagation. It is resistant to sulfide stress cracking
and provides improved fracture toughness for sour service When tripping doubles or triples, it is good practice to break
applications. Important material properties for sour-service different connections on each trip, providing an opportunity
HWDP material grades are shown in Table DS-25. to look at each pin and box every two or three trips. Inspect
the connection threads and shoulders for galling, stabbing
Integral configuration damage, signs of over-torquing, excessive wear, corrosion and
The material yield strength for integral HWDP tubes is the same other potential damage. Thread protectors should be used on
as the tool joints. Typically, 5-in. and smaller HWDP will be man- both pin and box connections when laying the HWDP down.
ufactured from bars or tubes with minimum yield strength of Before storing, the HWDP should be cleaned and a good
110,000 psi, while 5 ½-in. and larger are manufactured from thread storage rust prevention compound should be applied.
bars or tubes with 100,000-psi minimum yield strength.
Failure prevention and troubleshooting
Safety and handling HWDP is subject to the same types of failures and potential
HWDP is designed and manufactured to be run with the problems as standard drill pipe and other drill stem compo-
same procedures and handling equipment as standard drill nents. Over-torquing failures are somewhat less common
pipe. Please refer to the discussion of drill pipe in this chap- in HWDP and HWDP connections, since HWDP typically
ter for details on equipment, running procedures and safety comprises part of the BHA, located at the bottom of the drill
considerations. The tool-joint connections on the HWDP string, where drilling torques are generally lower. Of course,
generally match the connections for the drill pipe run above since HWDP is more commonly run higher up and through-
and/or adjacent to the HWDP. out the drill string in high-angle and horizontal directional
drilling applications, it is exposed to higher drilling torque
This is the recommended configuration, since it eliminates and potential over-torque failures.
the need for crossovers, allows use of the same handling
and running tools (slips, elevators, tongs, etc.) and enhances Connection fatigue failures can occur in HWDP assem-
drilling efficiency. If the recommended make-up torques for blies. Generally the connection is more flexible that the
drill pipe and HWDP tool joints are different, use the low- pipe in HWDP, and higher bending stresses occur in the
er value. In rare cases, the HWDP may employ a different connections than in the pipe. This differs from standard
tool-joint connection. In these cases, use crossovers and the drill pipe, where connections are generally stiffer than the
same procedures used to run a drill-stem tool incorporating pipe body. Consequently, use of the stress-relief features
a different connection than the drill pipe. and cold-worked threads as discussed above is highly rec-
ommended for HWDP connections to help mitigate these
It’s essential to have the proper equipment on the rig to make fatigue failures. Use of proper make-up and running prac-
up the HWDP. The following equipment must be checked tices as detailed in the section on drill pipe connections is
to match the desired HWDP: rotary table, bushings, insert also critical.
bowls, slips, safety clamp and tongs. All this rig equipment

Figure DS-80: Field image

of failed HWDP pin section.
Shiny friction wear and black
oxide on tool joint is visible.
Downhole friction-induced heating failures Three conditions are required to produce friction heating:
Drill-string failures caused by friction heating of HWDP and side loading, rotation and sufficient coefficient of friction
drill pipe have risen dramatically over the last several years. between the surfaces. These conditions are met in sever-
Although drilling engineers are familiar with heat checking al ways: rotating in too severe a dogleg, continued rotation
caused by downhole heating due to borehole friction, cata- while in a stuck situation, drilling in an interval with numer-
strophic overheating failures were rarely experienced prior ous wellbore-trajectory corrections, and when cuttings are
to the last several years. The consequences of downhole inadequately removed due to formation sloughing or insuffi-
heating are often severe, resulting in axial separation of the cient mud flow (packing off).
drill string and creating potential well-control safety issues,
costly fishing jobs and other remedial efforts. Identifying downhole heating
Field observations assisted by magnetic particle inspection,
In one failure mode, HWDP or drill pipe is heated above a if available, can identify downhole heating as a likely failure
critical transformation temperature, accompanied by a rapid cause. Metallographic and microscopic image analyses are
decrease in tensile strength. Subsequently, the component not possible in the field; however, they are necessary to con-
fails under tension loading, well below the axial strength rat- clusively determine that downhole heating led to the failure.
ing of the drill string. Recently, another HWDP failure mode
has been documented on three different wells in which the Below is a checklist of the main features of a downhole heat-
pipe parted in a purely brittle fashion. These fractures oc- ing failure for field use during a failure analysis:
curred as direct consequence of the steel being heated to
very high temperatures (1,300ºF and above), followed by • Smooth shiny surfaces from friction wear: These sur-
rapid cooling (quenching) by the drilling fluid resulting in faces are often black or blue due to oxides that form
very brittle, low-toughness steel. under high temperatures. See Figure DS-80; Blackened
and charred ID surfaces near the location of the failure

Figure DS-81: HWDP section and severed pin tool joint. Exaggerated necking at the failure location on the pipe section is apparent..
or thick, blackened sludge formed by burning of drilling Mitigation methods

fluids; As discussed, friction heating failures are the result of ex-
cessive side loading while rotating with sufficient coefficient
• Exaggerated necking and elongated necking of the of friction between the drill stem and the formation and/
region near failure: See Figure DS-81. A normal sep- or casing. In general, efforts to mitigate any of these three
aration failure will produce some necking but does not conditions will enhance the drill stem’s resistance to friction
create exaggerated necking without assistance from heating failures. Some operational examples that should be
high heating; considered include:
• Minimize time, rotational speed and string tension
• Flat fracture faces: Although not always strictly caused during backreaming, especially when formation
by conversion of the steel to untempered martensite, keyseats, cuts, ledges or other downhole conditions are
when this occurs along with other visual evidence of preventing axial pipe movement;
downhole heating then downhole heating should be • Avoid string rotation in keyseats, cuts and ledges or
suspected. when the drillstring is axially stuck but can still be
rotated;
Downhole overheating failures typically occur in or around • Avoid pulling upwards and rotating at the same time
the transition area between the tool joint and drill pipe up- when lost returns of the drilling mud are observed;
set or HWDP tube (18º or 35º shoulder area). This area can • Minimize doglegs and dogleg severity, especially in the
get caught by a ledge, keyseat or other wellbore obstruction upper portion of the wellbore;
during drilling operations. • Utilize drilling fluids with low coefficients of friction;
• Utilize friction reducing tools such as drill pipe rubbers
and non-rotating drill-pipe protectors in areas of the drill
stem where high side loading exists;
• Utilize raised hardbanding on drill pipe and HWDP tool
joints;
• Minimize drilling RPM;
• Minimize drill stem weight.

Drill collars
Drill collars are thick-walled tubular pieces machined from
solid steel bars, which are a component of the bottom hole
assembly (BHA) featuring:
• Weight on bit to improve drilling performance;
• Stiffness to help prevent buckling and undesirable
deviations of the bottom hole assembly;
• Sticking prevention with optional spiraling;
• Handling with elevator recesses and Slip Recesses.
Figure DS-83: Slick drill collars have a continuous ODs (except
Related terms and acronyms include: when slip and/or elevator recesses are machined).
• DC: Drill collar;
• ZIP: Drill collar with slip and elevator recess;
• SRF: Stress-relief features.
Figure DS-82: Basic drill collar with dimensions.

Figure DS-84: Spiral drill collars have a long, spiralled section,
Steel used to manufacture drill collars is generally plain car- which helps with cuttings removal and reduces
bon, but collars can occasionally be created from nonmag- differential sticking.
netic nickel-copper alloy or other nonmagnetic premium al-
loys. The production process for drill collars includes drilling
a hole through a steel bar from end to end, providing a pas-
sage for pumped drilling fluids. The outside diameter of the Hardbanded drill collar
steel bars may either be machined slightly for roundness, or Three types of hardbanded drill collars exist:
with helical grooves (“spiral collars”). Lastly, threaded male •Type A: Drill collars with hardbanding, but without slip
and female connections are machined so that drill collars and elevator recesses (Figure DS-85a);
and other downhole tools can be joined to create the BHA. • Type B: Drill collars with hardbanding and with slip and
elevator recesses (Figure DS-85b);
Gravity and the large mass of the collar act together to pro- • Type C: Drill collars with hardbanding and with slip
vide the downward force needed for the drill bit to break rock recess but without an elevator recess (Figure DS-85c).
efficiently. Using drill collars accurately requires controlling
the level of force applied to the bit, which is measured be-
fore the bit has touched the bottom of the wellbore. Next,
the drill bit is slowly lowered until it touches bottom. The
driller then continues to lower the drillstring until weight on
bit increases and, as a result, less weight is measured hang-
ing at the well surface. In a vertical well, if the surface mea-
surement shows less weight than with the bit off bottom,
the same corresponding weight should be measured as a
force on the bit. For horizontal wells, this is more complicat-
ed. Downhole MWD sensors are needed to more accurately
measure weight on bit and transmit the data to the surface.
Types of drill collars

The two main types of drill collars are slick drill collars and Figure DS-85: A Type A drill collar (top) has
spiral drill collar. Slick drill collars have a continuous OD, ex- been hardbanded, but without slip and elevator recesses.
cept when slip or elevator recesses are machined (Figure Middle image shows a Type B drill collar, which features
DS-83). Spiral drill collars, conversely, have a long, spiralled hardbanding and has slip and elevator recesses. Finally,
section, which helps with cuttings removal and reduces dif- Type C drill collars (bottom) are hardbanded and
ferential sticking (Figure DS-84). feature a slip recess, but lack an elevator recess.

Figure DS-87: Box boreback stress-relief configuration.

Figure DS-86: Note the grooves just above the threads.
These pin stress-release grooves are machined on
drill collar connections to reduce stress by removing However, in some cases they can be selected to avoid the
unused threads that act as stress concentrators. use of crossovers or to obtain higher torque values when
See below for more on slip and elevator recesses. drilling more challenging wells.
Measuring length Stress relief features

The most common way to measure drill collar length is by Stress-relief features, which are optional, are grooves ma-
using the overall length (OAL). It can, however, also be mea- chined on drill collar connections to reduce stress by remov-
sured using shoulder-to-shoulder length (Figure DS-82). ing unused threads that act as stress concentrators. This
process makes the joint more flexible and reduces the likeli-
API 7-1 defines 2 possible lengths: hood of fatigue cracking in this highly stressed area.
OAL 30 ft, +/- 6 in. (9.14 m +/- 152.4 mm);
OAL 31 ft, +/- 6 in. (9.45 m +/- 152.4 mm). Stress-relief features cause a slight reduction in the tensile
strength of the pin and the section modulus of the connec-
The most common Drill Collar length is 31 ft +/- 6 in. OAL. tion. Stress Relief features increase the life expectancy of
But they can also be ordered with a “controlled” length. This drill collars under cycle bending conditions. Some laborato-
is a length with a restricted range of tolerance for the overall ry fatigue tests have proven an increased fatigue resistance
length. The most common criteria are +/- 6 in. of about 40 %.
Table A.14 from API 7-1 describes recommended OD and ID As mentioned in API, stress-relief features do not affect the
sizes. Other dimensions are also possible based on request- interchangeability of connections and improve connection
ed design. performance. Stress-relief grooves are not recommend-
ed for pin threads with pitch diameters (C) at gauge point
Slip and elevator recess smaller than 89 mm (3 ½ in.);
Slip and elevator recesses are optional machined grooves
used to reduce handling time and increase safety by elim- Points to remember about stress-relief grooves:
inating lift subs and safety clamps. •Stress-relief grooves are not recommended for pin
threads with pitch diameters (C) at gauge point smaller
A standard elevator recess is designed to run with a 90° ele- than 89 mm (3 ½ in);
vator, but it can be also designed with an 18° taper. • NC35 is the smallest DC size possible with stress-relief
grooves. Points to remember about box boreback:
Standard slip recesses are designed to run with slips. • The boreback contour is not recommended for use on
threads with pin length (LPC) smaller than 89 mm (3 ½
The upper radius of the elevator recess is cold-rolled to in- in);
crease product life. Slip and elevator recesses can be used • NC35 is the smallest size DC possible with a box
together or separately. Unless otherwise specified, slip and boreback.
elevator recesses are machined in compliance with API
RP7G guidelines.
Connections
API connections are a standard option for drill collars used
in the BHA.
Double shoulder connections are not common for DCs.

Materials If thread protectors are used, as recommended, avoid use

of pressed steel protectors, as they may allow the weight of
Standard drill collars are manufactured using AISI the stand to be supported by the primary make-up shoulder
4145H-modified steel. API 7-1 only specifies minimum me- of the connection on the sharp edge of the thread protector.
chanical properties:
Ys = 110,000 psi: OD ≤ 7 in.; When racking drill collars back in the derrick, it is important
Ys = 100,000 psi: OD > 7 in. to apply oil, grease, or thread compound to the connections
to avoid the risk of corrosion.
Sour service (ERS425)
For specific usage in sour oil and gas wells; there are existing It is recommended to check the Performance Data Sheet
sour service grades that fulfill the requirements of the NACE (PDS) for the product at the rig site rather than wait until
MR0175/ISO 15156 standards. The SSC resistance is tested using it. PDS list the critical dimensions, performance and
according to method A of the NACE TM0177 standard: make-up torque values.
Ys = 110,000 psi: (ERS 425) OD ≤ 7 in.;
Ys = 100,000 psi: (ERS 425) OD > 7 in. When running the product, the rig crew should use the
make-up torque value shown in the PDS.
Sour service materials for BHA and more particularly for drill
collars are not a common option required due to the inher- Evaluation, testing and inspection
ent thickness of the product. When the drill collar arrives at the rig site, the quantity and
type of drill collar delivered should be verified. In case the
Non-magnetic DC drill collars are not of the correct type or quantity, the pipe
Special non-magnetic drill collars are used for extreme ser- yard should be contacted immediately.
vice or directional drilling applications. Non-magnetic DC
has the advantage of not interfering with specialized direc- Check that all the protectors are in place and have not been
tional drilling equipment using magnetic sensors. These damaged or lost during transportation. In case of lost or
sensors can be adversely affected by ordinary magnetic damaged protectors, please check the connections. If pro-
steel drill collars located adjacent to the directional drilling tectors are found to be missing or damaged then replace-
tools. ment ones should be bought from the supplier. If the pipe
is not going to be used immediately, then check that the
While not generally applied solely for this reason, non-mag- storage compound is in good condition in order to prevent
netic drill collars provide superior corrosion resistance rel- corrosion of the connections.
ative to standard low-alloy carbon steel drill collars (AISI
4145). Further, non-magnetic drill collars offer better resis- Calculating bending stress ratio (BSR)
tance to pitting and general weight-loss corrosion, compared On a drill collar or other BHA component, BSR is the ratio of
to sour service drill collars. Sour-service DCs are resistant to the box section modulus to the pin section modulus. BSR is
sulfide stress cracking and stress corrosion cracking, but not used as an approximate indicator of the suitability of a given
to other forms of general corrosion. connection on given outside and inside diameters. BSR does
not apply to connections on normal weight drill pipe.
Yield strengths for non-magnetic collars are:
Ys = 120,000 psi: 2 ¾ in. ≤ OD < 3 ½ in.;
Ys = 116,000 psi: 3 ½ in. ≤ OD < 7 in.;
Ys = 112,000 psi: 7 in. ≤ OD ≤ 11 in.
Operating procedures and best practices

To reduce the risk of damage, drill collars should always be
fitted with thread protectors before handling. Thread pro-
tectors shall be removed on the rig floor immediately prior
to making up the connections.

Table DS-26: Inspection procedures.

What is done as per Drillstring
Nominal tube dimensions
Inspection Standard NS-2 rev 0
General inspection
Traceability Record Joint Serial Number
Measure and record length of Chapter 1.7

Tally Length
joint from pin to box page 7
Body inspection
Chapter 4.5
To detect obvious damage and
Visual Inspection page 103
overall condition, straightness
Pin and box connection inspection
Evaluate the condition of seal, Visual examinations of connections,

Visual Inspection threads, stress relief groove Chapter 4.5 shoulders, and profile check of threads, Chapter 3.11 page 28
and bevel diameter page 103 measurement of box swell
Threads, stress relief groove,

tong areas for detection Chapter 4.5
Magnetic Inspection
particle on transerve and three page 103
dimensional flaws
Includes measurement of pin Measurement of Go-No-Go gaging of box

Chapter 4.5
ID, Bevel diameter, tong space, OD, pin ID, pin lead, bevel diameter, pin
Dimensional Inspection page 103 Chapter 3.14 page 39
stress relief groove, shoulder stress relief diameter and width, boreback
flatness and thread profile cylinder diameter and thread length
Inspections of connections for fatigue Chapter 3.16 page 45

UT Connection
cracks
Recutting and Gaging

Proper repair of connections Chapter 3.33 page 81
of RSC
Slip & elevator grooves recess inspection
Measurement of elevator groove

Dimensional verification of OD,
Chapter 4.5 dimensions such as collar OD, groove Chapter 3.18 page 48
Visual & Dimensional recess depth and length, visual
page 103 length,,, groove depth, and visual
of elevator shoulder
inspection of groove shoulder
VAM proprietary connections
VIM EIS & CDS According to VAM field procedure - latest edition
VAM EXPRESS According to VAM field procedure - latest edition

Safety valves H modified or for two pieces of AISI 4330 V modified alloy
Safety valves are used at surface to ensure safety on rig steel heat treated to 285-341 Brinell hardness and a min-
floor to control kicks while drilling. Downhole safety valves imum impact strength of value of 42 J, as per ASTM 370
are used downhole to enable safe operations on the rig floor. Charpy V notch at -10°C. The body inside surface is chromi-
They are used to prevent back flow of the mud: when break- um plated to enhance mud corrosion resistance and mainte-
ing connections. A kick is a flow of formation fluids into the nance operation;
wellbore during drilling operations. The kick is physically
caused by the pressure in the wellbore being less than that • H2S trim version, designed for H2S environment. Internal
of the formation fluids, thus causing flow. See the Well Con- parts are made of corrosion resistant materials matching
trol Chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition. the NACE MR0175 standard (latest edition), fitted in a
standard body;
These valves are designed to close the internal bore of the
drill string and to provide a free passage through the safety • Full NACE version which fully meets the NACE MR0175
devices, as well as to maintain the mud column when break- standard to resist H2S. The body is made of UNS S17400,
ing connections. heat treated to meet both NACE standard and API spec. 7
(latest edition).
The three major types of safety valves are:
• Kelly cock valve; Kelly cock specifications
• Retrievable, Drop-in Check Valve (RDCV); API Spec 7-1 provides specifications for Class 1 and Class 2
• Internal BOPs (I-BOPs). kelly cock valves. The following distinguish the two classes:
• Class 1: Working internal pressure (at 10,000-15,000
Of the three, the Kelly cock is the most common, and is usu- psi) tested at 15,000-22,500 psi. Class 1 is the most
ally located on the rig floor. The series are linked to the ID of common;
the passage. Two types of kelly cock valves exist, Class 1 and • Class 2: Class 1 plus external pressure tested (at 2,000
Class 2. The kelly cock is also called the full opening safety psi) plus design qualification.
valve (FOSV) or TIW valve.
DS1 does not specify anything for safety valves, and NS1 refers
Kelly cock valve to only kelly cock valves. The latter requires additional require-
There are three types of kelly cock: ments, compared to API, including impact testing at -20°C,
sampling for mechanical properties and the same design:
• Hydraulically actuated: Designed for automatic opening • DS1, published by TH Hill Inc;
and closing and integrated into the top drive; • NS1 refers to kelly cock valves only
• Upper: Features left-hand thread, and functions only with
API connections. The upper Kelly cock is manually oper- Be aware of the following:
ated; • Class categories don’t define construction type;
• Lower: Right-hand thread and manually operated. This is • The KC could be one or two pieces;
the most widely used. • Class 1 and Class 2 valve designs differ, and the repair
kits are not interchangeable.
KC2S assembly
KC2S internal parts are made of high-grade stainless steel RDCV
heat treated to 285 HB (minimum). The spherical plug is Retrievable drop-in check valves (RDCV) can be used in the
made of chromium plated stainless steel. Upper and lower drill string. The series is linked to the check valve OD. It’s
seats seal on the spherical plug with pressed-in polytetra- important to always check the compatibility between the
fluoroethylene (PTFE) rings. The split retainer is made of 4 RDCV and the kelly cock. The RDCV is also called dart valve
pieces holding the valve under downhole pressure and en- and back-pressure valve.
abling easy disassembling.
Primary applications for RDCV are:
The design of the body limits plug rotation to 90° between • When kicks are expected;
open and closed positions. • To control back flows from high-pressure formations.
(When the back flow is under control, the RDCV can be
The KC2S range features three different versions: retrieved with wireline.
• Standard version, which is suitable for normal drilling con- RDCVs are used when a landing sub is part of the drill string.
ditions. The valve body is made of a single piece of AISI 4145 The RDCV is dropped into the drill string, just above the

opened kelly cock, then pumped down to its landing sub. Accessories
Once clamped in the landing sub, the valve will seal the Accessories include subs, pup-joints, stabilizers and kellies.
string from downhole pressures, allowing mud circulation Accessories are usually manufactured from solid bar stock
for well control. The ball moves down to allow kick control with material chosen to suit different specification require-
with heavy mud circulation. The spring pushes the ball back ments. Accessory tool joints are profiled to match adjoining
up when the pumps stop. When the back flow is under con- tools. Accessory specifications include API (minimum), NS-
trol, the RDCV can be retrieved by using the overshot. When 1, DS1, and other special requirements or customers speci-
well-control operations are complete, the overshot will fish fications.
the valve out of the string.
Subs
RDCV Specifications A sub is a transition element which connects to two differing
API Spec 7-1 is the only applicable specification. API 7-1 has drill string components to surface tools or drill string con-
no requirements for design, but pressure tests are defined. nectors. Commonly called crossover subs, specifications
Valves must be pressure tested at 1.5 of working pressure, generally refer to subs as a “Substitute”. Subs can vary in
up to 15,000 psi. shape, location and function in the drill string.
I-BOPs Linking subs

Finally, internal BOPs (I-BOPs) are mainly used on the rig Linking subs are used to connect 2 devices differing in OD,
floor, though they can also be used within the drill string. The ID, connection type, or a combination. They are commonly
series is linked to the valve seat ID. The I-BOP is also called called cross-over subs. Descriptions of common linking subs
the gray valve and the BVR. include:
I-BOPs are used as soon as an upward flow occurs to control • Swivel sub: Connects swivel to the kelly (pin/pin sub).
back flow coming form inside the drill pipe. This will ensure Typically 8 in. shoulder to shoulder;
complete protection of the swivel, drilling hose, standpipe • Top-drive saver sub: Connects top drive to drill pipe
and circulation equipment. (pin/pin sub). These are very short, measuring only 6
in. Shoulder to shoulder, leaving no room for a bottle
I-BOPs can be placed either on the rig floor and used with neck. Typically 7 ¼ -in. or 7 ⅜-in. OD;
a complete I-BOP configuration, or just below the rig floor, • BIT sub: Connects drill collar (DC) to the bit, usually
used without a plug when connected between the kelly or with bore back on the drill collar end and a float bore on
top drive and the drill pipe. the bit end (where applicable);
• Crossover subs: Connects drill pipe or HWDP to the
I-BOP Specifications DC, usually with stress-relief features, as applicable.
API Spec 7-1 is the only applicable specification. API 7-1 has Can also connect DC to DC.
no requirements for design, but pressure tests are defined
and are equivalent to that for RDCVs. Valves must be pres- Lift subs
sure tested at 1.5 of working pressure, up to 15,000 psi. Lift subs are located on the surface and are used to lift drill
collars with drill pipe elevators. The top OD matches a drill-
I-BOP design pipe tool joint OD with a reduced section to fit the drill-pipe
The I-BOP comprises three components: elevator. Lift subs have a minimum length of 36 in. without
Plug: Material: 4145 H Mod (120,000 psi); an upper box and 48 in. with an upper box. There are usually
Upper valve body: Material 4330 V Mod (130,000 psi); no stress relief features
Lower valve body: Material 4330 V Mod (130,000 psi).
Lift plugs are used to lift drill collars when drill collars are
On the rig floor, the three components described above are worn or when they have no elevator recesses. They usual-
screwed together. To close the I-BOP, pull the release screw ly have no stress relief features with a square shoulder to
out from the plug. The release rod then moves up and the in- match the drill collar elevator.
side valve head with insert is blocked by the seat. The valve
is now closed and fluid is blocked. No plug is needed when Workover subs
used linked between the kelly/top drive and the drill pipe. Workover subs are not used during drilling operations, but
during cementing, workover or for well-pressure testing.
Be aware that an I-BOP in the drill string restricts flow during Types of workover subs include pump-in sub, side-entry sub
normal operations. It is not a full opening. and circulating sub.

Figure DS-88: Three types of drill-stem subs (A, B, C). Courtesy Vallourec.
Figure DS-89: Various linking subs. Courtesy Vallourec.

Pup joints Welded blade stabilizers are similar to drill collars with
Pup joints are used to adjust the length of the drill string. Pup blades welded in place. Hardfacing can be selected accord-
joints are usually manufactured from solid blocks and can ing to client specifications. This option is less expensive, but
be made to function in sour-service environments. Typical not as robust as the integral stabilizer.
lengths include 5, 10, 15, 20 ft, though other configurations
can be manufactured. The last type of stabilizer is the sleeve type. This stabilizer
is built to match the drill collar on a mandrel, complete with
Stabilizers a threaded center connection. A sleeve is supplied to suit to
Stabilizers are usually used to prevent buckling, avoid well suit the stabilizer. The sleeve is interchangeable once on rig
deviation, reduce vibration, prevent wellbore damage, and location.
generally increase drill-string stability. Stabilizers come in a
variety of configurations. Kellys
Kellys are long, square or hexagonal steel bars with a hole
Typically, one or two stabilizers are placed in the bottom- drilled through the middle for a fluid path. Kellys are used to
hole assembly (BHA) next to the drill collar. Stabilizers can transmit rotary motion from the rotary table or kelly bushing
either be manufactured from bars or from forged products, to the drill string, while allowing the drill string to be lowered
depending on their size, with specific hardbanding applied or raised during rotation.
to the blades.
On more modern rigs, kellys have been replaced by top
In stabilizers with integral blades, neck OD is manufactured drives, but they are still used as back-up tools. (See the Ro-
to suit the drill collar. Product performance is the same as tating & Pipehandling Equipment Chapter for information
the drill collar. Material and hardfacing can be selected ac- about top drives.) Standard kelly lengths include 40 ft and
cording to specific client requirements. This type of stabiliz- 46 ft. The tool joint box is threaded with a left-hand thread
er is usually the most costly. to permit rotation.

Wired Drill Pipe stem members from the surface to downhole measurement
The first commercial use of wired drill pipe was in 2007 as tools located in the bottom-hole assembly (BHA). In some
part of an automated pressure-management system for a cases, the networked system may extend to a data source
shallow offshore gas well. In all, more than 100 wells have (e.g., a downhole sensor package) only partway down the
been drilled using the technology, as of autumn 2013. well, and may attach to non-networked members beyond
that data source. In either instance, all tubular goods along
Applications for wired drill pipe telemetry include the mon- the desired high-speed data transmission path must be
itoring and management of wellbore stability, hole cleaning, equipped with network components. Thus a wired drill pipe
equivalent circulating density (ECD), drilling efficiency, and system may include wired drill pipe, wired heavy-weight
downhole vibration. In addition, the high-speed bi-direction- drill pipe, wired drill collars, and other specially wired tools
al aspect of data flow is useful in precision geosteering or such as jars, valves, reamers, surface equipment, etc. These
other well placement challenges where immediate direc- members create the “data channel” or the backbone of the
tional surveys and steering adjustments are necessary to data transmission system. Electrical signals flow through
stay on plan. This fast feedback from downhole sensors is these members but each member does not require its own
an enabler for drilling automation, including automatic con- electrical power source.
trol of surface equipment to optimize drilling performance.
Wired drill pipe provides a high-speed communications
As the 12th edition of the IADC Drilling Manual was being path between the surface and downhole. It is used to pro-
prepared, just one commercial provider offered wired drill vide real-time data connections with downhole measure-
pipe telemetry systems. Consequently, the content herein ment while drilling (MWD) and logging while drilling (LWD)
is based on that specific system. However, the applications sensors and programmable tools such as rotary steerable
just mentioned depend on products provided by several in- systems. It also allows placement of sensors or controlled
dustry entities in addition to the telemetry equipment pro- tools anywhere along the drill stem, rather than just in the
vider. Service companies and operators have provided es- BHA.
sential system elements, such as measurement and logging
tools that provide high resolution real-time measurements System components
and have provided the expertise and surface systems to vi- All wired drill-stem members require two types of network
sualize and interpret the real-time data. At present, all major components—a data cable to enable flow of electronic data
service companies have tools that will interface with current within the member, and one or more end connector to enable
wired drill pipe systems. flow of data between members (e.g., from pipe to pipe). The
location of the data cable may vary within different wired
Wired drill pipe goes by numerous names and acronyms: members. For example, in short subs and various downhole
tools, the cable may be completely enclosed within the wall
Alternate names: telemetry drill pipe; networked drill pipe; of the tool; in drill pipe or other long tubular goods, a signifi-
high speed telemetry system; broadband network; wired cant portion of the data cable may be exposed to drilling flu-
drillstring; wired drilling network; id, generally on the inside of the tubular. If so, the data cable
Commercial names: IntelliPipe™Drill Pipe; IntelliServ™ is armored or otherwise protected against damage and fluid
Broadband Network; intrusion. The end connector is typically a sealed coupler
Acronyms: wired pipe, WDP, WDS. that electrically connects two adjacent members through
electromagnetic induction. This construction makes the end
System overview connector tolerant of drilling fluids, thread compounds, and
The term wired drill pipe refers to a networked system of drill other handling considerations.
stem members that transmits large volumes of real-time data
along the drill stem. As its name suggests, the most promi- The data channel also includes one unique tubular device
nent member in the system is drill pipe that contains network at the surface: a rotary inductive interface used to transmit
wiring components attached inside the pipe. These network data from the rotating drill string to the stationary rig. This
components are designed to create a continuous data path “surface interface” is atop the wired drill stem and is often
in the drill stem automatically each time a new joint of pipe is placed above the internal blowout preventers (IBOPs) in a
added to the drill string. Figure DS-90 shows a schematic of a top-drive assembly.
wired drill-pipe system. As shown, in their simplest form the
several system components create a (virtual) communication Electronic network devices
line that enables data and commands to be passed between Certain electronic network devices accept data or com-
downhole devices and surface devices. mands from surface or downhole sources and encode this
A wired drill pipe system most often incorporates all drill information for transmission and delivery to a specific loca-

Surface Cabling
Figure DS-90a: In their simplest form, the several system components of a wired drill-pipe system create a communication
line enabling data and commands to be passed between downhole devices and surface devices. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Figure DS-90b: Typical rig-site wiring diagram for wired drill-pipe system. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.

As the drill string changes during drilling (e.g., pipe is added Table DS-27: Tool joint dimensions for Wired Drill Pipe .
or the BHA is changed), changes in the electrical character- Pipe Tool Joint Data
istics of the data channel might cause the data transmission Data
to deteriorate. In this case, an electronic repeater is placed Nominal Connection Wired Wired RMUT,
in the string to improve telemetry-system performance. A OD, in. Size [1] TJ ID, TJ OD, ft-lb
typical wired drill-pipe system may employ a repeater every in. in.
1,500 ft of drill string. An along-string measurement (ASM)
device containing sensors (or other controllable devices 4 XT™38 2.438 4.875 17,139
such as valves) might also be networked into the system
anywhere that a downhole measurement or control point is 4 TurboTorque™390 2.438 5 30,461
desired. This device also serves as a repeater.
5 GPDS™50 3.25 6.625 36,883
At the downhole end of the wired drillpipe system resides
an interface sub. This network device serves as a commu- 5.5 TurboTorque™550 4 6.75 60,637
nication portal with MWD or LWD tools assembled below
that point. 5.875 XT™57 4.25 7 46,840
A network controller is located at the surface end of the 6.625 GPDS™65 4.25 8.5 83,798
wired drillpipe. This device communicates with network in-
[1] eXtreme Torque (XT), GPDS, DC, and TurboTorque
terface electronics and provides overall control of informa-
(TT) are trademarks of National Oilwell Varco Inc.
tion flow between all network devices.
Dimensions, weight and capacity Table DS-28 gives basic operational information for wired
The wired drillpipe system comprises a few unique drill- drill collars. It should be noted that for double shouldered
stem items, including the surface interface, downhole re- connections applied to drill collars (wired and unwired),
peater and ASM devices. Of these, the downhole electronic bending strength ratio (BSR) guidelines are not used since
devices contain circuit boards and battery packs that gener- not enough empirical information has been gathered to es-
ally require an internal diameter smaller than the rest of the tablish such guidelines. Both wired drill collars and wired
drill string. The OD of the repeater is approximately equal heavy-weight drillpipe (HWDP) contain a data cable resting
to the OD of the tool joints in the pipe size for which the
repeater is deployed. Table DS-28: Wired drill collar operational information
(in inches unless otherwise specified).
Drillpipe Collar
Connection Info
Several sizes of wired drillpipe have the same internal and Info
outside tool joint diameters as unwired drillpipe; however, Collar Collar Connection RMUT min/max,
these tubulars generally have reduced torsional capacity OD, in. ID, in. ft-lb
due to lost bearing area on the internal shoulder caused by
4.875 2.438 XT™38 13,092/15,711
the presence of the end connectors. In some cases, wired
drillpipe connections have been designed to accommodate 6.5 3 GPDS™50 33,151/39,781
torsional loads similar to those specified for unwired dou- 8 3 DC™58 45,144/54,172
ble-shouldered tool joints. These typically have a decreased 9.5 3.5 DC™69 76,540/91,849
internal diameter to offset lost bearing area. Table DS-27
provides the internal and outside diameters for common
wired drillpipe connections along with recommended make-
up torques (RMUT). against the internal diameters. Since the internal diameter
of these tubular goods is constant along the length, the
HWDP and drill collars presence of the cable will reduce the effective minimum in-
Wired drill collars utilize double-shouldered threads. With ternal or “drift” diameter of these tubulars. This reduction in
few exceptions, wired drill collar threads have custom thread drift diameter is typically not required with wired drillpipe,
profiles, leads, and tapers and cannot be made up with other which is generally internally upset, allowing the data cable
standard API connections. to reside outside the minimum diameter for the pipe. Drift
diameters for all wired products are tabulated below in Ta-
ble DS-29.

Internal blowout preventers cabling from the service loop to top drive and pipe handler
Wired internal blowout preventers typically house electrical junctions, and finally to the surface interface. Cabling runs
components (end connectors) in the external shoulder of the should always be placed to avoid pinching or crushing by
connection. Mating bevel diameters in these devices are typi- personnel or other equipment. Such cable layout should be
cally increased to offset loss of shoulder bearing/sealing area planned before deploying the wired drill pipe, either by sys-
due to the presence of the end connectors. In general, these tem experts or under their supervision.
devices should not be made up to their unwired counterparts,
unless specifically designed for that service. ODs for these tu- Rig-site handling
bulars typically retain their standard, unwired values. As recommended for non-wired pipe, clean thread protectors
should be used to prevent damage to threads and end con-
Related equipment nectors any time wired drill pipe is stored or moved about the
The wired drill-pipe system functions in connection with rig site. See the section on drill pipe for further details.
MWD and LWD tools and downhole programmable drilling
tools. Data visualization and rig control equipment located In addition, since many wired drill stem members contain a
on the surface are also key devices used with wired drill pipe. data cable that is exposed to the interior of the tubular, ob-
jects such as forklift forks, pry bars, etc. should never be
All equipment normally used in handling ordinary drill string placed inside the wired tubular to lift or otherwise position it.
is also used to handle wired drill-stem members. See per- Lifting eyes or subs, or forks or straps positioned on the ex-
tinent sections on pipe handling equipment, drill pipe, well terior of the tubular should be used to move these products.
control equipment and procedures, and drill collars, kellys,
subs and HWDP. Drilling and tripping
When handling wired drill pipe during drilling and tripping
Safety and handling operations, the following cautions apply:
Creation of a continuous wiring path from downhole power
sources (e.g., battery- or generator-powered tools) requires •When using a pressure wash process to clean threads, care
consideration of hazardous location requirements for vari- must be taken to avoid direct high energy water impinge-
ous members of the wired drill pipe system. Powered net- ment on the end connector, which could damage the con-
work devices, including repeaters and surface network connector;
trollers, are certified as safe for use in hazardous locations
to reduce risk of explosion hazard. Other devices attaching •
Rinsing practices recommended for unwired drill stem
to the wired drill-pipe system that are not so certified must products are very important for wired products. If products
be evaluated for hazardous location safety. are not cleaned properly, drilling mud chlorides or other
corrosives can adversely affect the life of the data cable or
Repeaters and other powered downhole network devices other bare metal surfaces;
may have lithium batteries as their power source. Lithium
batteries are high-density power sources that are commonly • Standing back wired product on a dirty surface may dam-
used in downhole oil and gas applications; a description of age end connectors as well as pipe shoulders. To minimize
handling considerations is given elsewhere in this manual. damage, clean pin end thread protectors or racking mats
The sealed construction of repeaters and other downhole (without embedded frictional grit).
network tools may serve to contain vented battery gases
that may be caused by exceeding temperature limits or se- As with unwired drill pipe, thread locking compounds are
vere mechanical abuses. Under no circumstances should not qualified for use with wired drill pipe system members.
electronic network devices be disassembled on the rig floor. In order to ensure that wired drill pipe surface cabling is not
damaged during operation, care must be taken to avoid con-
Proper handling tinuous one-way rotation of the pipe handler. If data cabling is
Certain types of damage to drill stem members can also attached directly between the top drive and the pipe handler,
damage wired drill pipe components and thereby adversely continuous rotational travel of the pipe handler with respect
affect data transmission performance. Many common types to the top drive will break the cabling and interrupt data flow.
of this damage, such as stabbing damage, are preventable
by application of good handling techniques and safeguards Common failure modes and mitigation
specified elsewhere for unwired products. Wired drill stem members are subject to the same modes
of mechanical failure as their unwired counterparts (see
Rig setup relevant chapters elsewhere in this manual). When double
Setup of the rig for wired drill pipe requires running surface shouldered connections are used, an additional mechanical

Table DS-29: Failure modes for wired products.

Stabbing damage to end connector Impeded or lost communications; possible Ensure proper alignment of top drive with well center;
damage to end connectors on mating drill Use proper stabbing guides, bells, and/or camera to
pipes; need for connection recut or reface, monitor top-end stabbing.
end connector replacement.
Debris damage to end connector Impeded or lost communications; need for Ensure setback area is clean and racking mats are
end connector replacement. grit-free; use proper cleaning and doping procedure
during tripping.
Breakage of end connector Possible impeded or lost communications; Ensure proper doping practice; Increase friction factor
need for connection recut, end connector of thread compound, with appropriate increase in
replacement. MUT; Monitor and control dynamic drill string torque.
Breakage of data cable Lost communications; possible debris in Ensure proper cleaning of wired tubular after use to
BHA; need for replacement of data cable. avoid corrosion damage; avoid use of pry bars or other
objects deployed inside tubular; control speed of
descent of wireline tools.
When handling repeaters and other special network tools

including interface subs, do not break-out internal tool con-
nections on the rig floor. These internal tool connections are
marked with a machined “X” or other specific verbiage to
alert rig floor crews. See Figure DS-92.
Drifting wired tubulars

Wired tubulars may be drifted before deployment (e.g.,
Figure DS-91: Torque damage to pin nose of wired tubular. during mechanical inspection) and while coming out of hole.
These tubular goods should be drifted according to the fol-
failure mode includes yielding of the internal shoulder under lowing requirements:
severe over-torque conditions. Where an end connector is • Nylon drifts are recommended. Metal drifts may not be
embedded in the internal shoulder, the yield characteris- used unless they are coated with rubber or plastic and
tics of the internal shoulder from an over-torque event will have a rounded profile;
appear similar to that shown in Figure DS-91. In this case, • Appropriate drift sizes that account for data cables and
yielding of the internal shoulder can also cause damage to electronic network components must be used. Drifts
the end connector. See Table DS-29 for failure modes spe- must be able to pass through without damaging wiring
cific to wired products. components. See Table DS-30.
Uses/Application
Wired drill stem members may be used for drilling, cement-
ing, and completions operations, subject to considerations
shown below. Factors governing sizing and general appli-
cation of wired drill pipe, drill collars and other drill stem
members are outlined in the preceding sections for their
non-wired counterparts.
Make-up and break-out

To avoid damage to the tool joint and to electrical compo-
nents embedded within, do not exceed RMUT values for
wired drill stem products. Recommended make-up torque
information for wired drill pipe is given in Table DS-28, and
for heavy-weight drill pipe and drill collars in Table DS-29.
Figure DS-92: Internal tool connections are marked with a
machined “X” or other specific wording to alert rig crews.

Table DS-30: Drift diameters of common wired drill stem members.

Tubular Size (in.) & Type Connection Sizes Tool Joint Tool Joint Typical Network Drift
OD (in.) ID (in.) Pipe Electronics Size (in).
ID (in.) ID (in.)
4 Drill Pipe XT™38 4.875 2.438 3.340 -- 2.313
4 HWDP XT™38 4.875 2.438 2.438 -- 2.111
4 Repeater XT™38/MB™40 4.875 2.438 3.340 1.750 1.625
4 HWDP Repeater XT™38/MB™40 4.875 2.438 2.438 1.750 1.625
4 Drill Pipe TT™390 5.000 2.438 3.340 -- 2.313
4 HWDP TT™390 5.000 2.438 2.438 -- 2.111
4 Repeater TT™390/MB™40 5.000 2.438 3.340 1.750 1.625
4 HWDP Repeater TT™390/MB™40 5.000 2.438 2.438 1.750 1.625
4-7/8 Drill Collar XT™38 4.875 2.438 2.438 -- 2.111
5 Drill Pipe GPDS™50 6.625 3.250 4.276 -- 3.125
5 HWDP GPDS™50 6.625 3.000 3.000 -- 2.673
5 Repeater GPDS™50/MB™54 6.625 3.250 4.276 3.250 3.125
5 HWDP Repeater GPDS™50/MB™54 6.625 3.000 3.000 3.250 2.673
5-1/2 Drill Pipe TT™550 6.750 4.000 4.778 -- 3.875
5-1/2 HWDP TT™550 6.750 4.000 4.000 -- 3.673
5-1/2 Repeater TT™550/MB™58 6.750 4.000 4.778 3.500 3.375
5-1/2 HWDP Repeater TT™550/MB™58 6.750 4.000 4.000 3.500 3.375
5-1/2 Drill Pipe XT™57 7.000 4.250 5.153 -- 4.125
5-1/2 HWDP XT™57 7.000 4.000 4.000 -- 3.673
5-1/2 Repeater XT™57/MB™58 7.000 4.250 5.153 3.500 3.375
5-1/2 HWDP Repeater XT™57/MB™58 7.000 4.000 4.000 3.500 3.375
6-1/2 Drill Collar GPDS™50 6.500 3.000 3.000 -- 2.673
6-5/8 Drill Collar Repeater GPDS™50/MB™54 6.625 3.000 3.000 3.250 2.673
6-5/8 Drill Pipe GPDS™65 8.500 4.250 5.901 -- 4.125
6-5/8 HWDP GPDS™65 8.500 4.250 4.250 -- 3.923
6-5/8 Repeater GPDS™65/XT™69 8.500 4.250 5.901 4.125 4.000
8 Drill Collar DC™58 8.000 3.000 3.000 -- 2.673
9-1/2 Drill Collar DC™69 9.500 3.500 3.500 -- 3.173
The following guidelines should be followed when using

Wireline tools these devices to avoid possible damage to data cables:
Wireline-deployed tools and other through-drill string tools, • Tool/wiper size should be selected considering the
such as wiper darts, drop balls, and tractors, can be de- effective drift diameters given in Table DS-30;
ployed through wired drill pipe. Controlled testing and field • Do not exceed 200 ft/min in lowering wireline tools in
experience has shown that these tools can be deployed in deviated wells.
wired drill pipe in both vertical and directional wells. Since
the data cable is not commonly affixed to the internal drill-
pipe wall, the cable may move away from the wall of a bent
pipe, as shown in Figure DS-93. The extent of cable deflec-
tion is a function of the dogleg severity.

Figure DS-93: Effect of bending on data cable position. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
To ensure high quality data communications:

Best practices • Apply thread compound to box tool joints while tripping
The following are considered best practices for using wired out of hole to avoid mud caking on internal shoulders
drill pipe. and end connectors;
• Plan for periodic health checks of the wired drill-pipe
To reduce stabbing damage: system while tripping in and out of hole. The
• Use stabbing guides; recommended frequency is one health check every 4
• For top drive applications, verify alignment of top drive stands (or 12 joints of pipe) or immediately after
with center of well or rotary table. Ensure particularly inserting an electronic network device;
that the stabbing bell is the right size for the drill pipe to • When tripping in a BHA tool string, perform a shallow-
be used. If too large or improperly positioned, the hole test to ensure proper communications.
stabbing bell can allow stabbing damage at the top end
of the stand, which can damage external shoulder seal It is generally an accepted best practice with unwired drill
surfaces and end connectors for wired drill pipe; pipe to alternate the location of breaks on each trip out of
• Deploy a camera to visually monitor stabbing at the the well; however, with wired drill pipe, the location of re-
upper connection (e.g., between top of stand and top peaters must also be considered. It is generally less expen-
drive saver sub); sive to recut threads on a wired drill pipe than a repeater.
• Calibrate tongs and iron roughneck. Check condition Likewise, the supply of replacement repeaters at the rig site
and accuracy of all make-up equipment and gages. is generally more critical than the supply of replacement
Applying torque outside of make-up specification in wired drill pipes. Thus, in regions where handling damage to
Table DS-28 can damage connections and end connections is more likely and access to repeaters is more
connectors or lead to washouts and twist-offs downhole; restricted, it is not recommended to alternate location of
• Use slow rotational speeds during the stabbing process. breaks such that repeaters are exposed to possible handling
If a mis-stab occurs, do not rotate top drive under load in damage. Rather, placement of repeaters in the middle of a
an effort to urge the pin connection into the box (this will stand can help reduce damage to these devices in such en-
increase damage to tool joints and end connectors). vironments.
To increase tool joint and end connector life:
• Apply thread compound to both box and pin connections Environmental considerations
(same for unwired pipe); The electrical components within wired drill-stem members
• Use higher friction factor thread compounds (>1.10) with and downhole network devices require additional consider-
an appropriate increase in make-up torque in order to ation of the environment in which these products are used.
mitigate possible shoulder and end connector damage
due to downhole make-up events. (NOTE: Applied MUT Fluid environment
should increase proportionally to the friction factor of The data cable is exposed to drilling fluid in many wired tu-
the thread compound, per API practice.); bular designs. To avoid damaging the data cable, fluid ve-
• Monitor the condition of the saver sub regularly to avoid locity and abrasiveness must be considered. Very high-ve-
transfer of damage to several pipes that subsequently locity, abrasive fluid formulations (e.g., frac pack fluids, or
make up with the saver; sanded drilling muds pumped at peak velocities greater than
• Monitor break-out torques on the rig floor to detect 50 ft/sec through the wired tubular) can cause high wear
possible downhole torque events; rates on the data cable as well as inside the tubular, and can
• Rotate wired drill pipe out of service for mechanical and reduce service life.
electrical inspection on a regular program based on
usage hours.

including maintaining networked product, has not identified

any operational difficulties related to potential fluid reten-
tion in network-specific features.
Temperature and pressure

High temperature elastomers and plastics are used in wiring
components. These materials are generally limited to use
temperatures below 450°F. In addition, electronic network
devices that are deployed in the well are generally limited
to temperatures suitable for MWD and LWD tools. In most
cases, electronic circuit and battery temperature limits
are lower than 450°F and are therefore the limiting factor
for application of a wired drill-pipe system. Verify current
temperature specifications prior to deploying in high tem-
perature wells. Battery temperature limits must be strictly
obeyed to ensure safety of use.
Figure DS-94: Internal wear in wired drill pipe
due to high velocity abrasive fluid. Wired drill-pipe electrical connections and electronic cir-
cuitry are placed in sealed pressure vessels to prevent flu-
This type of wear is shown in Figure DS-94. The most visible id invasion or crushing of sensitive electronic components.
damage from these flow conditions is removal of the inter- The pressure capacity of the elastomeric seal materials is
nal plastic coating in the internal upset taper; however, the a function of temperature. Verify temperature and pres-
data cable shown in the middle of the picture was also sub- sure specifications of both seal materials and pressure ves-
stantially reduced in diameter due to wear. In such cases, sels prior to deploying in high-pressure, high-temperature
consult the manufacturer for recommendations related to (HPHT) wells.
maximum flow velocities. Frequent inspection, including de-
structive inspection of electrical components in a sampling Vibration
of members subjected to high velocity abrasive flow condi- Vibration-sensitive components in a wired drill-pipe system
tions is recommended in these cases. include electronic circuitry and the data cable. Specified
vibration limits for electronic circuitry, including batteries,
Any product exposed to drilling, drill-in, or completion flu- must not be exceeded.
ids containing alkali-metal formates require compatible seal
materials. This is true for both wired drill-stem products and When drilling in most mud fluid environments, the drilling
downhole electronic network devices, since both utilize flu- fluid dampens vibration of the data cable and minimizes
id seals. Ensure that all wired products include compatible vibration damage. However, when drilling in high-shock
seals prior to running this type of fluid. air-drilling environments, such as air-hammer drilling,
un-dampened data-cable vibration can reduce cable life. In
Certain fluids, including cement and completion fluids con- these applications, inspect frequently, including destructive
taining tracer elements, can be retained within internally testing of data cables in a post-operations sampling of ex-
machined pipe features unique to wired drill pipe. These posed tubulars.
machined features, designed into the internal surfaces of
most wired drill pipe, facilitate the exit of the data cable from Evaluation and inspection
the tool joint wall into the bore of the tubular. While traces of Inspections of wired drill pipe and associated drill-stem
fluids can be retained within these machined features when members should include both mechanical and electrical
the pipe is tripped out, potentially, much less is retained in evaluations. Routine inspections by qualified personnel are
wired pipe than within the thread relief space in typical API essential for ensuring proper mechanical and electrical per-
tool joints. formance.
Proper wiping and cleaning procedures, similar to those Mechanical evaluation

employed to clean the thread relief, are essential to prevent Mechanical acceptance criteria are consistent with industry
this fluid retention. The clearance between the data cable standards for unwired tubulars. However, inspection meth-
and the passageway in the tool joint housing the cable is ods must recognize the presence of certain modifications to
purposefully minute and filled with lubricant to further dis- tubulars integral to the wiring process:
courage invasion of fluid-borne particles. Field experience, • A passageway for the data cable to travel through and

exit a tool joint will be present in some wired goods. Troubleshooting and failures
When using inspection methods, such as ultrasonic
non-destructive testing (NDT), these unique features A wired drill pipe system is functionally segmented into sev-
should be recognized; eral communications subsystems, each containing a num-
• End connectors will be present in the external or internal ber of interconnected wired tubulars and a repeater at either
shoulders of wired connections and may extend above end. This segmentation is illustrated in Figure DS-95. If a te-
or be recessed below the shoulder surface. Thus, lemetry interruption occurs, the location of the fault can be
geometrical measurements of shoulder to shoulder first tracked down to a specific functional segment, since all
lengths should be performed with care to ensure the network devices will be visible up-hole of the offending sub-
correct surface is selected by measurement tools; system, but none will be visible downhole of the offender.
• Where data cables are visible on the inside of the Further refinement of fault location can be accomplished by
tubular, loose or sagging data cables can indicate a using a combination of internal network measurements or
bent pipe or alternatively can show excessive tension status variables that are captured by the network electron-
or wear has been experienced. Likewise, excessive ics, and external measurements of the data channel char-
localized wear of the tubular’s internal plastic coating acteristics. In some cases, a partial trip out of hole may be
can indicate a bent pipe and can suggest corresponding required to expose the top of the faulty functional segment
wear on the data cable. for external measurements in order to complete the diagno-
sis; further tripping would then be required to remove the
To address the above conditions, an addendum to the NS-2 offending member and correct the telemetry interruption.
inspection has been prepared that governs wired drill-pipe
inspection (see NS™-2 Supplement SP017). This inspec- Surface wiring can be tested in a similar manner, wherein
tion guide should be followed for mechanical inspections of the farthest point of competent network communication is
wired drill pipe. first determined, and then external testing of wiring beyond
that point is used to pinpoint the exact location of the fault.
Electrical evaluation
Electrical evaluation includes both visual inspections of elec- General Maintenance
trical components and functional testing of the data channel
in each wired tubular. Visual inspections of the end connec- Surface Equipment
tors and data cables are recommended as part of normal in- The surface interface is the only piece of the basic wired
spection and preventive maintenance procedures. Extreme drill-pipe system that contains moving parts. Proper main-
corrosion or other damage to end connectors or data cables tenance of this device requires regular greasing of rotary
can indicate excessive wear or degradation and may require bearings. Consult manufacturer for recommended grease
replacement of the components as a preventive measure. formulations and maintenance schedule.
To determine functional electrical competence of wired

drill-stem members, electrical channel characteristics are
measured for each member and compared to a standard.
Visual and functional inspection methods, standards, and

equipment can be found in the NS-2 addendum mentioned
in the preceding section.
Standard location on a rig site

Surface equipment associated with the wired drill pipe
system includes a network controller and surface cabling,
junctions, and network interface. The network controller is Network Controller
generally positioned within the doghouse or service compa-

Functional Segments
ny trailer, where it is connected to visualization or control
equipment. Surface cabling runs from the network control-
ler location to the derrick, inside or alongside the top drive
service loop or Kelly hose, and into junctions and the net-
Repeater Repeater Interface
Sub
work interface on the top drive or swivel. See Figure DS-91.

Figure DS-95: Functional segments in a wired drill-pipe system.

Network Health Maintenance Drill stem tubulars

The wiring components inside a wired tubular are designed Worn or damaged wiring components can be replaced at a
to operate for the life of the component without special certified wired drill pipe service center. In addition, mechan-
maintenance. However, proper longevity of wiring compo- ical damage to drill pipe can be repaired using processes
nents depends on good doping practice prior to make-up of similar to those for unwired drill pipe (per NS-2 inspection
threaded connections. standards), but the following additional requirements must
be followed:
Network system health is continuously monitored by the
network controller via various status indicators, including Recutting and refacing:
signal strength indicators, battery status, and network ef- • The wired drill-pipe end connector must be removed
ficiency counts. Using these indicators, proactive mainte- and the point of connection with the data cable cleaned
nance replacements of equipment that is near end of life and sealed to prevent metal chips or fluids from
may be made during planned trips without requiring special contaminating the connection;
maintenance trips. Particular care should be taken to reg- • On all double-shouldered connections, when material is
ularly assess the electrical status of the wired saver sub, removed from one shoulder (e.g., the external shoulder),
which sees the most mechanical damage during its lifespan. material must also be removed from the additional
Maintenance of removed drill-stem members and network shoulder (e.g., the internal shoulder) to maintain
devices should be performed according to manufacturers’ shoulder-to-shoulder specifications; in addition,
instructions. machined features into which wiring components are
mounted must also be brought into specification
Proper Storage Considerations following shoulder material removal.
Wired drill-stem products, like unwired tubulars, must be • Removal of end connectors, cleaning and sealing of the
stored in a clean state. Do not leave mud inside tubulars, data cable, and machining of features specific to wired
since this may accelerate corrosion of the data cable or oth- tubulars must be done in qualified workshops.
er metal surfaces within the tubular. Rattlers should never
be used with wired tubulars since this process may dam- Hardbanding:
age the data cable. Care should also be taken when pres- • Wiring components must be removed during any high-
sure-washing connections to minimize chances of damaging temperature gouging and hardbanding application
end connectors. process (where local base metal temperature exceeds
the temperature rating of the tool) to avoid heat damage
Ship and store wired drill pipe in accordance with recom- to wiring components.
mended practice for oil country tubular goods. However, • Where possible, care should be taken during hardbanding
additional care is needed with respect to use of certain to prevent damage to the internal plastic coating of the
storage compounds for threaded connections. Some wired drill pipe. Contact the hardbanding manufacturer or
drill-pipe end connectors rely on electrical contact with the coating supplier to ensure that steps taken to reduce
pipe metal. This contact can be impeded or interrupted by coating damage are suitable with respect to the welding
storage compounds that alter the chemical characteristics procedure requirements.
of the threaded connection. Before using these storage com-
pounds, check with the manufacturer of the wired product. Reapplication of internal plastic coating:
• Wiring components must be removed prior to applying
Certain regulations govern the transportation of products new internal plastic coating;
containing lithium batteries, such as electronic network de- • Internal plastic coating properties must meet wired drill
vices. pipe manufacturing specifications.
• Pipe straightening: Care must be taken to avoid loosening
Repairs the data cable during the straightening process. If the
data cable loses tension and sags in the bore of the
Surface equipment tubular, it must be replaced.
Occasionally, a surface cable can become worn or damaged
and will require repair or replacement. This operation re- Markings used to indicate required repairs to wired drill pipe
quires access to the mounting locations (top drive, derrick, are found in NS™-2 Supplement SP017.
service loop, etc) and should only be conducted under con-
ditions where minor electrical sparking is acceptable.

Related calculations and tables landing string in shallow waters. However, numerous tech-
nical challenges arise as industry pioneers projects in water
Important calculations as deep as 12,000 ft. Landing-string systems must be able
to land axial loads approaching 2.5 million lb, while ensuring
»» Drift size the absence of damage due to slips. Under extremely heavy
To calculate an appropriate drift size for a wired tubular, use loads, such as the ones seen during deepwater operations,
the equation: the slips can damage the pipe, and, in the worst case sce-
nario, might even completely crush the pipe section. See
D - = dmin - dc - cd section on slip crushing.
where: dmin= minimum internal diameter of the wired
tubular; Common dimensions, weights, capacities
dc = diameter of the data cable (or thickness of the cable Drill pipe-based designs typically exhibit large tube OD
that resides inside dmin); (ranging from 5 in. to 6 ⅝-in.), proprietary high strength
cd = drift clearance (typically 0.125 in.). steel grades with minimum specified yield strengths of
135,000, 140,000, 150,000 or 165,000 psi , and heavy wall
This equation should only be used if the data cable (or por- sections (up to 0.938-in. wall).
tion thereof) is positioned inside dmin . Otherwise, the data
cable has no impact on drift size and the term dc vanishes.
Table DS-31: Typical landing-string dimensions.
»» Cable volume Nominal tube Wall Tube body
When calculating cementing volumes, the exposed volume OD (in.) thickness material
of the data cable may be calculated from: (in.) grades
5 Up to 0.625 S-135
π
V= dc 2L 5½ Up to 0.750 Proprietary grades with
4
5⅞ Up to 0.750 minimum yield strength
where: dc = diameter of the data cable; of 140,000, 150,000 or
6⅝ Up to 0.813 165,000 psi
L = exposed length of the data cable.
For a data cable that is 0.2 in. in diameter, the cable volume Slip crushing-resistant Landing Strings are specifically de-
on the order of 11 cu inc. in a Range 2 tubular. This is less than signed to provide slip crushing resistance up to 2.5 million
the uncertainty in the volume of the internal plastic coating lb and higher. This type of product can be based on fric-
of most tubulars, and much less than the uncertainty in the tion-welded or integral construction. It consists of a pipe
internal volume of the tubular due to pipe dimensional and with a thicker walled section to ensure slip-crush resistance
weight tolerances. Therefore, the contribution of the ar- in the slip area (between the box tool joint and pipe body up-
mored coaxial cable in cementing calculations may be con- set or forged end), a lighter-weight tube with high-strength
sidered negligible. material (150,000-165,000 psi minimum yield strength)
and API or, in some cases, proprietary rotary-shouldered
connections. If the landing string is of the welded configura-
Landing strings tion, the slip section typically has the same OD and ID as the
upset configured on the pipe body, which also matches the
Overview weld neck of the tool joint.
A landing string is a heavy-duty, thick-wall drill pipe used
primarily to land heavy casing strings in a well or heavy Just as for drill pipe, hardbanding can be applied on box and/
equipment on the seabed. Also known as heavy-duty or or pin tool joints, as well as box elevator tapers, if necessary.
thick-walled drill pipe, landing strings are often used like
standard drill pipe. In some cases, though, especially if the
landing string is supplied by a rental company, use of the
landing string for drilling is prohibited to avoid drilling wear
that can reduce the string’s load-carrying capacity. Landing
strings are Range 2 or Range 3 in length.
Traditionally, to set and run larger and heavier casing strings,

heavy-duty (standard wall thickness) drill pipe is used as the

DRILL STRING Glossary

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE: The temperature of the number is the quotient of the applied load and the surface
surroundings area of the indentation
API: American Petroleum Insititute BRITTLE FAILURE: A failure in which there is no evidence
of ductility or deformation. Characterized by an irregular
ASM: Along-string measurement cleavage fracture with shiny crystalline appearance
ATOMIC HYDROGEN: BSR: BENDING STRENGTH RATIO
A single atom of the gaseous element hydrogen CARBON STEEL: Steel which owes its properties chiefly to
various percentages of carbon without substantial amounts
AUSTENITE: A solid solution formed when carbon of other alloying elements
and certain alloying elements dissolve in gamma iron
Gamma iron is formed when steel is heated above a CASE HARDENING: A process of hardening a ferrous alloy
critical temperature and the ferrite (alpha iron with a that the surface layer, or case, is made substantially harder
body-centered crystal structure) is transformed to a face- than the interior or core. Typical processes are carburizing
centered crystal structure and quenching, cyaniding, nitriding, induction hardening
and flame hardening
BAUSCHINGER EFFECT: The phenomena by which steel
overstressed in tension has a reduced compressive yield COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION: The ratio of the force
strength or overstressed in compression has a reduced required to move one surface over the other to the total
tension yield strength. Named for the discoverer of the force pressing the two surfaces together
phenomena
COLD-WORK: Plastic deformation of metal at a
BELLED BOX: A tool joint box which has been subjected to temperature low enough to ensure or cause permanent
a torque which has resulted in permanent enlargement of strain
the box diameter. This normally occurs adjacent to the box
sealing shoulder COMPRESSIVE YIELD STRENGTH: The maximum stress a
metal, subjected to compression, can withstand without a
BHA: Bottomhole assembly predefined amount of permanent deformation
BOLSTERS: A horizontal rail or sill of wood on which pipe CORROSION: A chemical or electrochemical attack on
is laid metal by the atmosphere, moisture, or other agents
BORESCOPE: An optical arrangement of lenses and light to CRACK: A stress induced separation of the metal which
permit inspection of inside surfaces, i.e., inside of pipe without influences is insufficient in extent to cause
complete rupture of the material
BRINELL HARDNESS: A measurement of the hardness of
metal by pressing a hardened steel ball into the metal to CRYSTALLIZATION: The formation of crystals by the
be tested using a standard load. The standard test uses atoms assuming definite positions in a crystal lattice. This
a 10mm ball with a 3,000 kg load. The Brinell hardness occurs as a molten metal solidifies

DENT: A small depression made by striking or pressing. which was not melted during brazing, cutting or welding,
but whose microstructure and physical properties were
DING: Colloquial expression used in tubular industry to altered by the heat
describe a dent
HEAT CHECKS: A network of shallow crack-like ruptures
DUCTILITY: The property that permits permanent which result from repeated surface friction heating and
deformation before fracture rapid quenching
ECD: Equivalent circulating density HEAVY WEIGHT DRILL PIPE: Drill pipe fabricated with
thick wall tube. Frequently used in place of drill collars
ELASTIC DEFORMATION: Temporary changes in to apply weight on the drill bit in small diameter holes.
dimensions caused by stress. The material returns to the Handles like normal drill string in drilling operations. Used
original dimensions after removal of the stress in the transition zone between the stiffer drill collars and
limber drill pipe
ELASTIC LIMIT: The maximum stress which a material is
capable of sustaining without any measurable change of HPHT: High pressure, high temperature
dimension after complete release of the stress
HWDP: Heavy-weight drill pipe
ELECTROLYTE: A solution which conducts an electric
current I-BOP: Internal blowout preventer
ENDURANCE: The ability of material to withstand repeated INCLUSIONS: Particles of non-metallic impurities usually
reversals of stress oxides, sulfides, silicates, and such which are trapped in
steel during solidification
ENDURANCE LIMIT: The maximum stres that a metal will
withstand without failure during a specified large number INTERGRANULAR: Between the grains of steel
of cycles of stress. The cycles of stress are usually such as
to produce complete reversals of flexural stress ION: n atom or a combination of atoms in solution carrying
either a positive or negative electric charge
FATIGUE: The tendency for a metal to fail under conditions
of repeated cyclic stressing considerably below the ultimate LWD: Logging while drilling
tensile strength
MAGNETIC FLUX: The number of magnetic lines of force
FATIGUE CRACK OR FAILURE:A fracture starting from a passing through a magnetic circuit or field
nucleus where there is an abnormal concentration of cyclic
stress and propagating through the metal. Fracture surface MAGNETIC TESTING: A method of testing for defects
is smooth and frequently shows concentric (sea shell or which is carried out by magnetizing the steel and sprinkling
half moon) markings with a nucleus as a center a magnetic powder on the surface to detect flaws or
defects
FATIGUE LIMIT: The maximum stress that a metal will
withstand without failure for a specified large number of MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY: The ratio of the magnetic
cycles of stress. Usually synonymous with endurance limit induction to the intensity of the magnetizing field
GALLING: The result of the freezing of two mating surfaces MARTENSITE: A micro-constituent or structure in a
of steel, not protected by a film of lubricant, and tearing due quenched steel characterized by an acicular or needle-
to lateral displacement. Can also be caused by mechanical like pattern on the surface of the polish. It is the first and
damage of one surface hardest of the decomposition products of austenite
GALVANIC CELL: The “battery” affected by two areas of MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: Those properties of a
different potential connected by an electrolyte material that reveal the elastic and inelastic reaction when
force is applied, or that involve the relationship between
HARDNESS: Resistance to indentation. stress and strain; for example, modulus of elasticity, tensile
strength, and fatigue limit. Also called physical properties
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE:That portion of the base metal

MICROSTRUCTURE: The arrangement of the constituents SULFIDE STRESS CRACKING (SSC): The brittle failure of
of steel as viewed through a microscope metals by cracking under the combined action of tensile
stress and corrosion in the presence of water and hydrogen
MWD: Measurement while drilling sulfide
NECKING DOWN: The narrowing, or constricting to a TEMPILSTIK: A crayon composed of waxes with controlled
small cross sectional area, which occurs at a localized place melting points
under a tension load
TENSILE STRENGTH:The value obtained by dividing the
pH: A measure of the amount of hydrogen ions in a water- maximum load observed during tensile straining until
containing environment. The lower the pH, the greater the breaking occurs, by the specimen cross-sectional area
number of hydrogen ions present, and the more acidic the before straining. Also called ultimate strength
environment
TORQUE: Force applied in a radial direction tending to
PLASTIC DEFORMATION: Permanent distortion of a rotate material around its longitudinal axis. Measured in
material under the action of applied stress foot-pounds with the length of the lever arm in feet and
force in pounds
PROPORTIONAL LIMIT: he greatest stress a material is
capable of sustaining without a deviation from the law of TORSION: Strain created in a material by a twisting action.
proportionality of stress and strain. If the load is removed Correspondingly, the stress within the material resisting the
for any stress up to this point the material will assume its twisting
original dimension
TORSIONAL STRENGTH: The torque or twisting force
QUENCH CRACK: A fracture resulting from thermal needed to break a sample
stresses induced during rapid cooling or quenching
ULTIMATE STRENGTH: The maximum stress a material
ROCKWELL HARDNESS: The Rockwell hardness test can withstand without fracture
measures the depth of residual penetration by a steel ball
(Rockwell B) or a diamond cone (Rockwell C) upon the ULTRASONIC: The use of high frequency sound waves to
surface of the material to be tested by applying a minor probe for thickness or the presence of defects
load, zeroing the dial, and applying a major load. The
reading on the dial after major load is released measures WORK HARDENING: Hardness developed in metals as a
the Rockwell hardness result of cold-working
SCALE: An oxide of iron which forms on the surface of hot YIELD POINT: In medium carbon steels, the stress at
steel which a marked increase in deformation occurs without an
increase in the load. Also the point where permanent set
SEAM: On the surface of metal a discontinuity that has occurs
been closed but not welded
YIELD STRENGTH: The stress at which a material exhibits
SLIP PLANE: The crystallographic plane in which slip a specified limiting deviation from proportionality of stress
occurs within a crystal to strain
S-N CURVE: Curves that are obtained by plotting the

number of cycles (N) to failure against the alternating
stress (S) applied to the test specimen
STRESS: The load per unit of area
STRETCHED PIN: A tool joint pin which has been subjected

to loading which has caused permanent lengthening of the
threaded length of the pin. This condition generally results
from excessive torque rather than tensile loads

CITED REFERENCES
1 Hansford, John E. and Lubinski, Arthur: “The Effect 2 Stall and Blenkarn: Allowable Hook Load and Torque
of Drilling Vessel Pitch or Roll on Kelley and Drill Pipe Combinations for Stuck Drill Strings
Fatigue,” Transactions of AIME, 1964, Vol. 231
OTHER REFERENCES
API Specification 5DP, “Specification for Drill Pipe”, First Standard DS-1®, Volume 1, “Drilling Tubular Product
Edition, American Petroleum Institute, 2009. Specification”, TH Hill Associates, Inc., 2012.
API Specification 7-1, “Specification for Rotary Drill Stem Standard DS-1®, Volume 3, “Drill Stem Inspection”, TH Hill
Elements”, First Edition, American Petroleum Institute, Associates, Inc., 2012.
2006.
API Spec 7, RP7G
ISO11961, “Petroleum and Natural Gas Industries – Steel
Pipes for use as Drill Pipe- Specification”, Second Edition, NS™-2 Supplement SP017
International Organization for Standardization, 2008.
IntelliServ Handbook, Handling and Best Practices

DRILL STRING DS–A1
APPENDIX
The 12th edition of the IADC Drilling Manual for the first time has published proprietary drillpipe selection tables produced
by IADC-member manufacturers.
The tables that follow are:
n Table DS-A1: Drillpipe Selection Chart: TSC Drill Pipe...................................................................................................................DS-A2
n Table DS-A2: Drillpipe Selection Chart: Vallourec...........................................................................................................................DS-A5
n Table DS-A3: Drillpipe Selection Chart: NOV Grant Prideco......................................................................................................DS-A14
IADC invites other IADC-member drillpipe manufacturers to submit tables for possible publication.
Contact Loretta Krolczyk at +1 713-292-1945 or loretta.krolczyk@iadc.org.

Table DS-A1: Drillpipe Selection Chart — TSC Drill Pipe
DS–A2
________Upset________ Tong Space Tensile Yield Torsional Yield
Nom. Nom. Approx Max Drift Tool
Wall ID Yield O.D. I.D. Yield Box Pin Tube Joint Tube
Size Wt. Wt. Grade Upset OD Dia. Connection Joint
in. in. ksi in. in.(3) ksi in. in. lb(4) lb(5) ft-lb(6)
lb/ft lb/ft (1) in. in. (2) ft-lb(7)
23/8 4.85 5.62 0.190 1.995 S 135 EU 2.563 1.625 PTECH27+ 33/8 13/4 135 11 10 176,071 311,200 8,574 12,200
DRILL STRING
23/8 6.65 7.34 0.280 1.815 S 135 EU 2.563 1.625 PTECH27+ 33/8 13/4 135 11 10 248,786 311,200 11,251 12,200
27/8 6.85 7.62 0.217 2.441 S 135 EU 3.188 2.000 PTECH32+ 37/8 21/8 135 11 10 244,624 434,400 14,549 18,500
27/8 10.40 10.97 0.362 2.151 S 135 EU 3.188 2.000 PTECH32+ 37/8 21/8 135 11 10 385,820 434,400 20,798 18,500
31/2 13.30 14.78 0.368 2.764 X 95 EU 3.875 2.438 TSDS 38 47/8 29/16 135 12.5 10 343,988 730,300 23,498 29,200
31/2 13.30 14.78 0.368 2.764 G 105 EU 3.875 2.438 TSDS 38 47/8 29/16 135 12.5 10 380,197 730,300 25,972 29,200
31/2 13.30 15.17 0.368 2.764 S 135 EU 3.875 2.313 TSDS 38 5 27/16 135 12.5 10 488,825 796,500 33,392 33,060
31/2 13.30 14.84 0.368 2.764 S 135 EU 3.875 2.563 PTECH37+ 43/4 211/16 135 15 13 488,825 634,800 33,392 33,300
31/2 15.50 16.86 0.449 2.602 X 95 EU 3.875 2.438 TSDS 38 47/8 29/16 135 12.5 10 408,848 730,300 26,708 29,200
31/2 15.50 17.26 0.449 2.602 G 105 EU 3.875 2.313 TSDS 38 5 27/16 135 12.5 10 451,885 796,500 29,520 33,060
31/2 15.50 17.26 0.449 2.602 S 135 EU 3.875 2.313 TSDS 38 5 27/16 135 12.5 10 580,995 796,500 37,954 33,060
31/2 15.50 17.06 0.449 2.602 S 135 EU 3.875 2.438 PTECH37+ 43/4 29/16 135 15 13 580,995 703,500 37,954 37,100
Copyright © 2015
4 14.00 15.90 0.330 3.340 X 95 IU 4.188 2.563 TSDS 40 51/4 211/16 135 12 9 361,454 873,400 29,498 36,970
4 14.00 16.07 0.330 3.340 G 105 IU 4.188 2.438 TSDS 40 51/4 29/16 135 12 9 399,502 943,000 32,603 41,240
4 14.00 16.07 0.330 3.340 S 135 IU 4.188 2.438 TSDS 40 51/4 29/16 135 12 9 513,646 943,000 41,918 41,240
4 14.00 15.64 0.330 3.340 S 135 IU 4.188 2.313 TSDS 38 47/8 27/16 135 12.5 10 513,646 796,500 41,918 33,060
4 14.00 15.60 0.330 3.340 S 135 IU 4.188 2.563 PTECH39+ 47/8 211/16 135 15 13 513,646 732,800 41,918 38,800
4 15.70 17.49 0.380 3.240 X 95 IU 4.188 2.563 TSDS 40 51/4 211/16 135 12 9 410,550 873,400 32,692 36,970
4 15.70 17.66 0.380 3.240 G 105 IU 4.188 2.438 TSDS 40 51/4 29/16 135 12 9 453,765 943,000 36,134 41,240
4 15.70 17.66 0.380 3.240 S 135 IU 4.188 2.438 TSDS 40 51/4 29/16 135 12 9 583,413 943,000 46,458 41,240
4 15.70 17.89 0.380 3.240 S 135 IU 4.188 2.688 PTECH41+ 51/4 213/16 135 15 13 583,413 872,400 46,458 49,900
41/2 16.60 19.71 0.337 3.826 X 95 IEU 4.688 2.875 TSDS 46 61/4 3 135 12 9 418,707 1,179,400 39,022 59,930
41/2 16.60 19.71 0.337 3.826 G 105 IEU 4.688 2.875 TSDS 46 61/4 3 135 12 9 462,781 1,179,400 43,130 59,930
41/2 16.60 19.71 0.337 3.826 S 135 IEU 4.688 2.875 TSDS 46 61/4 3 135 12 9 595,004 1,179,400 55,453 59,930
41/2 16.60 17.90 0.337 3.826 S 135 IEU 4.688 2.875 PTECH43+ 51/4 3 135 15 13 595,004 818,400 55,453 46,800
41/2 16.60 19.77 0.337 3.826 S 135 IEU 4.688 3.125 PTECH48+ 61/8 31/4 135 15 13 595,004 1,254,500 55,453 78,700
41/2 20.00 23.04 0.430 3.640 X 95 IEU 4.688 2.875 TSDS 46 61/4 3 135 12 9 522,320 1,179,400 46,741 59,930
41/2 20.00 23.04 0.430 3.640 G 105 IEU 4.688 2.625 TSDS 46 61/4 3 135 12 9 577,301 1,179,400 51,661 59,930
41/2 20.00 23.44 0.430 3.640 S 135 IEU 4.688 3.125 TSDS 46 61/4 23/4 135 12 9 742,244 1,331,800 66,421 70,430
Table DS-A1: Drillpipe Selection Chart — TSC Drill Pipe

Wall ID Yield O.D. I.D. Yield Box Pin Tube Joint Tube
Size Wt. Wt. Grade Upset OD Dia. Connection Joint
in. in. ksi in. in.(3) ksi in. in. lb(4) lb(5) ft-lb(6)
lb/ft lb/ft (1) in. in .(2) ft-lb(7)
41/2 20.00 23.45 0.430 3.640 S 135 IEU 4.688 3.125 PTECH48+ 61/8 31/4 135 15 13 742,244 1,254,500 66,421 78,700
5 19.50 22.73 0.362 4.276 X 95 IEU 5.125 3.375 TSDS 50 65/8 31/2 135 12 9 501,087 1,248,600 52,144 67,750
5 19.50 22.96 0.362 4.276 G 105 IEU 5.125 3.125 TSDS 50 65/8 31/4 135 12 9 553,833 1,427,500 57,633 81,200
5 19.50 22.96 0.362 4.276 S 135 IEU 5.125 3.125 TSDS 50 65/8 31/4 135 12 9 712,070 1,427,500 74,100 81,200
5 19.50 24.24 0.362 4.276 S 135 IEU 5.125 2.625 TSDS 50 65/8 23/4 135 12 9 712,070 1,745,600 74,100 104,830
5 19.50 22.99 0.362 4.276 S 135 IEU 5.125 3.625 PTECH51+ 61/2 33/4 135 15 13 712,070 1,222,800 74,100 82,500
5 25.60 28.21 0.500 4.000 X 95 IEU 5.125 3.375 TSDS 50 65/8 31/2 135 12 9 671,515 1,248,600 66,192 67,750
5 25.60 28.54 0.500 4.000 G 105 IEU 5.125 3.125 TSDS 50 65/8 31/4 135 12 9 742,201 1,427,500 73,159 81,200
5 25.60 28.75 0.500 4.000 S 135 IEU 5.125 2.875 TSDS 50 65/8 3 135 12 9 954,259 1,593,200 94,062 93,560
5 25.60 29.67 0.500 4.000 S 135 IEU 5.125 2.625 TSDS 50 65/8 23/4 135 12 9 954,259 1,745,600 94,062 104,830
5 25.60 28.54 0.500 4.000 S 135 IEU 5.125 3.625 PTECH51+ 61/2 33/4 135 15 13 954,259 1,222,800 94,062 82,500
51/2 21.90 25.02 0.361 4.778 X 95 IEU 5.688 3.875 TSDS 55 7 4 135 12 10 553,681 1,424,000 64,233 82,480
51/2 21.90 25.02 0.361 4.778 G 105 IEU 5.688 3.875 TSDS 55 7 4 135 12 10 611,963 1,424,000 70,994 82,480
51/2 21.90 25.02 0.361 4.778 S 135 IEU 5.688 3.875 TSDS 55 7 4 135 12 10 786,809 1,424,000 91,278 82,480
Copyright © 2015
51/2 21.90 24.62 0.361 4.778 S 135 IEU 5.688 3.125 TSDS 50 65/8 31/4 135 12 9 786,809 1,427,500 91,278 81,200
51/2 21.90 24.29 0.361 4.778 S 135 IEU 5.688 4.125 PTECH55+ 65/8 41/4 135 15 13 786,809 1,147,500 91,278 82,100
51/2 24.70 27.46 0.415 4.670 X 95 IEU 5.688 3.875 TSDS 55 7 4 135 12 10 629,814 1,424,000 71,660 82,480
51/2 24.70 27.46 0.415 4.670 G 105 IEU 5.688 3.875 TSDS 55 7 4 135 12 10 696,111 1,424,000 79,204 82,480
51/2 24.70 28.56 0.415 4.670 S 135 IEU 5.688 3.625 TSDS 55 71/4 33/4 135 12 10 894,999 1,629,400 101,833 99,510
51/2 24.70 28.65 0.415 4.670 S 135 IEU 5.688 4.125 PTECH59+ 71/4 41/4 135 15 13 894,999 1,528,900 101,833 112,700
DRILL STRING
65/8 25.20 28.26 0.330 5.965 X 95 IEU 6.938 4.875 TSDS 65 8 5 135 13 10 619,988 1,629,400 89,402 106,970
65/8 25.20 28.26 0.330 5.965 G 105 IEU 6.938 4.875 TSDS 65 8 5 135 13 10 685,250 1,629,400 98,812 106,970
65/8 25.20 29.38 0.330 5.965 S 135 IEU 6.938 4.625 TSDS 65 81/4 43/4 135 13 10 881,035 1,887,900 127,044 131,930
65/8 25.20 29.23 0.330 5.965 S 135 IEU 6.938 5.375 PTECH68+ 81/4 51/2 135 15 13 881,035 1,633,800 127,044 143,500
65/8 27.70 30.23 0.362 5.901 X 95 IEU 6.938 4.875 TSDS 65 8 5 135 13 10 676,651 1,629,400 96,640 106,970
65/8 27.70 30.23 0.362 5.901 G 105 IEU 6.938 4.875 TSDS 65 8 5 135 13 10 747,877 1,629,400 106,813 106,970
65/8 27.70 31.36 0.362 5.901 S 135 IEU 6.938 4.625 TSDS 65 81/4 43/4 135 13 10 961,556 1,887,900 137,330 131,930
65/8 27.70 31.03 0.362 5.901 S 135 IEU 6.938 5.375 PTECH68+ 81/4 51/2 135 15 13 961,556 1,633,800 137,330 143,500
DS–A3
65/8 34.02 40.87 0.522 5.581 S 135 IEU 6.938 5.000 PTECH68+ 81/4 51/8 135 15 13 1,351,130 2,056,300 183,962 168,400
65/8 40.00 46.40 0.625 5.375 S 135 IEU 6.938 5.000 PTECH68+ 81/4 v 135 15 13 1,590,430 2,056,300 210,031 168,400
* All data is calculated based on standard methods for “New” drill pipe. While all effort was made to insure accuracy of data, these tables are provided for
reference purposes only. TSC Drill Pipe does not assume responsibility for results obtained through the use of this information. No warranty is expressed or
DS–A4
implied.
(1) Based on nominal length of 31.5’ from pin seal shoulder to the box seal shoulder
(2) Drift diameter is for drillpipe prior to internal plastic coating.
DRILL STRING
(3) Tool joint dimensions shown are common sizes. Other sizes are available upon request.
(4) Tensile yield is based on nominal dimensions and the specified minimum yield strength (Pipe SMYS).
(5) Tool Joint tensile yield is based on tensile loading condition only, and does not include the effect of combined torsion and tensile loading.
(6) Torsional yield strength is based on a shear strength of 57.7% of the minimum yield strength and nominal wall thickness.
(7) Torsional Yield based on tool joint thread compound with a 0.08 coefficient of friction (1.0 API friction factor).
Copyright © 2015
Table DS-A2: Drillpipe Selection Chart — Vallourec
Drill Pipe data –Tool Joint Attached Tool Joint Data Mechanical Properties
Size Wt. Wt. Wall ID Yield O.D. I.D. Yield Box Pin Tube Joint Tube
Grade Upset OD Dia. Connection Joint
lb/ft lb/ft (1) in. in. ksi in. in. ksi in. in. lb(2) lb(3) ft-lb(4)
in. in. ft-lb(5)
Copyright © 2015
DRILL STRING
DS–A5
Next Page
Table DS-A2: Drillpipe Selection Chart — Vallourec
Drill Pipe data –Tool Joint Attached Tool Joint Data Mechanical Properties
DS–A6
Size Wt. Wt. Wall ID Yield O.D. I.D. Yield Box Pin Tube Joint Tube
Grade Upset OD Dia. Connection Joint
lb/ft lb/ft (1) in. in. ksi in. in. ksi in. in. lb(2) lb(3) ft-lb(4)
in. in. ft-lb(5)
DRILL STRING
Copyright © 2015
FP
DRILLING
FLUID
PROCESSING

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
DRILLING FLUID PROCESSING FP-i
CHAPTER
FP
DRILLING
FLUID
PROCESSING
nance and repair.
by the reader.
Principal Author
Leon Robinson, PhD, Exxon Production Research Corp emeritus
Reviewers
Robert Urbanowski, Precision Drilling Corp
Charles G. Mangum, Axon Rig Concept and Design
FP-ii DRILLING FLUID PROCESSING


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-6-0

DRILLING FLUID PROCESSING Contents FP-iii
CHAPTER FP
DRILLING FLUID
PROCESSING Contents
General fundamentals................................................... FP-1 Maintenance..................................................................FP-17
Drilling fluid processing................................................ FP-1 Wash screens.......................................................................FP-17
Check screens for proper tension..................................FP-17
Notes on safety............................................................... FP-1
Degassers.......................................................................FP-19
Drilling fluid properties.................................................FP-2
Effect of gas-cut drilling fluid....................................FP-21
Benefits of mechanically removing drilled solids..FP-3
Removing gas bubbles............................................... FP-22
Drilling fluid particle sizes and effects.....................FP-3 Installation.............................................................................FP-23
Methods of controlling drilled solids........................FP-4 Hydrocyclones.............................................................. FP-23
Dilution.....................................................................................FP-4
Desilters.......................................................................... FP-25
Effect of equipment solids removal efficiency Maintenance.........................................................................FP-26
on clean drilling fluid ..........................................................FP-5
100% removal of drilled solids.........................................FP-5 Mud cleaners................................................................ FP-26
90% removal of drilled solids...........................................FP-5 Installation.............................................................................FP-28
80% removal of drilled solids...........................................FP-5 Centrifuges.................................................................... FP-29
70% removal of drilled solids............................................FP-6 Principles of performance......................................... FP-29
60% removal of drilled solds............................................FP-6
Decanting centrifuge.................................................. FP-30
Chemical treatment....................................................... FP-7
Perforated cylinder centrifuge................................. FP-31
Mechanical treatment................................................... FP-7 Applications..........................................................................FP-31
Mechanical separation: Basics...................................FP-9 Operating tips......................................................................FP-32
Summary of effective mechanical solids control........FP-8 Bypass trough............................................................... FP-32
Equipment arrangement...............................................FP-9 Bypass troughs after the shale shakers........................FP-32
Unweighted drilling fluid...............................................FP-9 Slug tank......................................................................... FP-34
Weighted drilling fluid.................................................FP-10 Trip tanks....................................................................... FP-36
Weighted and unweighted drilling fluid processing.. FP-11 Piping and equipment arrangement....................... FP-36
Equipment used to remove undesirable Fraction of fluid processed..........................................FP-39
material from a drilling fluid.................................FP-11 Sizing mud systems..................................................... FP-37
Flow distributor....................................................................FP-11 Suction section....................................................................FP-37
Shale shakers........................................................................FP-11 Surface volumes........................................................... FP-37
Screening surfaces.............................................................FP-11 Plugged bit method............................................................FP-38
Screen labeling..............................................................FP-14 Cased-hole method............................................................FP-38
Equipment.......................................................................FP-14 Lost circulation............................................................. FP-38
Vibrating mechanism.........................................................FP-15 Rapid drilling in large diameter holes.................FP-42
Main shakers..................................................................FP-15 Deep drilling with large diameter drillpipe........... FP-40
Triple-deck shakers......................................................FP-16 Sizing steel pits............................................................. FP-40
IADC Technical
Resources

contracts and more.
position on a rig.
newsletter.
DRILLING FLUID PROCESSING FP-1
General fundamentals fluid. These particles created poor filter cakes and also con-
Drilling fluid maintenance costs, as well as overall well costs, tinued to degrade in to colloidal sizes. The mud cleaner was
can be reduced dramatically when proper solids control invented to remove drilled solids in this size range. Desilter
techniques are used. Early drilling operations were mostly hydrocyclones processed the drilling fluid and the underflow
in boreholes that could be drilled with water and did not re- (containing these solids) was filtered through a fine screen. A
quire weighting agents to control high-pressure formations. single, four-inch desilter, at that time, could process about 50
Solids were simply settled as the drilling fluid passed through gpm, with a 1 gpm underflow. This small flow rate could be
a series of pits before being pumped back downhole. processed using fine screens on the shale shakers available
at that time. Using mud cleaners reduced the occurrences of
This method worked very well for shallow wells which con- stuck pipe and lost circulation. When the linear motion shale
tained no abnormal pressure formations. A drilling fluid shakers were introduced, fine screens could be used which
which needed to be used in these wells could not allow all of separated solids down below 75 microns. The use of mud
the solids to settle and still retain the heavier mud weights cleaners decreased significantly, because the assumption
needed to control the abnormally high-pressure. However, was made that all of the fluid was being processed through
the full extent of the impact of retained drilled solids was not the same size screen as the mud cleaner could use. However,
really appreciated until the mid to late 1900s. to the surprise of many, when mud cleaners were used after
processing “all” of the drilling fluid through a “200-mesh”
After using the ‘settling method’ for many years, the next in- screen, many solids were removed from the drilling fluid. In
novation in solids control came when shale shakers were intro- retrospect, this should have been anticipated. Desilters pro-
duced in the early 1930s. One of the first shakers was not accessing an unweighted drilling fluid would frequently plug
tually a ‘shaker’ but a rotating drum of very coarse wire mesh. with large solids even after passing through screens labeled
The drilling fluid would force the drum to turn, ejecting some of “80-mesh” or 177 micron openings. The apex of a desilter is
the solids, and retaining most of the liquid phase (and solids). many times larger in diameter than 177 microns. This means
The mining industry was using a vibrating screen for coal clas- that these solids bypassed the screen. In current drilling flu-
sification and was adopted by drillers to remove more solids id processing, a mud cleaner still removes a large quantity
and retain most of the weighting material. This machine used of drilled solids and serves as a ‘back-up’ to the fine mesh
an unbalanced elliptical motion to move solids down the screen screens used on the currently available linear and balanced
while forcing the drilling fluid to pass through the screen. elliptical motion shale shakers. When these fine screens
break, the rig crew does not always quickly detect the break.
After these found success, the hydrocyclones were also Frequently, the screen breaks in a region covered by a pool of
adopted from the mining industry and developed during the liquid and it is not visible until a connection is made. A mud
1940s for use on drilling rigs. These hydrocyclones spin the cleaner provides insurance that the drilling fluid remains free
fluid inside a chamber causing the solids to be forced against of the detrimental drilled solids.
the inside wall of the cone.
The next development was the centrifuge during the late Drilling fluid processing
1940s and early 1950s. The centrifuge removes solids smaller The mud tanks on a drilling rig should have three easily iden-
than about 10 microns. Drilled solids that were not removed tifiable sections: 1) Removal Section; 2) Additions Section
from the drilling fluid when they were large could be removed and 3) Suction Section. The size of these tanks depends on
with the centrifuge. When they become smaller than the the drilling rig size. Rigs used to drill very shallow holes may
size of barite, salesmen frequently incorrectly labeled it as a have all of these sections in one or two tanks. Deep wells
“barite recovery” device. At this time, there is no equipment will require much more drilling fluid and the tank system will
available for use on a drilling rig which will separate drilled be very large.
solids from barite in the same size range. A centrifuge sep-
arates particles by mass not species, dimensions or compo-
sition. In a weighted drilling fluid, a centrifuge removes small Notes on safety
drilled solids and small particles of barite; it recovers barite Design fluid processing areas to be safe. Drilling fluid res-
and drilled solids that are larger than about 10 microns. idue on a steel deck presents an extreme slip hazard. Use
serrated steel grating or fiberglass grating with a non-slip
By the early 1970s shale shakers had developed to the point surface wherever possible. Non-slip stairway treads are a
where screens labeled 60 to 80 mesh were the finest that must. Use properly built hand rails with toe plates along all
could be used on rigs. Solids between the finest mesh size walkways, stairs and pit tops. Maintain a safe lighting level
opening (250 microns to 180 microns) and the maximum bar- around all equipment, stairs and walkways. Wash equip-
ite size (75 microns) could not be removed from the drilling ment and clean up drilling fluid spills as soon as possible.

FP-2 DRILLING FLUID PROCESSING
Eyewash stations and shower(s) should be provided where PV is the plastic viscosity and YP is the
throughout the surface drilling fluid system areas. Prop- yield point.
er protective clothing in good condition should always be
readily available to those mixing chemicals and they should The equation is described as a straight line where PV is the
be worn. Some combination of goggles, dust masks, face slope and YP is the intercept on the Shear Stress axis at zero
shields, rubber gloves and rubber aprons are required de- Shear Rate. This is called the Bingham Plastic rheology model.
pending on the particular chemicals being mixed. Spilled
chemicals and bags should be cleaned up quickly and dis- Mathematically, if the value of Shear Stress is inserted into
posed of in a proper manner according to company policy the definition of viscosity, then Eq 1 is the result.
and/or environmental regulations.
As shear rate gets larger and larger, the last term of the above
A responsible qualified person should periodically inspect all equation gets smaller and smaller. If the shear rate goes to
electrical devices, electric cable lighting and fittings for phys- infinity, the viscosity is equal to the plastic viscosity. So PV is
ical damage or excessive corrosion. A shock hazard or explo- the viscosity the fluid would have at a very high shear rate—
sion hazard can exist if this special equipment is not maintained such as the shear rate through the bit nozzles. This high-
in a proper state. Always use an approved Classified Area shear-rate viscosity (PV) needs to be kept as low as possible
electrical device or fitting in an area requiring Division I/Zone to assist with the fluid hydraulic impact or hydraulic power
I or Division II/Zone lI explosion-proof or vapor tight electrical being capable of removing the largest quantity of drilled cut-
devices and fittings. The temperature class (T rating) should tings. PV is controlled by four factors: liquid phase viscosity,
be considered when selecting lighting and electrical equipment size, shape and number of solids.
to ensure that equipment is below auto-ignition temperature
of any flammable gasses which are likely to be present. Transport of drilled solids requires increasing the low-shear-
rate viscosity of the drilling fluid be sufficient to prevent
solids from tumbling in the annulus. Currently, there are
Drilling fluid properties guidelines (API RP13D) available that work well for drilling
A good drilling fluid should have the lowest possible viscos- fluid at angles less than the angle of repose of drilled solids
ity when it strikes the bottom of the hole to remove drilled in the well—around 35° to 40°. An empirical carrying ca-
solids created by the drill bit. Then the fluid must have a pacity index (CCI) seems to work well with water-based or
sufficient viscosity to transport drilled solids out of the bore Non-Aqueous Drilling Fluid (NADF). (Eq 2).
hole. This change in viscosity is created by having a fluid
which changes viscosity with shear rate (Figure FP-1). Sharp edge cuttings are discharged from the shale shaker
when CCI is equal to one. The “K” in the equation is the vis-
Viscosity is defined as the ratio of shear stress to shear rate. cosity constant in the Power Law rheology model. (Eq 3).
When the shear stress is expressed in dynes/cm2 and the
shear rate in reciprocal seconds, the viscosity has the units The factor of “n” is usually less than ‘1’ for drilling fluids. If
of poise. The rheological model normally used on drilling n=1, the fluid is said to be Newtonian, where the shear stress
rigs is one of the simplest possible models to describe the increases uniformly with shear rate. This means the viscos-
relationship between shear stress and shear rate: ity is constant, no matter how fast the fluid is moving. The
definition of viscosity is the ratio of shear stress to shear
Shear Stress = (PV) (Shear Rate) + YP, rate. When the shear stress is measured in dynes/sq cm
and the shear rate is measured in reciprocal seconds, the
Eq 1 shear stress (PV)(shear rate) + YP YP

Viscosity: ft 2 = = = PV +
shear rate shear rate shear rate
(mud weight, ppg)(Annular velocity, ft/min)(K,eff.cp.)

Eq 2 CCI =
400,000
Eq 3 Shear Stress = K (shear rate) n

K-Viscosity: eff cp
Plastic Viscosity: cp 5 10 15 20 25 30
2000
35
40
45
K: eff cp
1000
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Yield Point lb/100 sq ft
Figure FP-1: Effective viscosity vs Yield Point..
viscosity will have the units of ‘poise’. With the rheome- Eq 4 n=3.322 x Log (R600/R300)
ters used in drilling fluid measurements, the shear stress is
measured at two different shear rates. With the concentric Eq 5 K= 511(1-n) x (R300)
cylinder rheometer, the outer cylinder is rotated at 600 rpm
or 300 rpm and the shear stress measured in lb/100 sq ft. Usually, the morning report forms will provide the PV and YP
The plastic viscosity (PV) of the drilling fluid is calculated of the drilling fluid, not the actual readings. The equations
by subtracting the 300-rpm shear stress (R300) from the above can be modified for easier use:
600-rpm shear stress (R600). The yield point of the drilling
fluid (YP) is calculated by subtracting the PV from the R300 Eq 7 K= 511(1-n) x (R300)
reading. Multiplying the rpm by 1.7 changes the units to re-
ciprocal seconds. Multiplying the shear rate in lb/100 sq ft
Eq 6 n = 3.322 Log 2PV + YP
by 5.11 will change the units to dynes/sq cm. PV + YP
The power law constants of ‘n’ and ‘K’ can be calculated

from the equations:

K-Viscosity: eff cp CCI =

(10 ppg)(K)(65 ft/min) = 1
400,000
Plastic Viscosity: cp 5 10
1000 Solving this equation for the value of K:
400,000
K=
800 15 (10.0 ppg)(65 ft/min)
K =615 eff cp
K: eff cp
600 20
This value of K is shown by the blue circle in Figure FP-1a.
25
400 If the YP is increased to about 15 lb/100 sq ft, CCI will be
about 1.0. This should greatly improve cuttings transport.
200
Note: The lowest annular velocity may be in a zone which is
washed out, rather than in the casing/drillpipe annulus. In
some cases, the CCI has had to be increased to 1.5 instead
of 1.0. This also could be caused by the change in rheolo-
0 10 20
gy of the drilling fluid because of temperature and pressure
Yield Point: lb/100 sq ft in the well bore. The yield point is measured at the same
temperature daily. The wellbore temperature (and pressure
Because these equations are somewhat complicated, a for non-aqueous drilling fluids) changes the low shear rate
graphical solution is provided. The CCI equation (Eq 2) con- viscosity. This change depends upon the ingredients in the
tains an empirical number (400,000) that is an approxima- drilling fluid and cannot be predicted. The empirical value
tion. This value is useful to only one significant figure; conse- of 400,000 for the constant seems to account for these
quently, the value of K does not have to be calculated to the changes reasonably well. The CCI concept has been field
nearest decimal value. This means that reading the number tested and, in most cases, works well. However, the tech-
from a chart will be sufficiently accurate to provide guidance nique simply provides some basic guidelines that should be
about what yield point will be needed. modified as needed to ensure that the cuttings being trans-
ported in wells up to 35° will have sharp edges.
Application:
Figure FP-1a: Determining Yield Point needed to clean hole properly.
Good solids control actually starts at the drill bit. Cuttings
made by the drill bit should be removed from the bottom
of the hole before the next row of teeth regrind them. This
Calculate the CCI for a 10-ppg drilling fluid with PV = 10 cp means that the fluid should strike the bottom of the hole with
and YP = 5 lb/100 sq ft being circulated in a hole where the the greatest force or impact possible OR the greatest power
lowest annular velocity in a well is 65 ft/min. possible. Hydraulic optimization is necessary to insure that
the cuttings are being removed as quickly as possible. A low
From the Figure FP-1a, K = 130 cp (red circle). plastic viscosity will enhance this. After the cuttings are re-
moved from beneath the drill bit, they need to be brought
CCI = 0.13 to the surface without regrinding. The cuttings should have
sharp edges on them. This means that they will be as large
(10 ppg)(80 eff cp)(65 ft/min)
CCI = as possible when they are being processed by the shale
400,000
shakers. Large solids are easier to remove than smaller ones.
With a value so much smaller than one, the cuttings are not A general “rule of thumb” 1 requiring annular velocity to be
being transported to the surface without tumbling. No cut- about 100 to 125 ft/min or higher to carry cuttings out of the
tings would have edges as thin as fingernails. The YP needs wellbore is a good starting point. However, this annular ve-
to be increased so that CCI will be equal to one. locity cannot always be achieved in washed-out zones and
large diameter risers and casing. For this reason, the low-
1
Preston Moore, Drilling Practices Manual, PennWell, 1975, p 229.

shear-rate viscosity must be elevated to allow the transport cement could result in flow behind casing while the well is
of drilled solids in the vertical and near-vertical sections of being produced. If this is not detected, a significant amount
the well. The CCI applies only to holes at an angle lower than of production could be lost. This would be a large cost for an
the angle of repose of solids on the side of the wellbore (usu- invisible NPT.
ally around 42°).
Drilling fluid particle sizes and effects

Benefits of mechanically removing drilled solids Drilling fluids are classified as water-based or Non-Aque-
a. Raises the founder point of the bit which increases ous Drilling Fluid (NADF). NADF can consist of a diesel oil,
drilling penetration rate; a mineral oil or a synthetic fluid (such as polyalpha olefin,
esters, ethers or others). With the more frequent use of
b. Decreases filter cake thickness, which: polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bits, more and
more NADF are being used now even though it may be more
• Reduces drillstring torque and drag; expensive than water. The benefits from wellbore stability
• Reduces differentially pressure stuck pipe; and enhancing the action of the PDC bits against the rock
• Provides better electric logs; creates a less expensive hole even though the cost of the
• Allows cement to fill more of the annulus; drilling fluid may be higher.
• Allows casing to be moved during cement placement.
The solids phase of any drilling fluid are two basic types:
c. Reduces wear of expendables in the drilling fluid Commercial solids and drilled solids.
system;
Not all solids in the colloidal range are detrimental to a drill-
d. Reduces dilution costs to keep drilled solids ing fluid system. Some fine particles in the colloidal size
concentration within specifications; range are necessary to build a thin, slick, compressible filter
cake. These reduce the probability of differential pressure
e. Enhances quality of electric logs; sticking of the drill string. They also increase the low-shear-
rate viscosity of the drilling fluid used to transport drilled
f. Decreases volume of discarded fluid needed when solids up the vertical (or almost vertical) part of the bore
controlling drilled solids with dilution; hole. Commercial solids also are used to build a gel struc-
ture which suspends the barite and drilled cuttings when the
g. Decreases the cost of building excessive volumes of mud pumps are turned off.
drilling fluid as required by dilution.
The different sizes of particles in a drilling fluid have been
From an economical point of view, the drilling benefits of labeled for ease of communication:
removing drilled solids can be divided into two categories: • Cuttings: 440 microns and larger;
• Visible nonproductive Time (NPT); • Sand: 75-440 microns;
• Invisible nonproductive Time (NPT). • Silt: 2–75 microns;
• Clay: 0.5–2 microns;
Stuck pipe is a very visible NPT. The drilling rig cannot drill • Colloids: less than 0.5 microns .
and must solve the problem by recovering the drillstring (or Note: 0.001 in. = 25.4 microns
fish), sidetracking the well, or abandoning the well. The cost
of this event is relatively easy to identify. However, drilling A sand-size particle refers to the effective diameter of the
with a drill bit, when the bit loading has exceeded to founder particle NOT the material. In other words, barite particles
point, results in a much lower drilling rate and increases the larger than 75 microns would still be called “sand” in a drill-
bit wear. This is an invisible NPT. Removal of drilled solids ing fluid report. These large particles in a filter cake would
could increase the ability of the drilling fluid to remove cut- be detrimental to the filter cake quality. Particles larger than
tings from below the bit (decreasing plastic viscosity) and 75 microns should be removed from the drilling fluid even if
increase penetration rates. The question becomes is the they are diamond, gold, silver, barite or pearls. They destroy
rock “harder” or is the bottom of the hole not being cleaned the filter cake quality. Too many small particles are also not
by the hydraulics. Clearly, drilling half as fast as possible and desirable in a filter cake.
using three bits instead of one in an interval would greatly
affect the economics of drilling. The ability to properly ce- Drilled solids should be removed the first time they are circu-
ment a well is essential for the life of the well. Leaving a thick lated to the surface or they will eventually degrade to colloid
filter cake on the formation that cannot be removed by the sizes by continuous circulation through the mud pumps, drill

Dilution
Drilled solids can be controlled by removing some of the
‘dirty’ drilling fluid and replacing the volume with clean drilling
fluid containing no drilled solids. This is an expensive method.
Figure FP-2A: 2,000 bbls drilling fluid containing For example, envision 2,000 barrels of drilling fluid in a well and
200 bbl of drilled solids or 10% volume.
in the mud tanks collected into a single tank (Figure FP-2A).
Assume the drilling fluids specifications require 5% volume
drilled solid (which would be 100 bbl). After drilling 1,250 ft of a
9 7/8 in.-hole without removing any drilled solids, the volume
of drilled solids would increase by about 100 bbl of solids
if the formation had 15% porosity. This would double the
volume of drilled solids in the system.
Figure FP-2B: 1,000 bbl drilling fluid discarded leaving

1,000 bbl of drilling fluid containing 10% volume drilled solids.
To meet the required drilling fluid specification of 5% volume
drilled solids, one half of the drilling fluid must be discarded.
If clean drilling fluid is now added to the system, the 10% by

volume of drilled solids in the 1,000 bbl (or 100 bbl of drilled
solids) will now be spread throughout the drilling fluid system
of 2,100 bbl. The new hole volume has increased by 100 bbl.
This meets the specifications for the drilling fluid as required
Figure FP-2C: After dilution, the drilling fluid once again by the drilling program. If the drilling fluid costs only $20/bbl,
contains only 100 bbl of drilled solids for the 2,100 bbl. the cost of decreasing solids in this manner is prohibitive (Fig-
ure FP-2B).
pipe, bit jets, bit teeth, etc. As an example,one particle hav-
ing a diameter of 100 microns will become 125,000 particles, After drilling only 1,250 ft of new hole, 1,000 bbl of drilling
with a diameter of 2 microns and require 50 times as much fluid must be discarded to bring the drilled solids back into
liquid to coat the surface of this same mass of drilled solids a reasonable value. A lower concentration of drilled solids
without any reduction in solids concentration. This thickening would be better but far too expensive when dilution is used to
process, occurring without an absolute increase in solids con- control drilled solids. Two costs are associated with this pro-
centration, increases the plastic viscosity and is responsible cess: the cost of the new drilling fluid (1,000 bbl) and the cost
for poor wall cakes. High plastic viscosity is very detrimental of disposal of the dirty 1,000 bbl discard. With drilling fluid
to the entire drilling process and is an economic burden. costs ranging from $30 to $600 per barrel, the cost would
be prohibitive to use this method of solids control except for
Adding more of the liquid phase to the system reduces the the cheapest of the cheap drilling fluids. Because it is so ex-
concentration of those solids, thus reducing the plastic vis- pensive, a compromise is frequently made to allow the drilled
cosity. Removal of drilled solids during the early circulation solids to increase to levels above 10% to 12% by volume (Fig-
stages with solids removal equipment at the surface is much ure FP-2C).
simpler and less expensive.
Frequently, when the solids control equipment is inadequate
Obviously, these benefits are the result of planning prior or, more often, plumbed incorrectly, the drilled solids will in-
to drilling a well and are accomplished through the use of crease somewhat more slowly. If the target drilled solids con-
properly designed, sized and operated solids removal equip- centration can be raised to a much higher concentration, less
ment. The drilling crew has an obligation to become knowl- drilling fluid needs to be used to meet the specifications. The
edgeable in the proper use of the equipment: otherwise, its NPT (visible and invisible), however, will notice the relaxation
potential benefits may be reduced or nullified. of the stringent requirements. The out-of-pocket money for
treating the drilling fluid will be lower but the total cost of the
well (and long-term effects) will be significantly higher.
Methods of controlling drilled solids
a. Dilution of drilling fluid;
b. Chemical treatment;
c. Mechanical removal of drilled solids.

Ratio of Dilution Volume to Volume Solids Drilled 90% removal of drilled solids
6
Again drill 100 bbl of drilled solids. In this case, 90 bbl of
drilled solids would be discarded and 10 bbl of drilled solids
5
would remain in the drilling fluid.
4
Volume of discarded drilled solids = (0.35) (volume of discard)
3 90 bbl = (0.35)(volume of discard)
Volume of discard = 257 bbl
2 Ratio of volume of discard to volume drilled solids = 2.57
1 In this case, 90 bbl of drilled solids and 167 bbl of drilling

fluid would be discarded; or a total of 257 bbl would be
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
required to keep the pit levels constant.
Equipment Solids Removal Efficiency: %
The remaining solids would need to be diluted with clean
Figure FP-3: Calculations for five different equipment
drilling fluid.
solids-removal efficiencies indicate that discard volume
rises rapidly after reaching a minimum value. Drilled solids = (0.08)(dilution volume)
Dilution volume = 10 bbl/0.08 = 125 bbl
Effect of equipment solids removal
The dilution volume would consist of 10 bbl of drilled
efficiency on clean drilling fluid needed solids and 115 bbl of clean drilling fluid. Since 257 bbl would
This is a theoretical analysis of the effect of equipment sol-
be required to keep the pit volumes constant and only
ids removal efficiency and concentration of drilled solids in
115 bbl would be needed to keep the pit levels constant, the
the discard stream. For these calculations, 100 bbl of drilled
total drilled solids in the active system would decrease.
solids will report to the surface. The target drilled solids con-
centration is 8% by volume. See Figure FP-3. 80% removal of drilled solids
Again drill 100 bbl of drilled solids. In this case, 80 bbl of
100% removal of drilled solids drilled solids would be discarded and 20 bbl of drilled solids
If this could be accomplished and the drilled solids were 35%
volume of the discard, the discard volume could be calculated:
Volume of discarded drilled solids =
Volume of discarded drilled solids =
(0.35) (volume of discard)
(0.35)(volume of total discard)
Assume 100 bbl of drilled solids arrive at the surface. If all 80 bbl = (0.35)(volume of discard)
are discarded, the total volume of discard would be: Volume of discard = 229 bbl
100 bbl = (0.35)(volume of total discard) Ratio of volume of discard to volume drilled solids = 2.29
In this case, 80 bbl of drilled solids and 149 bbl of drilling
The ratio of discarded volume to volume of drilled solids fluid would be discarded; or a total of 229 bbl would be re-
removed would be 2.86. In other words, for every barrel of quired to keep the pit levels constant.
drilled solids removed from the drilling fluid system, 1.86 bbl
of drilling fluid would accompany the one barrel of drilled The remaining solids would need to be diluted with clean
solids. The pit levels would drop by 286 bbl during this pe- drilling fluid.
riod and must be added to the active system to keep the pit Drilled solids = (0.08)(dilution volume)
levels constant. The concentration of drilled solids would Dilution volume = 20 bbl/0.08 = 250 bbl
decrease from 8% volume to a lower number (depending
upon the volume of drilling fluid in the active system). The dilution volume would consist of 20 bbl of drilled solids
and 230 bbl of clean drilling fluid. Since 250 bbl would be
The addition of 296 bbl of clean drilling fluid will reduce the required to keep the pit volumes constant and only an addi-
drilled solids concentration because the 186 bbl of drilling tional 7 bbl would be needed to keep the pit levels constant,
fluid discarded with the 100 bbl of drilled solids would con- the total drilled solids in the active system would be almost
tain 15 bbl of drilled cuttings. This reduces the total drilled balanced. That is the volume of clean drilling fluid needed
solids in the drilling fluid. would be almost exactly the volume which was discarded
from the active system.

Optimum Solids Removal Efficiency =

(1-Target Drilled Solids Conc in Drilling Fluid)
Eq 8
1-Target Drilled Solids Conc + (Target Drilled Solids Conc)(Drilled Solids Conc in Discard)
Assume the drilled solids concentration in the discard is 35% volume and the target drilled solids
concentration is 8% volume.
(1– 0.08)
Optimum Solids Removal Efficiency = = 0.80
1– 0.08 + (0.08/0.35)
70% removal of drilled solids Volume of discarded drilled solids =

Again drill 100 bbl of drilled solids. In this case, 70 bbl of (0.35) (volume of discard)
drilled solids would be discarded and 30 bbl of drilled solids
would remain in the drilling fluid. 60 bbl = (0.35)(volume of discard)
Volume of discarded drilled solids = Volume of discard = 171 bbl
(0.35) (volume of discard)
Ratio of volume of equipment discard to volume drilled
70bbl = (0.35)(volume of discard) solids = 1.71
In this case, 60 bbl of drilled solids and 111 bbl of drilling fluid
Ratio of volume of equipment discard to volume drilled would be discarded; or a total of 171 bbl would be required to
solids = 2.0 keep the pit levels constant.
In this case, 70 bbl of drilled solids and 130 bbl of drilling The remaining solids would need to be diluted with clean
fluid would be discarded; or a total of 200 bbl would be drilling fluid.
required to keep the pit levels constant. Drilled solids = (0.08)(dilution volume)
Dilution volume = 40 bbl/0.08 = 500 bbl
The remaining solids would need to be diluted with clean
drilling fluid. The dilution volume would consist of 40 bbl of drilled solids
and 460 bbl of clean drilling fluid. Since 111 bbl would be re-
quired to keep the pit volumes constant, an additional 349
Drilled solids = (0.08)(dilution volume) bbl would be needed to dilute the remaining drilled solids
Dilution volume = 30 bbl/0.08 = 375 bbl to the targeted value of 8% volume. Only a volume of 111
bbl is available after the solids removal equipment has dis-
The dilution volume would consist of 30 bbl of drilled solids carded the 70% volume of solids arriving at the surface and
and 345 bbl of clean drilling fluid. Since 200 bbl would be the liquid associated with the cuttings. The actual discard
required to keep the pit volumes constant, an additional 175 would be the 111 bbl from the equipment and an additional
bbl would be needed to dilute the remaining drilled solids 349 bbl to allow the remaining drilled solids to be diluted to
to the targeted value of 8% volume. Only a volume of 200 the targeted value of 8% volume. This means that the ratio
bbl is available after the solids removal equipment has dis- of actual volume of discard to the volume drilled would be
carded the 70% volume of solids arriving at the surface and (171 bbl + 349 bbl)/100 bbl or 5.0.
the liquid associated with the cuttings. The actual discard
would be the 200 bbl from the equipment and an additional The information just calculated for the five different equip-
175 bbl to allow the remaining drilled solids to be diluted to ment solids removal efficiencies indicates that the volume
the targeted value of 8% volume. This means that the ratio of discard rises rapidly after it reaches a minimum value. In
of actual volume of discard to the volume drilled would be this case, with 35% volume of drilled solids in the discards
(200 bbl + 175 bbl)/100 bbl or 3.75. and a targeted drilled solids concentration of 8% volume,
the optimum solids removal efficiency is around an 80% re-
60% Removal of drilled solids moval efficiency.
Again, drill 100 bbl of drilled solids. In this case, 60 bbl of This optimum value of removal efficiency for various targeted
drilled solids would be discarded and 40 bbl of drilled solids drilled solids concentrations and drilled solids concentration in

2. Fine Screen Shaker:

75 microns and larger (weighted drilling fluids).
44 microns and larger (unweighted drilling fluids);
3. Mud Cleaner:
75 microns and larger (weighted fluids).
44 microns and larger (unweighted fluids);
4. Desanders: 100 microns and larger;
5. Desilters: 15 microns and larger;
6. Centrifuge:
Solids removal efficiency 5–10 microns and smaller (weighted drilling fluids);
5–10 microns and larger (unweighted drilling fluids).
Figure FP-4: This series of curves reveals how rapidly
dilution volume increases with poor removal efficiency.
Each piece of mechanical equipment is effective within a
the discarded slurry should be calculated from the equation: certain particle size range. Shale shakers separate by the
size of the particles; the other devices which use centrifugal
If the same analysis is performed for other solids removal effi- force for separation separate by mass of the particle. Using
ciencies and other values of targeted drilled solids concentra- all of the equipment listed above throughout a drilling pro-
tions, a series of curves reveals how rapidly the dilution volumes gram will produce maximum benefits without overloading
increase with poor removal efficiencies (Figure FP-4). As the any one piece of equipment. None of the above items will
requirement for a clean drilling fluid decreases (i.e., going from take the place of another piece of equipment; however no
a 4% volume drilling fluid to a 12% volume drilling fluid), the piece of equipment operating at optimum efficiency should
volume of dilution decreases markedly. This, however, simply cause downstream equipment to become overloaded. In
means that the drilling fluid cost will decrease while the well some wells, depending upon the size of the drilled solids, the
costs rise rapidly. mud cleaner or the centrifuge might not be needed.
Chemical treatment Removing solids from spud of a drilling operation is a first

Chemical treatment of a water-based drilling fluid for solids priority in solids control as it is much easier to remove one
removal involves adding a “flocculant” to the drilling fluid; particle 100 microns in diameter with a fine screen shaker
This causes extremely small solids to agglomerate together than it is to attempt to remove 125,000 particles of 2 micron
so they can be removed mechanically or allowed to settle by size with a centrifuge.
gravity in the mud tanks. Normally, a flocculant is used in
conjunction with mechanical treatment. For example, floc- In unweighted drilling fluids, the fine screen shakers and de-
culants can be added at the flow line to increase the par- silters are generally used until the point of adding barite for
ticle sizes so they can be removed with the shaker screen. weight-up. If only coarse screens (API 80) can be used on
Flocculants are also added to drilling fluid being processed the main shaker, the desander is needed to prevent solids
by a centrifuge. The low-shear-rate inside of the centrifuge overload in the desilters. With fine screens (API140 and up)
prevents the flocculated particles from separating and this the desanders are not needed. Centrifuges can be used to
makes an effective tool for decreasing the concentration of increase drilled solidsremoval, although this is not common.
very small particles. With weighted drilling fluids, fine screen shakers, mud-
cleaner sand centrifuges are used.
Mechanical treatment
This is the method of mechanically removing solids using Mechanical separation-basics
shale shakers, desanders, desilters, mud cleaners and cen- Mechanical separation equipment employs mass differences,
trifuges. Each piece of equipment generally limited to the size differences, or a combination of both to selectively reject
following range of particle removal: undesirable solids and retain desirable solids in a drilling fluid.
1. Scalping Shale Shaker: 440 microns and larger; Shakers are vital to solids control and should process all of
the drilling fluid returning through the flow lines. A standard
scalping shaker performs adequately for small rigs oper-

ating at shallow depths with low solids native drilling fluid, should be 110 to 125% of the flow rate entering the
however, fine screen shale shakers are generally more effi- suction tank of the equipment.
cient and remove more drilled solids.
b. Remove as many drilled solids as possible the first
The desanders and desilters are located directly downtime they are circulated to the surface.
stream from the shale shaker. They should be sized to pro-
cess at least 110% to 125% of the rig circulation rate while c. Do not bypass the shale shaker or other equipment,
discarding undesirable cuttings and solids larger than if at all possible.
around 20 microns. The desander removes the majority of
the solids down to the 75 micron size range and prevents d. Use the smallest screen openings possible on the
the desilter from being overloaded. The desilter removes the shale shakers.
majority of solids down to around the 15 micron range, in an
unweighted drilling fluid. When fine screens are mounted on e. Maintain an adequate inventory of recommended
the main shakers (above API140), desanders are not need- spare parts.
ed. In a weighted drilling fluid, desilters remove much larger
solids and do not remove the very small sizes. f. Assign rig personnel on each tour to be responsible
for equipment operation and maintenance.
Liquid loss from desanding and desilting an unweighted drill-
ing fluid is relatively insignificant compared to the amount of g. Any drilling fluid brought to a rig should be added to
drilling fluid that must be removed from the mud tanks to the mud tanks through the shale shaker.
eliminate the same amount of solids. Attempts to recover
the liquid phase results in the recovery of very fine colloidal h. Sufficient shaker capacity should be available to
solids and is not recommended. process the entire top-hole flow rate.
When drilling with a weighted drilling fluid, the desander

and desilter cannot be used economically because they dis- Equipment arrangement
card too much of the valuable barite. Therefore, fine screen All drilling fluid systems should have three easily identifiable
shakers and mud cleaners are used to remove solids down to sections: A removal section, an addition section and a suc-
75 microns. The mud cleaner will remove solids which have tion section (Figure FP-5).
bypassed the main shaker screens and keep all retained sol-
ids to sizes less than ‘sand’ (or 75 microns). This is essential This includes rigs mounted on the back of trucks and the
to provide the correct ingredients in the drilling fluid to form largest deepwater drilling rigs. The sections, obviously, do
good, thin, slick, compressible filter cakes. not have to be the same size for all of these rigs. A small
drilling fluid system might have only two mud tanks divided
Colloidal solids will continuously increase in a drilling fluid. into compartments. The larger rigs might have several mud
This increases the plastic viscosity, decreases filter cake tanks in the suction section.
quality, and is detrimental to drilling performance. In a
weighted drilling fluid, centrifuges are used to remove sol- Unweighted drilling fluid
ids smaller than 5 to 10 microns. [It is not used to recov- For unweighted drilling fluid, the first option is the ‘gumbo’
er anything but is used like all solids control equipment to slide. When drilling very young (geologically speaking) for-
eliminate drilled solids without discarding all of the drilling mations containing a lot of clay, the clay tends to form large
fluid.] Only a fraction of the drilling fluid is processed with rings/balls or agglomerations as it moves up the wellbore.
each circulation, because the filtration additives and the Inhibitive drilling fluids with good carrying capacity tend
low-shear-rate modifiers are also removed with the colloi- to mitigate this. However, a gumbo slide can remove these
dal material. These must be added back to the drilling fluid large masses of sticky clay before they reach the next shaker.
when centrifuges are used. The next shaker is called a ‘scalping’ shaker and usually has
a very coarse screen mounted on it. Gumbo will not easily be
Summary of effective mechanical solids control transported off the end of a linear motion or a balanced ellip-
a. Obtain solids removal equipment from reputable tical motion screen. The fluid then is processed through the
manufacturers and size it to process drilling fluid at main shaker which should have very fine screens to remove
the manufacturer’s recommended capacity. Except as many drilled solids as possible. See Figure FP-6.
for shale shakers and centrifuges, the process rate
Below the main shaker can be a sand trap. This is very effec-
tive only if coarse screens are mounted on the main shaker

very effectively. The gas tends to accumulate in the center

FROM
ADDITION REMOVAL
WELL of the impeller and eventually vapor locks the pump. If gas
SECTION SECTION does enter and collect in a centrifugal pump, cavitation bub-
WELL
bles destroy the pump impeller. Since centrifugal pumps are
needed to process the drilling fluid, a good degasser is nec-
essary. A vacuum in the chamber causes atmospheric pres-
TO
sure to push fluid into the degasser. The fluid flows down
WELL some baffle plates and the gas does not have to travel a long
distance to enter the vacuum chamber. A jet pump is used to
SUCTION / SLUG / PILL
SECTION cause the fluid to leave the degasser and flow into the next
compartment. The fluid driving the jet pump removing fluid
Figure FP-5: All drilling fluid systems hould have three easily from the degasser is from a centrifugal pump getting its fluid
identifiable sections: removal, addition and suction. from a compartment of degassed drilling fluid downstream
from the vacuum degasser.
and no fine screen shakers are available. Solids settle in this
compartment and are discarded frequently. Recently, how- A bank of desanders is needed to decrease the solids load-
ever, the low-shear-rate viscosity of drilling fluid has been ing of the desilters. These were necessary before the advent
elevated to assist in transporting cuttings to the surface. The of the linear motion or the balanced elliptical motion shakers
solids do not settle rapidly in transit in the wellbore because were available. If API 140, or finer, screens are mounted on
of this viscosity. The residence time in the sand trap is short the main shaker, they will remove the solids that were nor-
and very few solids will settle. If fine screens are mounted mally removed by the desanders. In this case, the desanders
on the main shaker, the settling rate of solids smaller than are no longer needed and can be deleted along with the re-
75 microns is very low. Many rigs are now eliminating the lated desander suction tank.
sand trap when sufficiently fine screens can be mounted on
the main shakers. A centrifuge is used as if it is a super-desilter. The heavy (or
underflow) slurry is discarded and the light (or overflow)
The fluid passing through the shaker screen may have gas slurry is retained. This eliminates solids which are larger
in it. Centrifugal pumps cannot pump gas-cut drilling fluid than about 10 microns for the fluid processed. All solids
Slug Tank
Gumbo Slide
To
Well
To Trip Tank
Scalping Shaker Mud
Guns
Suction Section
By-Pass
Through
Main
Shaker agitator
Sand
Trap
Addition
Removal Section
Section
Figure FP-6: Tank arrangement for unweighted drilling fluid.

Flow From
Well
Slug Tank
Gumbo Slide
To
Well
To Trip Tank
Scalping Shaker Mud
Guns
Suction Section
Main
Shaker agitator
By-Pass Trough
Sand
Trap
Mud
Cleaner Addition
Removal Section
Section
Figure FP-7: Tank arrangement for a weighted fluid is very similar to that for unweighted fluids.
removal equipment except the centrifuge should process API 170 or API 200 screens could be used on the main shak-
about 110 to 125% of the flow rate pumped downhole. The er, mud cleaners were deemed as superseded by the new
hydrocyclones and the degasser should process more fluid technology. After a period of time, mud cleaners became
than is entering the suction tank of that equipment. This is popular again because all of the drilling fluid is not always
discussed in depth in another section of this chapter. processed through the main shaker. This should have been
obvious with the experience of finding desilters plugged
Weighted drilling fluid with solids which are much larger than the screen openings.
A weighted drilling fluid is defined as a drilling fluid which
contains commercial additives to increase the drilling fluid Weighted and un-weighted drilling fluid processing
density. Usually, barite is added to increase the mud weight. In both active systems, all tanks are stirred except the
There is currently no rig equipment available which will sep- sand trap (if used). Agitators are recommended instead of
arate barite from drilled solids. Consequently, the drilled mud guns in the removal section. Mud guns in the removal
solids roughly in the same size range as the barite cannot be section add the volume of fluid that is entering a removal
removed. See Figure FP-7. compartment which would need additional solids removal
capacity for the additional flow rate. Both mud guns and ag-
The tank arrangement for a weighted drilling fluid is almost itators should be used in the additions and suction section.
identical to the tank arrangement used for unweighted drill- The additions section should be well blended with the suc-
ing fluid. The primary difference is the economic restriction tion section. All fluid in both sections should be homoge-
of discarding all of the desilter underflow. To retain the barite neous in terms of mud weight and rheology.
in the desilter underflow, a screen is mounted on a shaker to
allow all of the barite and some drilled solids to return to the Slug tanks are used to blend slurries to be used as sweeps
active system. The screen discard will have some large bar- through the well, or when mixing a pill to be spotted, or
ite particles (that are undesirable) and mostly drilled solids. when tripping pipe. A heavy weight drilling fluid is placed
This equipment is called a mud cleaner. in the upper part of the drill string before pulling pipe from
the hole during a trip. This keeps the liquid level in the drill
When the linear motion shale shakers were introduced and pipe below the rig floor and prevents drilling fluid from

1/2 inch
1/2 inch
1/2 inch 1/2 inch
Figure FP-9: Two versions of a 20-mesh screen. The screen on the

left will handle higher flow rates, but the right-hand screen
will remove more drilled solids.
Figure FP-8: Flow distributors are installed in the flow line when
multiple main shakers are used. Courtesy Derrick Equipment Co.
1/2 inch
splashing onto the rig floor and people. Calculation proce-
dures to determine the volume and/or mud weight of the
slug are presented in the section after the solids removal
equipment is described.
1/2 inch
Equipment used to remove undesirable material Figure FP-10: Not all screens feature openings of identical dimen-
sions in both directions. This screen has 16 openings/in. in one
from a drilling fluid direction and 20 in the other.
ers has changed significantly during the past several years.
Flow distributor At one time, the screens were defined by the mesh size.
The details of the equipment will be discussed next. When When all of the screens had square openings and were all
multiple main shakers are used, a flow distributor (Figure made from the same diameter wire, this was a very efficient
FP-8) will be inserted in the flow line to provide each shaker way of describing screen cloth. When different diameter
with the correct (equal) amount of drilling fluid. wires were used, this description failed to indicate what size
particles would pass through the screen.
The flow from the well enters the distribution chamber at
point 1. From there, the fluid overflows into each outer com- Two screen wires with 20 openings/in. in each direction
partment to ensure separate and equal flow to each main would be called 20-mesh screens (Figure FP-9). The per-
shale shaker. formance on a shale shaker, however, would be significantly
different. The screen on the left would be able to handle a
Shale shakers larger flow rate of drilling fluid than the screen on the right.
When drilled cuttings exit the well, they should be removed The screen on the right would remove more drilled solids
as quickly and as efficiently as possible. Shakers are used than the screen on the left. Clearly, designation by screen
first to remove particles larger than the openings in the mesh would not be descriptive of actual performance here.
shaker screen. Particles smaller than the openings in the
screen pass through the holes of the screen along with the The screening industry started making screens where the
liquid phase of the drilling fluid. Particles too large to pass openings were not the same dimension in each direction.
through the screen are separated from the drilling fluid for These screens with oblong openings and were designated
disposal. Basically, a screen acts as a “go-no-go” gauge: Ei- with one number which was the sum of the openings in each
ther a particle is small enough to pass through the screen direction. This screen has 16 openings/in. in one direction
opening or it is not. The drilled solids which are removed are and 20 openings/in. in the other direction and would have
not dry, of course. Consequently some drilling fluid is lost been called an oblong 36 (Figure FP-10).
with the cuttings.
The screen designation then became even more confusing
Screening surfaces when one screen was placed on top of another screen (Fig-
Screening surfaces used in solids control equipment are ure FP-11). The opening sizes were no longer uniform in ei-
generally made of woven wire screen cloth, in many differ- ther direction. If the oblong screen was placed on top of the
ent sizes and shapes. The screen cloth used on shale shak- square mesh screen in drawings above, the opening sizes of

Figure FP-11
Figure FP-11: Setting screens of differing meshes atop one another
caused further nomenclature confusion.
this layered screen cannot be described by using the ‘mesh’

concept.
The API formed a committee of experts to address this prob-

lem and attempt to describe shaker screens. At first, this com-
mittee wanted to develop a performance test that could be
used to predict behavior of these screens on a drilling rig. This
was soon deemed impractical because too many variables af-
Figure FP-12 (top) shows a RoTap used to test different-sized
fect performance. The next quest was to provide some meth- screens to determine the size of the maximum opening. Aluminum
od of describing screens that would be capable of providing a oxide (Figure FP-13) gave reproducible results.
fair comparison between different vendors. Finally, the deci-
sion was made to describe the largest particle that would be To sieve the aluminum oxide grit, the ASTM E-11 Wire Cloth
returned to the drilling fluid. A distribution of openings was Standard was adopted, Table FP-1. This lists the opening
not definitive enough. The distribution of opening sizes had size for screens in metric units—either millimeters or mi-
been used earlier because the curves resembled a ‘cut-point’ crons. Since this was going to be an international standard
curve. However, solids did not select openings which were ex- and metric units would be used, the concept of openings
actly their size. Small solids pass through the large openings per inch could not be used. However, the standard had the
along with the larger solids. After several tests, the commit- ‘mesh’ designation listed as an alternative designation. API
tee finally evolved a test method that could give repeatable RP 13C used this number as the ‘API Number’. This meant
results in several laboratories. A small amount of aluminum that the labels on the screens would have familiar units for
oxide grit in a variety of sizes is placed on a screen sample. the rig hands—even though they were no longer “mesh”.
The screen sample is shaken with a vibrator for ten minutes The only screen sizes will therefore be only those sizes listed
and the largest particle which passes through the screen is in the E-11 Specification. There will be an API 170 or an API
determined. This became the recommendations in API RP 200 screen but there can be no API 175 or API 210 screen
13C and is now used widely to compare shaker screens. if they are labeled according to the procedures listed in API
RP 13C. Perhaps not surprisingly, several vendors had dras-
To determine the size of a screen’s maximum opening, it is tic changes that needed to be made in their labeling. But,
mounted in a disc and placed in a RoTap machine with two the procedure outlined in API RP 13C levels the playing field
ASTM standard screens above and two standard screens for vendors. This procedure will clearly describe the opening
below it (Figures FP-12 and -13). A known quantity of var- sizes of the screens but it does not, nor is it intended to, pre-
ious size grit is placed on the top screen, and the screen is dict performance of the screen.
shaken for 10 min. By weighing the grit on each screen, the
size of the maximum opening can be determined. This is For screen designation, API RP 13C also describes the non-
explained in great detail in API RP 13C. Several grits were blocked area of the screen. Attempts were made to try to
tested by the API committee, and the grit which gave repro- identify the open area of a screen that is not blocked by wire.
ducible results was aluminum oxide. Under a microscope, This would be a very difficult problem with the fine screens
the aluminum oxide grit looks almost like shale cuttings that currently used. Instead, API RP13C recommends reporting
arrive at the surface when the cuttings are being properly the area of the screen which is not blocked with panels or
transported to the surface. adhesives. All openings in a panel or a screen are measured

Table FP-1: Partial List of ASTM E-11 Wire Cloth Standard Test Sieves
Standard mm API number Permissible Maximum openings Maximum individual
variation+/-mm for 5% mm opening mm
2.36 8 0.080 2.515 2.600
2.00 10 0.070 2.135 2.215
1.70 12 0.060 1.820 1.890
1.890 16 0.045 1.270 1.330
Microns Microns Microns Microns
850 20 35 925 970
710 25 30 775 819
600 30 25 660 695
500 35 20 550 585
425 40 19 471 502
355 45 16 396 426
300 50 14 337 353
250 60 12 283 306
212 70 10 242 263

180 80 9 207 227
150 100 8 175 192
125 120 7 147 163
106 140 6 126 141
90 170 5 108 122
75 200 5 91 103
63 230 4 77 89
53 270 4 65 89
45 325 3 57 76
38 400 3 48 66
and summed to provide the area of the total screen available Conductance C is usually reported in kilodarcys per milli-
for sieving. meter; Conductance of a screen is determined by measur-
ing the flow rate of a Newtonian fluid with a known viscos-
API RP 13C recommends that the conductance of the screen ity, flowing through a shaker screen, with a measured area
be included in the screen description. Screen conductance perpendicular to the flow, and a known pressure drop.
describes the flow capacity of a screen. Conductance is de-
fined as the permeability of the screen divided by the screen Motor oil was selected as the fluid to be used for conduc-
thickness. Darcy’s Law, Eq 9, is used to determine the per- tance measurements because it was viscous enough to flow
meability of screens: at a slow rate and it also contains ingredients which would
make the screen oil-wet. The screen wires must be wet with
K(Δp·A)
Eq 9 q= the fluid used in the test. The flow rate through the screen
µ·L must be laminar to provide a reproducible number. There-
Next, solve Darcy’s law for the permeability per unit length, fore, the velocity should be maintained below a range of
or conductance, C: 2 cm/sec to 3 cm/sec (around 1 in./sec).
K µ·q
Eq 10 C= =
L Δp · A

Oil
Reservoir
Adjustable Valve
Flow Diverter
Test Screen
Figure FP-15a: Screen label, style #1.
Catch Pan API 170

Electronic Balance (92 microns)
Conductance: 1,4 kD/mm
Non-blanketed Area: 7,23 ft²
Conforms to API RP 13C
Polygon Plus 123

Overflow Overflow
Screens, Inc.
Shaker XYZ
Made in USA
Lot 456
Order 101112
07.08.2009
POLYGON PLUS 123
Figure FP-15b: Screen label, style #2.
13C, should have a label that provides the information about

the largest opening size (in microns) from the test, the API
number, the conductance, and the unblocked screen area.
The API information appears in the section on the left side
of the label and the manufacturer’s part number and other
information appears on the right side of the label (Figure
Figure FP-14a (top): Schematic of set up for conductance mea- FP-15a).
surements. Figure FP-14b shows the actual test set up.
The label may also be arranged in a vertical manner. The API
A large volume of motor oil is placed in a large container information will appear in the top section and the manufac-
above the sample screen (Figures FP-14a and -14b). The turer’s information will appear in the bottom section (Figure
screen is mounted in a cylinder of PVC pipe that has an in- FP-15b).
side diameter of 5.75 in. and extends one, two, or three in.
above the screen. The screen is placed under a container of
about 50 gallons of motor oil. The motor oil flows onto the Equipment
screen and overflows over the edges into overflow contain- The first line of defense against highly undesirable drilled
ers. The fluid which flows through the screen is captured in solids has been, and will continue to be, the shale shaker.
a container mounted on an electronic balance. When the Without properscreening of the drilling fluid during this ini-
weight in the catch pan starts increasing at a uniform rate, tial removal step, reduced efficiency and effectiveness of all
the increase in weight can be timed. The volume flow rate downstream solids control equipment on the rig is virtually
can be determined from charts indicating the density of the assured.
oil as a function of temperature.
The shale shaker, in various forms has played a prominent role
in oilfield solids control schemes for several decades. Shakers
Screen labeling have evolved from small relatively simple devices capable of
Screens that have been tested with the procedure in API RP running only the coarsest screens to the models of today.

SCREEN MOTION
VIBRATOR
SCREEN
MOTION
SHAKER
SCREEN
Figure FP-18: Circular motion shaker with vibrator

at center of gravity. Consistent, circular vibration allows solids
transport with the basket oriented horizontally.
Figure FP-16: Unbalanced elliptical motion machines feature
a downward slope to properly transport cuttings..
slope (Figures FP-16 and FP-17). This slope is required to
Vibrating mechanism properly transport cuttings across the screen and off the
The purpose of vibrating the shaker screen is to move a wire sieve discharge end. However, the downward slope reduces fluid
through the fluid to separate the solids particles from the liquid. retention time and limits the capacity of this shaker. Opti-
This motion will increase the throughput capacity. This vibrating mum screening with these types of shakers is usually in the
action causes rapid separation of drilling fluid from oversize sol- 30–40 mesh (400–600 micron) range. This was the design
ids which reduces the volume of drilling fluid lost with the solids. of the first shale shakers introduced to the drilling rigs.
The vibration also is used to transport the larger solids across
the screen to remove them from the system. Four types of The next generation of machines, which were in-
motion are available on shale shakers currently available: troduced into the oilfield in the late 1960s and ear-
• Elliptical, “unbalanced” design; ly 1970s, produces a circular motion (Figure FP-18).
• Circular,“balanced” design; The consistent, circular vibration allows adequate solids
• Linear, “straight-line” design; transport with the basket in a flat, horizontal orientation.
• Elliptical, balanced design. This design often incorporates multiple decks to split the
solids load and to allow finder screens, such as screens with
The unbalanced elliptical motion machines have a downward 150- to 180-micron openings (API 60 or API 80 screens)
The third type of motion produces linear, or straight-line, move-

ment of the screen (Figure FP-19). This motion is developed by
a pair of eccentric shafts rotating in opposite directions. Linear
motion provides superior cuttings conveyance and is able to
operate at an uphill slope. Better conveyance and longer flu-
id retention allow the use of screens with 75-micron openings
(API 200 screens).
The fourth type of motion is similar to the linear motion except

the screen vibrates in a thin elliptical motion (Figure FP-20).
This balanced elliptical motion moves the solids in a man-
ner similar to the linear motion shakers, but the screen does
not experience the abrupt start and stop at the end of each
motion. Again, these shakers can have API 200 (75-micron
Figure FP-17: Unbalanced elliptical shaker, Triflo Model 148E.
openings) mounted on them and have a large flow capacity.
Courtesy Tri-Flo International Inc.

TWO VIBRATORS
TWO VIBRATORS
NOT ALIGNED WITH
SCREEN
FLUID IN
SCREEN
MOTION
SOLIDS
OFF
FLUID IN
SCREEN
SOLIDS
OFF Figure FP-20: This balanced elliptical motion moves the solids in
a manner similar to the linear motion shakers, but the screen does
not experience the abrupt start and stop at the end
of each motion.
Figure FP-19: The linear motion shaker is driven by a pair of ec-
centric shafts rotating in opposite directions.
• Dump and clean possum belly (or back tank)-BUT do
To prevent damage to fine screens mounted on the linear or bal- not empty the possum belly into the active system;
anced elliptical motion shakers, a very coarse screen is mount- • Clean the tension rails;
ed on a shaker to treat the drilling fluid as soon as it return to • Inspect rubber screen supports for wear.
the surface. This is a good application for the circular motion or
the unbalanced elliptical motion shakers. Tests have indicated IMPORTANT! Install replacement screens properly, square
that more solids are removed from the system if a very coarse on the deck, with even tension according to the manufacturer’s
screen is mounted on the scalping shaker before the fluid is recommendations.
processed through the fine screens on the main shaker. The
main shaker would be a linear motion or a balanced elliptical Scalping shakers are generally adequate for top-hole drilling
motion shaker. If a fine screen is mounted on the scalping and for shallow holes when used with other solids control
shaker, some of the solids seem to deteriorate because of the equipment, such as hydrocyclones. For deeper holes and
multiple impacts. The purpose of the scalping shaker is to when using weighted drilling fluids or an expensive liquid
remove the very large solids which frequently arrive at the phase, a scalping shaker might be used with fine screen
surface. These solids usually come from the borehole wall shakers. Tests have indicated that when processing drilling
and can be very large. They need to be removed to prevent fluid through a scalping shaker in front of a fine screen shak-
damage to the fine screens which should be mounted on the er, a very coarse mesh screen (such as an API 10 to API 20)
main shakers (linear motion or balanced elliptical motion). should be used on the scalping shaker to remove the largest
quantity of drilled solids.
Some designs use dual screens, dual decks and dual units
in parallel to provide more efficient solids separation and
greater throughput. Depending on the particular unit and Main shakers
screen openings used, capacity of scalping shakers can vary The main vibratory shale shakers are usually linear motion
from 100–1,600 gpm or more. Screen sizes commonly used or balanced elliptical motion shale shakers. Some manufac-
with scalping shakers range from API 10 to API 80. turers are now making shakers that can have either motion.
Figures FP-21 through FP-25 show some contemporary
Scalping shakers normally require minimal maintenance. shakers.
Other than periodic greasing, the following check list should
be implemented while making a trip:
• Wash down screens; Triple deck shakers
• Check screens for proper tension; A relatively new procedure is being used now in areas where
• Shut down shaker when not drilling in order to extend lost circulation is prevalent. The concept is based on the
screen life; observation that the hoop stress around a wellbore can be

. Figure FP-22: Fluid Systems 5000BLE Low Profile shaker.

Figure FP-21: Derrick Dual Pool shaker. Courtesy Fluid Systems
Courtesy Derrick Equipment Co.
Figure FP-24: National Oilwell Varco VSM Multi-Size shaker.

Figure FP-23: MI SWACO MD2 dual-deck, flat-bed shaker. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Courtesy MI SWACO, a Schlumberger company.
increased if a fracture is propped open with large solids. This A triple deck shaker was introduced in the early 1960s. This
effect was observed initially in PIT tests. When the fracture was a circular motion shaker and never became very popular.
is propped open, the well bore is ‘strengthened’ or a ‘stress Louis Brandt was a design engineer with IMCO and resigned
cage’ is developed which increases the pressure required about the time these shakers were placed on the market. He
to open the fracture again. To form this stress cage, large formed The Brandt Company and made double deck, circu-
solids must be present in the drilling fluid; consequently, lar motion shakers instead of a triple deck. The design was
large particles (usually calcium carbonate or limestone) are intended to use the top deck as a scalping deck with a very
added to the drilling fluid. To prevent loss of this material, coarse screen and the finer screen (usually an API 80 or
triple deck shakers are being used. coarser) was mounted on the lower deck. In use, many drilling
superintendents mounted the finer screen on top, because
The top deck removes the very large particles. The middle they had trouble observing when the screen failed.
deck screen is sized to capture the propping particles and
return them to the drilling fluid. The lower deck is designed Lost circulation can be corrected by the wellbore strengthen
to remove particles from the drilling fluid that are larger than concept but can also be solved with other methods. Field
barite but smaller than the added proppants. The drilling fluid trials have indicated that removal of drilled solids from the
rheology cannot be accurately measured with the traditional drilling fluid will provide one solution. If pressure cannot
rheometers, because the large particles must be removed for enter a crack, the wellbore is strengthened by the pressure
the measurement. The gap between the bob and the outer difference between the wellbore pressure and the forma-
rotating cylinder is usually smaller than the added solids. tion pressure. Wells with very ‘clean’ drilling fluid have been

Figure FP-25: Cutaway shows key components of a shaker. Courtesy Cubility.
more drilling fluid.
Maintenance
Because of their greater complexity and use of finer screens,
fine screen shakers generally require more attention than
scalping shakers. Nonetheless, their more effective screen-
ing capabilities more than justify the higher operating cost.
This is especially true when rig rates are high and/or expen-
sive drilling fluid systems are used.
Besides periodic lubrication, fine screen shakers require

the same minimum maintenance as scalping shakers while
Video FP-1: Shale shaker in action. Video
making a trip.
by IADC, access courtesy Derrick Corp.
drilled through over 5,000 ft of ‘drawn-down’ sands where Wash screens

the pressure differential varied from less than 1,000 psi to Drilling fluid which dries on a shaker screen during a trip will
more than 6,000 psi. plug the small screen openings and is very difficult to remove.
Another concept is now available to process the drilling Check screens for proper tension
fluid through a screen instead of shaking the screen. A •When using panel screens, plug any openings which
continuous belt is rotated to form a bed of drilling fluid. A have ruptured screens;
vacuum beneath the belt draws the drilling fluid through • Shut down shaker when not drilling to extend screen
the screen. An air jet removes the cuttings as they reach life;
the end of the horizontal surface of the belt. The clean belt • Vibrating a dry screen drastically shortens screen life of
then moves back to provide a continuous screen to accept fine screens;

• Dump the back tank into a disposal tank.
Solids dumped from the back tank do not settle in sand traps.
They tend to stay suspended and very quickly plug desilters as API 60
soon as circulation resumes. These solids also eventually grind
Flow Rate
into smaller pieces and are detrimental to drilling performance.
In addition, frequent checks must be made for screen plug-

API 100
ging or blinding and broken screens. All will occur more fre-
quently on fine screen shakers than on the coarser screens on
scalping shakers. Specifically, the screens should be checked
while making a connection when all of the fluid has drained
API 200
from the back section of the shaker.
Screen blinding, while present to some degree on scalp-

ing shakers, is more frequent with fine screen shakers. If
the openings become coated over, the throughput capac- Increasing:
ity of the screen can be drastically reduced and flooding - mud weight
of the screen may occur. Screen blinding can be caused - low-shear-rate viscosity
by sticky particles (drilled clay) coating over the screen - high-shear-rate viscosity
openings, the evaporation of water from dissolved sol- - solids loading
ids, or from grease. Linear motion or elliptical motions - liquid surface tension
shakers do not transport sticky clays efficiently. A scalp-
Figure FP-26: Effect of key parameters on fluid flow rate
ing shaker is necessary to remove most of these particles through three standard screen sizes.
before they reach the main shakers. Most of the time, a
screen wash-down is needed to cure the problem. This
wash-down may simply be a high-pressure water wash, shear-rate viscosity of the drilling fluid, total solids loading
a solvent (in the case of grease, pipe dope or asphalt (amount of oversize and the quantity of solids which pass
blinding), or a mild acid soak (in the case of blinding through the screen), the thickness of the ring of liquid adhering
caused by hard water). Stiff brushes should not be used to the screen wires, the thickness of the layer of drilling fluid
to clean fine screens because of the fragile nature of fine adhering to the solids, and the surface tension of the fluid.
wire in the screen cloth.
Mud type also has an effect on screen capacity (Figure
Screen capacity, or the volume of drilling fluid which will pass FP-26). Higher viscosities generally associated with NADF
through a screen without flooding, varies widely depending (Non-Aqueous Drilling Fluid) result in lower screen through-
on shaker model and drilling conditions. Screen opening put than would be possible with a water-based drilling fluid
size, drilling rate, bit type, formation type, and drilling fluid of the same mud weight. Some drilling fluid components,
type, weight, drilling fluid surface tension, thickness of the such as synthetic polymers, also have an adverse effect on
wetting ring of liquid around the wires, and viscosity affect screen capacity. Starch, for example, is large enough to plug
throughput to some degree. The shaker capacity is directly an API 200 screen. As a result, no manufacturer can offer
related to the opening sizes in the screen and the smaller a standard throughput for all operating conditions. This is
the opening sizes, the lower the screen capacity. Drilling rate the reason the API RP 13C committee elected to simply try
affects screen capacity because increases in drilled solids to describe the screens instead of trying to develop a pro-
loading reduce the effective screen area available for drilling cedure which would predict performance. The capacities of
fluid to flow though. shakers can vary from 50 to 800 gpm.
Increased high-shear-rate viscosity (called PV), is usually

associated with an increase in percent solids by volume Degassers
and/or increase in mud weight has a markedly adverse ef- When drilling subsurface formations, the fluid inside the
fect on screen capacity. As a general rule, for every 10% formations is released into the drilling fluid system. If gas is
increase in Plastic Viscosity (PV), there is a 2–5% decrease contained in the rock being drilled, this gas is circulated out
in throughput capacity. Other factors which decrease the of the hole with the drilling fluid. This is called ‘back-ground’
screen capacity are: screen motion, screen velocity, the low- gas. As gas rises up the hole and the pressure is decreased, a

Effect of Gas Cut Mud on Bottomhole Pressure

10 ppg
gas bubble will expand. A large amount of gas at the surface
Depth, ft
Change in Pressure, psi 18 ppg
could be a very small amount at the drill bit.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
1,000
The degassers are not specifically used to remove gas from

the drilling fluid before it is pumped back downhole because
the downhole pressure will decrease. Centrifugal pumps
10,000
will not pump gaseous drilling fluid very efficiently. The gas
20,000
collects in the center of the impeller and eventually blocks
10% 25% 50% liquid flow from entering the pump. Figure FP-27 illustrates
gas cut gas cut gas cut
the minimal effect that gas has on mud weight at various
100,000 hole depths. At 20,000 ft the decrease in mud weight is so
small that the bottomhole pressure changes very little.
Figure FP-27: Gas has a minimal effect on mud weight at depths.

At 20,000 ft, bottomhole pressure changes very little The background gas needs to be removed from the drilling
due to the small decrease in mud weight. fluid so that centrifugal pumps can be used to process the
drilling fluid. This background gas does not indicate an im-
pending kick. There is no need to try to increase the mud
weight to eliminate background gas.
Air can also be introduced into the drilling fluid system

through the mud hopper. When the mud hopper is left run-
ning, air is pulled into the flow stream in the additions sec-
tion. Some contractors place a short piece of 20-in. or 26-
in. casing at the end of the mud hopper line. The discharge
line from the mud hopper enters tangentially into the short
piece casing that is positioned vertically. A top, with a large
(10–12-in. diameter) hole, is welded to the upper end of the
casing. The bottom is left open at the top of the drilling fluid
in the tank. When the mud hopper is left running, the air
entrained in the drilling fluid is removed with the centrifugal
force of the drilling fluid swirling inside of the casing.
Figure FP-28: Horizontal tank/jet pump vacuum degasser. The
long, horizontal, downsloping baffles allow fluid to flow down Degassers are the most effective way to remove unwanted
these baffles in a thin layer, releasing the gas bubbles. gas. They are designed to rapidly bring gas bubbles to the
surface of the drilling fluid, break them and remove them to
a safe location away from the rig.
Vacuum degassers use a combination of turbulent flow and

reduced internal tank pressure to move gas-cut drilling flu-
id and release gas bubbles. Several designs are available;
the most common types are the horizontal tank/jet pump
design, the vertical tank/jet pump design, and the vertical
tank/self- priming pump design.
The horizontal tank/jet pump design has a long horizontal

tank with long down-sloping baffles inside (Figure FP-28).
fluid flows down these baffles in a thin layer, releasing the
gas bubbles. A vacuum pump is used to remove the gas from
the tank and dispose of it at a safe distance from the rig.
The vacuum pump also reduces the internal tank pressure,
drawing fluid into the tank and increasing the gas bubble
Figure FP-29: This design of vertical tank with jet pump features sizes, improving removal efficiency. Most of the time the
several conical baffles within the tank, increasing baffle surface volume of gas removed is small compared to the capacity
area within a compact footprint. of the vacuum pump so a 3-way valve is installed in the gas

Jet Valve Valve

Belt Drive
Spray Tank
Pump Opening
From Motor
Shale Suction
Bearing Shaft Top Edge of Pit
Shakers Degassed
Drilling Support
Fluid Bracket
Pipe Frame
Gas-Cut Degassed Under Gaseous

Drilling Drilling Flow Fluid
Fluid Overflow Fluid
Inlet
Impeller
Suction for Casing
Hyrdocyclones
Figure FP-31: In an atmospheric degasser, a submerged centrifu-

Figure FP-30: Horizontal tank vacuum degasser. The vacuum gal pump sprays a thin sheet of drilling fluid against the
pump and jet pump arrangement are the same wall of a tank. Gas leaves the thin layer, and the impact
as in the vertical design. causes the rest of the gas to separate.
piping to let air in and prevent too much vacuum in the tank.
The fluid level inside the tank and the operation of the 3-way required a small blower can be mounted on the vent hood to
valve is controlled automatically by a float inside the tank. aid with gas removal.
The jet pump discharges the degassed drilling fluid from the
tank and returns it to the next downstream compartment. Effects of gas-cut drilling fluid
There is no re-mixing of released gas and fluid. The jet pump Gas-cut drilling fluid has several effects. Some of these are
is used because there is still a small amount of gas left in obvious and others are not. Wrong action in a gas-cut drill-
the drilling fluid—but it may be enough to gas-lock a direct ing fluid can cause higher drilling costs, lost circulation or a
feed centrifugal pump. The gas passes easily through the jet blowout. It is important to recognize both the source (gas or
pump, floats to the surface of the discharge compartment air) and effects of “bubbles in the drilling fluid”.
and breaks out from surface.
In conventional drilling fluids, air in the fluid is usually a
The vertical tank/jet pump design has two variations. The result of the drilling fluid flowing down the flow line and
first of these (Figure FP-29) is similar to the horizontal/jet through processing equipment. The main damage from air
pump design. Instead of a long horizontal tank with a sin- is corrosion.
gle series of baffles, this design has several conical baffles
stacked inside a vertical cylindrical tank. Air in the fluid:
• Makes foam on the surface of the mud tanks;
This design increases baffle surface area in a compact foot- • Reduces measured mud weight;
print. The vacuum pump and jet pump arrangement are the • Usually makes larger bubbles than hydrocarbon gas;
same as for the horizontal design (Figure FP-30), although • Corrodes the drill string;
some vertical designs have been used with self-priming feed • Will not be detected by the mud logger;
pumps. • May reduce centrifugal pump performance;
• May significantly reduce the mud
An atmospheric degasserwas invented by Walter Liljestrand pump volumetric efficiency.
and developed in the early 1970s (Figure FP-31). A sub-
merged centrifugal pump sprays drilling fluid in a thin sheet Gas-cut drilling fluid reduces the mud weight measured with
of drilling fluid against the wall of a tank. Gas leaves the thin a mud balance. It does not change the true mud weight, but
layer of the drilling fluid, and the impact causes the remain- it creates a wrong, urgent feeling to weight up. This can re-
der of the gas to separate from the drilling fluid. Comparison sult in great harm.
of mud weight before and after processing indicates this
effectively removed gas. The degassed drilling fluid drains For example: The well profile calls for a 10.0 ppg drilling fluid
from the spray tank through a trough or pipe to the next to maintain pressure control at 10,000 ft. The mud engineer
downstream compartment. The released gas flows with the mixes the right ingredients to make a 10.0 ppg fluid. While
degassed fluid. This gas could be piped away from the rig drilling ahead the mud is gas-cut by 0.6 ppg but this is not
by covering the trough with a vent hood and flexible hose. If realized. So, even though the actual mud weight is 10.0 ppg,

the measured mud weight in the mud balance is 9.4 ppg. “poor-boy” degassers or “gas-busters”, mud/gas separators
Barite is added to bring measured weight up to 10.0 ppg, but receive severely gas-cut drilling fluid from a rotating control
this causes the true mud weight to be 10.6 ppg. device (i.e., rotating head) or a choke manifold during a kick.
Three things happen: Mud/gas separators flow the gas-cut drilling fluid in thin
• First, the increased mud weight reduces sheets over a series of baffles arranged inside a vertical tank.
drilling rate with the roller-cone bits; The resulting turbulent flow breaks out large gas bubbles
• Second, the gas in the mud reduces pump volume which then rise through a vertical vent line and are released
efficiency and the fluid flow rate down the drill pipe; a safe distance from the rig. Caution should be used to make
• Third, the risk of losing circulation and/or stuck pipe the discharge line for the gas effluent very large to decrease
due to greater hydrostatic pressure is increased if the pressure required to dispose of the gas. If the gas dis-
the formation is pressure sensitive. At 10,000 ft charge line is too small, the back pressure may eliminate
this increases bottomhole pressure by 312 psi. the liquid seal at the bottom of the tank and dump gas onto
the drilling fluid tanks. The return drilling fluid flows into the
When weighing mud samples: back tank of the shale shakers for further processing.
• Use a clean and calibrated mud balance;
• Be sure the place the sample is taken is well stirred; Gas discharge lines offshore are typically 8–12 in. in diam-
• Be sure the sample is the same as eter. Onshore the discharge lines may be only 6 in. diam-
the fluid being circulated; eter depending upon the drilling area. When a gas bubble
• Fill the mud balance cup completely; reaches the surface during a well control event, the velocity
• If gas-cut mud is suspected, use a pressurized of the gas can be very large. The pressure loss through the
mud balance (see API RP13B) or hand vacuum to discharge line varies as the fifth power of the vent line inside
degas the sample thoroughly before weighing. dimension.
Another technique that seems to give mud weights within Installation

0.05 ppg of the value measured with a pressurized mud bal- Actual placement of the degasser and related pump will
ance is to use a defoamer on the sample. Add some defoam- vary with the design of the degasser, but these recommen-
er to a mud cup full of drilling fluid and pour it through the dations may be used as a general rule:
funnel two or three times to agitate, then weigh in a regular • Install a screen in the inlet pipe to the degasser to keep
mud balance. large objects from being drawn into the degassing
chamber;
If the true mud weight shows a low reading, it still may not • Locate the screen about one foot above the pit bottom
be due to gas or air. Oil or water flows will also reduce mud and in a well-agitated spot;
weight as will weighting material dropping out of poorly ag- • There should be a high equalizer line between the
itated drilling fluid systems. Inadequate suspension prop- suction and discharge compartment. This allows
erties in a drilling fluid may also result in barite leaving the the remaining gas at the surface of the downstream
drilling fluid on the way out of the hole. A degasser cannot compartment to flow back into the degasser
restore mud weight caused by these problems. compartment for further gas removal;
• The equalizer should be kept open to allow back flow
Main mud pumps are positive displacement pumps. They of processed drilling fluid to the suction side of the
are designed to pump gas-free drilling fluid with about 95% degasser;
to 97% volumetric efficiency. Gas-cut drilling fluid reduces • Route the liquid discharge pipe to enter the next
pump flow rate because the positive displacement cylinders compartment or pit below the liquid level to prevent
are not filled with liquid. Measurements indicated in one aeration;
well that 6% volume gas/air in the water-based drilling fluid • Install the gas discharge line to safely vent the
reduced the volumetricefficiency of a triplex pump to 85%. separated gas to atmosphere or to a flare line.
This makes it difficult to maximize the hydraulic impact or
hydraulic power of the fluid passing through the nozzles of Maintenance of degassers varies considerably depending on
the drill bit. make and model. In general, the following guidelines apply:
• Check to make sure the suction screen is not plugged;
• Routinely lubricate any pumps and other moving parts
Removing gas bubbles and check for wear;
Mud/gas separators are designed to remove large amounts • Keep all discharge lines open and free from restrictions,
of large bubbles from the drilling fluid. Sometimes called such as caused by solids buildup around valves;

Figure FP-32: Design features of cyclone units vary widely

from supplier to supplier and no two manufacturers’ cyclones
have identical operating efficiency, capacity or maintenance
characteristics. Earlier hydrocyclones were commonly made of
cast iron with replaceable liners and other wear parts made of
rubber or polyurethane to resist abrasion. Most of the current
hydrocyclones are made entirely of polyurethane and are less
expensive, last longer, and weigh less.
Manifolding multiple cyclones in parallel can provide sufficient

capacity to handle the required circulating volume plus some
reserve as necessary. Manifolding may orient the cyclones in
a vertical position or nearly horizontal—the choice is one of
convenience, as it does not affect cyclone performance.
These cyclones are being used in an in-line desilter. Courtesy

Derrick Equipment Co.
• If the degasser uses a vacuum, keep it at the proper film around them tend to spiral outward and downward for
operating level, according to the manufacturer’s discharge through the solids outlet (underflow).
recommended range for the mud weight and process
rate; The size of oilfield cyclones commonly varies from 4–12 in. inside
• Check all fittings for air leaks; diameter (Table FP-2). This measurement refers to the inside
• If the unit uses a hydraulic system, check it for leaks, diameter of the largest cylindrical section of the cyclone. In
proper oil level and absence of air in the system. general, the larger cones have higher cutpoints and a greater
throughput. Typical cyclone capacities and feed pressures
are shown in the table below. The cut points shown are for
Hydrocyclones very light slurries of drilling fluid. The cut points for weighted
Hydrocyclones (also referred to as cyclones or cones) are drilling fluids are much higher.
simple mechanical devices, without moving parts, designed
to speed up the settling process. Feed pressure is trans- The internal geometry of a cyclone also has a great deal to
formed into centrifugal force inside the cyclone to accel- do with its operating efficiency. The length and angle of the
erate particle settling. In essence, a cyclone is a miniature conical section, the size and shape of the feed inlet, the size
settling pit which allows very rapid settling of solids under of the vortex finder, and the size and adjustment means of
controlled conditions (Figure FP-32). adjusting the underflow opening all play important roles in
a cyclone’s effective separation of solids particles. (Figures
Hydrocyclones have become important in solids control sys- FP-33 and -34.)
tems because of their ability to efficiently remove particles
smaller than the finest shaker screens. They are also uncom- Operating efficiencies of cyclones may be measured in sev-
plicated devices, which make them easy to use and maintain. eral different ways, but since the purpose of a cyclone is to
discard drilled solids with minimum fluid loss, both aspects
A hydrocyclone consists of a conical shell with a small open- must be considered. In a cyclone, larger particles have a
ing at the bottom for underflow discharge, a larger opening higher probability of reporting to the bottom (underflow)
at the top for liquid discharge through an internal “vortex opening, while smaller particles are more likely to report to
finder”, and a tangential feed nozzle on the side of the body the top (overflow) opening. The most common method of
near the wide (top) end of the cone. illustrating particle separation in cyclones is through a cut-
point curve. The data for the cutpoint curves below were for
Drilling fluid enters the cyclone under pressure from a cen- processing an unweighted, relatively thin water-based drill-
trifugal feed pump. The velocity of the fluid causes the paring fluids and operated with the proper head applied.
ticles to rotate rapidly within the main chamber of the cy-
clone. Small solids and the liquid phase of the drilling fluid Particle separation in cyclones can vary considerably de-
tend to spiral inward and upward for discharge through the pending on such factors as feed pressure, mud weight, per-
liquid outlet (overflow). Heavy, coarse solids and the liquid cent solids and properties of the liquid phase of the drilling
fluid. Generally increasing any of these factors will increase

Table FP-2: Typical cyclone capacities and feed pressures
Cone Size (ID) 4 in. 5 in. 6 in. 8 in. 10 in. 12 in.

Capacity (GPM) 50–75 70–80 100–150 150–250 400–500 400–500
Feed Pressure (PSI) 30–40 30–40 30–40 25–30 20–30 20–30
Cut Point (Microns) 15–20 20–25 25–30 30–40 30–40 40–60
the size of solids actually separated by the cyclone and de-

Clean Drilling
crease the volume of solids removed.
Fluid (overflow)
While a spraying underflow will also discharge more fluid,
Feed nozzle Vortex
the benefits of more efficient solids removal and less cone
Finder
wear outweigh cost of the additional fluid loss.
Drilling
Fluid In
Desanders
Sand and Silt Desanders are hydrocyclones larger than 5-in. diameter
spin against (6-, 8-, 10- or 12-in. ID). Generally, the smaller the cone, the
Drilling fluid
wall and downward smaller size particles the cone will separate. Desanders are
moves inward
toward discharge primarily used to remove the high volumes of solids asso-
and spirals
upward ciated with extremely fast drilling of a large diameter hole,
especially when a fine screen shaker is not available.
Desanders are installed downstream from the shale shaker

and degasser. The desander removes sand-sized particles
Solids Discharge and larger drilled solids which have passed through the
(Underflow)
shaker screen and discards them along with some liquid.
Figure FP-33: Schematic of hydrocyclone, which are important The partially clean drilling fluid is discharged into the next
because of their ability to remove particles smaller
compartment downstream (Figure FP-35).
than the finest shaker screens.
When installing a desander, follow these general

recommendations:
• Size the desander to process 100–125% of the flow rate
entering the suction tank of the desander;
• Keep all lines as short and straight as possible with
a minimum of pipe fittings. This will reduce loss of
pressure head on the feed line and minimize back-
pressure on the overflow line;
• Do not reduce the diameter of the overflow line from
that of the overflow discharge manifold;
• Direct the overflow line downward into the next
downstream compartment at an angle of approximately
45°. The overflow discharge line should never be
installed in a vertical position, doing so may cause
excessive vacuum on the discharge header and pull
solids through the cyclone overflow thus reducing the
cyclone’s efficiency;
Spray Discharge Rope Discharge • Install a vacuum breaker in the overflow line if the
Figure FP-34: A hydrocyclone with a spray discharge remove desander is over 8–10 ft above the drilling fluid level in
significantly more solids than one with a rope discharge. the mud tanks;
• Install adequate walkways and hand rails around the
desander to allow proper maintenance;
• Keep the end of the discharge line above the surface of

Percent Mass Removed: % The cyclones in desilter units operate on the same principle
100
as the cyclones used as desanders. They simply make a finer
80 cut and the individual cone throughput capacities are less
than desander cones. Multiple cones are usually manifolded
60
6” 8” 10” 12” in a single desilter unit to meet throughput requirements.
D50
40
Desilters should be sized to process 100–125% of the flow
rate entering the suction tank for the desilters. [Note that
20 API 200 this does not say 100–125% of the flow rate down the hole.]
Screen
0
Installation of the desilters is normally downstream from the
0 25 50 75 100 125
Particle Size - Equivalent Diameter: microns shale shaker, degasser, and desander and should allow am-
ple space for maintenance. Here are some fundamentals for
Figure FP-35: These cut point curves show the removal of solids installing desilters:
from a relatively low-weight drilling fluid. • Take the desilter suction from the compartment
receiving fluid processed by the desander;
the liquid level in the pits to avoid creating a vacuum in • Do NOT use the same pump to feed both the desander
the line; and desilter. If both pieces of equipment are to be
• Install a low equalizer line to permit back-flow into the operated at the same time, they should be installed in
desander suction. series and each should have its own centrifugal pump;
• Keep all lines as short and straight as possible;
Operating the desanders at peak efficiency is a simple mat- • Install a guard screen with approximately
ter, since desanders are relatively uncomplicated devices. 1/4-in. openings at the suction to the desilter pump to
Here are a few fundamental principles to keep in mind: prevent large trash or drilled solids from entering the
• Operate the desander unit at the supplier’s unit and plugging the cones;
recommended head (or feedmanifold pressure, usually • Position the desilter on the pit high enough so the
around 30 to 35 psi). A feed pressure that is too low overflow manifold will gravity-feed fluid into the next
decreases the separation efficiency, while too high a downstream compartment at an angle of approximately
pressure shortens the life of cyclone wear parts; 45°. REMEMBER: no vertical overflow discharge lines;
• Check cones regularly to ensure the discharge orifice Is • Keep the end of the discharge line above the surface of
not plugged; the liquid in the tanks to avoid creating a vacuum in the
• Run the desander continuously while drilling and line;
shortly after beginning a trip for “catch-up” cleaning; • Install a low equalizer line for back flow to the desilter
• Operate the desander with a spray rather than a rope suction compartment;
discharge to maintain peak efficiency. Running a desander ahead of a desilter is required
if coarse screens are used on the shale shakers.
Use of desanders is normally discontinued when expensive Desanders take a big load off the desilters and
materials such as barite or some polymers are added to a improves their efficiency;
drilling fluid because a desander will discard a high propor- • Operate the cones with a spray discharge. Never
tion of these materials along with the drilled solids. Similar- operate the desilter cones deliberately with a rope
ly, desanders are not generally cost effective when a NADF discharge since a rope underflow cuts cone efficiency
is used because the cones also discard a significant amount in half—or worse, causes cone plugging, and increases
of the liquid phase. wear on cones. Use enough cones and adjust the cone
underflow openings to maintain a spray pattern;
• Operate the desilter unit at the supplier’s
Desilters recommended feed manifold pressure. This is generally
A desilter uses smaller hydrocyclones (usually 4- or 5-in. between 70 and 80 feet of head. Too much pressure
ID) than a desander and therefore generally removes small- will result in excessive cone wear. As mud weight
er particles. The smaller cones enable a desilter to make the increases, feed pressure will also increase. As a rule of
finest particle size separation of any full flow solids control thumb, desilter cones should operate at a feed pressure
equipment—removing solids in the range of 15 microns and of 4 times mud weight. [calculate this with the equation
larger. This makes it an important device for reducing aver- used in well control: Pressure, psi = 0.052 (mud
age particle sizes and removing abrasive grit from unweight- weight, ppg)(head, ft)]
ed drilling fluids. A centrifugal pump is a constant head device so the

pressure will automatically increase as the mud weight

increases;
• As mud weight increases, the cone bottoms can
be opened slightly to help increase solids removal
efficiency;
• Check cones regularly for bottom-plugging or flooding,
since a plugged cone allows solids to remain in the
active system. If a cone bottom is plugged, unplug it
with a welding rod or similar tool. If a cone is flooding,
the feed may be partially plugged or the bottom of the
cone may be worn out;
• Run the desilter continuously while drilling and also for
a short time during a trip. The extra cleaning during the
trip can reduce overload conditions during the period of
high solids loading Immediately after a trip.
Figure FP-36a: In the first field test of a mud cleaner, ten cones
Maintenance were fed with a centrifugal pump driven by a diesel engine. The
The smaller cyclones of a desilter are more likely than de- large “pond” in the background was the “reserve pit” and the
sander cones to become plugged with oversized solids, so small pond immediately behind the mud cleaner was a “duck’s
it is important to inspect them often for wear and plugging. nest” used to store excess drilling fluid after removal from the
system.
This may generally be done between wells unless a mal-
function occurs while drilling. The feed manifold should be cess drilling fluid when it was removed from the system for
flushed between wells to remove trash. Keep the shale shak- dilution. The large vertical section of casing just beside the
er well maintained—never bypass the shaker or allow large shiny mud cleaner was a “roughneck proof flow meter”. To
pieces of material to get into the active system. Note: the obtain cut points, the flow rates from the desilters needed
fact that some solids can plug the bottom of a cone means to be measured. The overflow from the desilters was routed
that all of the fluid from the well did not pass through the beneath the vertical casing with a valve downstream of the
shaker screens. casing. The inside of the casing was calibrated to measure
gallons. When the valve was closed, the overflow from the
A desilter will discard an appreciable amount of barite be- desilters filled the casing. By timing the fill, the flow rate could
cause most barite particles fall within the silt size range. be established.
Desilters are therefore not recommended for use with
weighted drilling fluids. Similarly, since hydrocyclones dis- The system was so new that it had to mounted on a platform
card some liquid along with the drilled solids, desilters are at the end of the degasser tank because the operator did not
not normally used with NADF unless another device (centri- want to “clutter up” the mud tank system. The 4-in. cones
fuge or mud cleaner) is used to decrease the liquid discard in were from Pioneer Centrifuge Co., and each weighed about
the cone underflow. 40 lb with a rubber insert in a cast iron body. The mud clean-
er was 5 ft in diameter and had two decks in it. Ten cones put
about 50 gpm on the 200 square mesh screens. Plastic ring
Mud cleaners 'sliders' mounted beneath the single layer screen prevented
Mud cleaners were developed in the early 1970s to remove near-size blinding and gave support to the fine wire. The vi-
drilled solids from weighted drilling fluid. They have also bration motor was mounted underneath the screens and ro-
proved valuable tools in closed systems and other “dry loca- tating a vertical shaft. The unbalanced weight on top and an-
tion” applications. These devices use a combination of hydro- other one on the bottom of the motor controlled the height
cyclones and very fine vibrating screens (API140 to AP200) of the screen motion and the rotation speed of the slurry as
to remove fine drilled solids while returning valuable mud ad- it rotated in an increasing diameter until it reached the dis-
ditives and liquids back to the active mud system. card port. Both ports (clean fluid through screen and discard
solids off the screen) had rubber sleeve down spouts.
The first field test of the mud cleaner was on an exploration
well (drilling below production zones) in Bayou Sale, near Measurements on discarded solids were made every two
Franklin, La (Figure FP-36a). Ten cones were fed with a cen- hours from 11,000–16,000 ft during most of the months of
trifugal pump driven by a diesel engine. The large ‘pond’ in November and December. Just before Christmas the unit
the background was the ‘reserve pit’ and the small pond just was shut down because they thought they only had 80 ft-
behind the mud cleaner was a ‘duck’s nest’ used to store ex- drill and “we were not helping because they were having no

ers should be used in place of desilters alone in weighted

drilling fluid applications. Comparing the drilling fluid con-
tent of the cone underflow (8 bbl/hr) to the fluid content of
the mud cleaner discard (1.4 bbl/hr) shows another benefit
of mud cleaners over desilters in NADF and other drilling flu-
ids which have an expensive liquid phase. The primary pur-
pose of solids control equipment is to remove drilled solids
NOT recover barite. Salvaging barite is a great by-product of
the device, but the removal of the drilled solids is the most
important aspect.
Mud cleaners should be considered in these applications:

• Whenever the application requires finer screens than
the existing shaker can handle;
Figure FP-36b: A second field test was followed by one at Tilden, • Unweighted oil-based drilling mud [NADF];
Texas, using potassium chloride drilling fluid. The mud cleaner • Expensive polymer systems;
removed detrimental drilled solids and also recovered a significant • Whenever the cost of water is high;
quantity of expensive drilling fluid.
• Unweighted water-based drilling fluids with high
disposal costs and/or environmental restrictions;
problems”. The interval was being drilled with an 11 ppg gel/ • When use of coarse lost circulation material forces
lignosulfonate fluid through about a dozen or more drawn- bypassing of the shale shaker;
down Miocene sands. One formation at 11,000 ft had the • Workover and completion fluid cleanup;
original pore pressure. The produced formations had pres- • As a back-up insurance for solids that are not removed
sure differentials in the 2,000–6,000 psi range. No stuck by the main shakers.
pipe or lost circulation was experienced during the drilling
of this 5,000-ft interval. They actually had to drill 200 ft An increasingly important application of mud cleaners is the
more and they called just before New Year's to come back removal of drilled solids from unweighted water-based drill-
over and turn on our “robot”. They had to make wiper trips ing fluid in semi-dry form. This system is commonly used
between every logging run. Logging tools were sticking and in areas where environmental restrictions prohibit the use
the torque and drag was significant. Several circulations and of earthen reserve pits and expensive vacuum truck waste
a wiper trip were required before it was safe to run and ce- disposal from steel pits is the alternative. The mud clean-
ment the protective casing string. The casing was run and er is used to discard drilled solids, in semi-dry form which
cemented with no difficulty. is classified as legal land fill in most areas and is subject to
economical dry-haul disposal techniques (dump truck or
That field test was followed by one at Tilden, Texas, using portable waste containers).
potassium chloride (KCl) drilling fluid as it was being de-
veloped (Figure FP-36b). The 5-ft diameter shaker was Installation
replaced with two 4-ft diameter shakers. The mud cleaner Mud cleaners are installed downstream of the shale shaker
not only removed drilled solids that would have been det- and the degasser. The same pumps used to feed the rig’s
rimental to drilling performance, but also recovered a sig- desander or desilter are often reconnected to feed the mud
nificant quantity of the very expensive liquid phase of the cleaner when weight material is added. (Most mud clean-
drilling fluid. ers are designed to also function as desilters on unweighted
drilling fluid by rerouting the cone underflow or by removing
Most mud cleaners use multiple 4-or 5-in. cyclones, pro- or blanking off the screen portion of the unit. The mud clean-
cessing 400–850 gpm. The liquid throughput is only one er may then be used to replace or augment the rig’s desilter
measure of mud cleaner capacity; more important is the ca- during top hole drilling.)
pacity of the vibrating screen to remove drilled solids.
Frequently, a bank of desilters is mounted over a main shak-
Some field data of a mud cleaner processing an 11.2-ppg er if it can use an API170 or API 200 screen.
drilling fluid shows the mud cleaner was discarding 46,800
pounds of drilled solids each 24 hours, along with 2,925 In the upper part of the hole (unweighted drilling fluid), the
pounds (29 sacks) of barite. The fine screen under the hy- shaker will process fluid from the flow line and the desilters
drocyclones salvaged 71,955 pounds (720 sacks) of weight- will discard all of the underflow. Down deeper in the hole,
ing material per day. From this, it is obvious why mud clean- where the flow rate in the well does not require as many

Figure FP-37: After a shaker removes large volumes of cuttings, drilling fluid is pumped into the mud cleaner’s hydrocyclones with a
centrifugal pump. The overflow from the cyclones is returned to the active system. Instead of discarding the underflow, the solids and
liquid exiting the bottom of the cyclones are directed onto a fine screen. Drilled solids larger than the screen openings are discarded. The
remaining solids, including most of the barite in weighted systems, pass through the screen and are returned to the active drilling fluid
system. The cut point and amount of solids removed by a mud cleaner depends primarily on the fine shaker screen used. Since many
designs of mud cleaners exist, performance and economics will vary with machine and drilling variables.
Photo on left is a Triflo Model 16-4/146E mud cleaner, courtesy Tri-Flo International Inc.
Right photo of an M-I SWACO 8T4 D-Silter, courtesy M-I SWACO.
main shakers, one shaker can be converted into a mud To operate mud cleaners at maximum efficiency, remember
cleaner. The flow from the wellbore no longer goes to one of these fundamentals:
the main shakers; instead it will process the underflow from • Operate mud cleaners continuously on the full circulating
the desilters. volume to achieve maximum drilled solids removal;
• Operate mud cleaners with in the limits of the screen
Follow these guidelines when installing mud cleaners to al- capacity. A mud cleaner with a cyclone throughput of
low peak efficiency: 800 gpm is of little value if the cone underflow exceeds
• Size the mud cleaner to process 110–125% of the flow the screen capacity resulting in flooding and high drilling
rate entering the desilter suction tank; fluid losses;
• Take the mud cleaner suction from the compartment • Do NOT judge screen efficiency simply on the basis of
receiving fluid processed by the degasser; cuttings dryness or color. The total amount of drilled
• If the mud cleaner has both a desander and a desilter solids in the discarded material, along with the ratio of
bank of cones, the suction and discharge for each set barite to drilled solids, must be determined to evaluate
of cones is the same as it would be in an unweighted economic performance;
drilling fluid system; • Select the number of cones to be operated so that all of
• Confirm that the mud cleaner can process over 100% the drilling fluid entering the desilter suction tank can be
of the flow entering the suction compartment of the processed and use the finest screen possible, preferably
desilters; an API 170 or an API 200;
• Keep all lines as short and straight as possible;
• Install a guard screen with approximately 1/4-in. openings Some general guidelines for correct mud cleaner operation:
at the suction to the desilter to prevent large trash from • Run the mud cleaner continuously while drilling and for
entering the unit and plugging the cones. The open area a short period of time while making a trip for “catch-up”
of the screen should be at least twice the pipe area; cleaning;
• Position the mud cleaner on the pit high enough so the • Start up the shaker before engaging the feed pump;
overflow manifold will gravity-feed fluid into the next • Shut down the feed pump before turning off the
downstream compartment at an angle of approximately vibrating screen. Permit the screen to clear itself, then
45°. Remember—no vertical overflow discharge lines; rinse the screen with water or oil spray before shutting
• Provide walk-ways and sufficient space for routine down the screen;
maintenance; • For peak efficiency, operate the cones with a spray
• Provide a vacuum breaker in the desilter overflow rather than a rope discharge. This is just as important,
manifold to avoid creating a vacuum in the line; or maybe more so, with a mud cleaner as with operating
• Install a low equalizer line for back-flow to the mud the desilters and desanders;
cleaner suction compartment; • Check cones regularly for bottom plugging or flooding,
• Return the fluid underflow from the mud cleaner since a plugged cone allows solids to return to the active
screen in a well-agitated spot. This will prevent system. If a cone bottom is plugged, unplug it with a
concentrated barite from settling in the mud tank. [The welding rod or similar tool. If a cone is flooding, the feed
screen underflow will have no carrying capacity.]

is partially plugged or the bottom of the cone may be This equation indicates that larger particles (of the same
worn out; density) will settle more rapidly than smaller ones, that high
• When a significant amount of barite is added to increase density solids will settle more quickly than low density ones
mudweight, incorrectly plumbed surface systems will and that high acceleration and low viscosity increase the
require that the mud cleaners be shut down for one or two settling rate.
full circulations. The 3% by weight of API barite larger than
75 microns will result in a significant quantity of barite This equation could also be applied to the sand trap described
being removed from the drilling fluid system. Circulating earlier. Low-shear-rate viscosities of drilling fluids have in-
through the bit nozzles tends to decrease the barite size; creased so much in recent years that the small particles do
• If the quantity of liquid exiting the desilters is insufficient not have time to settle in the sand trap. Generally, the barite
to allow the screen to properly separate solids, a small will settle first (it has a higher density), and very few drilled
spray of drilling fluid has proven to be effective in allowing solids will have time to settle. A centrifuge speeds up the set-
better screening of the underflow. Sprays of water or oil tling rate but also requires an adjustment of the viscosity to
generally will increase the dilution of the drilling fluid enhance the rate of settling. Dilution fluid is usually blended
and can be costly. Frequently, one of the desilters can be with the input slurry to decrease the low-shear-rate viscosity.
removed from the manifold and a short hose with valve
can be used to provide the small amount of drilling fluid
needed to prevent ‘piggy-backing’ of the solids. Principles of performance
The first practical application of centrifuges to process drill-
Maintenance of mud cleaners generally combines the re- ing fluid came in the early 1950s. Until that time, coarse
quirements of desilters and fine screen shakers: shaker screens and dilution were the only means of mechan-
• Lubricate periodically; ical solids control. The first centrifuges were oilfield adapta-
• Check screen for proper tension; tions of industrial decanting centrifuges and were used to
•Inspect the screen to ensure it is free of tears, holes remove ultra-fine solids from weighted drilling fluids.
and dried drilling fluid before startup;
• Shut down unit when not drilling to extend screen life; In the mid-1960s, the rotary mud separator (or perforated
• Check feed manifold for plugging of cyclone feed inlets; cylinder centrifuge) was introduced, also to process weight-
clean each as necessary; ed drilling fluids. It wasn’t until the mid-1980s that centri-
• Check cyclones for excessive wear and replace parts as fuges were routinely used in unweighted fluid applications.
necessary. Today, centrifuges are a common piece of equipment in vir-
tually all solids removal systems.
Centrifuges The key difference between oilfield centrifuges and previous-

Shale shaker screens remove solids according to their size. ly discussed solids control devices is the operating capacity
Hydrocyclones and centrifuges remove solids according and duration. Unlike screens, cyclones and mud cleaners,
to particle size AND density. Both of these devices apply a which operate continuously on the full circulation volume,
centrifugal force to cause larger masses to move outward centrifuges operate on a small fraction of the circulating vol-
more than the lighter particles. The centrifugal force causes ume (usually 5–10%). By limiting the input volume, a centri-
the particles to settle. The same effect could be created by fuge can run continuously to treat sufficient fluid to control
allowing the fluid to remain motionless for a long period of properties. In a weighted drilling fluid where the colloidal par-
time and allowing the solids to settle by gravity. The centrif- ticles are removed, the plastic viscosity is an indicator of the
ugal force simply increases the apparent ‘gravity’ force and centrifuge effectiveness. Plastic viscosity should always be as
causes solids to settle much faster. Settling in a Newtonian low as possible for the best drilling performance.
fluid (like water or oil) can be described with Stokes Law:
The classic use of centrifuges is to remove colloidal size
Vs = aK(ds2)(Ds-Di)/U, where: solids from weighted drilling fluids to maintain a low plastic
Vs = the terminal settling velocity of a spherical particle viscosity which can result from high colloidal content. Both
a = the acceleration applied to the particle the decanting, solid bowl centrifuge and the perforated cyl-
ds = the diameter of the particle inder centrifuge are used in this application. Both of these
Ds = the density of the solid particle centrifuges will separate the solids by mass independent
Di = the density of the liquid of whether they are barite or drilled solids. Both discharge
K = a dimensional constant streams will contain barite and drilled solids.
U = the viscosity of the liquid

Mass percent to underflow, %

100
Feed: 7.5 gpm water,

80
15.2 gpm drilling fluid
60 Light slurry: 17.0 gpm

Heavy slurry: 5.7 gpm
40
20 Figure FP-39: A decanting centrifuge comprises a conveyor screw

inside a bowl rotated at very high speeds (1,600-3,600 rpm).
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Particle size, microns
A decanting centrifuge consists of a conveyor screw inside
a bowl rotated at very high speeds (1,600–3,600 rpm).
Decanting centrifuge processing
The feed drilling fluid is usually diluted with liquid and then
17.2-ppg active mud system
pumped into inner shaft of the conveyor. As the conveyor
rotates, drilling fluid is thrown out the feed ports into the
Figure FP-38: In this cut-point curve for a decanting centrifuge,
nearly all solids larger than 10 microns were inner bowl. (See Figure FP-39.)
in the centriguge underflow
Centrifugal force pushes the heavy, coarse particles in the
Decanting Centrifuge rotating fluid against the wall of the bowl, where the scrap-
The cut-point curve for a decanting centrifuge was mea- ing motion of the conveyor screw moves them toward and
sured on a drilling rig circulating a 17.2-ppg water-based out the solids (or heavy slurry) discharge port. The light, fine
drilling fluid. The feed slurry was diluted with about one-half solids tend to remain in suspension in the pools between the
of the flow rate of the drilling fluid. Nearly all solids larger conveyor flutes and are carried out the overflow ports along
than 10 microns were in the underflow of the centrifuge with the liquid phase.
(Figure FP-38).
The fraction of low gravity solids in the discard can be de-
The D50 cut point would be in the solid size range of around termined using the same methods a mud engineer uses to
6 microns. determine low gravity solids in the drilling fluid. The discard
from a decanting centrifuge that is performing properly will
Decanting centrifuges are so named because they can re- have about 60% volume solids and 40% volume liquid. This
move, or “decant”, free liquid from the separated solid paris difficult to pack in a retort cup for an accurate measure-
ticles and leave only adsorbed or “bound” water on the sur- ment. The graph is accurate but can be used to estimate the
face. The decanting centrifuge is the most common type of concentration of low gravity solids by weighing the discard
centrifuge found in drilling applications. slurry in a mud balance. If the slurry weighs about 22 ppg, it
would contain about 18% volume low gravity (SG 2.6) solids
Bowl sizes in common oilfield applications include 14×20 in., if the discard contained a total of 60% volume solids. The
14×22 in., 18×28 in., and 24×38 in. The larger bowls have a barite (SG 4.2) in the heavy slurry discard volume would be
greater capacity at a comparable efficiency. 42% volume. With a ten-barrel discard volume, four barrels
would be liquid (40% volume); 1.8 barrels would be low
In field operation, the decanting centrifuge is fitted with a gravity solids; and 4.2 barrels of the slurry would be barite.
housing over the bowl, liquid and solids collection hoppers, If this is functioning as a ‘barite recovery centrifuge’ acting
skid, feed slurry pump, raw mud and dilution water connec- on stored drilling fluid, the “barite recovery” would contain
tions, power source, meters and controls. too many drilled solids to be effective. Centrifuges separate
by mass and not by species or color or flavor. Particles that
Flow capacities up to 500 gpm are now available. In many have the same mass will be found together in one of the dis-
cases, with water-based drilling fluid only about 25 gpm is charge streams. Both discharge streams will have barite and
processed continuously through the decanting centrifuge low gravity solids in them.
for the normal weighted drilling fluid application. The feed
rate is substantially decreased as mud weight increases. Di- Figure FP-40 is drawn accurately, but can be used to estimate
lution water is required to compensate for increasing viscos- ratios of low-gravity solids to barite for both the underflow
ity, generally associated with increasing mud weight in order (heavy slurry) discard from the centrifuge or the solids discard-
to maintain satisfactory separation efficiency. ed from a fine screen on the mud cleaner. For example, if the

Mass percent to underflow, %
Heavy slurry: 13.7 gpm
Density of discards, ppg

Particle size, microns
Rotary mud separator
Figure FP-40: This chart can be used to estimate ratios of
low-gravity solids to barite for both underflow (heavy slurry) Processing a 15.0-ppg active mud system
centrifuge discard or solids discarded from a fine screen
on a mud cleaner. Figure FP-41: The D50 cut point of the rotary mud separator (also
called a perforated cylinder centrifuge) is around 8-9 microns
when processing a 15.0-ppg water-based drilling fluid.
concentration of total solids was 58% volume instead of 60%
volume the decision made from the data wouldn’t change. ids can pass through the multiple 1/2-in. perforations to exit
through the center shaft. The larger solids are concentrated
against the annular wall for discharge at an underflow port.
Perforated cylinder centrifuge
The rotary mud separator (or perforated cylinder centrifuge, Flow into and out of the machine is controlled by positive
Figure FP-41) processes the drilling fluid by controlling the displacement pumps. Two pumps are located at the feed
mass of solids which pass through the perforations in a end—one for feed drilling fluid and another for dilution wa-
rotating cylinder. The flow rate of both effluent streams is ter. A third pump controls the flow split and separation or
controlled with positive displacement pumps. The benefi- cut by drawing fluid from the underflow port in the outer
cial feature of this centrifuge is the fact that both discharge cylinder.
streams are pumpable. The decanting centrifuge’s heavy
slurry is about 55 to 60% volume solids and cannot be The flow capacity varies between 10 and 30 gpm, depend-
pumped. The decanting centrifuge must be mounted over a ing on mud weight and the desired separation. Dilution water
well-agitated tank so the heavy slurry can be blended with used to reduce feed viscosity is generally held to about 70%
the active system. The rotary mud separator can be posi- of the drilling fluid feed rate. Ordinarily a volume equal to 60–
tioned near the mud tanks and does not have to be mounted 90% of the total of feed mud and dilution water reports to the
above the tanks. underflow containing the coarser particle size distribution.
The D50 cut point of the rotary mud separator is around 8 to Unlike the decanter which produces one wet and one rela-
9 microns when processing a 15.0-ppg water-based drilling tively dry fraction, both slurry streams exiting the perforated
fluid. About 10% of the particles between 10 and 15 microns cylinder centrifuge are wet and pumpable.
remained in the drilling fluid. About 5 % of the particles be-
tween 15 and 20 microns remained in the drilling fluid. Applications
Plastic viscosity can be effectively controlled by discarding
Perforated cylinder centrifuges operate somewhat differently a relatively small amount of colloidal size solids from either
than decanting centrifuges but for the same ultimate purpose. a water-based drilling fluid or a NADF. Standard centrifuge
The rotary mud separator consists of a perforated cylinder (or applications take advantage of their ability to make a very
rotor) about 3 ft long, revolving at about 2,300 rpm, which is fine cut as illustrated above.
contained in an outer stationary cylindrical case.
When treating weighted water-base drilling fluids, centri-
A diluted feed of weighted drilling fluid is pumped into the fuges can be used intermittently to process a small portion
stationary case tangential to the rotor. The unit separates the of the volume circulated from the wellbore to reduce the col-
feed slurry into two streams of differing density and particle loidal content and improve the flow properties of the drilling
size distribution. Under centrifugal force, only the finer sol- fluid (i.e., decrease PV). The feed to the centrifuge can also

Table FP-3: Fluid-flow sizing data
Fluid flow sizing chart

Size: 8 in. wide x 8 in. high with 4 in. liquid depth and clean bottom
Fluid flow rate Avg. liquid Required slope
viscosity of trough
GPM bbl/min ft3/sec ft/sec Inches drop/running ft
400 9.5 0.9 4 1/8 in.
500 11.9 1.1 5 3/16 in.
600 14.3 1.3 6 1/4 in.
750 17.8 1.7 7.5 3/8 in.
1,000 23.8 2.2 10 1/2 in.
*Minimum slope of 1/4 in./ft is the recommended minimum to prevent frequent clogging

Fluid flow rate Avg. liquid viscosity Required slope

of trough
900 21.4 2 4 1/8 in.
1,123 26.7 2.5 5 3/16 in.
1,347 32.1 3 6 1/4 in.
1,684 40.1 3.75 7.5 3/8 in.
2,245 53.5 5 10 1/2 in.
*Minimum slope of 1/4 in. / ft is the recommended minimum to prevent frequent clogging

of trough
1,570 37.4 3.5 4 1/8 in.
2,110 50.2 4.7 5 3/16 in.
2,510 59.9 5.6 6 1/4 in.
3,140 75.8 7 7.5 3/8 in.
4,210 100.2 9.4 10 1/2 in.
*Minimum slope of 1/4 in. / ft is there commended minimum to prevent frequent clogging

of trough
2,690 64.1 6 4 1/8 in.
3,360 80.2 7.5 5 3/16 in.
4,040 96.2 9 6 1/4 in.
5,050 120.3 11.25 7.5 3/8 in.
6,730 160.4 15 10 1/2 in.
*Minimum slope of 1/4 in. / ft is the recommended minimum to prevent frequent clogging

be decreased so that it is processing a smaller amount per special skills for repair and maintenance. Rig maintenance of
hour but being used during an entire bit run. This will keep centrifuges is limited to routine lubrication of the unit.
the drilling fluid homogeneous instead of allowing solids to
increase between uses. In order to remove these solids, the Although operating procedures will vary in detail from model to
liquid fraction from the decanter (or the lighter slurry frac- model, a few universal principles apply to virtually all centrifuges:
tion from the rotary mud separator) is discarded. The sand- • If the solids underflow is to return to the system, locate
size and silt-size solids remain in the drilling fluid. the centrifuge so the underflow falls into a well-stirred
spot;
The centrifuge is installed downstream from all other sol- • If the solids underflow is to be discarded (unweighted
ids control equipment. Ideally, suction for a centrifuge feed drilling fluid), locate the machine so the underflow can
would be taken from the same pit or compartment which be removed easily;
receives the discharge from the desilters or mud cleaners. • Do not locate the machine solids or liquid returns too
close to the rig pump suction. Allow time and space for
The centrifuge underflow (solids) should be discharged into adequate mixing;
a well-stirred location in the pit for thorough mixing with the • Liquid effluent lines should have a constant downward
drilling fluid before the solids have a chance to settle to the slope.
bottom of the pit. This is especially important with a decant-
ing centrifuge because solids discarded from a decanter will
not flow. Bypass trough
The centrifuge removes solids which control filtration and Bypass troughs after the shale shakers
low-shear-rate viscosity. These additives must be replaced to By-pass troughs (or ditches) are a common means of moving
keep the drilling fluid specifications in the appropriate order. drilling fluid during drilling fluid swap-outs. When the drilling
fluid is changed from the fluid in the tanks to another fluid,
Frequently, waste disposal costs become so large that they the removal section is not used. The water-based drilling fluid
become a driving force to treat drilling fluid instead of drill- could be changed to a NADF, or the NADF could be changed
ing performance. These costs are quite visible and attract to a water-based drilling fluid, or a drill-in fluid might be need-
a lot of attention from personnel not familiar with drilling ed, or a completions fluid could be needed in the hole. Bypass
processes. Costs that are this visible are somewhat like the troughs are simple, effective, easy to follow and easy to clean.
cost of adding barite to a drilling fluid to increase the density The only real problem with troughs is the tendency of barite
to 10 ppg or 11 ppg. The cost of barite saved will certainly and cuttings to settle and clog the troughs.
be easily calculated and clearly demonstrate that the ‘dirty’
drilling fluid is much cheaper. The consequences, however, Troughs should be sized so that the average velocity of the
have been demonstrated many times. The total cost of the fluid is no less than 4 ft/sec and no more than 8 ft/sec. Fre-
well increases significantly. If the costs were independent of quent clogging will occur if the velocity is less than 4 ft/sec.
each other, barite usage would decrease dramatically. Excessive slopes and messy splashing will occur ifthe veloc-
ity exceeds 8 ft/sec. Troughs should have at least 1/4-in./ft of
Solids can be hauled from a location in dump trucks much slope so they will tend to be self-cleaning. If a trough is used
cheaper than a vacuum truck. The trend is to ‘dewater’ the between the bell nipple and the shakers, its slope may need
drilling fluid, recover the drier solids and return the liquid to be 1 in. or more per ft. The following charts maybe used as
back to the drilling fluid system. The returning fluid contains guidelines for sizing these troughs.
the damaging colloidal solids that increase plastic viscosity
and affect drilling performance. NADF is reportedly tolerant
of drilled solids—primarily because the yield point does not Slug tank
respond in the same manner as it does with drilled solids in a A slug tank or pit is typically a small 20–50 bbl compart-
water-based drilling fluid. However, these drilled solid have a ment within the suction section of the active system. This
great effect on the plastic viscosity and the filter cake thick- compartment is isolated from the active system and is avail-
ness. Filter cake thickness can increase without an increase able for small volumes of specialized fluid. Most drilling fluid
in fluid loss. As matter of fact, drilled solids in either NADF systems should have more than one of these small com-
or water-based drilling fluid will decrease the fluid loss but partments. They are manifolded to a mixing hopper so that
increase the cake thickness. solids and chemicals may be added and are used to create
heavier slurry to be pumped into the drill pipe before trips
Operating tips (i.e., slugs). This makes the fluid level in the drill pipe stand
Centrifuges are relatively easy to operate, but they require at a lower level than the fluid in the annulus. This prevents

Table FP-4
Height of slugs
Drill pipe (in.) 4 1/2 5 5 1/2 6 5/8
Weight (lb/ft) 16.6 19.5 24.7 25.2
Height filled with 20 and 30 bbl slugs (ft)
20bbl 1,406 1,126 944 579
30 bbl 2,110 1,690 1,415 868
Mud Weight Increase for 4 1/2-in. Drill Pipe Delta MW for 5 1/2-in. Drill Pipe
1.40 2.00
1.20 1.80
Mud Weight Increase Needed, ppg

1.60
1.00
Slug
1.40
Volume Slug
0.80
20bbl
0.20 Volume
0.60 30bbl 20bbl
1.00
40bbl 30bbl
50bbl 0.80 40bbl
0.40
0.60 50bbl
0.20
0.40
0
0.20
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
0
Mud Weight, ppg
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Mud Weight, ppg

Figure FP-41: Mud weight increases for 4 1/2-in. drill pipe. Figure FP-43: Increasing mud weight for 5 1/2-in. drill pipe.
MW Increase for 6 5/8-in. Drill Pipe

3.50
Increase in MW for 5-in. Drill Pipe
1.80 3.00
1.60
2.50
1.40 Slug
0.20 Slug 2.00 Volume
Volume 20 bbl
1.00 30bbl
20bbl 1.50
40bbl
0.80 30bbl
40bbl 50bbl
1.00
0.60
50bbl
0.40 0.50
0.20
0
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Mud Weight, ppg
Mud Weight, ppg
Ficure FP-42: Increasing mud weight for 5-in. drill pipe. Ficure FP-44: Mud weight increase for 6 5/8-in. drillpipe
drilling fluid inside the pipe from splashing on the rig floor The internal volumes of various drill pipes are available in
during trips because the liquid level in the drill pipe will be many charts. A few are presented below to use as illustra-
below the rig floor. These compartments are also used to tions of the calculation technique.
create various pills or viscous sweeps. The main pump suc-
tion is manifolded to the slug pit(s). To create a liquid level inside of the drill pipe 100 ft below the
flow line, the mud weight of the slug can be calculated from
The top of the fluid in the drill string while tripping should be the equation below which assumes the height of the slug is
about one hundred feet below the surface. A slug of weight- given for a specific volume of the slug.
ed drilling fluid is pumped into the drill pipe to keep the level
in the drill pipe below the flow line. The density of the slug Sample Calculations:
or the increase in mud weight above the original density of
fluid depends upon the inside diameter of the drill string and MWorig (100 ft + Hslug )
the initial mud weight. Eq 11 MWslug =
Hslug

With a 10-ppg drilling fluid in a 4 1/2-in. drill pipe, the mud the slug. Modify Eq 11, using X instead of the 100 ft and solve
weight of the 20 bbl slug would be: the equation for X.
With a 30-bbl slug, the mud weight of the slug should be:
MWorig (100ft + Hslug )
Eq 11 MWslug =
Hslug
MWorig (100 ft + Hslug )
Eq 11 MWslug =
Hslug MWorig (X + Hslug )
10 ppg(100 ft + 1406 ft) Eq 12 MWslug =
Hslug
MWslug = = 10.7 ppg
1406 ft
(MWslug)(H slug)–(MWorig )(Hslug)
With a 15-ppg drilling fluid in 6 5/8-in., 25.2-lb/ft drill pipe, Eq 13 X=
MWorig
the mud weight of a 20-bbl slug would be:
10 ppg(100 ft + 2110 ft) Calculate the depth of the top of a 20 bbl slug in a 15 ppg
MWslug = = 10.5 ppg drilling fluid in 6 5/8-in., 25.2 lb/ft drill pipe, using a slug mud
2110 ft
weight of 16 ppg.
With a 30 bbl slug, the mud weight of the slug should be.
(MWslug)(H slug)–(MWorig )(Hslug)
Eq 13 X=
MWorig
15 ppg(100 ft + 579 ft)
MWslug = = 17.6 ppg
794 ft From Table FP-4, a 20-bbl slug in a 6 5/8-in., 25.2 lb/ft drill
pipe would be 794 ft.
One can calculate the increase in mud weight required
(16ppg )(794 ft )–(15ppg )(794 ft )
X= = 53 ft
15 ppg(100 ft + 868 ft) 15ppg
MWslug = = 16.7 ppg
868 ft
to lower the liquid level in the drill pipe. These increas- In this case, the drilling fluid would probably not drain from
es are shown graphically in the next four graphs for the drill string and the crew would say the slug didn’t work.
4 1/2-, 5-, 5 1/2-, and 6 5/8-in. drill pipe. Four different slug
volumes are used. As would be expected, the increase in If the slug was 30 bbl, the top of the drilling fluid in the pipe
mud weight decreases as the volume of the slug is increased. would be below the flow line and still ineffective.
For the largest drill pipe shown here (6 5/8 in.), a small slug of
(16ppg )(868 ft )–(15ppg )(868 ft )
20 bbl is needed to increase mud weight by 3.1 ppg, if the X= = 58 ft
15ppg
mud weight was 18 ppg.
Sample calculations: Trip tanks

• Increase mud weight needed for slug to lower the A trip tank is used to measure the volume of drilling fluid enter-
liquid level in 4 1/2-in. drill pipe to 100 ft below the ing or leaving the wellbore during a trip (Figure FP-45). The
flow line. volume of fluid that replaces the volume of the drill string (steel
• Increase mud weight needed for slug to lower the volume) is normally monitored on trips to make certain that
liquid level in 5 in. drill pipe to 100 ft below the flow formation fluids are not entering the wellbore. When one barrel
line. of steel (drill string) is removed from the borehole, one barrel
• Increase mud weight needed for slug to lower the of drilling fluid should replace it to maintain a constant liquid
liquid level in 5 1/2-in. drill pipe to 100 ft below the level in the wellbore. If the drill string volume is not replaced,
flow line. the liquid level may drop low enough to permit formation fluid
• Increase mud weight needed for slug to lower the to enter the wellbore due to the drop in hydrostatic pressure.
liquid level in 6 5/8-in. drill pipe to 100 ft below the This is known as a “kick.” Usually, someone is assigned the
flow line. responsibility of recording the volume required to fill the hole
after each row of drill pipe is racked in the derrick (or alter-
Eq 11 could also be used to determine the location of the nately specified number of stands). Fluid may be returned to
drilling fluid surface inside of the drill string for various in- the trip tank during the trip into the well. The excess fluid from
creases in mud weight. Many drillers use an arbitrary guide- the trip tank should be returned to the active system across
line to increase mud weight by different amounts to create the shale shakers. Large solids can come out of the well and
plug the hydrocyclones if this drilling fluid bypasses the shak-
ers.

Table FP-5: Trip-tank displacement

Drill pipe wt/ft displacement bbl/100 ft
size (in.) lb/ft gal/100 ft
Bell Nipple 3 1/2 11.20 15.6671 0.3730
3 1/2 13.30 18.8097 0.4479
4 1/2 12.75 17.3403 0.4129
Close valves to drill 4 1/2 13.75 18.7038 0.4453
4 1/2 16.60 22.8959 0.5451
Annular 5 1/2 19.00 25.2813 0.6019
Preventer 5 1/2 22.20 29.9347 0.7127
5 1/2 22.25 34.8663 0.8301
Fill from Ram 6 5/8 22.20 28.9939 0.6903
Mud Gun Preventer 6 5/8 25.20 33.9029 0.8072
Line
Small 6 5/8 31.90 45.3926 1.0808
Centrifugal 7 5/8 29.25 39.9840 0.9520
Pump TRIP
TANK 8 5/8 40.00 53.6942 1.2784
Figure FP-45: A trip tank is used to measure the volume of drill-
ing fluid entering or leaving the wellbore during a trip. fore, a reduction in the height of the column of drilling fluid in
the wellbore would occur and problems would result.
Scalping Shaker Bell Nipple If a flow distribution chamber is used to distribute drilling
API 10 to API 20
Flow Screens
fluid to the main shakers, it can also be used with the trip
Distribution tank (FIgure FP-46). A small centrifugal pump continuous-
Chamber
ly circulates drilling fluid into the wellbore. As pipe is with-
Annular drawn, the trip tank calibration can indicate the volume of
Preventer
Close Valve drilling fluid needed to keep the wellbore filled. If the volume
to Drill
Ram
of drilling fluid is less than the volume of pipe removed from
Fill from
Preventer the bore hole, a formation may be flowing into the wellbore.
Mud Gun The volume of fluid displaced on the trip back into the hole
Line
Small can also be carefully measured. Solids that are displaced
TRIP Centrifugal
TANK Pump from the wellbore, especially on trips back into the wellbore,
will be removed by the scalping shaker.
Figure FP-46: If a flow distribution chamber is used to The trip tanks can also be connected with valves to keep
distribute drilling fluid to the main shakers, it can also be the top of the hole filled with a small centrifugal pump. The
used with the trip tank. tanks are filled with drilling fluid from the mud gun lines.
The addition of trip tanks to drilling rigs significantly reduced

the number of induced well kicks. Trip tanks have replaced the Piping and equipment arrangement
obsolete or older system of drillers filling the hole with drilling Drilling fluid should be processed through the solids remov-
fluid with the rig pumps by counting the mud pump strokes al equipment in a sequential manner. The most common
(the volume was calculated for the displacement of the drill problem on drilling rigs is improper fluid routing, which caus-
pipe pulled). The problem here is that a certain pump efficien- es some drilling fluid to bypass the sequential arrangement
cy is estimated in these calculations. If the mud pump is not as of solids removal equipment (Figure FP-47). When a sub-
efficient as estimated, slowly but surely the height of the col- stantial amount of drilling fluid bypasses a piece or pieces
umn of drilling fluid filling the hole decreases. This decreases of solids removal equipment many of the drilled solids can-
hydrostatic head and if formation pressures are greater than not be removed. Factors that contribute to inadequate fluid
the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid a “kick” will occur. An- routing include ill-advised manifolding of centrifugal pumps
other common cause of inducing a kick was to continue filling for hydrocyclone or mud cleaner operations, leaking valves,
the hole with the same number of strokes used for the drill pipe improper mud gun setup and use in the removal section, and
even when reaching the heavy weight drill pipe, or drill collars routing drilling fluid incorrectly through mud ditches.
were pulled. Both the heavy weight drill pipe and drill collars
have more displacement per stand than the drill pipe. There- Each unit of solids control equipment should have its own

Unprocessed
Processed
NIGHTMARE!!
Each dot represents 100gpm
Hydroclones Centrifugal
Pump
Figure FP-48: Adequate fluid processing
with 100% processing efficiency.
Figure FP-47: The solids-removal section should have a
minimum number of valves so that plumbing is correct Unprocessed
for processing fluid correctly. Processed
dedicated, single purpose pump—with no routing options.
When the pump is turned on, there should be only one place
for the fluid to go. Hydrocyclones and mud cleaners have
only one correct location in tank arrangements and, there-
fore, should have only one suction location. Routing errors
should be corrected and equipment color-coded to eliminate
alignment errors. If worry about an inoperable pump sug-
gests allowing other pumps in the system to be used, they Centrifugal Hydroclones
generally will not process the drilling fluid in a correct man- Pump
ner. Making an easy access to the pumps and having a stand-
Figure FP-49: Inadequate fluid processing
by pump in storage can save money. Common and oft heard with 50% processing efficiency.
justifications for manifolding the pumps are “I want to mani-
fold my pumps so that when my pump goes down, I can use
the desander pump to run the desilter, etc.” or “I can pump Processing efficiency is calculated with Eq 14:
from anywhere to anywhere with any pump”. These state-
ments indicate a poor understanding of drilled solids remov- Fluid Processed
Eq 14 Process = 100
al. Unfortunately, some of these conditions are contractual
Efficiency Fluid Entering Suction Compartment
requirements imposed on a drilling contractor by an opera-
tor. This arrangement almost automatically guarantees that
the system will not process drilling fluid correctly. Having a Adequate processing
dedicated pump properly sized and set up with no opportu- For the flow situation illustrated in Figure FP-48, the fluid
nity for improper operation will give surprisingly long pump processed is equal to the fluid entering the suction compart-
life as well as processing the drilling fluid properly. ment. Process efficiency is then:
Fraction of fluid processed Process 600 gpm

The removal section should be arranged so that all fluid en- = 100 = 100%
Efficiency 600 gpm
tering the suction compartment of the degasser is properly
processed through the degasser. All fluid entering the suc-
tion compartment of the hydrocyclones should be processed Inadequate processing
through the hydrocyclones. If multiple paths are provided In the case shown in Figure FP-49, half the drilling fluid re-
so that fluid can be pumped from any compartment to any porting to the surface will not be processed through the hy-
other compartment, the solids removal equipment usually is drocyclones. Drilled solids will increase and trouble follows:
unable to perform properly. This can be demonstrated with
some simple plumbing sketches (Figures FP-48, -49, and Process 600 gpm
= 100 = 50%
-50). Efficiency 1200 gpm

Unprocessed Suction section

Processed
One of the major functions of this section is to contain
enough uniform, blended, homogeneous drilling fluid so
that well control measurements are always possible. After
a kick is detected and the BOP closed, the drill pipe pressure
reveals the amount of underbalanced at the bottom of the
hole—BUT ONLY IF THE FLUID IN THE DRILLPIPE HAS THE
SAME DENSITY FROM TOP TO BOTTOM. When perform-
ing a Pressure Integrity Test [PIT] or a Leak-Off Test [LOT],
the fluid in the drill string must have the same density from
Hydroclones Centrifugal top to bottom. Otherwise it is not possible to calculate the
Pump
pressure at the end of the drill string.
Figure FP-50: Adequate fluid processing with
back flow between compartments.
Normally, the rig should process more fluid through the Surface volumes
desilters than is entering the suction compartment. This will The largest surface volume of drilling fluid should be in the
provide a back flow through the equalizing line (Figure FP- suction section. Many rules of thumb have been proposed
50). for creating the correct volume of drilling fluid needed on the
surface when drilling a well. However, no matter what rule of
If pumps are needed for completions or for drilling fluid thumb is used, the fluid in the drill string should have a ho-
swap-out, they should be added to the drilling fluid process- mogeneous mud weight so that bottomhole pressures may
ing plant. The drilling fluid processing pumps should not be be calculated. One suggestion, and possibly a regulation in
used or manifolded into that system. Although this may look some places, requires that one and one-half the hole volume
like a more expensive arrangement, a risk analysis of things be available on the surface. The two most common rules of
that can go wrong should convince the most frugal drilling thumb are presented below.
groups that they are well worth the additional expense. Rule:
one pump, one switch, one function. Plugged bit method
The plugged bit method determines the minimum-size drill-
ing fluid system based on the volume required to fill the hole
Sizing mud systems when pulling a plugged bit and assumes all the fluid inside
Surface drilling fluid systemsizes partially determines drilling the drill string is lost.
fluid costs. Larger volumes of drilling fluid cost more because
more ingredients are needed to blend the slurry and main- For example, a rig rated to 20,000 ft is capable of handling
tain it. Maintenance of good drilling fluid properties may cost 5inch drill pipe and 80,000 pounds of drill collars to that
more but give great financial returns in drilling performance. depth. The total displaced volume is:
Control of drilling fluid properties to eliminate visible and in- • 20,000 ft of 5-in. × 0.0243 bbl/ft = 486 bbl
visible Non-Productive Time (NPT) pays great dividends. • 80,000 lbs/2,718 lbs/bbl = 29 bbl
• Total volume required = 515 bbl
There are various ways of sizing surface circulating systems.
Several factors must be taken into consideration, such as This method gives a close approximation of the maximum
depth capacity of the rig and the area in which it will be volume required to fill the hole when tripping a plugged
working. Obviously, rigs capable of drilling deep wells will string. Usually the volume is increased by about 20%, or 100
require larger fluid systems. Conversely, rigs that specialize bbl, as a safety factor.
in drilling shallow wells might want to have a small, one tank
system that facilitates quick rig moves. The tank can be di- This method indicates that the minimum-size suction sec-
vided into the removal, addition and suction sections. Also, tion should be 615 bbl, plus a reserve to allow for kicks or lost
rigs drilling wells with high bottomhole temperatures will circulation. Usually, the volume of the reserve system should
need larger surface systems to give the drilling fluid longer be similar to that of the active system. Total system volume
to cool before being recirculated. using the plugged bit method in this case is approximately
1,230 bbl.
The suction section should contain sufficient fluid to meet var-
ious needs when problems arise. The removal section (where Cased hole method
undesirable ingredients—like drilled solids and gas—are re- The cased hole method simply doubles the volume con-
moved) can be as small as practical to build and maintain. tained in the final string of casing as a guideline for sizing a

MUD PUMP
SECTION
To Trip Tank
Slug
Tank
Suction
REMOVAL Suction Tank Suction
SECTION Tank Tank
Pill
ADDITION Tank
SECTION
Mud Hopper
Mud Hopper
To Disregard or Reserve
Valve Agitator Mud Gun
Figure FP-51: Suction tanks, slug tank, and pill tank arrangements
Table FP-6: Capacity of internal upset drill pipe

Dril pipe size (in.) Weight lb/ft Capacity Capacity Capacity
l/m gal/ft bbl/1,000 ft
4 4 6.15 0.4930 11.75
4 4 5.65 0.4551 10.84
4½ 4½ 7.94 0.6390 15.22
4½ 4½ 7.42 0.5972 14.22
4½ 4½ 6.72 0.5406 12.87
5 5 9.85 0.7928 18.88
5 5 9.27 0.7560 17.76
5 5 8.11 0.6520 15.54
5½ 5½ 11.57 0.9314 22.18
5½ 5½ 11.05 0.8898 21.19
6 5/8 6 5/8 18.64 1.5008 35.73
6 5/8 6 5/8 19.03 1.4517 34.56
6 5/8 6 5/8 16.82 1.3541 32.24

suction system. For example, consider a rig rated to 15,000 ate a large number of cuttings. If fine screens are used, a
feet, with 7-in. casing as the final string. The total cased hole large volume is removed as these cuttings are discarded. In a
volume is: 20-in. diameter hole drilling at 400 ft/hr will generate about
780 barrels of cuttings in five hours. The discard of the wet
15,000 ft of 7-in. casing × 0.0390 bbl/ft = 585 bbl cuttings will remove about 2,340 bbl of fluid from the mud
system. This quantity of fluid must be rebuilt during this
Doubling this volume gives a total suction volume of approx- period to keep the pit levels constant. On an hourly basis,
imately 1,200 bbl. 155 bbl of hole is generated. Assuming that this is 1/3 of the
discard (the solids are wet when they are removed), 465
The fluid in this section should be blended to be a homo- bbl must be rebuilt every hour, or new drilling fluid mixed at
geneous slurry ready to be pumped down the hole. When about 8 bbl/min. It would probably be prudent to have three
the well is shut-in because of a kick, the standpipe pressure times the 465 bbl, or about 1,400 bbl, available in the ac-
is read to determine the under-balance pressure at the bot- tive surface system to maintain constant rheology and mud
tom of the hole. The drilling fluid in the drill string must have weight while drilling.
the same mud weight from top to bottom for these read-
ings to be have any meaning. A 4-in. diameter cylinder has The surface system must have the capability to keep up with
a volume of 16 barrels per 1,029 ft. A 4-in. diameter cylinder the volume discarded while drilling, otherwise advanced
could represent the drill string. A 15,000-ft length of the planning and premixing of reserve mud should be consid-
four inch drill string could represent the drill string. It would ered. This should be planned for the worst case which would
have a volume of 233 bbl. Between two and three times this be bigger diameter hole where high penetration rates are
volume should be available in the suction section to insure common. For example, for a 14 3/4-in. hole section drilling
homogeneous mud weight in the drill string while drilling. at an average rate of 200 ft/hr and with a solids removal
The capacity of some common drill pipe sizes is presented in efficiency of 80%, the removal system will be discarding ap-
the table for Capacity of Internal Upset Drill Pipe. proximately 34 bbl of drilled solids per hour plus the asso-
ciated drilling fluid coating these solids. Normally the drilled
From a practical point of view, there are three conditions solids are about 30 to 40% volume of the discard. In most
which should also be addressed: instances, about a minimum of two to four barrels of mate-
• Lost circulation; rial will be discarded for every barrel of hole drilled. If this is
• Rapid drilling in large diameter holes; the case, the volume of drilling fluid in the active system will
• Deep drilling with large diameter drill pipe. decrease by 400 barrels per hour. If the rig cannot mix drill-
ing fluid fast enough to keep up with these losses, reserve
mud and or premixed drilling fluid should be available to
Lost circulation blend into the active system to maintain the proper volume.
In regions where vugular formations are prevalent, large quan-
tities of drilling fluid may be required. Frequently in some ar-
eas where the formations cannot be sealed, drilling requires Deep drilling with large diameter drill pipe
a mud cap on the annulus above the lost circulation zone. The trend in offshore drilling is to use large diameter drill
pipe to decrease the pressure loss inside the drill string and to
Naturally fractured formations can ‘drink’ a large quantity of increase the annular velocity to improve hole cleaning. How-
drilling fluid and the processing plant on the surface needs ever, when performing a pressure integrity test (PIT) or tak-
to be geared to blending fluid rapidly. However, many lost ing a kick, the surface pressure will be used to determine the
circulation problems are created by allowing the drilled sol- bottomhole pressure. The drilling fluid within the drill string
ids to build within a drilling fluid. Very low drilled solids con- must be a homogeneous slurry—same mud weight from top
tent has been demonstrated to circumvent lost circulation to bottom—to be able to make accurate measurements.
in many cases. Wells have been drilled through very per-
meable, depleted Miocene sands with no lost circulation (or For example, when a well is shut-in after taking a kick, the
stuck pipe) with intervals of pressure differentials as much surface pressure is measured at the upper end of the drill
as 6,000 psi between the wellbore pressure and the forma- string. The amount of additional mud weight needed to kill
tion gas pressures. The 11.0-ppg drilling fluid had less than the well is calculated from that pressure. If half the drill pipe
two percent drilled solids in it. is filled with a lighter, or heavier, drilling fluid, the calculation
will not be possible.
Rapid drilling in large diameter holes The amount of fluid necessary to fill a drill string can be
Large surface holes drilling at 200 to 400 ft/hr will gener- estimated from an approximate relationship. A square of

the diameter (in inches) of a cylinder is the volume of the Assume the rig pumps cannot effectively pick up the bottom
cylinder in barrels per 1,029 ft. This can be used to quickly 18 in. of drilling fluid and most crews run the fluid system
approximate the volume of fluid needed to fill a 14,000-ft about one ft below the top of the tank. This means that 2.5 ft
string of 5-in. drill pipe. The inside diameter of 5-in. drill pipe of the inside tank height is unusable. For a mud tank height
is around 4.2-in. The volume of a 4.2-in. diameter cylinder of 8 ft, the usable height is 5.5 ft. With a tank width of 8 ft,
is approximately 18 bbl/1,000 ft. The volume of a 14,000 ft each linear foot of tank length contains:
cylinder with this diameter would be 250 bbl (14 times 18). 8 ft × 5.5 ft = 44 sq ft
To maintain a uniform blend of drilling fluid in the drill pipe,
three to four times this volume should be available in the In this example, overall tank length should be:
suction tank. For a more rigorous calculation, from the table, 3,450 cu ft /44 sq ft = 78 ft
a 5-in., 19.5 lb/ft drill pipe, 14,000 ft long, would have an
internal volume of 248.6 bbl. This length for the additions and suction section will be ad-
equate to fill the final string of casing or when tripping with
a plugged drill string. These tanks must be well-stirred to
Sizing steel pits create a homogeneous fluid in case of a kick and to prevent
Once the volume of the drilling fluid system is determined, solids settling which would greatly reduce the available vol-
the general layout and individual tank sizes may be consid- ume of fluid available when needed.
ered. There should be sufficient space for solids removal
equipment, pit agitators and fluid transfer pumps. Other After the volume of drilling fluid necessary is determined
considerations are placement and size of equalizer lines, and some rough estimates of width, height and total length
bypass troughs, compartments, pump suction and dis- have been made, each section can be planned.
charge lines, water lines and additional operator-specified
equipment. The overall weight and dimensions of each mud An innovative tank suction arrangement places the suction
tank on land rigs have transportation limitations based on at the very bottom of the tank, placing a large flat plate above
local transport regulations. the suction as a vortex breaker. With this arrangement, it is
often possible to draw fluid levels down almost to the plate
Using the earlier example of a 615-bbl system, this system height before the centrifugal pump begins to suck air. This
requires approximately: increases effective tank volume.
615 bbl × 5.61 cuft/bbl= 3,450 cu ft Another tank suction arrangement uses a small sump with
of usable suction tank volume. the pump suction line drawing from this sump. This further in-
creases tank draw down and maximizes usable tank volume.

FL
DRILLING FLUIDS

IADC Technical
Resources

contracts and more.
position on a rig.
newsletter.
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-i
CHAPTER
FL
DRILLING FLUIDS
nance and repair.
reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology and practice advance
quickly, and the subject matter discussed herein may quickly become surpassed. If professional engineering expertise is re-
quired, the services of a competent individual or firm should be sought. Neither IADC nor the contributors to this chapter warrant
or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this book will lead to the result desired by
the reader.
Principal Authors
Paul Scott, ConocoPhillips
Paul Broussard, Repsol
Mike Freeman, Schlumberger/M-I Swaco
Fred Growcock, Oxy
Ron Bland, Baker Hughes
Reviewers
Tom Carter, Chevron
Ben Bloys, Chevron
Malcolm Ellice, Halliburton
Joe Hurt, IADC
Alan Spackman, IADC
Paul Breaux, IADC
FL–ii DRILLING FLUIDS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-4-6

DRILLING FLUIDS Contents FL-iii
CHAPTER FL
DRILLING FLUIDS/CIRCULATING
SYSTEM/DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS Contents
Introduction......................................................................FL-1 high-pressure (HTHP) and ultra-HTHP
Drilling fluid function and performance...................FL-1 systems........................................................... FL-11
Physical operating principles...............................FL-2 Non-aqueous-based mud
Testing drilling fluid properties...................................FL-2 systems (oil-based)............................................. FL-11
Purpose of testing...................................................FL-2 Invert emulsions........................................... FL-11
Density or mud weight..........................................FL-2 Calcium soap systems................................ FL-12
Viscosity....................................................................FL-2 Surfactant emulsifier systems.................. FL-12
Gel strengths........................................................... FL-4 Low-clay, flat rheology systems.............. FL-12
Filtration or fluid loss............................................ FL-4 Relaxed fluid-loss systems........................ FL-12
Sand content............................................................FL-5 All oil systems............................................... FL-12
Solids, oil and water content...............................FL-5 Special application fluids................................... FL-12
Chemical content....................................................FL-5 Completion brines........................................ FL-12
Importance of the drilling fluid...................................FL-5 Drill-in fluids.................................................. FL-12
General rig personnel involved...................................FL-5 Other special application fluids............... FL-12
Categories of drilling fluids..........................................FL-5 Additives................................................................. FL-12
Pneumatic drilling fluids........................................FL-7 Weight materials.......................................... FL-13
Dry gas...............................................................FL-7 Viscosifiers..................................................... FL-13
Mist.................................................................... FL-8 .Filtration control additives (fluid-loss control
Foam.................................................................. FL-8 additives)........................................................ FL-13
Aerated fluids.................................................. FL-8 Thinners (deflocculants)............................ FL-13
Water-based fluids (aqueous fluids)................ FL-8 pH/alkalinity control chemicals............... FL-13
Water or brine................................................. FL-8 Calcium removers........................................ FL-13
Spud mud......................................................... FL-8 Surfactants and emulsifiers...................... FL-13
Native muds..................................................... FL-8 Shale inhibitors............................................. FL-14
Low-solids systems........................................ FL-9 Corrosion inhibitors/scavengers/
Low-solids/non-dispersed system............ FL-9 biocides........................................................... FL-14
Polymer muds................................................. FL-9 Lubricants....................................................... FL-14
Lightly treated muds..................................... FL-9 Defoamers...................................................... FL-14
Flocculated bentonite systems................... FL-9 Flocculants..................................................... FL-14
Dispersed muds.............................................. FL-9 Temperature stability agents.................... FL-15
Seawater or brackish water......................... FL-9 Foaming agents............................................. FL-15
Saturated salt.................................................. FL-9 Hydrate supperssants................................. FL-15
Inhibitive drilling fluid systems................. FL-10 LCM/bridging agents.................................. FL-15
Potassium chloride (KCl) polymer.......... FL-10 Location on a rig site................................................... FL-15
KCl polyglycol................................................ FL-10 Installation............................................................. FL-16
Polyamine systems...................................... FL-10 Safety and handling..................................................... FL-16
Calcium systems.......................................... FL-10 Proper handling for safety................................. FL16-
Silicate systems............................................ FL-10 Fire hazards and zones............................... FL-16
Encapsulating polymer systems.............. FL-10 Chemical hazards.........................................FL-17
High-performance water-based muds Hydrogen sulfide (H2S).......................FL-17
(HPWBM)...................................................... FL-10 Carbon dioxide (CO2)..........................FL-17
High-temperature (HT), high-temperature/ Carbon monoxide (CO)........................FL-17

FL–iv DRILLING FLUIDS
Lime...........................................................FL-17 WBMs..................................................................... FL-26

Caustic (sodium hydroxide or NaOH) NAFs........................................................................ FL-26
and caustic potash (Potassium hydroxide Well operations.................................................... FL-26
or KOH)................................................... FL-18 Deepwater riser issues....................................... FL-26
OBM surfactants....................................FL-18 Hole cleaning................................................. FL-26
Physical hazards........................................... FL-18 Rheology effects........................................... FL-26
Heat.......................................................... FL-18 Balling with WBM........................................ FL-26
Sack cutting............................................ FL-18 Stuck pipe.............................................................. FL-26
Cranes...................................................... FL-18 Treatments..................................................... FL-26
Noise..........................................................FL-19 Lost circulation..................................................... FL-27
Pits and walkways.................................FL-19 Salt formations and rubble zones................... FL-27
Closed-vessel entry...............................FL-19 Treatments............................................................ FL-27
Tank strength..........................................FL-19 HTHP conditions.................................................. FL-28
Spills...........................................................FL-19 Wellbore stability issues................................... FL-28
Lifting.........................................................FL-19 Calculations and tables.............................................. FL-29
Waste disposal.......................................FL-19 Brine tables............................................................ FL-29
Pressure washing/rig cleaning...........FL-19 Important calculations....................................... FL-29
Use of icons/colors/risk factors to visually Volume of mud in the circulating system..... FL-29
denote danger........................................................FL-19 Surface system volume calculations.............. FL-29
System maintenance and contamination Rectangular tank volume........................... FL-29
treatments..................................................................... FL-20 Upright cylindrical tank volume............... FL-31
General maintenance of drilling Hole volume calculations (pipe in hole).FL-31
fluid properties..................................................... FL-20 Annular volume (or pipe displacement).FL-31
Density (mud weight)........................................ FL-20 Pipe (or hole) capacity....................................... FL-31
Rheology increase........................................ FL-20 Circulation times and strokes........................... FL-31
Rheology decrease....................................... FL-20 Pump output and circulation rate............ FL-31
API and HTHP fluid loss.................................... FL-20 Triplex mud pumps............................. FL-31
Salinity.................................................................... FL-20 Duplex mud pumps............................ FL-32
Alkalinity (pH control)....................................... FL-20 Mud cycle (complete circulation of active
Total hardness/excess lime content.............. FL-21 system)................................................................... FL-32
Sand content......................................................... FL-21 Bottoms up (bit to surface).............................. FL-32
Solids, water and oil content............................ FL-21 Surface to bit (pipe capacity displacement).FL-32
Methylene blue test............................................ FL-21 Hole cycle time..................................................... FL-33
Electrical stability................................................ FL-21 Hole volume (pipe out of hole)........................ FL-33
Contamination treatment for drilling fluids. FL-21 Hydrostatic pressure and hydrostatic
Potential problems that can affect gradient................................................................... FL-34
mud systems................................................................. FL-21 Quantities of mud materials............................. FL-35
Weight material settling or sag....................... FL-21 Weight-up formula....................................... FL-35
Sag or settling treatment and prevention Volume increase due to material
recommendations................................................ FL-21 additions......................................................... FL-35
Static settling................................................. FL-21 Dilution and blending.................................. FL-35
Dynamic settling........................................... FL-25 Annular velocity................................................... FL-36
Bed slumping................................................. FL-25 Government regulations............................................FL-40
Corrosion................................................................ FL-25 Health and safety regulations..................................FL-40
General treatment procedures................. FL-25 Environmental regulations........................................ FL-41
Dissolved oxygen......................................... FL-25 Transportation regulations........................................FL-43
Acid gases (CO2 and H2S)....................... FL-25 Cited references...........................................................FL-44
Bacterial degradation.................................. FL-25 Additional references.................................................FL-45
Gas hydrates......................................................... FL-25 Appendix: Safety data sheets, hazard labels
Prevention and mitigation recommendations & NFPA Diamond........................................................ FL-A1
when drilling with a riser............................ FL-26
DRILLING FLUIDS FL-1
Introduction The principal functions of drilling fluid are to:

Drilling fluids are fluids that are used during the drilling of
subterranean wells. They provide primary well control of • Control subsurface pressures, maintaining well control;
subsurface pressures by a combination of density and any • Remove drill cuttings from beneath the bit and circulate
additional pressure acting on the fluid column (annular or them to the surface;
surface imposed). They are most often circulated down the • Maintain wellbore stability, mechanically and chemi-
drill string, out the bit and back up the annulus to the surface cally;
so that drill cuttings are removed from the wellbore. • Transmit hydraulic energy to the drill bit and downhole
tools;
Drilling fluids have a number of alternative names, acronyms • Cool and lubricate the drill string and bit;
and slang terms used within • Allow adequate for-
the industry. The most widely mation evaluation;
used name is “mud” or “drill- • Provide a completed
ing mud” and both these terms wellbore that will produce hy-
will be used interchangeably drocarbons;
throughout this chapter. Oth- • Suspend or minimize
er drilling fluid names and the settling of drill cuttings or
acronyms are: water-based weight material when circula-
mud (WBM), oil-based mud tion is stopped, yet allow the
(OBM), synthetic-based mud Figure FL-1: Drilling fluids are major factors in a successful drilling removal of drill cuttings in the
(SBM), non-aqueous fluid program. Courtesy MI-SWACO, a Schlumberger company. surface fluids processing sys-
(NAF), invert emulsion fluid tem; and
(IEF), high performance water-based mud (HPWBM), drill-in • Form a low permeability, thin and tough filter cake
fluid (DIF) and reservoir drilling fluid (RDF). Similar to drilling across permeable formations.
fluids are so-called completion fluids that are used to finish
the well after drilling is completed. The fluids used during The performance of these functions depends upon the type
completions are often referred to as workover and comple- of formation being drilled and the various properties of the
tion (WOC) fluids, clear brines and/or packer fluids. drilling fluid. Often, compromises are necessary due to a va-
riety of factors. The selection and design of a particular drill-
Drilling fluid is a major factor in the success of the drilling ing fluid and its properties depends on the complexity of the
program and deserves careful study. Discussion in this man- well being drilled, subsurface pressures and temperatures,
ual, however, is limited to its general features. A compre- logistics, cost and local experience. Drilling fluid perfor-
hensive and more academic text on drilling fluids is “Com- mance is also affected by the drilling equipment being used.
position and Properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids” by
Caenn, Darley and Gray. The suppliers of drilling fluid mate- The properties of the drilling fluid should be adjusted to the
rials also offer a wide range of publications and numerous hydraulics available for the drilling operation and the well de-
articles can be located in the technical literature of the oil sign. Rate of penetration (ROP) and bit life can be improved
and gas industry. by optimizing the hydraulic horsepower at the bit, especially
for roller cone bits. The ROP and bit life for polycrystalline
diamond compact (PDC) cutter bits is improved when an
Drilling fluid function and performance adequate flowrate is used with minimal overbalance. Drilling
Drilling fluids range from simply water or oil to compressed fluid properties and circulation rates determine the parasitic
air and pneumatic fluids to more complex water-based or pressure losses in the drill string and the available pressure at
oil-based systems. Drilling fluid additives include weight- the bit for optimized drilling performance. The ROP is also af-
ing materials; viscosifiers; filtration control additives; pH/ fected by the density of the mud and nature of the suspended
alkalinity control chemicals; dispersants/deflocculants/ solids. Regular and complete tests are essential to the control
thinners; surfactants and emulsifiers; shale inhibitors; corro- of mud properties. The interpretation of the results of these
sion inhibitors/oxygen scavengers/hydrogen sulfide (H2S) tests and treatments to maintain appropriate fluid properties
scavengers; lubricants; and bridging agents/lost circulation is vital to the success of the drilling program.
materials (LCMs). A brief description of these categories is
included later in this section.

FL-2 DRILLING FLUIDS
Testing drilling fluid properties

Various properties of drilling fluid are monitored
and adjusted to achieve desired performance.
Procedures for measuring fluid properties can
be found in API Recommended Practice 13B-1
for water-based drilling fluids and Recommend-
ed Practice 13B-2 for oil-based drilling fluids.
These procedures are revised and extended pe-
riodically as improvements are made and new
tests are developed.
,
Purpose of testing
Routine testing is carried out on drilling fluids
to determine the following: the density or mud
weight; viscosity; gel strengths, filtration rate
(also called fluid loss); sand content; solids, oil
and water content; and chemical properties.
Density or mud weight

Density or mud weight is the mass per unit
volume. In the field, it is measured with a mud
balance and is most often reported in pounds
per gallon (lb/gal or ppg); specific gravity or
SG (g/ml); kilograms per cubic meter (kg/cu
m); or pounds per cubic foot (lb/cu ft). Density
is used to determine the hydrostatic pressure
of the mud column and can also be measured
and expressed as a gradient such as pounds per
square inch per thousand feet (psi/1,000 ft).
This allows for easy calculation of the hydro-
Figure FL-2: Basic land rig circulating system. static pressure at any depth.
The mud scale is calibrated with water (freshwater weighs

Physical operating principles 8.34 lb/gal and seawater weighs 8.55 lb/gal). The mud
The three main functions of drilling fluids are to: scale has four units scales graduated on the beam: lb/gal
or ppg, g/cc, lb/cu ft and psi/1,000 ft. Please refer to the
• Control subsurface pressures: These pressures are section entitled Calculations and Tables for the appropriate
controlled by the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling calculations and unit conversions.
fluid plus any surface-imposed pressure on the annulus.
While circulating, annular pressure losses also impose Viscosity
additional pressure on the wellbore. Hydrostatic Viscosity is a measure of the drilling fluids internal resis-
pressure is increased by increasing the density of the tance to flow, or how thick or thin it is. Drilling fluids are
drilling fluid. This is normally carried out by adding non-Newtonian, meaning that their viscosity is not constant
barite (BaSO4), a high-density inert powder. for all shear rates. These non-Newtonian fluids behave very
• Circulate drill cuttings from the well: This is dependent differently than liquids like water or oil which are Newtonian
on a combination of fluid velocity, fluid viscosity, fluid with a constant viscosity regardless of shear rate. Non-New-
density and drill string rotation. tonian drilling fluids are shear thinning such that they have
• Maintain wellbore stability: This is dependent on the lower viscosity at high-shear rates and higher viscosity at
strength of the rocks being drilled, local subsurface low-shear rates. This is desirable for drilling where minimum
stresses, differential pressure at the wellbore, drilling pressure losses are wanted for the high-shear conditions in-
fluid chemistry, formation composition, filtration side the narrow bore of the drill string. Higher viscosity is
control, filter cake quality and bridging solids. wanted in the low-shear conditions of the larger annulus.
Viscosity depends on the viscosity of the base liquid and the

type and concentration of solids in the drilling fluid. Viscos-

ity is usually higher for higher density fluids due to the in-
creased concentration of weight material such as barite. As
a general rule, thicker fluids are needed for larger diameter
hole sizes and thinner fluids are needed for smaller hole siz-
es which have smaller annular flow areas.
Viscosity is measured with two primary tools; a) the Marsh

funnel (Figure FL-3) which is used to frequently measure
relative changes in viscosity, and b) a direct reading viscom-
eter (Figure FL-4), which is used to measure the viscosity,
gel strengths, and non-Newtonian characteristics precisely.
The Marsh funnel is used to monitor relative changes in vis-

cosity and is commonly reported as “funnel viscosity”. The
Marsh funnel viscosity is reported as the number of seconds
required for a given fluid to flow a volume of 1 qt into a grad-
Figure FL-3: Drilling fluid balance and Marsh
uated mud cup. Its design and calibration can be verified us-
funnel are used to measure fluid viscosity.
ing water. One quart of fresh water should be collected in 26
(±0.5) sec at a temperature of 70 (±5) °F.
A direct indicating rotational viscometer is used to measure

the viscosity at different shear rates to determine the rhe-
ology model coefficients. For field operations, the Bingham
plastic rheology model coefficients of plastic viscosity (PV)
and yield point (YP) are monitored. These two coefficients
are used to monitor the non-Newtonian properties of the
drilling fluid. These viscometers indicate the shear stress as
a “dial unit” or “degree” (Ɵ) at a given shear rate (one dial
unit equals about 1 lb/100 sq ft). The dimensions of the di-
rect indicating viscometer are selected so that the PV and
YP can be quickly calculated from the shear stress values
measured at shear rates of 600 and 300 rpm. The PV in
centipoise (cps) is calculated from the 600-rpm dial read-
ing (Ɵ600) minus the 300-rpm dial reading (Ɵ300). The YP in
lb/100 sq ft is then calculated from the 300-rpm dial read-
ing minus the PV.
PV (cps) = Ɵ600 – Ɵ300 Eq 1
YP (lb/100 sq ft) = Ɵ300 – PV

Eq 2
Figure FL-4: Direct indicating viscometer (6 speed).
Viscosity should be measured and reported at standard tem-
peratures which are usually 120°F for most wells or 150°F for
high-temperature wells. Shear stress values should also be The PV depends mainly on the concentration of solids and
measured at other shear rates for improved accuracy when the viscosity of the base liquid. It is representative of high-
calculating pressure losses and when cleaning the hole. Typ- shear rate viscosity such as is present inside the bore of the
ical six speed shear rates are taken at 600, 300, 200, 100, drill string. The YP is a measure of the degree of non-New-
6 and 3 rpm. The Bingham plastic YP overestimates the real tonian shear thinning behavior (increased thickening at low-
YP for most drilling fluids as well as the shear stress values shear rates is implied from higher YPs). The YP is a result of
at lower shear rates. For this reason, using better rheology the attractive forces between particles in the fluid at lower
models such as the Herschel Bulkley model is recommend- shear rate conditions. It is also a measure of the hole clean-
ed for improved accuracy. ing capabilities of a fluid in vertical intervals. Often, a low-

an indication if the fluid is continuing to gel with longer pe-

riods of time (called progressive gels) or if it has reached a
relatively constant value (called flat gels).
Filtration or fluid loss

Filtration or fluid loss is a relative measure of the liquid that
could invade a permeable formation through deposited mud
solids. This liquid is called filtrate and the deposited solids
are called filter cake or mud cake. There are two standard
filtration tests that measure the volume of filtrate collected
after a 30-min period of time using filter paper. These tests
are the low-temperature/low-pressure fluid loss test, often
called the American Petroleum Institute (API) test, and the
high-temperature high-pressure (HTHP) test. Results are
reported as the milliliters (ml) which flow through a 7.1-sq
in. area. The HTHP filtration test unit is a half-area (3.5-sq
in.) press; therefore, the measured filtrate value is doubled
for reporting. Filter cake thickness is measured and reported
in units of 1/32 in. (or millimeters where SI units are used). A
filter cake thickness of 3 means 3/32 in.
The basic filtration test is called the low-temperature/
low-pressure or API fluid loss test and is performed at am-
bient temperatures and 100 psi. The more advanced test is
the HTHP filtration test that is performed at a temperature
closer to the bottomhole temperature and at a 500-psi dif-
Figure FL-5: API low-temperature, low-pressure filter press. ferential pressure. While there is no standard temperature
for the HTHP test, temperatures between 275°F and 325°F
are often set as the standard. This, of course, is dependent
shear-rate yield point (LSRYP) is calculated using the shear on the area and operator. The HTHP test should preferably
stress values at 6 rpm and 3 rpm to better evaluate the real be run at the actual bottomhole temperatures and differen-
YP, the hole cleaning potential and the propensity for having tial pressures existing in the wellbore, if possible.
barite sag.
Filtration rate and filter cake thickness are both monitored
LSRYP = (2 x Ɵ3) - Ɵ6 Eq 3 and reported properties. High fluid loss and thick filter cakes
significantly increase the possibility of having differentially
Gel strengths stuck pipe. A desirable filter cake is one that has ultralow
Gel strengths refer to the shear stress required to initiate permeability and is thin, tough, compressible and slick (lu-
flow after static periods of time. They are a measure of the bricious). These desirable properties cannot be determined
degree of gelation that occurs due to the attractive forces from the fluid loss values alone and many low fluid loss drill-
between particles over time. Higher gel strengths are re- ing fluids do not have a good quality filter cake. A desirable
ported in the same units as YP (lb/100 sq ft). Sufficient filter cake is achieved by minimizing the drill solids content
gel strength will suspend drill cuttings and weighting ma- (colloidal-sized solids) of the drilling fluid and maintaining
terials during connections and other static conditions. Gel the proper concentration of filtration control additives. For
strengths directly affect surge and swabbing pressures most WBMs, the best quality filter cake is achieved by using
when making connections, tripping pipe or running casing. an adequate quantity of high-quality bentonite.
They also affect the pressure required to “break circulation”
and the ease of releasing entrained gas or air. Gels are deter- There are many factors affecting filtration control including:
mined using the same direct indicating rotational viscome- thermal stability of the system; concentration, size, and type
ter as is used for viscosity. They are measured by observing of solids; the type and concentration of filtration control ad-
the maximum shear stress value while slowly turning the ro- ditives being used; and the presence of any contaminants in
tor or by using the 3-rpm setting after being static for some the mud. Filtration control comes with increased cost. Local
period of time. Standard values for gel strength are taken af- experience and the frequency of stuck pipe should be used
ter 10 sec, 10 min and sometimes after 30 min. The change to establish the target values for fluid loss and filter cake for
in gel strength values between these time periods also give the formation and hole interval.

Sand content fluid is held jointly between the fluids supplier, the drilling
Sand content refers to the volume percent of whole mud that contractor and the operator.
are “sand sized” particles, meaning they are larger than 74
microns and do not pass through a 200 mesh screen. These
may be actual quartz sand or may be the coarse-sized bar- General rig personnel involved
ite particles, sized bridging solids, LCM, drilled solids or any The general rig personnel involved with monitoring, oper-
other particles larger than 74 microns. Sand content is mea- ating and maintaining the drilling fluid are the drilling fluids
sured using a sand content graduated glass tube, funnel and technician (called the mud engineer) and one or more of the
200 mesh sieve. It is monitored to gauge the effectiveness drilling crew. The drilling fluids technician is normally em-
of solids control equipment, the shale shaker screen condi- ployed by the drilling fluids supplier or may be a consultant
tion and the potential for increased abrasion to mud pumps working for the operator or drilling contractor. The mud en-
and other equipment in the circulating system including drill gineer performs periodic testing of the drilling fluid proper-
string and downhole equipment. ties and recommends the treatments to be made. The der-
rickman is most often the rigsite worker who monitors mud
Solids, oil and water content weight and funnel viscosity, adds chemicals and controls the
Solids, oil and water content are measured using a distilla- fluid processing equipment. The driller controls flow of the
tion report. With this information and other data from the drilling fluid to the wellbore with the mud pumps. On more
chemical analysis, a complete breakdown of the composi- complicated operations such as deepwater and offshore op-
tion of the drilling fluid can be made, often called a solids erations, the drilling fluid responsibilities described above
analysis. This will include oil content, water or brine content, for the derrickman may be performed by additional rig crew.
low-gravity solids (mainly drill solids) and high-gravity sol- This is usually someone assigned to monitor the shale shak-
ids (normally barite). Solids content affects drilling rate, flow ers, mud pits and/or mixing operations.
properties, gel strengths and the overall stability of the mud.
Often, the frequency of dilution and chemical treatments
are based on the results from this analysis. Optimum solids Categories of drilling fluids
content and good solids control is essential for overall supe- There are three broad categories of drilling fluids:
rior mud performance. • Pneumatic fluids, which use compressed air or gas,
foam and aerated muds;
Chemical content • WBMs, which use water or brine as the base fluids; and
Chemical tests are carried out on the whole mud and filtrate • NAFs, which use oil or other non-aqueous base fluids
to monitor specifications and to identify contamination. De- called OBMs or SBMs.
pending on the type of drilling fluid being used, these tests
may include: pH, various measures of alkalinity (PM, PF, and Within each of these three broad categories, there are nu-
MF for WBM and POM for NAF), lime content, chloride (or merous variations in fluid properties and products that may
salt), calcium (or total hardness), carbonate/bicarbonate, be used dependent on the practices in an area and the drill-
sulfate, methylene blue test (MBT), H2S, electrical stability, ing fluids supplier. Numerous common names, acronyms,
water activity and others. A description of these chemical abbreviations and trade names can describe the particular
tests is outside the scope of this document, although the sig- system being used.
nificance of some of these tests is shown in the section en-
titled System Maintenance and Contamination Treatments. The selection of the drilling fluid system for a particular well
is based on numerous factors including: local practices; op-
erator preferences; supplier’s range of systems and prod-
Importance of the drilling fluid ucts; density required to control subsurface pressures; hole
The performance of the drilling fluid is critical to everyone size; characteristics of the formations to be drilled (including
involved with the operation and to all aspects of the drill- wellbore stability); anticipated temperature and pressure;
ing operation. The drilling fluid is the primary means to keep completion type; common regional drilling problems; logis-
the well from blowing out and it is responsible for keeping tics; cost and quality; and health, safety and environmental
the hole in good condition such that drilling operations can (HSE) considerations.
continue to the desired depth. Drilling and completion fluids
are one of the most important parts of the well construction Wells are spudded with simple low-density drilling fluids
process and ultimately the performance of the fluid will de- and altered with each interval to address the conditions
termine the success or failure of the operation. The respon- of the particular interval being drilled. Generally, the den-
sibility of the proper selection and application of the drilling sity and complexity of the drilling fluid system being used
increases with depth due to increased pressures and tem-

Oil Base Special Application

Pneumatic Water Base
( Non Aqueous) Fluids
Completion Fluids
Dry Gas Water or Brine 100% or All Oil (Clear Brines)
(air, N2 or field gas)
Drill-In Fluids
Emulsions
Spud Muds
Mist
Other (milling,
packers, spacers,
pills, spotting fluids
Native Muds
Foam
Low Solids; low-
solids/ non-dispersed,
polymer, lightly-
treated
Aerated liquids
Dispersed
Inhibitive; potassium,
calcium, silicate,
Polymer
encapsulating
High Performance
WBM
Figure FL-6: General classification of drilling fluids.

peratures. The categories of products used in drilling fluids Dry gas and mist drilling use a blooie line to contain the flow
by functionality are: base fluid; weight material; viscosifiers; and direct it to a cuttings pit which is a sufficient distance
fluid loss control additives; pH or alkalinity control; viscosity from the rig. Air, mist and foam drilling are open-ended cir-
thinners; surfactants or emulsifiers; shale inhibitors; corro- culating systems where the fluids are not recirculated.
sion inhibitors; lubricants; bridging agents; and LCMs.
Mist
The required density is one of the primary considerations Mist drilling is similar to dry air drilling except it uses a small
when selecting a drilling fluid. Table FL-1 gives the approx- volume of injected surfactant and water. This prevents
imate minimum and maximum density values for drilling
Table FL-1: Density of drilling fluids.
fluids while Table FL-2 provides the approximate minimum
and maximum density values for completion brines which Minimum Density Maximum Density
are sometimes used as the base fluid for drilling muds. The Drilling Fluids
listed minimum densities are the lowest densities that make lb/gal g/ml lb/gal g/ml
economic sense for a particular salt. Air Gas Mist 0.0 0.00 0.5 0.06
Pneumatic drilling fluids Foam 0.3 0.04 3.6 0.43
Pneumatic drilling fluids comprise: Foam with

2.0 0.24 5.8 0.70
• Dry gas, including air, nitrogen and field gas; Back Pressure
• Mist;
Oil 6.3 0.76 7.5 0.90
• Foam;
• Aerated fluids. Aerated Mud 4.0 0.48 8.3 1.00
Fresh Water/
Drilling with pneumatic fluids is covered extensively in the 8.3 1.00 8.6 1.03
Seawater
Managed Pressure, Underbalanced and Air/Gas/Mist/
Native/
Foam Drilling Chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th Unweighted 8.3 1.00 10.5 1.26
edition. Mud
Weighted Mud 8.3 1.00 22.5 2.70

Dry gas
Dry gas drilling is often called air or dust drilling. It is used
mainly in areas with hard, competent and dry formations,
Table FL-2: Density of completion brines.
especially in areas where severe lost circulation occurs.
Pneumatic fluids include air or dust drilling, nitrogen (gen- Minimum Density Maximum Density
Completion
erated with membrane units), natural gas, mist, foam and Brines
aerated liquid systems. Drilling with pneumatic systems is lb/gal g/ml lb/gal g/ml
often referred to as underbalanced drilling or UBD because KCl (Potassium

Chloride) and
the hydrostatic pressure is less than the pore pressure of the 8.3 1.00 10.0 1.20
NaCl (Sodium
formation. The advantages of using pneumatic fluids are an Chloride)
elimination or reduction in lost circulation and much higher Na Formate
ROPs, often more than three times that of mud drilling. Air (Sodium 8.3 1.00 11.1 1.33
Formate)
hammers and special hammer bits can be used with air or
mist drilling which significantly increases ROP and bit life. CaCl2 (Calcium
8.3 1.00 11.6 1.39
Chloride)
Disadvantages of pneumatic operations include: addition-
al equipment; complexity; possibility of downhole fires or NaBr (Sodium
10.0 1.20 12.5 1.50
flammability of produced fluids at the surface; and the po- Bromide)
tential for aggressive corrosion. K Formate

(Potassium 8.3 1.00 13.2 1.58
Formate)
For dry gas drilling, compressed gas is injected at the stand-
CaBr2 (Calcium
pipe at a volumetric flowrate that is sufficient to circulate Bromide)
11.7 1.40 15.1 1.81
cuttings from the hole based on the size of the hole, ROP and
depth. Dust is expelled from the well at the outlet. Dry gas ZnBr2 (Zinc
15.1 1.81 19.2 2.30
Bromide)
can be used until significant amounts of formation water or
oil are produced into the annulus. All pneumatic fluids use a Cs Formate
(Cesium 8.3 1.00 20.0 2.40
rotating control device (rotating head) to seal the annulus at Formate)
the surface and direct the flow safely away from the rig floor.

downhole fluid intrusions from aggregating drill cuttings Some of the common water-based systems are:
and dust into an annular plug called a mud ring. Mist injec- • Water or brine;
tion fluid formulations can include inhibitors and additives to • Spud muds;
minimize problems related to water-reactive shales. Dry gas • Native muds;
and mist drilling allows productive formations to be evaluat- • Low solids; low-solids/non-dispersed, polymer, &
ed as the drilling progresses. lightly treated
• Dispersed;
Foam • Seawater;
Foam drilling uses a lower volume of compressed gas and in- • Saturated salt water;
jects a higher volume of surfactant and water than mist drill- • Inhibitive; and
ing. Foam is generated at the surface and circulates through • High-performance WBMs.
the well. Compared to mist drilling, foam drilling provides
a higher hydrostatic pressure, better hole cleaning and can Water or brine
tolerate higher water or oil intrusions. It is used when a high- Freshwater, seawater or field brine can be used in many lo-
er density is needed to control downhole water or oil flows cations to effectively drill where higher mud weight is not
or for better wellbore stability. Foam is also applicable to needed. When this can be done with minimal drilling prob-
larger diameter sections or for workover operations when lems, straight water usually produces the highest rates of
cleaning out sand or other debris from the wellbore. Foam penetration and delivers a well at the lowest possible cost.
formulations can include clays and polymers for increased On land, large horseshoe circulating pits are sometimes
carrying capacity and stability as well as inhibitors to mini- used to settle drill solids. Large volume-inclined plate sepa-
mize problems related to water-reactive shales. rators can also be used to remove drill solids so that drilling
can continue with basically just water.
Aerated fluids
Aerated drilling is used for intermediate density applications Spud mud
where the density required is less than water but more than Spud muds are high-viscosity fluids used to spud the larg-
can be achieved with foam. Aerated mud drilling involves er diameter and shallow first interval of each well. They
using mud pumps to pump a normal liquid drilling mud at a are prepared from whatever water source is available and
reduced rate and injecting compressed gas at the standpipe whatever clay or polymer will yield sufficient viscosity in this
such that the wellbore is circulated with two-phase aerated water. For freshwater or drill water, bentonite (called gel)
flow. The ratio of injected gas to the liquid flowrate deter- is most often used. 20 to 50 lb/bbl of bentonite is pre-hy-
mines the downhole density and the propensity for surging drated in freshwater four to six hours. It is then usually floc-
in the annulus. Surging is where the two-phase flow is un- culated with lime or seawater to increase viscosity prior
stable and flow from the well is intermittent. Aerated muds to spudding to carry large cuttings or gravel from the well.
offer many of the advantages of drilling with mud in that the Bentonite does not fully yield in salty or hard waters (above
mud properties can be adjusted and the liquid is recirculat- about 1,500 mg/l chlorides or 320 mg/l total hardness). For
ed through the mud pits. Aerated drilling is also done with locations without access to fresh or drill water, attapulgite,
straight water, brine or oil. guar gum, xanthan gum or other products are required to
generate viscosity in salty or hard waters.
Water-based fluids (aqueous fluids)
Water-based fluids, or water-based muds (WBMs), are the Native muds
most widely used type of drilling fluid systems and are al- Native muds are simply water or spud mud that incorporate
most always used to spud the well. They range from simply native clays and drill solids to form a low quality but often
drilling with water to formulated water-based systems with effective drilling fluid. Native muds have: increased viscosity
targeted property specifications and concentrations for var- for better hole cleaning; slightly higher mud weights (limit-
ious additives that are used to achieve the desired proper- ed to about 10.5 ppg); the ability to bridge solids to seal off
ties. The type of system to be used on a particular well is de- high-permeability zones and form a filter cake; and a lim-
pendent on the type of water locally available, the required ited degree of filtration control. All of these depend on the
mud weight, local drilling practices and potential problems formations being drilled and the characteristics of the water
that may be encountered. being used. Native muds often suffer from being unstable
and having high fluid loss and thick filter cakes that can lead
WBMs comprise a mixture of water and reactive solids, in- to stuck pipe. Once chemical treatments are used to achieve
ert solids, functional chemicals and sometimes non-aque- target viscosity and fluid loss properties (called “mudding
ous liquids. Most WBM systems can be formulated from up”), these systems would be more appropriately called
freshwater or seawater. lightly treated systems.

Low-solids systems fonate, lignite or tannin thinners (often called dispersants).

The names of these systems are often misused and inter- They are often referred to as lignosulfonate, ligno, chrome
changed. They are usually termed low-density systems. lignosufonate (CLS) and chrome-free lignosulfonate (CFLS)
systems. These types of thinners/dispersants/deflocculants
»» Low-solids/non-dispersed (LSND) system are often called “black powders”. The high concentration of
This is a polymer-exended bentonite freshwater system thinners keeps the clays in a deflocculated state and pro-
with minimal drill solids. Only polymers are used for fluid vides good filtration control. The high concentration of thin-
loss and viscosity control. Originally, these were unweighted ners allows the system to tolerate higher concentrations of
muds with <6% solids with a drilled solids to bentonite ratio drill solids before becoming overly viscous or unstable. The
of <3:1. They did not use any lignosulfonate, lignite or tan- temperature stability of most dispersed muds is about 325°F
nin thinners (often called dispersants). These systems have and this is the temperature at which the thinners begin to de-
been shown to produce higher penetration rates than higher grade. High-temperature fluid loss control additives, such as
solids systems. The modern use of the LSND term includes sulfonated phenolic resins or asphalt, may be used to achieve
systems that are more accurately described by the polymer lower levels of fluid loss. Occasionally, potassium or alumina
or lightly treated systems below. chemicals are added in an attempt to provide improved shale
inhibition.
»» Polymer muds
These muds can have a wide variety of formulations. Nor- Seawater or brackish water
mally, polymer systems use polymers such as xanthan gum Systems formulated from seawater or brackish water are
for viscosity and polyanionic cellulose (PAC) or sodium most often dispersed muds but may also be polymer or light-
polyacrylate (SPA) for fluid loss control. Only a minimal ly treated systems. They are different from fresh water muds
amount of bentonite is added. Many polymer systems, such in that they use attapulgite clay, pre-hydrated bentonite or
as the encapsulating polymer systems discussed later, are xanthan gum for viscosity. They also differ in that many mud
considered to be inhibitive due to their ability to coat or en- products are not effective due to the high chlorides or high
capsulate reactive shale cuttings. This keeps them from de- levels of calcium/magnesium. Caustic soda and soda ash
grading in size and dispersing. are used to reduce calcium and magnesium levels to a point
where products are more effective. Starch or a PAC polymer
»» Lightly treated muds is most often used for fluid loss control.
These muds are drilling fluids which use a minimum amount
of thinners such as lignosulfonate, lignite, tannin, phosphate Saturated salt
or a deflocculating polymer to maintain their properties. Saturated salt systems are used to prevent wellbore enlarge-
Lightly treated systems often use fluid loss control additives ment when drilling salt stringers or salt sections and are nor-
and other additives in low concentrations to achieve targeted mally sodium chloride based. They are also used in deepwater
properties. These lightly treated systems are distinguished drilling applications to reduce the risk of having “ice-like” gas
from the dispersed systems discussed below mainly due to hydrates form at high pressures. Saturated salt muds can be
the minimal amount of thinners (dispersants) used. Lightly dispersed or non-dispersed, such as non-dispersed polymer
treated systems most often use bentonite for viscosity and based systems. They are usually formulated from saturated
lignite or polymers for fluid loss control. sodium chloride (NaCl) brine. They are different from fresh
water muds in that they use attapulgite clay or xanthan gum
»» Flocculated bentonite systems for viscosity and other mud products that are still effective in
This type of system uses mixed metal hydroxide (MMH), the high chlorides environment. Unlike seawater muds, satu-
mixed metal oxide (MMO), mixed metal silicate (MMS), soda rated salt systems typically do not have high levels of divalent
ash or Na2CO3, lime, gyp and any number of other chemicals cations (like calcium and magnesium), except for areas where
to flocculate bentonite slurries. These systems have high YPs the salt formation being drilled contains divalent cations such
and gel strengths for good hole cleaning and suspension due as the Zechstein salt formation found in Northwest Europe.
to the flocculation. Due to the flocculated state of the clays, Starch or a PAC polymer is most often used for fluid loss con-
however, fluid loss control is difficult and many products can- trol in these systems.
not be used because they neutralize the flocculation. Floc-
culated systems are also limited in the density that can be Inhibitive drilling fluid systems
achieved with good properties. The maximum is often about There are a wide variety of drilling fluids which incorporate
12.0 ppg. shale inhibitors and have chemistries that inhibit problems
from water-reactive shales (tight hole/shale swelling, slough-
Dispersed muds ing shale and bit/Bottomhole Assembly or BHA balling).
Dispersed muds contain high concentrations of lignosul- These include:

»» Potassium chloride (KCl) polymer contamination from contaminants like drilling salt or anhy-
Potassium is an inhibitor that can base-exchange with sodi- drite. They are, however, prone to gelation which may lead to
um in water-sensitive smectite-containing shales. It is used solidification at high temperatures unless the MBT is kept low
at concentrations between 3 and 12% weight for most appli- and the concentration of other additives properly maintained
cations. Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide polymer (PHPA)
is a long chain polymer that will “encapsulate” reactive drill »» Silicate systems
cuttings and keep them from dispersing. These systems nor- Sodium and potassium silicate (K2SiO3) are high pH chemi-
mally use xanthan gum for viscosity and PAC polymer for fluid cals that precipitate on the surface of reactive drill cuttings
loss control with minimal amounts of added bentonite. These and formations as they are exposed to calcium, magnesium or
products are the basis for many KCl polymer systems. Oth- low pH environments. They form a glass-like coating on these
er encapsulating and fluid loss polymers such as PAC, sodi- water-reactive shales and prevent swelling and dispersion.
um polyacrylate (SPA) or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) may also Silicate systems do not tolerate calcium, magnesium and oth-
be used. These systems can use freshwater or seawater as er multivalent cations. Silicate systems may need a special
the base fluid. Other sources of potassium are also used to silicate-compatible lubricant for deviated wells.
formulate chlorides-free potassium-inhibitive mud. These
include potassium acetate (KC2H3O2), potassium sulfate »» Encapsulating polymer systems
(K 2SO4), potassium formate (KCOOH) and potassium hy- PHPA, PAC/SPA, or cationic polymer systems with sufficient
droxide (KOH) neutralized products. concentrations of polymers will “encapsulate” reactive drill
cuttings and keep them from dispersing. Encapsulation cou-
»» KCl polyglycol pled with low fluid loss provides a fluid with good inhibition
This is an improvement on the KCl polymer system that utilizes for water-sensitive shales. KCl polymer and polyamine poly-
a polyglycol selected to be water insoluble at the salinity and mer systems are more inhibitive versions of encapsulating
temperature of the formation (called cloud point). The poly- polymer systems.
glycol is thought to: displace water adsorbed on the surface of
drill cuttings or reactive formations preventing swelling and Any number of other inhibitive systems are available. No-
dispersion; form insoluble blocking of shale pores preventing table examples include diammonium phosphate or calci-
water entry and pressure transmission into shale pores; and um-ammonium nitrate and methylglycoside.
improve lubricity. These systems typically use much higher
concentrations of KCl, often 12 to over 20% weight. »» High-performance water-based muds (HPWBM)
These complex WBM systems come closest to providing
»» Polyamine systems the drilling performance and wellbore stability given by oil-
Amine, polyamine and quaternary amine chemicals are wide- based systems. They typically contain a shale inhibitor (salt
ly used as shale inhibitors. They are most often used in poly- or polyamine), encapsulating polymer, anti-balling additive
mer systems and high-performance WBMs such as those or ROP enhancer, lubricant, fluid loss control additives and
discussed below. These amine-based products can range viscosifying polymers. HPWBMs have higher cost, require
from simple low molecular weight additives to medium mo- more intensive wellsite engineering and require higher
lecular weight polyamines as substitutes for KCl maintenance treatments than other WBMs.
»» Calcium systems High-temperature (HT), high-temperature/high

Calcium, similar to potassium, is an inhibitor that can base-ex- pressure (HTHP)and ultra-HTHP systems
change with sodium in water-sensitive smectite-containing These systems are used to drill in high-temperature forma-
shales. Inhibitive calcium systems must have high levels of tions, generally defined as formation temperatures above
filtrate calcium to function. While not as widely used today 300°F (150°C). High-temperature muds would be ones with
as in the past, calcium-treated systems include gyp, lime, and lower mud weights such as those used in geothermal drill-
calcium chloride or CaCl2-based systems. Gyp and lime muds ing. HTHP muds are used in wells with a Bottomhole Pres-
are usually freshwater muds that are often heavily treated sure (BHP) above 10,000 lb/sq in. (69 MPa). Ultra-HTHP
with thinners such as lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin. The systems would indicate a formation temperature above
mud-up conversion to a gyp or lime mud can be quite difficult 400°F (205°C) and BHP above 20,000 lb/sq in. (139 MPa).
as they go through a viscosity hump during the breakover.. These mud systems could be water-based or oil-based.
Calcium systems are usually polymer systems based on spe- These systems are also specially formulated to be stable un-
cial polymers that perform in high calcium levels. Many poly- der hostile conditions where conventional systems are not
mers used in other systems are not effective in calcium-treat- stable or economical to maintain. An in-depth discussion of
ed systems. Calcium-treated muds are less susceptible to these systems is outside the scope of this manual. The main

differences between these and conventional systems is that In addition, natural gas and other gasses are highly soluble in
all the products used must be stable at these elevated tem- NAFs at higher pressures, such that influxes may be difficult
peratures. Conventional viscosifiers, like bentonite or xan- to detect. After an influx, the solubilized gas does not ex-
than gum for WBM or amine-treated bentonite for NAFs, pand as in a WBM. The fluid is circulated up the annulus to
are not stable and alternative products must be used. For a fairly shallow depth where the pressure is low enough that
WBMs, this may be a product like sepiolite clay or a HT-sta- the gas comes out of the solution and begins to expand rap-
ble synthetic polymer. For NAFs, it may be wet-processed idly. For this reason, it is important to be able to detect small
amine-treated hectorite. For filtration control, products like volume influxes when drilling with NAFs and to be cautious
PAC for WBMs and gilsonite for NAFs would need to be re- when circulating influxes from the well. It is also important
placed with a HT-stable synthetic polymer. The same holds to understand that NAFs expand more than WBMs with
true for thinners (deflocculants) for WBMs and emulsifiers/ increases in temperature such that the density is lower (as
wetting agents for NAFs. Conventional products like ligno- volume expands) at high temperatures. For this reason, the
sulfonate, lignite and tannin in WBMs are not effective and influence of temperature on density and wellbore volumes
would need to be replaced with anionic synthetic polymer needs to be understood and considered for critical opera-
deflocculants or other HT stable additives. tions.
Non-aqueous-based mud systems (oil-based) The base fluids used to formulate NAFs include No.2 diesel,
Non-aqueous drilling fluids (NAFs) are formulated with a mineral oils, white oils and synthetic oils (i.e. olefins, esters,
non-aqueous base fluid (oil) as the main liquid phase. The ethers, acetals and paraffins). While NAFs were once for-
NAFs are insoluble in water, oil-wet drill cuttings and ex- mulated with crude oil, this practice is rare today due to the
posed formations. This prevents them from hydrating by low flash point and HSE considerations of using crude oil.
contact with water. Non-aqueous based systems are also
referred to as NAFs, OBMs, invert emulsions or just inverts. The two broad divisions of oil-based systems are invert
NAFs formulated from synthetic oils are often called SBMs. emulsions and all-oil systems.
Shales that swell, disperse, ball and become unstable when Invert emulsions
drilled with WBMs do not exhibit these problems when Invert emulsions are the most common category of NAFs.
drilled with OBMs. In general, NAFs: They have oil as the external phase and a lesser volume of
emulsified calcium chloride (or other) brine as the internal
• Tolerate higher concentrations of drill solids; phase. Typical ratios of oil to water are 70/30 to 90/10.
• Are less susceptible to chemical contamination; The emulsified brine is emulsified as micron-sized droplets
• Can be used to drill salt formations; which are trapped in the filter cake with other solids. This
• Are generally more temperature stable; results in invert emulsions having very low fluid loss and a
• Provide better lubricity; thin filter cake as compared to WBMs.
• Have lower fluid loss;
• Reduce the risk of stuck pipe; While there are a number of invert emulsion systems in the
• Produce higher rates of penetration; market, the broad types can be differentiated by the type
• Cause less wellbore enlargement; of emulsifier used and special features the system provides.
• Limit corrosion;
• Reduce the risk and consequence of gas hydrates; Invert emulsion NAF types are:
• Cause less formation damage; and
• Provide improved wellbore stability. »» Calcium soap systems
These systems use an emulsifier based on calcium soap
For these reasons, NAFs result in fewer drilling problems chemistry, formed by the reaction of oxidized tall oil (derived
and are widely used throughout the industry. from pine trees) and large additions of calcium hydroxide or
Ca(OH)2 (lime). This system is the most common and eco-
The disadvantages of using NAFs (oil-based muds) are the nomical type of NAF system.
higher cost, extra handling and disposal controls for both
mud and drill cuttings due to HSE considerations, more dif- »» Surfactant emulsifier systems
ficult supply logistics of base oil, and have the potential for These systems use amine or amide-type fatty acid emulsifi-
water contamination and water-wet solids. NAFs have more ers such as polyamine, polyamidoamine, polyaminated fatty
problems with lost circulation and remedying lost circula- acid or imidazoline. These systems may not require as much
tion with these systems is more difficult. lime and use lower concentrations of chemicals to form a
stable emulsion.

»» Low clay, flat rheology systems when coring permeable formations to minimize contamina-
These NAF systems contain little or no amine-treated clay tion and displacement of native formation fluids (usually oil)
for viscosity and use emulsifiers, viscosifiers and other addi- and preserve certain properties of the recovered rock. They
tives which produce rheology properties that do not change can be water-based or oil-based and typically use benign
much with changes in temperature. These systems have YP, products which do not change the wettability of the forma-
gel strength and low-shear rate viscosity values that change tion and have high concentrations of ultrafine-sized calcium
less than about 25% between 40°F and 150°F. carbonate for bridging.
»» Relaxed fluid loss systems Other special application fluids

These specially formulated NAF systems are designed to A number of other fluids are used for special operations.
have much higher HTHP fluid loss and higher oil/water ra- Milling fluids are high-viscosity fluids for milling casing or a
tios (OWRs) than the conventional NAFs described above. fish. Packer fluids are fluids that are left in the annulus above
These systems are used where higher penetration rates are the production packer and can be water-based, oil-based or
desired such as in areas that are often referred to as “hard brine. Spacers and flushes are fluids used to help displace
rock” drilling. They may even have measureable API fluid one system with another or during cementing to help get a
loss values. good mud displacement and cement bond. Fluid loss con-
trol pills are solids laden or viscous fluids used to prevent or
All oil systems minimize the loss of brine to open perforations during com-
All oil systems are similar in formulation to invert emulsion pletion operations. Sweeps are a slurry pumped through
NAF muds with the exception that there is no added brine the well on a once around basis, usually used for improved
used in the formulation. In practice, they generally pick up hole cleaning or treating lost circulation. Stuck pipe spotting
0-5% water. Formulations for all oil systems generally use fluids are special fluids used to free stuck pipe. Most often
higher concentrations of organophilic clay with lower con- spotting fluids are OBMs with special additives to help pen-
centrations of emulsifiers and wetting agents. Some wells etrate the filter cake; however, for some formations, acid or
are actually drilled with just base oil and no additives, al- other spotting fluids may be used. Lost circulation pills are
though this is rare. fluids containing LCMs or settable slurries that help remedy
lost circulation.
Special application fluids
There are a number of different special application fluids:
Additives
Completion brines Drilling fluid additives include weight materials, viscosifiers,
A wide variety of heavy brines are used during completion filtration control additives, pH/alkalinity control chemicals,
operations to control subsurface pressures and prevent for- dispersants/deflocculants/thinners, surfactants and emul-
mation damage (See Table FL-2). These are solid-free fluids sifiers, shale inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors/oxygen scav-
often referred to as clear brines. They are selected based on engers/H2S scavengers, lubricants and bridging agents/
the density needed and are often a mixture of several brines. LCMs. The descriptions below are intended to include only
the most common products used and do not address the
Drill-in fluids multitude of potential products available in the market.
Drill-in fluids are special formulations designed to be min-
imally damaging to producing formations, or to be easily Weight materials
cleaned-up. They can be either water-based or oil-based. Barite or barium sulfate is the predominant weight material
The most common drill-in fluids are water or brine-based used to increase density worldwide. It is an inert and insol-
formulations that use calcium carbonate or CaCO3 for den- uble mineral that is ground to meet API specifications and
sity/bridging and starch for fluid loss. When treated with has a medium material hardness that minimizes erosion.
acid, the filter cakes from these formulations will degrade For offshore usage, barite may need to meet mercury and
and dissolve resulting in an effective clean-up. cadmium limits. Iron oxide products are also used as weight
materials including hematite (ferric oxide or Fe2O3) and il-
Another drill-in fluid system is based on saturated sodium menite (iron titanium oxide or FeTiO3). These products have
chloride brine and sized salt for bridging/additional densi- a higher hardness and can be abrasive unless the particle
ty and starch for fluid loss. When treated with freshwater size is sufficiently small and void of any large particles. API
or other clean-up treatments, the salt particle-based filter specifications for hematite call for less than 1.5% above 75
cakes dissolve resulting in an effective clean-up. microns (200 mesh). Manganese tetraoxide (Mn3O4) is also
used as a weight material. All of the weight materials listed
Coring Fluids: So called “Low Invasion Coring fluids” are used above may also be produced with particle size distributions

(below about 5 microns) and called micronized so that they pH/alkalinity control chemicals
do not sag in highly directional wells. These refer to chemicals that increase or decrease pH or
alkalinity (relative acidity or alkalinity). Products which in-
For non-damaging drill-in fluids and other light-weight drill- crease pH include lime (calcium hydroxide), caustic soda
ing fluids, calcium carbonate is often used as the weight ma- (sodium hydroxide), soda ash (sodium carbonate) and mag
terial and can be used to formulate fluids up to about 12 lb/ ox (magnesium oxide). Products which reduce pH include
gal. Heavy-weight brines such as sodium chloride, potassi- bicarb (sodium bicarbonate), SAPP, citric acid and acetic
um chloride, calcium chloride, sodium formate (NaCOOH) acid. These pH reducing products are most often used to
and potassium formate (KCOOH) are also used for density reduce pH when drilling cement.
in special fluids like drill-in fluids.
Calcium removers
Viscosifiers Calcium is detrimental to the yield of clays and the per-
Bentonite (called “gel”) and xanthan gum polymer are used formance of many drilling fluid additives. For this reason,
to increase viscosity for fresh WBMs. Seawater and saturat- calcium is often precipitated from high calcium make-up
ed WBMs use attapulgite clay, guar or xanthan gum or other waters and from drilling fluids which incorporate calcium
natural or synthetic high-molecular weight polymer prod- from drilling anhydrite formations (calcium sulfate) or after
ucts for viscosity. NAFs use amine-treated bentonite (called drilling cement. Depending on the situation, soda ash, caus-
organophilic clay) as the primary viscosifer. Other NAF vis- tic soda, bicarbonate of soda, Ethylene-diamine-tetra acetic
cosifiers include dimer-trimer fatty acids and co-polymer acid (EDTA) or a polyphosphate (SAPP or sodium tetrap-
filtration control additives. The quantity of emulsified brine hosphate) may be used for this purpose.
and other products in a formulation will also contribute to
viscosity. Chemical flocculants like lime or soda ash plus any Surfactants and emulsifiers
number of polymers may be used to increase viscosity by Surfactants and emulsifiers are used in all NAFs and in some
flocculation in clay-based WBMs. These are discussed be- WBMs. For NAFs, they are used to form the brine-in-water
low under flocculants. emulsion and to oil-wet solids. The emulsifiers and wetting
agents used for NAFs include tall oil-based chemicals (de-
Filtration control additives (fluid loss control rived from pine trees), amine or amide-type fatty acids such
additives) as polyamine, polyamidoamine, polyaminated fatty acid
Filtration control additives reduce the filtrate that will in- and imidazoline. Surfactants reduce the surface tension
vade a permeable formation and limit the filter cake thick- between two incompatible liquids and two contacting solid
ness. For WBMs, these products range from bentonite clay surfaces. Dish washing detergent is a common household
used in fresh water and starch (used in salt water) to lig- example of a water-wetting surfactant.
nite, polyanionic cellulose (PAC) or carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC), sodium polyacrylate (SPA), carboxymethyl starch In WBMs, soaps or detergents are surfactants that are used
(CM starch), blown asphalt, sulfonated phenolic resins, as- to prevent bit and bottomhole assembly (BHA) balling when
phalt, gilsonite and any number of other medium-molecu- drilling reactive clays and shales (called “gumbo”) and to
lar weight polymers. For NAFs, gilsonite (natural asphalt), water-wet certain oil-wet additives (like the so called “cou-
asphalt, amine-treated lignite and methyl styrene acrylate pler” used to water wet gilsonite or asphalt to keep it from
co-polymers are the primary filtration control additives coating out or being removed at the shale shaker). Foaming
used. agents are discussed briefly below and are used when air
or foam drilling. Many additives have some secondary func-
tionality as emulsifiers and surfactants; for example, ligno-
Thinners (deflocculants) sulfonates, lignite, tannins and humates.
Thinners are products that reduce the viscosity of a fluid by
chemical actions to maintain its “pumpability”. For WBMs, De-emulsifiers are surfactants that prevent an emulsion
the thinning action is caused by deflocculation of clays and from forming. They are occasionally used in completion flu-
reactive drill solids with anionic chemicals which neutralize ids and drill-in fluids to prevent an emulsion from forming in
the cationic-charged clay edges. These products include a producing formation and causing formation damage.
lignosulfonate, lignite, tannins (quebracho), various poly-
phosphates such as sodium acid pyrophosphate (SAPP) and Shale inhibitors
sodium tetraphosphate and low molecular weight polymers. Shale inhibitors are products used in WBMs to prevent clays
For NAFs, thinning is achieved by adding surfactants (emul- and shales from hydrating and becoming unstable or from
sifiers and wetting agents) that neutralize the tendency of having excessive wellbore enlargement. Some shale inhibi-
the emulsified brine and organo clays to coalesce. tors are used as the basis for formulating inhibitive systems

like gypsum or lime, potassium compounds, sodium or po- Biocides range from simple inorganic chemicals like bleach
tassium silicate, various brines, polyglycols and amine/poly- (hypochlorite) and swimming pool chlorine products to
amine/quaternary amines. Many polymers are also cited as those which increase pH such as soda ash, caustic soda
shale inhibitors as they slow the reaction of WBFs with re- and lime. More complex organic industrial biocides include
active shales. products such as glutaraldehyde, isothiazolone, triazine,
carbamates and bronopol.
Polymers may tie up the water, limiting invasion and filtration
and/or “encapsulate” or “coat” the reactive solids. Examples Lubricants
of these high or medium molecular weight polymers include Lubricants are products used to reduce the coefficient of
PHPA, SPA, PVA, PAC, and CMC. Often plating agents such friction of the drilling fluid to reduce torque and drag be-
as asphalt, gilsonite and sulfonated asphalt are added to tween the drill string and casing or open hole. Lubricants
improve wellbore stability. Other shale inhibitors that have are most often used in WBMs and include: straight oils such
been used are diammonium phosphate, calcium-ammoni- as diesel, mineral and synthetic oils (olefins and esters) and
um nitrate, and methyl glycoside vegetable oils; blends of oils and oil-based materials; graph-
ite; polyglycols; glycerin; fatty acid blends; asphalt; gilsonite;
Corrosion inhibitors/scavengers/biocides and sulfonated asphalt. Solid lubricants such as glass and
Corrosion inhibitors are products used to prevent or lim- copolymer beads are also used as “ball bearing type” friction
it corrosion rates. They are most often used in WBMs and reducers.
completion brines. Scavengers are products that precipitate
a certain undesirable chemical that causes excessive corro- Defoamers
sion. For drilling applications, these include oxygen scaven- These are products designed to control foam and foaming
gers and hydrogen sulfide scavengers. Biocides (also called action in WBMs, particularly that which occurs in brackish,
bactericides) are used to prevent fermentation or biodegra- seawater or saturated salt systems. Defoamers include:
dation of certain additives (most notably organic materials octyl alcohol and other fatty alcohols; aluminum stearate
like starch, xanthan gum and LCMs). which is mixed onsite in diesel oil or delivered as a liquid sus-
pension; polyglycols; butyl phosphate; and silicone based
Common corrosion inhibitors are amine-based additives that products.
coat steel surfaces or products like organophosphate-based
additives that “passivate” sites where corrosion may occur. Flocculants
Flocculants refer to high molecular weight polyacrylamide
Oxygen scavengers are usually sodium sulfite (Na2SO3) or polymers that can be used to flocculate and aggregate re-
ammonium bisulfite-based additives, frequently catalyzed active drill solids so that they can be removed at the shale
with heavy metals such as nickel or cobalt. Oxygen scaven- shaker or with a centrifuge and products used to flocculate
gers react with dissolved oxygen in the water phase and re- bentonite-based muds for improved hole cleaning. Similar
move it through this chemical reaction. Oxygen scavengers polymer products are added in small quantities to dry ben-
should be injected into the suction line of the mud pump tonite or bentonite slurries to increase viscosity. Inorganic
and not added directly to the suction pit. H2S scavengers are chemicals can also be used to flocculate slurries including
iron or zinc chemicals, which under proper conditions, can many chemicals that are a source of soluble calcium or other
chemically precipitate or neutralize H2S. Zinc oxide (ZnO) multivalent ions like aluminum or iron or products that are
and zinc carbonate (ZnCO3) are two common H2S scaven- a source of chlorides or carbonates such as sodium chloride
gers. Although not a true scavenger, it is recommended to or soda ash. Lime, gypsum, soda ash or even seawater are
add caustic soda and/or lime to raise and maintain the pH of commonly used to flocculate.
the mud to >11.0 in WBMs, or add lime to maintain >5lb/bbl in
NAFs if H2S is detected. Temperature stability agents
These are products used to improve the temperature sta-
Biocides are chemicals that either kill or inhibit bacterial and bility (rheology and filtration) of a fluid formulation and/or
possibly fungal growth in drilling and completion fluids. Bac- individual product above its normal range. For some appli-
terial growth is often first indicated by a foul odor that can cations, these are the base fluids chosen for the formulation
smell like yeast (fermenting beer) or rotten eggs (sulfate- re- such as saturated brines or fluids with anti-oxidant char-
ducing bacteria) and possibly foaming or frothing in the pits. acteristics like formate brines. In other applications, these
Biocides are industrial strength products and special care products are additives like pH buffers, alcohols, glycols,
should be taken in selecting and using these products. As amines, synthetic polymers and organic chemicals.
is the case when using any drilling fluid chemical, the proper
PPE should be used to prevent exposure.

Foaming agents Flake materials include mica, cellulose, cellophane, flaked

Foamers are chemicals which are surfactants (surface ac- graphite, flaked calcium carbonate and ground plastic lam-
tive agents) that create foam for air drilling with mist or foam inate.
operations.
A common all-purpose LCM product is a blend of fibers and
Hydrate suppressants granular and flake materials. These sealing blends are effec-
These are brines or low molecular weight alcohol or gly- tive for porous loss zones, vugs and fractures. The blend of
col-based additives which are used in WBMs for hydrate various types of materials allows a larger diameter opening
inhibition in deepwater and cold climate operations. to be sealed than would be possible if a singular additive was
used.
LCM/bridging agents
These products are used to remedy downhole mud losses to Natural fractures, induced fractures and losses associated
highly permeable zones, fractures or faults. Most LCMs are with faults are the predominant cause of lost circulation and
low-cost agricultural or industrial waste products that vary are often difficult to cure. For severe and total lost circulation
by geographic region. situations, other special application fluids are used. These
include high-fluid-loss/high-solids squeezes (diatomaceous
There is no standard sizing convention for LCMs between earth), settable slurries (resins, cross-linked polymers,
LCM type or between manufacturers. Names like fine, me- magnesium based cements, thixotropic cement), down-
dium and coarse are relative (even within one company’s hole mixed diesel oil bentonite squeezes (called “gunk”) for
product line); for example, coarse calcium carbonate is usu- WBMs and organophilic clay in water squeezes for NAFs
ally smaller than fine nut shells. Likewise, numbers given to (“reverse gunk”).
products can be misleading. Some companies use a number
to indicate the median particle size and other companies Special care should be taken when selecting LCM products
use a number to indicate the screen size used to classify the to resolve downhole losses in producing reservoir hole inter-
product. A number like 300 could mean the median size is vals. The intent is to avoid damage to the producing forma-
300 micron or that the product was sized with a 300 mesh tion and subsequent reduction in well productivity.
screen meaning the median size might be on the order of 55
microns.
Location on a rig site
Bridging agents are most often applicable for sealing Drilling fluids circulate through the wellbore (Figure FL-2)
high-permeability formations like coarse sands, gravel beds from a reserve volume of fluid in the mud pits at the surface.
and other forms of high “matrix” permeability. These bridg- High-pressure reciprocating piston mud pumps pump the
ing products include granular materials like coarse calcium mud from the mud pits to the standpipe then to the top drive
carbonate, ground nut shells, and granular graphite or flake or kelly and into the bore of the drill string at high velocity.
materials like mica or ground plastic laminate. Bridging The mud exits the drill string at the bit nozzles at extreme
agents are also the LCMs that are most often used for well- velocity to clean the bit and cuttings from beneath the bit.
bore strengthening preventative practices where 10 to 50 In the annulus, the velocity is reduced and the non-Newto-
lb/bbl of LCM is carried in the fluid while drilling. nian mud becomes more viscous which helps carry cuttings
from the well. At the surface, the shale shakers screen out
Conventional LCMs are categorized by particle type: gran- drill cuttings and return the mud to the mud pits for re-cir-
ular, fibrous, and flake. They are limited to a maximum size culation. Additional fluid processing equipment is located
of about 2 mm for most applications where mud motors and on or near the mud pits. These may include the mud/gas
measurement while drilling (MWD) tools are used. separator, degasser, desander, desilter, mud cleaner and
centrifuge.
Granular materials can be made from any material. Com-
mon granular LCMs are nut shells, granular graphite, pe- Installation
troleum coke, ground coal, sized wood chips or tree bark, Drilling fluids are normally mixed on location in the mud
ground rubber, sized plastic, swellable polymers and sized pits by adding dry and liquid products. Dry products are in-
calcium carbonate. troduced into the fluid with a jet mixing hopper while liquid
products are most often poured directly into the suction pit
Fibrous materials include products like cedar fiber, shredded over a location that has good stirring. Products are usually
cane stalks, cotton seed hulls/cotton lint, mineral fiber (rock protected from the weather and stored in a covered shed/
wool), sawdust, fiberglass, shredded paper and cloth, nylon container or room normally located adjacent to the mud
and other synthetic fibers, carpet fiber, foam and animal hair. pumps and suction mud pit. Bulk materials such as barite or

bentonite are stored in silos and pneumatically transferred natural gas and light hydrocarbons can be released. The risk
to a mixing hopper. Drill water, base oil or brine is stored in of fire can be greatly reduced by eliminating sources of ig-
large tanks and pumped to the mud pits. nition from those areas. Rig areas are classified into three
zones based on the potential for explosive mixtures to be
present (Table FL-3):
Safety and handling
Drilling fluids and general rig operations use a number of dif- • Zone 0 includes production-related equipment or
ferent chemicals for various operations. Each chemical has internal tanks and piping used for drilling fluids that
unique chemical and physical properties which need to be have a high frequency of containing gas
considered for safe handling. Information about chemicals • Zone 1 includes the bell nipple, exposed areas of the
and hazards is provided by the supplier in several forms. flowline, shale shakers and other areas where gas is
These include the: safety data sheets or SDS (previously re- often present. If gas has been picked up while drilling, it
ferred to as the MSDS or material safety data sheets); prod- comes out of the solution as it passes through the
uct labels; transportation labels; National Fire Protection screens. Even without formation hydrocarbons, OBM
Association (NFPA) labels or other labels used in transpor- may release flammable vapors if it arrives at the shaker
tation; and hazardous materials information system (HMIS) at temperatures above its flashpoint. Enclosure and
labels. ventilation of the shaker area can significantly reduce
vapor concentrations and risk of fire.
The United Nations (UN) has sponsored a global standard • Zone 2 consists of the rest of the drilling area which is
for the classification and labeling of chemicals called the made up of the derrick, drilling floor, degassers and
globally harmonized system (GHS). This system has stan- Blowout Preventer (BOP) area. This may also include
dard formats for SDS and product labels. GHS addresses active mud in open gutters (troughs) before final
the hazards related to physical, health, and environmental degassing, the vent from the degasser system and
dangers. Information on the SDS and product labels should racked drill pipe if it is coated with drilling mud.
be used to determine safe handling procedures and the PPE
required. See the Appendix for information on GHS safety In Zones 1 and 2, sources of ignition (such as lighting fix-
data sheets and product labels, plus information on NFPA tures, motors and switches) are tightly controlled to elimi-
and HMIS labels. nate propagation of a flame. Cell phones, electronic camer-
as and other electrified equipment cannot be used in these
Proper handling for safety areas.
Fire hazards and zones Oily rags saturated with diesel fuel, mineral oil or formation
When drilling wells to collect hydrocarbons, it is possible fluids represent a significant risk of spontaneous combus-
for hydrocarbons to be returned with the circulating fluids. tion. These rags can be accumulated in large numbers be-
Wherever the returning fluid is open to the air, flammable cause rags are conveniently used to wipe mud balances and
other pieces of drilling equipment. The oil adsorbed onto the
Table FL-3: DNV fire hazard zones. fabric presents a high-surface area, allowing the normal-
Hazardous areas are divided into zones depending upon the grade ly slow oxidation by air to proceed much faster than when
(frequency and duration) of release*: stored as a liquid. When stored as an open pile, the resulting
Zone 0: Explosive gas atmosphere is continuously present or present for heat can result in spontaneous combustion and fire. All oily
long periods (typical for continuous grade source present for more than rags and similar materials must be stored in proper, air-re-
1000 hours a year or that occurs frequently for short periods).
stricting containers.
Zone 1: Explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation
(typical for primary grade source present between 10 and 1000 hours
a year). Chemical hazards
Zone 2: Explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal It is impossible to list all the chemicals used in drilling op-
operation and if it does occur, is likely to do so infrequently and will exist erations or to predict what products may be used in the fu-
for a short period only (typical for secondary grade source present for
less than 10 hours per year and for short periods only).
ture. The hazards of storing and handling each product must
be evaluated on both an individual basis and in conjunction
Non-hazardous areas are areas, which are not hazardous according to
the definitions above. with the other products already present. Chemical handling
hazard recognition posters and similar guides can be useful
Guidance note: Note that conditions of ventilation may change the zone
definition for each grade of release. The likelihood of detecting the leak in reminding the crew of the need to properly classify, han-
may also influence the zone. dle and store materials.
* VERITAS, Det Norske, OFFSHORE STANDARD DNV-OS-A101 and
DNV-OS-A101.
Products that can react with each other should be stored

separately; for example, acids like citric acid should be degradation of drilling and completion fluid products. Col-
stored in a separate area from caustics (bases) like caus- orless and odorless, it acts as an intoxicant at low concen-
tic soda. The best guide to the safe handling and storage of trations (2 to 3%) and an asphyxiant at high concentrations
drilling fluid products is the SDS that accompanies it. It may (>10%). Proper ventilation and control of confined space
be called a product data safety sheet or MSDS depending entry, especially of pits and other areas where gases can
on the jurisdiction. Recommendations for storage appear in collect, is required for protection.
Section 7 of the SDS.
»» Carbon monoxide (CO)
Even non-reactive chemical products must be protected Carbon monoxide is also a common component of diesel
from rainwater and wash water. Wet sacks can fail, exposing exhaust but is rarely found in drilling fluids. Unlike carbon
the contents to personnel and the drilling environment. A dioxide, carbon monoxide is poisonous and can cause head-
spill of bentonite clay, for example, becomes slippery when aches and nausea at low concentrations (<400 ppm) and
wet. Big bags of barite and other fine solids can become al- death at high concentrations (800 ppm and above). Carbon
most solid blocks of paste if rainwater is allowed to enter monoxide can be produced as a byproduct of the firing of
them. certain perforating charges and appears in returned fluids.
Proper ventilation is required for protection.
Some chemical hazards include hydrogen sulfide (H2S), car-
bon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), lime, caustics »» Lime
and OBM surfactants. There are two products used in drilling fluids which are of-
ten referred to as lime, “hot or quicklime” and “hydrated or
»» Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) slacked lime”. These lime products can generate heat and
H2S represents a special hazard. It is colorless and both form a high pH when mixed in water or when exposed to
highly poisonous at very low levels and highly flammable. water vapor. This heat can then accelerate other chemical
While it has a strong odor at low concentrations, it may reactions. Due to the heat of hydration and resulting high
be undetectable at high concentrations. H2S can come pH, these materials should be handled with utmost care and
from drilled gases and from biodegradation of drilling fluid proper PPE protection.
and completion fluids, especially when seawater or sulfate
brines are used. Even in routine operations, there must be “Hot lime” or “quicklime” is calcium oxide (CaO), it is more
continual monitoring of H2S gas at the shale shaker area, hazardous to use than hydrated lime because it generates
mud tank area, drill floor and above or in the mud flow line. more heat when mixed and is more reactive such that it can
Because H2S is heavier than air, testing for it should always cause chemical and thermal burns. Quick lime can even
be performed prior to entering any closed or confined spac- generate heat when it reacts with humidity in air. “Empty”
es that have contained drilling or other well work-related bags of quick lime exposed to humid air can generate suffi-
fluids, particularly confined spaces, in low-lying areas, and cient heat to smolder and ignite. It is used most often at oil
below grade (such as underground or underdeck tanks or based mud mixing plants where it is preferred to slaked lime
enclosed areas). because it generates heat and speeds the emulsification
process due to a quicker reaction with emulsifiers.
Almost any untreated seawater system will develop H2S if
it is untreated and stored under static conditions. The nat- The other product is “hydrated lime” or “slaked lime”. It is
urally occurring sulfate-reducing bacteria use the sulfates calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). Hydrated lime generates one
found in seawater to digest hydrocarbons, polysaccharides fifth the heat of solution (in water) and is slower to reac-
and other oilfield materials. This results in the generation of tive than quicklime. This makes it less hazardous and safer
H2S as a waste product. This is especially common in packer to handle. Hydrated lime can be used to form stable NAF
fluids or temporary abandonment fluids. Where formation emulsions in mud mixing plants if sufficient shear and mix-
fluids containing H2S are likely to be encountered, additional ing energy is used.
contingencies such as self-contained breathing apparatus
and dual flare lines must be employed. See the H2S Hand- »» Caustic (Sodium hydroxide or NaOH) and caustic
book and API RP 49 Recommended Practice for Drilling and potash (Potassium hydroxide or KOH)
Well Servicing Operations Involving H2S for more detailed Caustic and caustic potash are solid materials that create
recommendations. heat and high pH when exposed to water or water vapor. If
mixed with an equal volume of water, the resulting mixture
»» Carbon dioxide (CO2) will spontaneously boil. Due to the heat of hydration and re-
Carbon dioxide is a common component of diesel exhausts sulting high pH, these materials should be handled with ut-
and formation fluids. It can be produced by thermal and bio-

most care and proper PPE protection. The heat and high pH
how much is in contact and how long it is in contact. This
can also adversely affect many mud systems. These prod-
makes it impossible to set specific limits as to the risk of ex-
ucts are usually best added by first diluting them with water
posure to the fluid.
such as with a chemical barrel. Caustic should ALWAYS be
added to water because of the threat of boiling. NEVER add
Similarly, the pipes and flowlines carrying hot mud can also
water to caustic.
cause burns. Here too, there are many contributing factors
In some operations, the risks of handling caustic and caustic and there are only limited regulatory guidelines beyond the
potash are regarded as too high and less reactive agents are requirement to prevent personal injury. The ASTM Standard
used to raise pH. Exposure to these dry products can cause Guide for Heated System Conditions that Produce Contact
severe skin burns. Soda ash (sodium carbonate or Na2CO3) Burn Injuries (C 1055-92) provides a method for evaluating
and/or slaked lime are less aggressive. When used in com- risk. As a rule, contact with surfaces above 104 °F can cause
bination, they can be effective at increasing pH. Soda ash discomfort. Bath water at 120 °F can cause third degree
and lime can be added directly to the mud. burns within five minutes of exposure and this temperature
is often chosen as the maximum temperature for surfaces
OBM surfactants that people may momentarily contact. Water at 150 °F can
Almost all drilling fluids can be irritating to the skin if not produce third degree burns in one second. While surfaces
promptly washed off. The base oil and surfactants in OBM, may transfer heat more or less effectively than bath water,
however, require additional precautions. These can be ir- many organizations require insulation or guards to prevent
ritating to the skin on first exposure and can sensitize it to accidental contact.
produce an allergic response on repeated exposures. Chem-
ical resistant clothing, gloves, barrier creams, and other PPE »» Sack cutting
can reduce or eliminate direct exposure. Clothing and oth- Many products come in sacks that must be cut or torn open.
er fabric items that are exposed to OBM, or the surfactants Proper cutting tools, protective gloves and other PPE should
used in it, must be carefully laundered to remove all traces be used. Handling the sack and pouring the contents into a
of these materials before reuse. Even clothing that has not chemical hopper puts the operator close to the contents,
been directly exposed can pick up surfactants from contam- calling for proper respiratory and eye protection.
inated clothing while being laundered. For this reason, it is
recommended that separate washing machines be used for »» Cranes
OBM-contaminated and uncontaminated clothing. While the Small leaks of liquid chemical products, particularly comple-
initial irritation can appear to be minor, the long-term effects tion brines from totes and other containers, can result in a
can become quite severe if left untreated. All skin irritations “rain” of small drops when the container is hoisted. Safety
should be promptly reported and treated. glasses, hard hats and other appropriate PPE should always
be worn when observing lifts and any drips or spills should be
Physical hazards immediately addressed.
There are a number of physical hazards that may impact
safety and need to be properly addressed. »» Noise
Working in and around the pump room, engine room, shale
»» Heat shakers or in other areas with loud noises requires hearing
Working in hot and humid environments, like the area around protection.
the shakers or above enclosed mud pits, can bring on heat
stroke and heat exhaustion. This is particularly true when »» Pits and walkways
wearing PPE to reduce chemical exposure. Extra ventilation, Walkways on and around the drilling fluid circulating system
readily available water, sun protection and frequent breaks are prone to condensation, corrosion and areas of spilled
may be required to avoid injury and lost time. All applicable fluids. These areas must be routinely inspected and good
health and safety regulatory requirements should be ob- housekeeping strictly enforced.
served.
»» Closed vessel entry
In addition, hot drilling fluid returning from the well can cause Precautions related to closed vessel and confined space
thermal burns. Fluid can splash from flowlines and shakers entry are outside the scope of this manual. Any entry into
and the flowline itself can become too hot to touch safely. a closed vessel or confined space can be dangerous and ad-
In certain operations the drilling fluid can flash into steam or equate precautions must be followed. One source of infor-
vapor as it is circulated from the well. The extent of thermal mation on confined space entry is the IADC Health, Safety &
injury from contact with drilling fluid depends on the heat ca- Environmental Reference Guide. Operators and contractors
pacity, composition, density, viscosity, chemical properties,

have specific safety procedures and protocols for closed ves- Pressure washing around stored products presents an ad-
sel entry which should be followed. ditional hazard. Some products react violently with water
or with other products once they are dissolved. Great care
»» Tank strength must be taken not to contact stored sacks with water, either
Drilling and completion fluids often have densities twice that directly or indirectly.
of water. Tanks and other vessels must be built strong enough
to contain the pressures these fluids exert on the bottom and
Use of icons/colors/risk factors to visually
sides. Occasionally, a higher-density fluid may be required
for unusual well operations or as a spike fluid which has a denote danger
density almost three times that of water. If such fluid densi- The hazardous nature of chemical products must be prop-
ties have not been used recently, the mechanical integrity of erly identified by permanently attached labels. The exact
the tanks and facilities should be checked before use. requirements for labeling are given in the applicable regu-
lations which vary depending on where the drilling opera-
»» Spills tion is taking place and regulatory oversight. These agencies
Drilling fluids are viscous and usually treated to be lubri- include the International Maritime Organization or IMO,
cious. This makes them slippery when spilled or splashed Occupational Safety and Health Administration or OSHA
onto walking surfaces. Completion brines may be hygro- (USA), Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety
scopic as well and so puddles of them never dry out. All (CCOHS) and the Work Health and Safety or WHS (Aus-
spills should be immediately cleaned up and proper equip- tralia). Most jurisdictions, however, are adopting the GHS
ment available at all times. standards for labeling (See Appendix.)
»» Lifting Chemical storage and use areas must be properly identified

Drilling fluid products are routinely packaged in 50 lb with placards that convey the nature of the hazardous mate-
sacks. Barite and other weighting agents may come as 100 rials they contain. The exact requirements for placarding are
lb sacks. Proper lifting techniques, including teamwork for also given in the applicable regulations. These regulations
heavy loads, are necessary to prevent injury. detail which chemicals must be identified and how the plac-
ards must be worded. Drilling operations usually require a
»» Waste disposal higher degree of placarding than most workplaces because
Many areas are subject to restrictions on discharge into the they are usually staffed by employees from several different
environment. This may require segregation of empty chem- companies.
ical containers from normal trash as well as the collection of
all washing and rainwater run-off, etc. All such requirements In general, placards must be located within the workplace at
should be clearly posted and periodically reviewed with the the relevant storage locations so that they are clearly visible
crew. from normal approaches. For hazardous chemicals stored in
an indoor area, the information placards must be located:
»» Pressure washing/rig cleaning
Pressure washing involves a high pressure jet of water, occa- • At the main point of entry to the building where the
sionally containing soaps or surfactants. Very high-pressure goods are stored, and,
jets may be used to break up a settled bed of barite in pits. • At the entry to each room or area where the goods are
Using wands that extend beyond the feet of the operator can stored.
reduce injuries due to jet impact. Appropriate eye protec-
tion, particularly goggles and other splash-proof equipment, For hazardous chemicals stored in an outdoor area, the plac-
should always be worn. Jets may contain or lift up chemicals ard should be located either:
and surfactants so the appropriate respiratory protections
must be used. Where appropriate, dermal protection such • Adjacent to the stored goods or,
as water-resistant coveralls may also be required. • On the external surface of the tank or adjacent to the
tank when goods are stored in a tank.
High-pressure jets of base oil and diesel have also been used
but are banned in some jurisdictions. These create an aero-
sol of oil droplets that can be ignited at temperatures far be-
low the closed-cup flashpoint of the oil, resulting in an explo-
sion. The oil mists are also hazardous to breathe, requiring
oil-proof respirators and other specialized PPE.

System maintenance and contamination API and HTHP filtration

API fluid loss can be reduced with the addition of: a num-
treatments ber of additives such as bentonite, PAC and other types of
General maintenance of drilling fluid properties polymers; starch; lignite; particle plugging materials; as-
Drilling fluid properties must be monitored and adjusted as phaltenes; and resin materials. Most often, combinations of
the well is drilled. In addition, a number of forms of contam- these different products are utilized for fluid loss reduction.
ination can occur and degrade the properties or stability of
the drilling fluid. This section describes common mainte- HTHP fluid loss can be reduced with temperature- stable
nance and contamination treatments. products that are stable at the bottomhole temperature
(BHT) of the well. Commonly used additives for this purpose
Density (mud weight) include products such as temperature-stable polymers, sul-
To increase mud weight, weighting materials such as bar- fonated phenolic resin materials, lignite, asphaltenes and
ite, calcium carbonate or hematite may be added. These gilsonite. The most commonly used products in NAFs are
products are small-sized powders with high-surface areas. amine-treated lignite, gilsonite (a naturally weathered as-
A base fluid (water or oil) is often required to be added si- phalt) and methyl styrene acrylate co-polymers.
multaneously when weighting-up to properly wet the mate-
rial and maintain the desired viscosity and rheology values. Salinity
Adding salts such as NaCl, CaCl2 or KCl will also increase Salts such as NaCl, KCl and CaCl2 are used to increase the
the mud weight. salinity of WBMs. For clearwater brines or completion flu-
ids, a variety of salts are available: the most common are the
To decrease mud weight, water or base oil should be added. chlorides salts; NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, followed by the bromides
The efficient use of selective flocculants to reduce solids (in (sodium, calcium and zinc) and formates (sodium, potassi-
WBM) or the use of mechanical solids removal equipment um and cesium). These salts can be used individually or in
will reduce or control fluid density when excess mud weight special cases as mixtures. This is dependent on its applica-
is due to the build-up of unwanted low specific gravity drill tion as a base fluid and whether the purpose is to increase
solids. Centrifuges are particularly effective at reducing mud salinity or increase density.
weight between intervals or wells.
In NAFs, CaCl2 is used to increase salt content in the inter-
Rheology (viscosity, yield point and gel nal water phase to reduce the water activity. Increases in
strengths) salinity usually occur when drilling through salt formations.
Although not common, other chemicals may be used in the
Rheology increase internal water phase for salinity (or reducing water activity)
Products such as bentonite, xanthan gum polymer, welan including NaCl, MgCl2, calcium ammonium nitrate and for-
gum, guar gum and certain polymeric additives are added mate-based brines.
to increase rheology in WBMs. Organophilic clays, fatty ac-
ids and polymeric additives are used to increase rheology Alkalinity (pH control)
in NAFs. In WBMs, alkalinity is normally increased by the addition of
NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2, or Na2CO3. Additions of mud prod-
Rheology decrease ucts that have a high pH such as silicates and some polyam-
High rheology can be caused by contamination, overtreat- ines will also increase the pH of the system.
ment or excessive drill solids build-up. The addition of water
for WBM or base oil for NAFs will decrease rheology and is For NAFs, alkalinity is most often increased through the ad-
used for dilution to correct overtreatment or to reduce drill dition of lime.
solids content. Chemical thinners (dispersants and polymer-
ic deflocculants) are often used in WBMs. In NAFs, surfac- Total hardness / excess lime content
tant thinners and wetting agents can sometimes be effective The total hardness (calcium and magnesium content) in
for reducing viscosity. If the cause is drill solids build-up, the WBMs can be reduced with soda ash or sodium bicarbonate
efficient use of solids control equipment can be effective for (bicarb). Cement contamination or too much excess lime
reducing rheology, usually in conjunction with dilution. High can be reduced with bicarb, SAPP, or citric acid. The soluble
rheology caused by chemical contamination must be treat- calcium and/or excess gyp or lime content can be increased
ed by neutralizing the contaminant first. with the addition of products such as lime or gypsum and by
adjusting the pH to the correct range.

Sand content concentration of drill solids, thus reducing the plastic vis-
Sand-sized particles are measured and reported as the cosity. Removal of drilled solids during the early circula-
“sand content”, although the particles may not actually be tion stages with solids removal equipment at the surface is
sand. Higher concentrations of these sand-sized particles much simpler and less expensive. Obviously, these benefits
are detrimental and increased wear circulating system com- are the result of planning prior to drilling a well and are ac-
ponents, especially mud pump parts. Sand-sized particles complished through the use of properly designed, sized and
are removed through the use of solids-control equipment operated solids removal equipment. The drilling crew has an
(desander, desilter, fine mesh shaker screens or mud clean- obligation to become knowledgeable in the proper use of the
er) and by settling in a sand trap or settling pit. Reducing the equipment: otherwise, its potential benefits may be reduced
mesh size of shale shaker screens (API 200 mesh size or or nullified.
finer) will also reduce sand content.
Potential problems affecting mud systems
Solids, water and oil content
The addition of water or base oil and the efficient use of sol- Weight material settling or sag
ids control equipment can usually reduce the total solids in Weight material sag is when the weight material partially
the system. The addition of water can increase water con- “settles” out of the drilling fluid. It is most often associated
tent and the addition of base oil in NAFs will increase oil con- with deviated well sections with angles of 50° to 80°. While
tent (Oil/Water Ratio or OWR and Synthetic/Water Ratio it tends to occur more often with NAFs, it can happen in
or SWR) as seen in the distillation retort analysis. WBMs. Settling or sag problems can be broken down into
several types: dynamic settling, static settling and slumping
Methylene blue test beds. Dynamic settling typically occurs when circulating at
The MBT results are used to monitor the bentonite and low rates in a deviated well. Static settling occurs when the
reactive solids content for WBMs. The reduction of these fluid is not flowing. Bed slumping occurs in deviated holes
solids is accomplished by the addition of water or selective (50° to 80°) and is more often seen under static conditions.
flocculants. Reduction can also be achieved through solids
Sag or settling treatment and prevention
removal equipment or by using inhibitive mud systems as a
preventative measure.
recommendations
Electrical stability »» Static settling

Electrical stability or ES is a measure of the relative emulsion For static settling:
stability of NAFs. It refers to the voltage required to break • Maintain LSRYP (LSRYP = (2 x Ө3) - Ө6) and initial gel
the emulsion and establish a current flow. A number of strength values of 7 to 15 lb/100 sq ft.
things can influence this value including the amount of shear • Minimize viscosity reductions through large dilutions or
to the system, contaminants and the addition of solids. An large additions of deflocculants/thinners or surfactants.
increase of ES is usually accomplished by additional shear
(circulating through the bit), reducing water contamination If sag is suspected:
or brine content and through the addition of emulsifier or oil • Stage in hole in 1,000-ft to 2,000-ft (305-m to 610-m)
wetting surfactants/chemicals. intervals and circulate bottoms up after being out of
hole for an extended period of time.
Contamination treatment for drilling fluids • Monitor sag tendency with static heat aging and by
A number of contaminants can be encountered in the nor- measuring static sag. Keep the difference in mud weight
mal drilling process. Some of these contaminants will affect from the bottom of the cell to <1.0 lb/gal.
the mud systems (WBMs and NAFs) in detrimental ways
and must be dealt with in an efficient and expedited manner. »» Dynamic settling
A complete mud property analysis (called a mud check) is For dynamic settling:
required to isolate the contaminant and decide what treat- • Maintain LSRYP (LSRYP=(2 x Ө3) - Ө6) and initial gel
ment is necessary. The following pages identify the most strength values of 7-15 lb/100 sq ft.
common contaminants and the suggested treatment to the • Minimize viscosity reductions through large dilutions or
mud system to alleviate or eliminate the symptoms of con- large additions of deflocculants/thinners or surfactants.
tamination. Separate tables are used for WBMs and NAFs • Avoid long periods of low flowrates prior to pulling out
(OBM and SBM) as they are affected differently. open hole (POOH).
Adding more of the liquid phase to the system reduces the

Table FL-4: Water-Based Mud Contaminants
Contamination Type Indications in Mud System Recommended Treatment Options
-High PV (possibly high gels & YP)

-Optimized use of solids control equipment
-Increase in LGS %
Excessive Drill Solids -Water dilution
-Increase of the MBT
(Low Gravity Solids or LGS) -Use thinner like lignosulfonate, lignite, tannin or low mol wt
-Increase in total solids or mud weight
polymer
-Increase in filter cake thickness
-Treat excess lime and calcium with sodium bicarbonate,

- Increase in pH and excess lime SAPP or citric acid
- Increase in Pm and Pf - Optimize solids control equipment to discard cement solids
Cement - High rheology (Funnel Vis, PV, YP, Gels) - Use of thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness -Water dilution
-Possible increase of calcium in the filtrate -May need to add an citric or acetic acid to reduce pH (espe-
cially if pH sensitive polymers are used)
-If possible, dump contaminated mud at surface (volume

Increase in chlorides
permitting)
-High rheology (Funnel Vis, PV, YP, Gels)*
-Water dilution
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness
-Use of thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin and
Salt formations – Halite, -High Funnel Viscosity*
increase pH
Sylvite, Carnallite, & saltwa- -Potential decrease in Mud Wt.
- If the contamination is severe and persistent, convert to
ter flows -Lower Pf, Mf, Pm and pH
a saturated or high salt mud system or displace to a NAF
-Increase in mud pit level*
system.
-Raise mud weight to control saltwater flows
*saltwater flows will sometimes reduce viscosity due to dilution
-If calcium and magnesium are high treat out with soda ash
Use soda ash or SAPP to reduce calcium content

Increase in calcium
-Use of thinner such as lignosulfonate, lignite, tannin or
-High rheology (Funnel Vis, PV, YP, Gels)
SAPP (if temperatures are low)
Gypsum – Anhydrite -Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness
- Water dilution
-Lower Pf, Mf, Pm and pH
-Adjust pH to 9.5-10.5 with soda ash or caustic soda
-Cuttings shows traces of calcium sulfate minerals
-Consider converting system to gyp system
-Reduction in calcium and excess lime Use lime / gyp to precipitate CO3 and give an excess of
-Presence of bicarbonates and carbonates (high Mf, low pH, Pf lime, increase pH >10, use caustic to increase Pf
Carbonates/Bicarbonates
may be high if carbonates) -Increase thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin to
(CO3)
-High rheology (FV, PV, YP, Gels) deflocculate
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness -May require additional fluid loss additives
-Reduction in calcium and excess lime

-Presence of bicarbonates and carbonates (high Mf, low pH, Pf Use lime to treat out CO2 gas and give an excess of lime ,
may be high if carbonates) increase pH >10, use caustic to increase Pf
-High rheology (FV, PV, YP, Gels) --Increase thinners like lignosulfonate, lignite or tannin to
Carbon dioxide - CO2
-Increase in fluid loss & filter cake thickness deflocculate
-If severe influx, mud weight at shaker could be decreased due -Raise mud weight to control CO2 influx
to gas cut -May require additional fluid loss additives
-Foaming in pits
Increase pH to >11.5
-Reduction in pH
-Keep 2+ ppb excess lime in system and a Pf >1.0 using lime
-Discoloration of mud system
and caustic soda or convert to lime-based mud
-“Rotten egg” odor to mud
Hydrogen Sulfide – H2S -Use zinc oxide, zinc carbonate or iron oxide to precipitate
-Rheology and Filtrate increases
sulfides
-Formation of black scale on DP
-Raise mud weight to control H2S influx
-Foaming in pits
-Consider using hematite for slugs and density
-Excess mud flow and pit increase Begin well control procedures if a kick has occurred
-Increase in gas content from the gas detector -Raise mud weight to control gas influx
-Reduction in mud weight at shaker due to gas cut -Route return mud flow through gas separator and/or
Formation Gas
Foaming in pits degasser
-Well flows when pumps shut off -Use defoamer for entrained gas in mud pits
-Increased viscosity -Treat mud properties as necessary

Table FL-5: NAF (OBM, MOBM, SBM) Fluids Contaminants.
Contamination Type Indications in Mud System Recommended Treatment Options
-Increased water content variation of the OWR/SWR

-Add emulsifier and wetting agents
-Lower electrical stability (ES)
Water Influx -Add base fluid to correct OWR / SWR
-Grainy or dull appearance to mud in pits
(Rain, formation water, -Add fresh mud volume to the system
-Increase in mud pit level
saltwater flow or any other -Add lime to increase lime content
-Presence of water in the HTHP filtrate
source) -Adjust chloride content of water phase
-Increased rheology (PV, YP, Gels)
-If downhole influx, increase mud weight to control flow
-Reduction in excess lime and Pom
-Lower ES Readings
-Grainy or dull appearance of mud in pits
-Add significant amounts of emulsifier and wetting agent
-Water-wet barite being discarded at shale shaker
-Add lime to maintain excess lime
Water-Wet Solids -Decrease in mud weight
-Add barite to maintain mud weight
-Sticky solids or barite sag
-Add fresh uncontaminated mud volume
-Water in HTHP filtrate
-Cuttings integrity decrease
-Add water to prevent super saturation (especially for

-Presence of salt crystals on shale shaker screens Carnallite)
Salt (Halite, Sylvite, Carnal- -Increase in water phase salinity -Add emulsifier/wetting agents to coat cuttings
lite, Zechstein) -Reduced Electrical Stability -Monitoring of Pm & lime content if Carnallite is seen –to
-Possible reduction in excess lime minimize precipitation of MgOH2
-Monitor binary salt content
-High PV (possibly high gels & YP)

-Increase in LGS %
-Optimized use of solids control equipment
-Increase in total solids or mud weight
Excessive Drill Solids -Base fluid dilution
-Increase in filter cake thickness
(Low Gravity Solids or LGS) -Use thinner
-
-Dilution with whole mud/premix
-Higher Funnel Viscosity
-Reduction of electrical stability
-Reduction of excess lime content & POM -Increase the mud weight to control gas
-Reduction in ES -Increase excess lime content to >5 ppb
-Mud weight reduction at shaker due to gas cut -Use of H2S scavenger if H2S detected
Acid Gas (H2S or CO2) -For H2S, smell of rotten eggs -Add emulsifier and wetting agent to keep ES >300 volts
-Discoloration of mud and drill pipe (dark or black) -Use Garrett Gas Train or other method to test for acid
-Foaming in pits gases while drilling section
-Increase in fluid loss and filter cake thickness -Consider using hematite for slugs and density
-Reduction in the mud weight or gas cut mud -Increase mud weight to control influx
-Reduction in viscosity -Increase emulsifier content
-Increase in OWR / SWR -Add fluid loss additives
Reservoir Hydrocarbon en-
-Increase in fluid loss and filter cake -Add lime if needed
trained in the mud system
-Decrease in excess lime & Pom -Skim off any oil floating on the mud system
-Discoloration of mud or oil floating on top of mud system -Zero discharge should be evaluated if discharging cuttings
-Smell of crude or increased vapors -Adjust OWR/SWR with water and salt or brine

Table FL-6: Common Drilling Fluid Chemicals.
COMMON NAME CHEMICAL NAME FORMULA USAGE
Ammonium Stearate Aluminum Stearate Al(C18H3O2)3 Foaming problems

Ammonium Bisulfite Ammonium Bisulfite (NH4)HSO3 Oxygen Scavenger
Anhydrite Calcium Sulfate CaSO4 Calcium Source
Barite Barium Sulfate BaSO4 Weighting Agent
Bicarbonate (Baking Soda) Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3 Treat out calcium from cement
Borax Sodium Borate Pentahydrate Na2B4O7×5H2O Crosslinking Agent
Calcium Bromide Calcium Bromide CaBr2 Completion Fluids
Calcium Carbonate Calcium Carbonate CaCO3 Weighting agent, LCM material
Calcium Chloride Calcium Chloride CaCl2 Chloride source
Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH Alkalinity
Caustic Soda Sodium Hydroxide NaOH Alkalinity
CMC Polymer Carboxymethylcellulose Polymer Numerous – takes on many forms Fluid Loss Additive
Galena Lead Sulfide PbS Weighting Agent
Gypsum Calcium Sulfate CaSO42H20 Calcium Source
Hematite Ferric Oxide Fe2O3 Weighting Agent
HEC Polymer Hydroxyethylcellulose Polymer [C6H7O2OH3-x(OCHOHCH3)x]n Viscosity
Iron Oxide Iron Oxide FeO Treat H2S gas
Gel Bentonite Al2O34SiO2H2O Viscosity
NaLS (various, depending on man-
Lignosulfonate Sodium or Calcium Lignosulfonate Dispersant / Deflocculant
ufacture)
Lignite Lignite None Fluid Loss / Dispersant
Mag Ox Magnesium Oxide MgO Alkalinity
Mica (LCM) Mica Numerous – takes on many forms LCM Material
PAC Polymer Polyanionic Cellulose Polymer C6H7O2(OH)2CH2COONa Fluid Loss Additive
Pecan Nut Hull (LCM) Pecan Nut Hull None LCM Material
Salt (Driller’s Salt, Salt Evaporate,
Sodium Chloride NaCl Chloride Source
Halite)
Hydrous Magnesium Aluminum
Salt Gel, attapulgite 3MgO1.5Al2O38SiO29H2O Viscosity in salt muds
Silicate
SAPP Sodium Acid Pyrophosphate Na2H2P2O7 Treat Calcium / Dispersant
STP Sodium Tetraphosphate Na3PO4 Treat Calcium / Dispersant
Sodium Bromide Sodium Bromide NaBr Completion Fluids
Sodium Ash Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3 Treat out calcium
Walnut Hull (LCM) Walnut Hull None LCM Material
XCD – XC Polymer Xanthan Gum Polymer (C35H49O29)n Viscosity
Zinc Bromide Zinc Bromide ZnBr2 Completion Fluids
Zinc Carbonate Zinc Carbonate ZnCO3 Sulfide Scavenger

If sag is suspected: • Add the appropriate scavenger or chemicals to treat out

• Clean up sagged barite beds by high flowrates and acid gas (lime for CO2 or a scavenger for H2S).
rotation (> 75 rpm) prior to POOH. • Consider a change to the NAF mud system.
• Monitor sag tendency with a Viscometer Sag Shoe Test • Consider using hematite for slugs or density to react
(VSST), keeping the difference in mud weight to <1.0 with and neutralize the H2S.
lb/gal.
»» Bacterial degradation
»» Bed slumping For bacterial degradation:
For bed slumping: • Add bactericide and maintain an active concentration.
• Stage in hole and circulate bottoms up at each depth • Raise the pH to 11.5 or above if it is not detrimental to
after being out of hole for extended periods of time. other drilling fluid additives.
Minimize bed creation, if possible, by minimizing low • Consider changing from products that are susceptible
annular velocity situations or extended periods of to bacterial degradation (such as starch and xanthan
sliding while doing directional work. gum) to products that are resistant to biodegradation.
• Follow the sliding operation with a period of high • Increase the salinity to near saturation if that is an
flowrate and rotation (>75 rpm) to move cuttings up option.
and out of the hole.
Gas hydrates
Corrosion Gas hydrates are ice-like materials that can form in WBMs
Corrosion is the deterioration of a metal surface due to re- when mixed with gas at low temperatures and high pres-
action to its environment. It is a particular issue for low pH sures. This can happen in deepwater operations and in arc-
WBMs, aerated fluids, packer fluids and completion brines. tic locations. When gas mixes with a WBM, the combination
There are many forms of corrosion: general, pitting, stress of high pressure and/or low temperatures can form gas hy-
corrosion cracking, sulfide stress cracking, erosion corro- drates at temperatures much higher than the freezing point
sion, corrosion fatigue, galvanic corrosion, and de-alloying. of water. Hydrates are also found in shallow formations be-
These types of corrosion can be accelerated by low pH, salt low the seabed in deep or cold oceans and in arctic perma-
concentration, dissolved oxygen, acid gases (CO2 and H2S), frost land areas.
higher temperatures and pressures, bacterial degradation
and scale. Corrosion is monitored and diagnosed by using Hydrate formation can cause serious well control problems
drill string corrosion coupons installed in the last joint of in deepwater wells: plugging of choke and kill lines, plugging
pipe above the BHA and one installed near the surface (such in and around BOP equipment; and loss of water from the
as in the Kelly safer sub). drilling fluid. Periods of no circulation with gas entering the
wellbore are the most susceptible times when hydrates are
General treatment procedures likely to form, especially in the BOP stack and choke and kill
lines.
»» Dissolved oxygen
For dissolved oxygen: Prevention and mitigation recommendations (when
• Maintain ph >10.0. drilling with a riser):
• Submerge mud-mixing guns. Only operate mixing
equipment when needed and minimize all sources of air »» WBMs
entrainment. Elevate the salt content to >20% by weight or close to satura-
• Add defoamer to the mud system. tion. Add sufficient concentrations of diethylene glycol (DEG)
• Add oxygen scavenger, film-forming amine or a or monoethylene glycol (MEG) inhibitors. In sufficient quan-
passivating inhibitor. If scale is observed on the tities, these chemical inhibitors can prevent hydrate crystal
corrosion monitoring coupons, add a scale inhibitor. formation. Other types of inhibitors are “kinetic” inhibitors
that allow the hydrates to form but restrict the crystal growth
»» Acid gases (CO2 and H2S) in such a way that the fluid should stay pumpable.
For acid gases:
• Raise pH to 10-11.5, depending on the acid gas »» Non-aqueous fluids (NAF)
encountered and increase PF to >1.0. Since the internal phase of these systems is water, they are
• Monitor acid gas levels with the Garrett Gas Train and susceptible to gas hydrate formation as well. Due to the re-
appropriate Dräger tubes or other procedures. duced amount of water in the system (15-30%), if hydrates
form, they will not form a solid blockage and are likely to re-
main pumpable. There will, however, still be a need to inhibit

gas hydrates. This is done through maintaining the concen- gating together to form mud rings or restrictions inside of the
tration of calcium chloride in the brine phase. Typically, >25% riser. Treatments with surfactants and other anti-balling ad-
by weight of calcium chloride is kept in the water phase as ditives or a cleanout trip may be needed if the problem is se-
inhibition against hydrates. vere. Use a riser boost pump and adequate circulation times
prior to trips to clear cuttings from the riser.
»» Well operations
Maintain adequate mud weight to keep gas out of the well- Stuck pipe
bore! No available gas means no hydrates will form. If us- Stuck pipe issues can be divided into mechanical and dif-
ing WBMs, spot high-salt or glycol-treated fluids across the ferential causes. Some of the causes of mechanical stick-
BOP stack and in the choke and kill lines as a preventative ing include hole packoff /bridges, settled cuttings, shale
measure. High concentrations of natural gas hydrates can instability, loosely consolidated formations and junk in the
sometimes be found near the base of permafrost in arctic hole. Wellbore geometry issues may also lead to mechani-
locations. If hydrates are encountered, lower the ROP sub- cal sticking and include key-seats, an undergauge hole, stiff
stantially to bring up the gas slowly and in a manageable BHA, severe doglegs, mobile formations and casing failures.
fashion. Differential sticking is caused by high overbalance, station-
ary drill string, high fluid loss or a thick filter-cake. It is worse
Deepwater riser issues with high-density or high-solids mud systems.
Hole cleaning Treatments for differential sticking

Due to the larger internal diameters of a riser when drilling • Reduce mud weight if possible.
smaller hole size intervals, the annular velocity in the riser is • Use NAF spotting fluid to “crack” the filter-cake and
typically very low and poor hole cleaning may be a problem. equalize differential pressures between the formation
Elevating the viscosity by increasing the YP, LSRYP and low- and the borehole.
shear rate viscosity (three and six rpm shear stress values) will • Reduce the API and HTHP fluid loss to create a thin and
aid hole cleaning. Muds which become more viscous at cold low-permeability filter cake for WBMs.
temperatures and those with high progressive gel strengths • Use lubricants and additives that will make the lubricity
are detrimental when the mud sits in the riser for an extended of the filter lower and less susceptible to differential
period of time, such as during a trip. The use of “flat rheology” sticking.
NAF systems will help mitigate the cold temperature affects. Note: Spotting fluids utilized in offshore environments may
be subject to regulatory limitations for discharge.
After increased viscosity, the other factor that improves hole
cleaning is annular velocity. When drilling with fast ROPs in Lost circulation
large diameter sections (>17.5 in.), it is often necessary to use The partial or complete loss of mud returns is a lost circu-
flowrates over 1400-1600 gal/min to clean the riser (espe- lation event. It is typically seen by reduced pit volume, loss
cially large PDC cuttings). The use of a riser boost pump is of pump pressure and reduced volume of return flow at the
recommended to aid with hole cleaning and to maintain a shale shaker. Keeping the hole full when the loss event oc-
clean riser. curs is paramount for wellbore stability and maintaining well
control.
Rheology effects
During periods of shut down, cold-water temperature effects Loss mechanisms are: surface system losses; naturally oc-
will raise the rheology of the system. The use of “flat rheol- curring faults and open fractures; high-permeability forma-
ogy” mud systems for deepwater applications is becoming tions (such as shallow gravel and dolomite or carbonate for-
more commonplace. These systems maintain a fairly level mations with vugs); induced fractures; and fracture wellbore
YP and gel strength throughout the 40°F-150°F temperature breathing (ballooning).
range. They also minimize the higher annular pressure that
occurs during circulation after long static periods of time as Induced fracture losses are one of the most common causes
the mud system heats up and thins down. of lost circulation. This often happens when the mud weight
is increased while drilling deeper during an interval to control
Balling with WBM increasing pore pressure at greater depths. This increase in
If WBM is used, shallow reactive formations (gumbo) or a density may exceed the fracture pressure somewhere above
long trip might lead to softening and hydration of reactive in the open hole, inducing a fracture. This induced fracture
cuttings entrained in the mud system which have not been is most often near the last casing shoe or in a severely de-
cleaned from the riser, even if the WBM system is thought to pleted formation. While LCM treatments may be effective,
be “inhibitive”. This could lead to cuttings sticking and aggre-

it is often necessary to find a way to drill ahead to the casing formations are: stuck pipe; managing salt saturation or over-
point with the losses or run the casing early. saturation of mud system, bit-balling and losses when en-
countering salt inclusions; wellbore enlargement when drill-
Wellbore strengthening is a drilling fluid technique that uses ing through the salt formation and/or through shales above
a certain concentration of sized LCM to prevent lost circu- or below the salt formation (rubble zones); excessive torque
lation by preventing or limiting induced fractures. Theories and pack-offs caused by salt creep; difficulty evaluating the
vary on how wellbore strengthening works and on what con- required mud weight; well control issues; and excessive mud
centration or particle size should be used. The concentration losses. The rubble zone that might lie beneath, adjacent to
and particles need to be in the drilling fluid prior to drilling or on top of the salt section usually consists of a series of
the interval and they need to be maintained continuously. highly reactive shale stringers that are embedded with un-
Concentrations in the order of 20 to 50 lb/bbl are used consolidated sands. This zone could be over-pressured at
for wellbore strengthening and particle sizes range from a the entry point because of a gas pocket under the salt or
narrow 250-650 micron range to a wide 50-2000 micron other reasons. For the remainder of the section, it could be
range. Wellbore strengthening has allowed intervals to be under-pressured (leading to numerous problems) or uncon-
drilled without losses using mud weights that are several solidated (causing severe lost circulation problems). Deter-
pounds per gallon higher than offset wells where this strat- mining the mud weight needed to drill out the bottom of the
egy was not used. salt is difficult as salt does not have a true pore pressure and
can be drilled significantly over-pressured or under-pres-
Losses to high-permeable formations or natural subsurface sured.
conditions, such as a fault or open fracture, are often iden-
tified by a drilling break just prior to the loss event. These Treatments
kinds of loss zones can normally be treated with LCM if a Treatment methods include the following:
large enough material can be used. Effective bridging can be • Wellbore Enlargement in Salt: Drill with saturated salt
achieved at concentrations as low as 10 lb/bbl if the size of WBMs or NAFs. Minimize the addition of water and
the material is half the diameter of the fracture or pore open- monitor chlorides;
ing. Keep in mind that most LCMs have a wide particle size • Formation Gas or Saltwater in the Rubble Zone:
distribution and it is only the larger particles that initiate the Increase mud weight to the safest level to control the
bridge or sealing process. LCM sizes are also limited by drill intrusions;
string components, with 2 mm being about the largest size • Lost Circulation: Pretreat with LCM before entering the
that can be used with most LWDs/MWDs and mud motors. rubble zones. The LCM might include calcium
carbonate, graphite materials and cellulosic LCM. Other
LCM material types for seepage to moderate losses would LCM types might be needed if losses are severe.
include granular (particulate), fibrous/cellulosic, flakes/ Develop a lost circulation strategy for the rubble zone
platelets and mixed LCM types. These are often locally prior to the start of the well;
sourced low-cost agricultural or industrial byproducts. • Drilling Below Salt: Have a salt exit strategy developed
prior to drilling below the bottom of the salt. This might
Pills, squeezes and spotting solutions for persistent loss include entraining the mud system with a variety and
zones include: dilatant slurries; high fluid-loss, high-solids high concentration of LCM, having a LCM pill built and
dewatering squeezes; cross-linked polymer pills; gunk or ready to pump and other operational procedures;
reverse gunk squeezes activated downhole; sodium silicate • Stuck in Salt: Spot a fresh water pill across the
pills; latex pills; swellable polymer pills; mud gelling material suspected stuck pipe zone to dissolve the salt.
pills; barite/hematite plugs; thixotropic LCM/WSM (well-
bore strengthening material) plugs; cement plugs; and res- HTHP conditions
in-coated sand pills. When using WBM and NAF systems, HTHP wells are sus-
ceptible to problems such as high-temperature gelation,
An important tool to have before drilling is a lost circulation barite sag, high-solids content, dehydration, decreases in
decision tree. This helps determine the proper treatment total alkalinity and increased fluid losses. The use of tem-
based on the amount of losses, local experience and avail- perature stable mud products is key to minimizing these po-
ability of products. An example is provided in Figure FL-7. tential problems. Rheology stabilizers, thinners, chemicals
Note that this is only an example. to reduce fluid loss and aid in filter cake building, barite sag
treatment chemicals and others must be stable to the high-
Salt formations and rubble zones est BHT expected to be seen. The mud system should be run
The major problems typically associated with drilling salt with minimum low gravity solids (LGS) to reduce or prevent
HTHP gelation problems. Higher concentrations and tem-

Lost Circulation Remedial

Treatment Options
(based on loss type / amount).
Matrix Natural Fractures

Permeability Induced Fractures
Depeleted Zones Vugs / Fractured
Microfractures Limestone
See page losses Partial losses (20 Severe or Total

(<20 bbls/hr - 100 bbls/hr losses (>100
WBM or 1-10 WBM or 10-30 bbls/hr WBM or
bbls /hr NAF bbls /hr NAF >30 bbls /hr NAF
Water Base Non-Aqueous Water Base Non-Aqueous Water Base Non-Aqueous

Mud Fluid Mud Fluid Mud Fluid
LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials: LCM Pill - Materials:
10 ppb Fiber 2 ppb Wetting Agent 20 ppb CaCO3 - Med 2 ppb Wetting Agent 40 ppb CaCO3 M/C 2 ppb Wetting Agent
10 ppb CaCO3 - Fine 20 ppb CaCO3 F/M 20 ppb CaCO3 - Fine 30 ppb CaCO3 F/M 30 ppb Graphite Med 40 ppb CaCO3 M/C
10 ppb CaCO3 - Med 20 ppb Graphite Med 15 ppb Nut Shells- Med 30 ppb Graphite Med 10 ppb Nut Shells - Med 40 ppb Graphite Med
15 ppb Nut Shells - Med 10 ppb Fiber LCM F 15 ppb Fiber LCM F 10 ppb Fiber LCM F 20 ppb Fiber LCM F/M 20 ppb Fiber LCM F/M
No success No success No success
High Fluid Loss Pills Cross-Linked Large Particulate Soft / Hard

Misc Materials
Reactive Pills Polymer Pills LCM Pills Plugs
Attapulgite Squeeze Crome-Polymer Conventional LCM Gunk Squeeze Swellable CoPolymers

Diatomaceous Earth Crosslinked Pills - 140-160 ppb Reverse-Gunk Squeeze Sodium Silicate Pills
/ LCM Squeeze Borate-Polymer (Fibers, Granular, Base Oil-Bentonite-Squeeze Thixotropic LCM Pills
Diaseal-M Squeeze Crosslinked Pills Flakes, Mixed LCM) Base Oil-Bentonite-Cmt Squeeze
Reactive, Non- Barilte Plugs
Particulate LCM Pill Cemet Plugs
Figure FL-7: Lost-circulation decision tree example.
perature stabilizing additives may be required to make the • Keep shales from swelling or failing from chemical
system tolerant of HTHP conditions. One means of address- interactions by using a NAF system or inhibitive WBM
ing the gelation potential is to spot a pill on the bottom with system.
increased additions of temperature stable products prior
to making a trip. Have a HTHP drilling plan in place prior to
the start of a well. For a NAF system, the utilization of tem- Calculations and tables
perature-stable organophilic clays and emulsifiers/wetting
agents should be selected to minimize problems. Brine tables
Brines and fluids containing salts, are often used as the base
Wellbore stability issues fluid for drilling fluids and for completion fluids. Sodium
Wellbore stability issues are often exemplified by excess chloride and calcium chloride are the most common salts
shale cuttings coming over the shaker, splintery shale cut- used. The density of all brines changes significantly with
tings, mud losses, tight holes on trips or connections, hole temperature. It is critical to know the temperature at which
fill-up while tripping, the need for excessive reaming when the density is measured as well as the temperature of a giv-
making connections and other drilling problems. High-an- en application.
gle wellbores and certain directions will require higher mud
weights than a vertical well to maintain stability. Some The freezing points and crystallization temperatures listed
things to keep in mind for the mud system include: in Table FL-7 for sodium chloride and Table FL-8 for calcium
• Keep the mud weight high enough to maintain chloride are examples only. These values vary significantly
mechanical hole stability and prevent sloughing; depending on the purity of the salt or brine being used and
• Keep fluid loss as low as possible and use deformable with contamination.
plugging agents to keep micro-fractured shales from
being invaded and swelling, crumbling or delaminating;
• Increase rheology to increase the hole cleaning ability
of mud and address the pack-off issues;

Important calculations Rect. tank vol. (cu m)

= length (m) x width (m) x depth (m) Eq 6
Volume of mud in the circulating system
Everyone involved with managing the circulation system
needs to know the volume of the circulating system and the Upright cylindrical tank volume
volume of the hole at all times. They must also be able to de-
termine changes and circulation requirements for perform- Cyl. tank vol. (bbl)
ing various operations. This includes the mud in the active = 0.14 x [ dia. (ft) ]2 x height (ft) Eq 7
pits and the mud in the hole, both with pipe in the hole (at
any depth) and with no pipe in the hole. Cyl. tank vol. (cu m)
= 0.7854 x [ dia. (m) ]2 x height (m) Eq 8
Circulating system vol.= surface system vol. + hole vol. Eq 4
Note: 1 cu m = 1,000 liters
Similar calculations can be made to determine the volume
in reserve or storage tanks and pits. Customary units for Surf. system vol.
drilling fluid volumes are oilfield barrels (42 US gallons) ab- = tank1 + tank 2 + tank 3 +...+ tankn Eq 9
breviated by bbl or cubic meters (cu m). (1 cu m = 6.29 bbl.)
Note: Many surface systems have substantial volumes of
Surface system volume calculations mud in piping or troughs that lead to and from the wellhead.
These volumes should be estimated and included in the sur-
Rectangular tank volume face volume. Rounded tank bottoms and internal piping not
Rect. tank vol. (bbl) filled with active mud should likewise be excluded from sur-
length (ft) x width (ft) x depth (ft) face volume calculations.
= Eq 5
5.61 cu ft/bbl
Table FL-7: Sodium chloride brine (100% pure NaCl).

Density Sodium Sodium Freezing Pt or
Specific Sodium
@ 68°F Chloride Chloride Water Sodium Ion Chloride Ion Crystallization Water Activity
Gravity Chloride
(20°C) (100%) (100%) Temp*
(lb/gal) (g/mL) (wt %) (lb/bbl) (kg/m3) (vol / final vol) (mg/L) (mg/L) °F °C aw
8.34 1.000 0.0 0.0 0 1.000 0 0 32 0 1.000
8.4 1.007 1.0 3.6 10 0.996 0 0 31 -1 0.995
8.5 1.019 2.7 9.7 28 0.991 0 0 29 -2 0.986
8.6 1.031 4.4 15.8 45 0.985 0 0 27 -3 0.976
8.7 1.043 6.0 22.0 63 0.979 0 0 25 -4 0.965
8.8 1.055 7.7 28.4 81 0.972 0 0 23 -5 0.954
8.9 1.067 9.3 34.8 99 0.966 0 0 21 -6 0.941
9.0 1.079 10.9 41.3 118 0.960 0 0 19 -7 0.928
9.1 1.091 12.5 47.9 137 0.953 0 0 16 -9 0.914
9.2 1.103 14.1 54.6 156 0.946 0 0 14 -10 0.900
9.3 1.115 15.7 61.3 175 0.939 0 0 11 -12 0.884
9.4 1.127 17.2 68.0 194 0.932 0 0 8 -13 0.868
9.5 1.139 18.7 74.8 214 0.925 0 0 5 -15 0.852
9.6 1.151 20.2 81.7 233 0.917 0 0 2 -17 0.835
9.7 1.163 21.7 88.5 253 0.909 0 0 -2 -19 0.817
9.8 1.175 23.2 95.4 272 0.902 0 0 -6 -21 0.799
9.9 1.187 24.6 102.3 292 0.894 0 0 8 -13 0.781
10.0 1.199 26.0 109.1 311 0.886 0 0 27 -3 0.762
* Examples only. Freezing point and crystallization temperature vary significantly depending on salt/brine purity.

Table FL-8: Calcium chloride brine (94-97% grade powder).

Density Freezing Pt or
Specific Calcium Calcium Calcium
@ 68°F Water Calcium Ion Chloride Ion Crystallization Water Activity
Gravity Chloride Chloride Chloride
(20°C) Temp*
(lb/gal) (g/mL) (wt %) (lb/bbl) (kg/m3) (vol / final vol) (mg/L) (mg/L) °F °C aw
8.34 1.000 0.0 0.0 0 1.000 0 0 32 0 1.000
8.5 1.019 2.3 8.4 24 0.995 8,200 14,500 28 -2 0.997
8.6 1.031 3.7 13.7 39 0.991 13,500 23,900 26 -3 0.992
8.7 1.043 5.1 19.2 55 0.988 18,800 33,300 25 -4 0.986
8.8 1.055 6.5 24.7 70 0.984 24,300 43,000 23 -5 0.978
8.9 1.067 7.9 30.3 87 0.981 29,800 52,800 21 -6 0.969
9.0 1.079 9.2 36.0 103 0.977 35,400 62,700 19 -7 0.959
9.1 1.091 10.6 41.8 119 0.973 41,100 72,800 17 -8 0.948
9.2 1.103 11.9 47.7 136 0.969 46,900 83,000 15 -9 0.936
9.3 1.115 13.2 53.6 153 0.965 52,700 93,300 12 -11 0.923
9.4 1.127 14.5 59.6 170 0.961 58,600 103,700 9 -13 0.908
9.5 1.139 15.8 65.6 187 0.957 64,600 114,200 6 -14 0.893
9.6 1.151 17.0 71.7 205 0.953 70,600 124,800 3 -16 0.876
9.7 1.163 18.3 77.9 222 0.948 76,600 135,500 0 -18 0.859
9.8 1.175 19.5 84.1 240 0.944 82,700 146,300 -4 -20 0.841
9.9 1.187 20.7 90.3 258 0.939 88,800 157,200 -8 -22 0.822
10.0 1.199 22.0 96.6 276 0.934 95,000 168,100 -13 -25 0.802
10.1 1.211 23.1 102.9 294 0.929 101,200 179,100 -18 -28 0.782
10.2 1.223 24.3 109.2 312 0.924 107,500 190,100 -23 -31 0.760
10.3 1.235 25.5 115.6 330 0.919 113,700 201,200 -29 -34 0.739
10.4 1.247 26.6 121.9 348 0.914 120,000 212,300 -36 -38 0.716
10.5 1.259 27.8 128.3 366 0.908 126,300 223,400 -43 -42 0.693
10.6 1.271 28.9 134.8 384 0.903 132,600 234,600 -51 -46 0.669
10.7 1.283 30.0 141.2 403 0.897 138,900 245,700 -59 -51 0.645
10.8 1.295 31.1 147.6 421 0.892 145,200 256,900 -40 -40 0.620
10.9 1.307 32.1 154.0 439 0.886 151,500 268,100 -22 -30 0.595
11.0 1.319 33.2 160.4 458 0.880 157,900 279,300 -11 -24 0.569
11.1 1.331 34.2 166.9 476 0.874 164,200 290,500 0 -18 0.543
11.2 1.343 35.3 173.3 494 0.868 170,500 301,600 13 -11 0.516
11.3 1.355 36.3 179.7 513 0.862 176,800 312,700 25 -4 0.489
11.4 1.367 37.3 186.0 531 0.855 183,100 323,800 35 2 0.462
11.5 1.379 38.3 192.4 549 0.849 189,300 334,900 44 7 0.435
11.6 1.391 39.2 198.7 567 0.842 195,500 345,900 51 10 0.407
* Examples only. Freezing point and crystallization temperature vary significantly depending on salt/brine purity.

Hole volume calculations (pipe in hole) The values from Eq 14 and Eq 15 are then multiplied times
the interval lengths to calculate the pipe (or hole) capacity
Hole vol. = ann. vol. + pipe cap. Eq 10 for each section.
Annular volume (or pipe displacement): The total pipe (or hole capacity) is then the sum of each dif-
For each section with different annular dimensions (inside ferent section volume from surface to total depth.
diameter (ID) casing or open hole or outside diameter (OD)
pipe), calculate: Pipe cap. = PCap1 + PCap2 + PCap3 +...+ PCapn Eq 16
[ ID (in.)2 – OD (in.)2 ] Note: When calculating the hole capacity of the open hole,
Ann. vol. (bbl/ft) = Eq 11 use the bit diameter multiplied by a factor to account for
1,029 wellbore enlargement (typical values are 1.1 for OBMs and
1.25 to 1.5 for WBMs). These washout values can vary wide-
[ ID (mm)2 – OD (mm)2 ] ly and are highly dependent on the formation drilled and
Ann. vol. (cu m/m) = Eq 12 other factors.
1.273 x 106
Hole cap. = HCap1 + HCap2 + HCap3 +...+ HCapn Eq 17
The values from Eq 11 and Eq 12 are then multiplied times
the interval lengths to calculate the annular volume for each Circulation times and strokes
section.
Pump output and circulation rate
The total annular volume is then the sum of each annular The pump output (PO) can be calculated using Equations
volume from the surface to the total depth: 18-19 or 21-22 for any liner size or stroke length. These val-
ues can also be found in the manufacturer’s tables or in ge-
Total ann. vol. = AV1 + AV2 + AV3 +...+ AVn Eq 13 neric tables like Tables FL-9 and FL-10.
Note: Pipe displacement volumes are important when de- Mud pump efficiency is affected by many factors with oper-
termining if the hole is taking or giving the correct volume ating pressure, pump RPM, mud weight, suction pressure,
of fluid when tripping pipe or running casing. While these and the presence of larger mud particles (LCM and sand)
values can be calculated with Equations 11 or 12 (if the di- having the greatest influence. Mud pump efficiency values
mensions of the tool joints or casing collars are taken into are normally in the 75 to 95% range.
account), it is recommended that displacement volumes be
obtained from tables for the particular size and weight of Triplex Mud Pumps
pipe that includes the specific tool joint or casing connec- Triplex pumps have three pistons and pump fluid on the
tion dimensions. forward stroke only (single acting). As compared to duplex
pumps, triplex pumps often have shorter stroke lengths (6-
Pipe (or hole) capacity 12 in.), operate at higher speeds (50-150 strokes/minute)
Pipe capacity is used to determine the volume of fluid in- and have higher efficiency (85-95%).
side the drill string. Hole capacity is used to determine the
volume of fluid in the wellbore when the drill string is not in PO (bbl/ Stk)
the well. = liner ID (in.)2 x stk (in.) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 18

For each section with different pipe (or hole) size, use the ID 4,118
dimension of the pipe (or hole) and then calculate as follows: PO output (l/Stk)
= liner ID (mm)2 x stk (mm) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 19

Pipe (or hole) cap. (bbl/ft) = ID (in.)2 Eq14 424,413

1,029

Circ. rate (bbl/min)
= bbl/stk x stk/min + bbl/stk x stk/min Eq 20
2
Pipe (or hole) cap. (cu m/m) = ID (mm.) 6 Eq15
1,273 x 10
(Total for all pumps being used.)

circ. system vol. (cu m)

Duplex mud pumps Mud cycle (stk) = Eq 26
Duplex pumps have two piston rods and four pump cham- circ. rate (cu m/stk)
bers so that they pump fluid on both the forward and back-
ward stroke (double acting). On the backward stroke, the Bottoms-up (bit to surface)
rod displaces some of the liner-swept volume and must be During drilling operations, it is important to know the bot-
considered in the pump output calculation. Since rod diam- toms-up (BU) or bit to surface time. This is the time required
eters are different, it is important to use the correct value. for the mud at the bit to be circulated up the annulus to the
Table FL-8 is an example and uses a typical rod diameter. As surface. It is important to know this time when circulating the
compared to triplex pumps, duplex pumps often have longer hole clean prior to tripping, estimating the depth at which cut-
stroke lengths (8-18 in.), operate at lower speeds (40-80 tings are being generated or when circulating and evaluating an
strokes/minute)and have lower efficiency (75-90%). influx from the well.
[ 2 x liner ID (in.)2 - Rod OD (in.)2]

PO (bbl/Stk) = ann. vol. (bbl)
6,177 BU (min) =
circ. rate (bbl/min) Eq 27
x Stk (in.) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 21
[ 2 x liner ID (mm)2 - Rod OD (mm)2 ] ann. vol. (cu m)

PO (l/Stk) = BU (min) =
circ. rate (cu m/min) Eq 28
636,620

x Stk (mm) x Eff. (decimal) Eq 22
ann. vol. (bbl)
BU (stk) =
circ. rate (bbl/stk) Eq 29
The circulation rate (bbl/min) is the same as Equation 20.
Mud cycle (complete circulation of active system) ann. vol. (cu m)

In mud conditioning, it is important to know the mud cycle BU (stk) =
circ. rate (cu m/stk) Eq 30
time. This is the time required for the mud in the active system
to make one complete circulation - mud from the pump suc-
tion is circulated to the bottom of the hole, out the bit, up the Surface to bit (pipe capacity/displacement)
annulus, through the pits and back to the pump suction. When During drilling operations, it is important to know the pipe ca-
adding weight material or chemical treatments, it is often rec- pacity (or pipe displacement) and surface to bit time. This is the
ommended to add these materials at such a rate that the mud time required for the mud at the pump suction to be pumped
will make at least one complete cycle during the treatment so down the drill string to the bit. This is used when displacing ce-
that they are evenly distributed. ment jobs, spotting pills for lost circulation, stuck pipe or other
operations and during well control procedures to know when a
Circulating system volume is calculated from Equation 4 new mud weight has reached the bit.
(surface system volume + hole volume).
pipe cap. (bbl)
Surf. to bit (min) = Eq 31
circ. system vol. (bbl) circ. rate (bbl/min)
Mud cycle (min) = Eq 23
circ. rate (bbl/min)

Note: Circ. rate (bbl/min) pipe cap. (cu m)
Surf. to bit (min) = Eq 32
= Circ. rate (gal/min) ÷ 42 gal/bbl circ. rate (cu m/min)

circ. system vol. (cu m) pipe cap. (bbl)
Mud cycle (min) = Eq 24
circ. rate (cu m/min) Surf. to bit (stk) = Eq 33
circ. rate (bbl/stk)

circ. system vol. (bbl) pipe cap. (cu m) Eq 34
Mud cycle (stk) = Eq 25 Surf. to bit (stk) =
circ. rate (bbl/stk) circ. rate (cu m/stk)

Table FL-9: Triplex mud pump output.

TRIPLEX MUD PUMP OUTPUT (barrels/stroke) 100% Efficiency
Liner ID Stroke Length (in.)

(in.) 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 11.0 12.0
3.00 0.0131 0.0142 0.0153 0.0164 0.0175 0.0186 0.0197
3.25 0.0154 0.0167 0.0180 0.0192 0.0205 0.0218 0.0231
3.50 0.0178 0.0193 0.0208 0.0223 0.0238 0.0253 0.0268 0.0283
3.75 0.0205 0.0222 0.0239 0.0256 0.0273 0.0290 0.0307 0.0324
4.00 0.0233 0.0253 0.0272 0.0291 0.0311 0.0330 0.0350 0.0369 0.0389
4.25 0.0263 0.0285 0.0307 0.0329 0.0351 0.0373 0.0395 0.0417 0.0439
4.50 0.0295 0.0320 0.0344 0.0369 0.0393 0.0418 0.0443 0.0467 0.0492 0.0541
4.75 0.0329 0.0356 0.0384 0.0411 0.0438 0.0466 0.0493 0.0521 0.0548 0.0603
5.00 0.0364 0.0395 0.0425 0.0455 0.0486 0.0516 0.0546 0.0577 0.0607 0.0668 0.0729
5.25 0.0402 0.0435 0.0469 0.0502 0.0535 0.0569 0.0602 0.0636 0.0669 0.0736 0.0803
5.50 0.0441 0.0477 0.0514 0.0551 0.0588 0.0624 0.0661 0.0698 0.0735 0.0808 0.0881
5.75 0.0482 0.0522 0.0562 0.0602 0.0642 0.0682 0.0723 0.0763 0.0803 0.0883 0.0963
6.00 0.0525 0.0568 0.0612 0.0656 0.0699 0.0743 0.0787 0.0831 0.0874 0.0962 0.1049
6.25 0.0569 0.0617 0.0664 0.0711 0.0759 0.0806 0.0854 0.0901 0.0949 0.1043 0.1138
6.50 0.0616 0.0667 0.0718 0.0769 0.0821 0.0872 0.0923 0.0975 0.1026 0.1129 0.1231
6.75 0.0664 0.0719 0.0774 0.0830 0.0885 0.0940 0.0996 0.1051 0.1106 0.1217 0.1328
7.00 0.1309 0.1428
7.50 0.1503 0.1639
To convert to gallons/stroke multiply barrels/stroke x 42
To convert to liters/stroke multiply barrels/stroke x 159
ID (in.)2
Hole cycle time Hole vol (bbl/ft) = Eq 36
During drilling operations, it is important to know the time or 1,029
strokes for mud at the pump suction to be circulated down the
drill string out the bit and up the annulus to the shale shakers. ID (mm)2
This is most often needed when increasing the mud weight to Hole vol (cu m/m) = Eq 37
1.273 x 106
determine when the wellbore is fully displaced to the new mud
weight.
The values from Eq 36 and Eq 37 are then multiplied times the
Hole cycle = surf. to bit + BU Eq 35
interval lengths to calculate the hole volume for each selection.
The total hole volume with no pipe in the hole is then the sum
Hole volume (pipe out of hole) of each different hole section volume from the surface to the
Hole volumes are important to know when tripping in or out total depth:
of the hole as they determine if the surface volume and pit
capacity is sufficient. Hole volumes can be calculated in the Hole vol. (no pipe)
same way pipe capacity is calculated (as shown below or
= HV1 + HV2 + HV3 + .......... +HVn Eq 38
found in the tables).
For each hole section with different ID dimensions for the cas- Hydrostatic pressure and hydrostatic gradient
ing or open hole, calculate: The hydrostatic pressure (PHYD) is the pressure the fluid column
exerts on the wellbore. It is primarily controlled by increasing or
decreasing the drilling fluid density or mud weight (MW).

Table FL-10: Duplex Mud Pump Output.
DUPLEX MUD PUMP OUTPUT (barrels/stroke) 100% Efficiency

Stroke Length (in.)
Liner ID 8 10 12 14 15 16 18
(in.) Rod size (in.)
1.75 2.0 2.0 2.25 2.50 2.50 3.0
4.00 0.0375 0.0453 0.0544 0.0611 0.0625 0.0667 0.0670
4.25 0.0428 0.0520 0.0624 0.0704 0.0725 0.0774 0.0790
4.50 0.0485 0.0591 0.0709 0.0803 0.0832 0.0887 0.0918
4.75 0.0545 0.0666 0.0799 0.0908 0.0944 0.1007 0.1053
5.00 0.0608 0.0745 0.0894 0.1018 0.1062 0.1133 0.1195
5.25 0.0674 0.0828 0.0993 0.1135 0.1187 0.1266 0.1344
5.50 0.0744 0.0915 0.1098 0.1256 0.1317 0.1405 0.1501
5.75 0.0817 0.1006 0.1207 0.1384 0.1454 0.1551 0.1665
6.00 0.0893 0.1101 0.1321 0.1517 0.1597 0.1703 0.1836
6.25 0.0972 0.1200 0.1440 0.1656 0.1745 0.1862 0.2014
6.50 0.1055 0.1303 0.1564 0.1800 0.1900 0.2027 0.2200
6.75 0.1141 0.1410 0.1693 0.1951 0.2061 0.2198 0.2393
7.00 0.1230 0.1522 0.1826 0.2106 0.2228 0.2377 0.2593
7.25 0.1322 0.1637 0.1965 0.2268 0.2401 0.2561 0.2801
7.50 0.1417 0.1757 0.2108 0.2435 0.2580 0.2752 0.3016
7.75 0.1516 0.1880 0.2256 0.2608 0.2765 0.2950 0.3238
8.00 0.1618 0.2007 0.2409 0.2786 0.2957 0.3154 0.3468
To convert to gallons/stroke multiply bbl/stroke x 42
To convert to liters/stroke multiply bbl/stroke x 159
While circulating, the annular pressure losses (APL) act to in-

PHYD (lb/in.2) = MW (lb/gal) x 0.052 x TVD (ft) Eq 39 crease the pressure on the wellbore. This is called the equiva-
lent circulating density (ECD).
PHYD (kPa) = MW (kg/cu m) x 0.00981 x TVD (m) Eq 40 PHYD + APL

ECD = Eq 43
TVD x K (units conversion)
The hydrostatic pressure gradient (PHYD: G) is the rate at which
the hydrostatic pressure increases with true vertical depth and
has units of pressure per depth. The hydrostatic gradient for During well control and managed pressure drilling operations,
a given area is often compared to the gradient for fresh water surface pressures act on the hydrostatic column such that
(0.433 psi/ft) or seawater (0.465 psi/ft). downhole wellbore pressures are increased by the amount of
the surface pressure.
PHYD: G (psi/ft) = MW (lb/gal) x 0.052 Eq 41
Quantities of mud materials
Mud weight can be increased with barite. The quantity of barite
needed to increase the mud weight depends on the density of
PHYD: G (kPa/m) = MW (kg/cu m) x 0.00981 Eq 42 the barite. Currently, the two most common Specific Gravities
(SG) for barite are either 4.2 or 4.1. Density expressed as spe-
cific gravity (g/ml) or using kg/l units have the same numerical
value.

»» Weight-up formula For 4.1 SG barite these become:

The generalized weight-up formula is:
lb barite added
Vol. inc. (bbl) = Eq 50
Weight material (lb/bbl)
=
1,435

SGwt mat x 350[MW2 (lb/gal) - MW1 lb/gal]
W2 Eq 44
SGwt mat x 8.345 – MW2 (lb/gal)
kg barite added
Vol. inc. (cu m) = Eq 51
Weight material (kg/cu
= m) 4,100

SGwt mat x 1000 [MW2 (kg/l) – MW1 (kg/l)]
Eq 45
SGwt mat – MW2 (kg/l) Note: As an approximation, for every 14 sacks (100 lb) of bar-
ite, the volume will increase 1 bbl. For every 100 sacks (100 lb)
MW1 = initial mud weight barite, the volume increases 6.9 bbl.
MW2 = desired mud weight
»» Dilution and blending
For 4.1 SG barite these become: It is common practice to blend two fluids or to dilute with water
or NAF base fluid to reduce mud weight.
Weight material (lb/bbl)
=
1,435 [MW2 (lb/gal) – MW1 (lb/gal)]
Eq 46 The generalized dilution or blending formula (allowing the vol-
34.2 – MW2 (lb/gal) ume to increase) is:
Weight material (kg/cu

= m) Vorig x (MWorig – MWdesired)
Eq 52
4,100 [MW2 (kg/l) – MW1 (kg/l)]
Eq 47
4.1 – MW2 (kg/l)
Vadded fluid is the volume of fluid to add to achieve the desired
Note: As an approximation, in the mud weight range between change in mud weight.
9 and 12 lb/gal, 60 lb/bbl (or 60 100 lb sacks barite/100 bbl) Vorig is the original mud volume.
increases the mud weight 1.0 lb/gal. For mud weights above 12 MWorig is the original mud weight.
lb/gal, divide the desired final weight by 0.2 to find the lb/bbl MWadded fluid is the mud weight for the fluid being added.
of barite needed to increase the mud weight 1.0 lb/gal (or the MWdesired is the desired final mud weight.
number of 100 lb sacks/100 bbl).
When diluting with fresh water (8.345 lb/gal or SG 1.0), this
»» Volume increase due to material additions becomes:
When weighting up and making other treatments, the volume
of material added increases the mud volume. For dry materials, Vwater (bbl) =
this volume must be calculated based on the SG of the material. Vorig (bbl) x [MWorig (lb/gal) – MWdesired (lb/gal) ]
Eq 53
The generalized volume increase formulas for material addi- MWdesired (lb/gal) – 8.345
tions are:
Vwater (cu m) =
lb material added
Vorig (cu m) x [MWorig (kg/l) – MWdesired (kg/l)]
Vol. inc. (bbl) = Eq 48 Eq 54
SGmaterial x 350 MWdesired (kg/l) - 1.0

kg material added Annular velocity

Vol. inc. (cu m) = Eq 49 Annular velocity is the mud velocity in the annulus between the
SGmaterial x 1000
drill string and the OD of the open hole or casing. This value
helps when evaluating hole cleaning, especially in vertical sec-
tions where a value of 100 ft/min is considered to be sufficient
for most situations. The usual US oilfield expression of this ve-
locity is in feet per minute.

24.5 x circ. rate (gpm)

circ. rate Ann. Vel. (ft/min) = Eq 57
Ann. Vel. = Eq 55 hole ID (in.)2 – pipe OD (in.)2

ann. vol.

circ. rate (cu m/min)

circ. rate (bbl/min) Ann. Vel. (m/min) = Eq 58
Ann. Vel. (ft/min) = Eq 56 ann. vol. (cu m/m)

ann. vol. (bbl/ft)

Drilling operations generally report the circulation rate in gal-

lons per minute (gpm) and use inches; therefore, a common
formula used for annular velocity is:

mind weight materials are small sized powders with high-surface area. Base fluid (water or oil) is often required to be added
Table FL-11: Data shows the quantity of barite in lb/bbl (same as 100 lb sacks /100 bbl) needed to increase the mud weight
(upper right) and the volume of water in bbl water per bbl mud needed to decrease the mud weight (lower left). Keep in
simultaneously when weighting-up to properly wet the material and maintain the desired viscosity and rheology values.
Table FL-11: Weight-Up (Barite) and Dilution (Water).

Weight-up Chart for 4.1 SG Barite pounds of barite per bbl mud (upper right section) and Dilution with Fresh Water bbl water per bbl mud (lower left section)
Initial Desired Mud Weight (lbm/gal)

Mud
Weight
(lbm/ 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.0 11.5 12.0 12.5 13.0 13.5 14.0 14.5 15.0 15.5 16.0 16.5 17.0 17.5 18.0
gal)
8.3 39.9 69.7 100.8 133.2 167.0 202.3 239.2 277.7 318.1 360.5 404.9 451.6 500.8 552.5 607.1 664.8 725.8 790.5 859.2
9.0 3.23 29.0 59.3 90.8 123.7 158.0 193.9 231.5 270.8 312.0 355.2 400.6 448.4 498.8 551.9 608.1 667.4 730.4 797.2
9.5 6.45 0.76 29.6 60.5 92.8 126.4 161.6 198.4 236.9 277.3 319.7 364.2 411.1 460.4 512.5 567.5 625.7 687.4 752.9
10.0 9.68 1.53 0.43 30.3 61.9 94.8 129.3 165.3 203.1 242.6 284.2 327.8 373.7 422.1 473.1 527.0 584.0 644.5 708.6
10.5 12.90 2.29 0.87 0.30 30.9 63.2 97.0 132.3 169.2 208.0 248.6 291.4 336.3 383.7 433.7 486.4 542.3 601.5 664.4
11.0 16.13 3.05 1.30 0.60 0.23 31.6 64.6 99.2 135.4 173.3 213.1 254.9 299.0 345.3 394.2 445.9 500.6 558.5 620.1
11.5 19.35 3.82 1.73 0.91 0.46 0.19 32.3 66.1 101.5 138.6 177.6 218.5 261.6 307.0 354.8 405.4 458.9 515.6 575.8
Copyright © 2015
12.0 22.58 4.58 2.16 1.21 0.70 0.38 0.16 33.1 67.7 104.0 142.1 182.1 224.2 268.6 315.4 364.8 417.2 472.6 531.5
12.5 25.81 5.34 2.60 1.51 0.93 0.56 0.32 0.14 33.8 69.3 106.6 145.7 186.8 230.2 276.0 324.3 375.4 429.6 487.2
13.0 29.03 6.11 3.03 1.81 1.16 0.75 0.48 0.27 0.12 34.7 71.0 109.3 149.5 191.8 236.5 283.8 333.7 386.7 442.9
13.5 32.26 6.87 3.46 2.11 1.39 0.94 0.63 0.41 0.24 0.11 35.5 72.8 112.1 153.5 197.1 243.2 292.0 343.7 398.6
14.0 35.48 7.63 3.90 2.42 1.62 1.13 0.79 0.55 0.36 0.21 0.10 36.4 74.7 115.1 157.7 202.7 250.3 300.7 354.3
14.5 38.71 8.40 4.33 2.72 1.86 1.32 0.95 0.68 0.48 0.32 0.19 0.09 37.4 76.7 118.3 162.1 208.6 257.8 310.0
DRILLING FLUIDS
15.0 41.94 9.16 4.76 3.02 2.09 1.51 1.11 0.82 0.60 0.43 0.29 0.18 0.08 38.4 78.8 121.6 166.9 214.8 265.7
15.5 45.16 9.92 5.19 3.32 2.32 1.69 1.27 0.96 0.72 0.54 0.39 0.27 0.16 0.08 39.4 81.1 125.1 171.9 221.5
16.0 48.39 10.69 5.63 3.63 2.55 1.88 1.43 1.09 0.84 0.64 0.48 0.35 0.24 0.15 0.07 40.5 83.4 128.9 177.2
16.5 51.61 11.45 6.06 3.93 2.78 2.07 1.58 1.23 0.96 0.75 0.58 0.44 0.32 0.23 0.14 0.07 41.7 85.9 132.9
17.0 54.84 12.21 6.49 4.23 3.02 2.26 1.74 1.37 1.08 0.86 0.68 0.53 0.41 0.30 0.21 0.13 0.06 43.0 88.6
17.5 58.06 12.98 6.93 4.53 3.25 2.45 1.90 1.50 1.20 0.97 0.78 0.62 0.49 0.38 0.28 0.20 0.12 0.06 44.3
18.0 61.29 13.74 7.36 4.83 3.48 2.64 2.06 1.64 1.32 1.07 0.87 0.71 0.57 0.45 0.35 0.26 0.18 0.12 0.05
FL-37
FL-38
Table FL-12: Weight-Up (Barite) and Dilution (Water) - SI units (metric)
Weight-up Chart for 4.1 SG Barite kg of barite per m3 mud (upper right section) and Dilution with Fresh Water m3 water per m3 mud (lower left section)
Initial Desired Mud Weight (kg/L)

Mud
Weight
(kg/ 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.60 1.65 1.70 1.75 1.80 1.85 1.90 1.95 2.00 2.05 2.10 2.15 2.20
gal)
DRILLING FLUIDS
1.00 67.2 136.7 208.5 282.8 359.6 439.3 521.8 607.4 696.2 788.5 884.3 984.0 1087.8 1195.8 1308.5 1426.1 1548.9 1677.3 1811.6 1952.4 2100.0 2255.0 2417.9 2589.5
1.05 .50 68.3 139.0 212.1 287.7 366.1 447.3 531.5 618.9 709.6 803.9 902.0 1004.1 1110.4 1221.3 1337.0 1457.8 1584.1 1716.3 1854.8 2000.0 2152.5 2312.8 2481.6
1.10 4.00 1.00 69.5 141.4 215.8 292.9 372.7 455.6 541.5 630.8 723.5 820.0 920.4 1025.0 1134.0 1247.8 1366.7 1490.9 1620.9 1757.1 1900.0 2050.0 2207.7 2373.7
1.15 6.50 2.00 0.50 70.7 143.9 219.6 298.2 379.6 464.2 551.9 643.1 738.0 836.7 939.6 1046.8 1158.7 1275.6 1397.7 1525.6 1659.5 1800.0 1947.5 2102.6 2265.8
1.20 9.00 3.00 1.00 0.33 71.9 146.4 223.6 303.7 386.8 473.1 562.7 656.0 753.1 854.2 959.6 1069.6 1184.4 1304.5 1430.2 1561.9 1700.0 1845.0 1997.4 2157.9
1.25 11.50 4.00 1.50 0.67 0.25 73.2 149.1 227.8 309.4 394.2 482.4 574.0 669.4 768.8 872.3 980.4 1093.3 1211.4 1334.9 1464.3 1600.0 1742.5 1892.3 2050.0
1.30 14.00 5.00 2.00 1.00 0.50 0.20 74.5 151.9 232.1 315.4 402.0 492.0 585.7 683.3 785.1 891.3 1002.2 1118.2 1239.5 1366.7 1500.0 1640.0 1787.2 1942.1
1.35 16.50 6.00 2.50 1.33 0.75 0.40 0.17 75.9 154.7 236.5 321.6 410.0 502.0 597.9 697.9 802.2 911.1 1025.0 1144.2 1269.0 1400.0 1537.5 1682.1 1834.2
1.40 19.00 7.00 3.00 1.67 1.00 0.60 0.33 0.14 77.4 157.7 241.2 328.0 418.4 512.5 610.6 713.0 820.0 931.8 1048.8 1171.4 1300.0 1435.0 1576.9 1726.3
1.45 21.50 8.00 3.50 2.00 1.25 0.80 0.50 0.29 0.13 78.8 160.8 246.0 334.7 427.1 523.4 623.9 728.9 838.6 953.5 1073.8 1200.0 1332.5 1471.8 1618.4
1.50 24.00 9.00 4.00 2.33 1.50 1.00 0.67 0.43 0.25 0.11 80.4 164.0 251.0 341.7 436.2 534.8 637.8 745.5 858.1 976.2 1100.0 1230.0 1366.7 1510.5
1.55 26.50 10.00 4.50 2.67 1.75 1.20 0.83 0.57 0.38 0.22 0.10 82.0 167.3 256.3 348.9 445.7 546.7 652.3 762.8 878.6 1000.0 1127.5 1261.5 1402.6
1.60 29.00 11.00 5.00 3.00 2.00 1.40 1.00 0.71 0.50 0.33 0.20 0.09 83.7 170.8 261.7 356.5 455.6 559.1 667.4 781.0 900.0 1025.0 1156.4 1294.7
1.65 31.50 12.00 5.50 3.33 2.25 1.60 1.17 0.86 0.63 0.44 0.30 0.18 0.08 85.4 174.5 267.4 364.4 465.9 572.1 683.3 800.0 922.5 1051.3 1186.8
1.70 34.00 13.00 6.00 3.67 2.50 1.80 1.33 1.00 0.75 0.56 0.40 0.27 0.17 0.08 87.2 178.3 273.3 372.7 476.7 585.7 700.0 820.0 946.2 1078.9
Copyright © 2015
1.75 36.50 14.00 6.50 4.00 2.75 2.00 1.50 1.14 0.88 0.67 0.50 0.36 0.25 0.15 0.07 89.1 182.2 279.5 381.4 488.1 600.0 717.5 841.0 971.1
1.80 39.00 15.00 7.00 4.33 3.00 2.20 1.67 1.29 1.00 0.78 0.60 0.45 0.33 0.23 0.14 0.07 91.1 186.4 286.0 390.5 500.0 615.0 735.9 863.2
1.85 41.50 16.00 7.50 4.67 3.25 2.40 1.83 1.43 1.13 0.89 0.70 0.55 0.42 0.31 0.21 0.13 0.06 93.2 190.7 292.9 400.0 512.5 630.8 755.3
1.90 44.00 17.00 8.00 5.00 3.50 2.60 2.00 1.57 1.25 1.00 0.80 0.64 0.50 0.38 0.29 0.20 0.13 0.06 95.3 195.2 300.0 410.0 525.6 647.4
1.95 46.50 18.00 8.50 5.33 3.75 2.80 2.17 1.71 1.38 1.11 0.90 0.73 0.58 0.46 0.36 0.27 0.19 0.12 0.06 97.6 200.0 307.5 420.5 539.5
2.00 49.00 19.00 9.00 5.67 4.00 3.00 2.33 1.86 1.50 1.22 1.00 0.82 0.67 0.54 0.43 0.33 0.25 0.18 0.11 0.05 100.0 205.0 315.4 431.6
2.05 51.50 20.00 9.50 6.00 4.25 3.20 2.50 2.00 1.63 1.33 1.10 0.91 0.75 0.62 0.50 0.40 0.31 0.24 0.17 0.11 0.05 102.5 210.3 323.7
2.10 54.00 21.00 10.00 6.33 4.50 3.40 2.67 2.14 1.75 1.44 1.20 1.00 0.83 0.69 0.57 0.47 0.38 0.29 0.22 0.16 0.10 0.05 105.1 215.8
2.15 56.50 22.00 10.50 6.67 4.75 3.60 2.83 2.29 1.88 1.56 1.30 1.09 0.92 0.77 0.64 0.53 0.44 0.35 0.28 0.21 0.15 0.10 0.05 107.9
2.20 59.00 23.00 11.00 7.00 5.00 3.80 3.00 2.43 2.00 1.67 1.40 1.18 1.00 0.85 0.71 0.60 0.50 0.41 0.33 0.26 0.20 0.14 0.09 0.04
Table FL-12: For SI (metric) units,Table FL-12 shows the quantity of barite in kg/m3 needed to increase the mud weight (upper
right) and the volume of water in cu m water per cu m mud needed to decrease the mud weight (lower left).
Table FL-13 : Unit Conversions for Density.
Desired Units (multiply by)

Original units
SG kg/cu m lb/gal lb/cu ft
SG (g/mL) 1 1,000 8.345 62.4
kg/cu m 0.001 1.0 0.008345 0.0624
lb/gal 0.12 120 1 7.48
lb/cu ft 0.016 16.0 0.1337 1
Table FL-14: Other Conversion Factors — US Oilfield and SI (Metric).

Original Units Desired Units Multiply by
barrel (bbl) cubic feet (cu ft) 5.615
barrel (bbl) cubic meter (cu m) 0.159
barrel (bbl) US gallon (gal) 42
US gallon (gal) liter (l) 3.785
cubic meter (cu m) barrel (bbl) 6.289
cubic meter cu m) liter (l) 1,000

Mass (weight)
kilogram (kg) pound (lb) 2.204

pound (lb) kilogram (kg) 0.454
US ton (t) pound (lb) 2,000
metric ton (mt) kilogram (kg) 1,000
metric ton (mt) pound (lb) 2,204
Length or distance
feet (ft) meter (m) 0.3048

inch (in.) centimeter (cm) 2.54
inch (in.) millimeter (mm) 25.4
meter (m) feet (ft) 3.281
Pressure (force/area)
lb/sq in. (psi) kiloPascal (kPa) 6.895

lb/sq in. (psi) bar (bar) 0.06895
lb/sq in. (psi) kg/sq cm 0.0703
kiloPascal (kPa) lb/sq in. (psi) 0.145
bar (bar) kiloPascal (kPa) 100
Atmosphere (atm) lb/sq in. (psi) 14.7
bar lb/sq in. (psi) 14.5
Temperature
Centigrade (°C) to Fahrenheit (°F) °F = ( °C x 1.8 ) + 32
Fahrenheit (°F) to Centigrade (°C) °C = (°F – 32 )

1.8

Government regulations er land-based sources and the offshore industry by the Paris
Regulations on the use and disposal of drilling fluids exist in Convention of 1974. These two conventions were unified
many forms. These regulations generally focus on the health (hence OSPAR), up-datedand extended by the 1992 OSPAR
and safety of workers and the protection of the environment. Convention. The new annex on biodiversity and ecosystems
Potential hazards of drilling fluid materials are identified in was adopted in 1998 to cover non-polluting human activities
MSDSs1, along with recommended practices for managing that can adversely affect the sea.
the HSE risks and regulations pertinent to the country (and
hemisphere) of origin of the material. Recent developments The OSPAR Convention requires application of best avail-
have led to formation of the GHS which has modified the able techniques (BAT) and best environmental practice
MSDS requirements. 2 Among the changes, the word “Ma- (BEP) to prevent and eliminate marine pollution. OSPAR has
terial” has been dropped from the new standard forms and pioneered this concept internationally and adopted a large
they are now simply labeled “SDS” instead of “MSDS.” number of BAT and BEP recommendations for various in-
dustrial technologies and sources of land-based pollution.
Drilling fluids may contain potentially hazardous materials Indeed, the majority of governments involved in offshore
that are regulated either at the source, during storage or exploration and production or E & P (including Africa, the
transport, during use and/or during disposal. These include Middle East and the Far East), but some onshore as well,
the base fluid itself, which can range from fresh water to pro- subscribe to the precepts of the OSPAR Convention. BAT is
duced brines to various types of NAFs. In addition, various defined by OSPAR as “the latest stage of development (state
additives can pose HSE risks. The types of materials that are of the art) of processes, of facilities or of methods of oper-
of particular concern include cationic polymers, surfactants, ation which indicate the practical suitability of a particular
biocides, trace heavy metals, alkalinity control agents, flam- measure for limiting discharges, emissions and waste.” BEP
mable materials, oxidizers and other potentially corrosive is defined as “the application of the most appropriate com-
or reactive compounds as well as any material containing a bination of environmental control measures and strategies”.
relevant concentration of a listed hazardous chemical. Even
generally innocuous materials like starches, which are nor-
mally used as filtration control agents, may pose a potential Table FL-15 : Hazard ranking of
explosion hazard as dusts. Various materials can also be an materials under charm model12
environmental risk for low forms of life and are controlled
Key to HQ Bands
or banned in some applications. It is imperative that drilling
fluid suppliers, service companies and operators all have a Min Value Max Value Category
thorough understanding of the HSE limitations of each and
every material used to formulate drilling fluids. >0 <1 Gold
>=1 <30 Silver
Health and safety regulations >=30 <100 White

Workplace restrictions defined by individual companies and
governmental bodies like OSHA define limits of exposure >=100 <300 Blue
for workers to various materials to protect their health and
safety 3, 4. Engineering and administrative protocols, as well >=300 <1,000 Orange
as PPE, are also prescribed. Volatile, flammable and/or aro-

>=1,000 Purple
matic materials, such as diesel fuel oil, have received much
attention;
However, materials thought to be acutely and/or chronically At the beginning of 1996, OSPAR released the offshore
toxic, such as products containing heavy metals, have also chemical notification scheme (OCNS) which manages
received scrutiny. 5-11 chemical use and discharge by offshore petroleum indus-
tries in the UK and the Netherlands. The OCNS uses the
Various international organizations have attempted to pro- OSPAR harmonized mandatory control scheme (HMCS) de-
vide some guidance on the use and disposal of materials veloped through the OSPAR Decision 2000/2. This scheme
used in drilling oil and gas wells. OSPAR is the mechanism ranks chemical products according to the hazard quotient
by which fifteen European governments came together to (HQ) which is calculated using the chemical hazard and risk
define protocols for the protection of the marine environ- management (CHARM) model. The lower the HQ, the more
ment of the North-East Atlantic. It started in 1972 with the hazardous the material. The ranking is shown in Table FL-15.
Oslo Convention against dumping. It was broadened to cov-

Table FL-16: E&P Waste Discharge Limitsa,b.
Electrical Conductivity Sodium Exchangeable

E&P Waste Disposal Technique pH Oil & Grease (%)
(mmhos/cm) Adsorption Ratio Sodium
(%) Oil & Grease (%) NPDESc NPDES NPDES NPDES NPDES
Roadspreading 6-9 <4 NA NA NA
d
Landspreading Wetland 6-9 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
d
Landspreading Upland 6-8 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Solids Landspreading Wetland 6-9 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Landspreading Upland 6-8 <4 < 12 < 15 <1
Burial or Landfill 6-9 <4 NA NA <1
a These requirements do not apply for deep wells or c Follow NPDES permit requirements.
annular injection.
d Wetland is area inundated or saturated by surface/
b Concentration limits for heavy metals are also specified. ground water continually enough to support life
For example, for mercury the limit is 17 mg/kg of soil, adapted to those conditions; Upland is area not
while for chromium the limit is 1,500 mg/kg of soil, as identified as Wetland.
measured by API method 3050.
Ecotoxicological information, partitioning between oil and At the federal level, the Environmental Protection Agency
water, bioaccumulation potential, biodegradability, aquatic (EPA) develops and enforces regulations with the help of
toxicity, composition and usage are taken into account in the other agencies. On federal and American Indian lands, the
ranking. 10 Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is responsible. Off-
shore regulations are enforced by the Bureau of Ocean En-
ergy Management (BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and
Environmental regulations Environmental Enforcement (BSEE). These agencies were
In addition to health and safety restrictions, environmental formed on October 1, 2011 from the Bureau of Ocean Ener-
standards and guidelines abound and often are combined gy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement (BOEMRE)
with health and safety standards and guidelines as per the which was previously known as the Minerals Management
OSPAR conventions discussed in the previous section. Pro- Service or MMS.
visions are also found in lease documents that impact how
waste drilling fluids or drilled cuttings can be handled. These The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), as
include the acceptability of storing waste fluid or cutting in amended in 1980, describes the requirements for classify-
sumps, burying the waste, injecting the waste to the subsur- ing and managing solid waste. This became the mandate of
face, land-farming the waste or discharging it to the ocean? the EPA in 1988.14 Drilling fluid discharges are covered in the
In most cases, before waste fluid and/or cuttings can be Clean Water Act (CWA) and Emergency Planning and Com-
discharged on site, analyses have to be carried out which munity Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA), along with the terms
demonstrate that certain contaminants in the waste mate- of the Superfund Clean-Up Act (CERCLA) and the Super-
rial do not exceed some maximum value. Limitations may fund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), which
be placed on groups of compounds such as organic materi- exempts classification of oil and gas discharges as hazard-
als; specific compounds such as benzene; elements such as ous substances.15 Although not considered hazardous, such
mercury; and salts through the measurements of electrical discharges are still subject to some controls as shown in
conductivity. Superseding these provisions are regulations Table FL-1614. Discharges of various materials above certain
issued by each nation, including the USA (and even every threshold limits must be reported.15
state within the USA) that restricts waste disposal methods
for drilling fluids and cuttings. The API has issued several Point source liquid/solid discharges onshore or to navigable
environmental guidance documents that address these is- waters of the USA (including at sea out to 200 miles from
sues 11, 12, 13 A summary of current regulations on waste dis- shore) are regulated by the CWA’s National Pollutant Dis-
posal methods for fluids and solids from drilling operations charge Elimination System (NPDES) program. The design of
is provided by the drilling waste management information reserve and waste pits, as well as the amounts of liquid and
system. solid waste that may be discharged into them, fall under the

jurisdiction of NPDES.14 Individual states provide their own Additional requirements are set forth in CFR 40 for NAFs:
regulations as well. In Texas, the Railroad Commission of the • No NAFs may be discharged;
Texas Oil and Gas Division establishes the rules governing • Cuttings coated with up to 6.9% NAF may be
discharges of waste liquids and cuttings. In Louisiana, it is discharged if the NAF is a member of a special class of
the Department of Natural Resources Office of Conserva- hydrocarbons. Cuttings coated with ester base fluids
tion. Consequently, oil and gas companies must check with may have up to 9.4% SBM on cuttings. The method for
regulators in the state they wish to operate for specific state calculating the residual oil on cuttings is spelled out in
discharge regulations. Although federal regulations general- the regulations;
ly trump state regulations, if the state regulations are strict- • Mass Ratio of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon
er, the state regulations must be followed. (PAH) to base fluid must be ≤ 1 x 10-5;
• Biodegradation rate of NAFs shall be no slower than
A vast array of methods has been developed to reduce the that of a reference olefin NAF;
burden of disposing of waste fluids and solids.14 These in- • Base fluids are tested using the marine
clude alternative methods of drilling; recycling or substitut- anaerobic closed bottle test;
ing less persistent, less harmful and even beneficial mate- • Base fluid sediment toxicity shall be no more toxic than
rials for existing drilling fluid components; and removing that of a reference olefin NAF;
the offending products. Many imaginative techniques have • Base fluids are tested via a ten-day acute
been developed to remove waste products including filtra- solid-phase test using the amphipod
tion, distillation and destruction (via combustion, radiolysis, leptocherirus plumulous;
etc.). Even fairly exotic techniques such as vermiculture (di- • Discharged cuttings are tested the same way
gestion by worms) and bioreactors (digestion by microbes) via a four-day acute solid-phase test;
have been developed and used commercially to clean cut- • No discharge of formation oil is allowed;
tings drilled with NADFs. Waste management regulations • Discharged cuttings are tested for crude oil
usually target these “oily” cuttings, aiming not only to re- contamination by fluorescence method.
duce the NAF on the drilled cuttings, but also the type of
NAF that is allowable. This is particularly true for offshore In the North Sea, discharges of NADFs are prohibited,
drilling where nations have been concerned about the for- though non-diesel NADFs may be used in highly-controlled
mation of persistent piles of anaerobic cuttings on the sea- closed loop operations. Indeed, the OSPAR conventions for
bed and the toxicity of NAF to sea life. discharge of waste fluid and solids in offshore operations
are more restrictive than USA offshore regulations. In other
Offshore use of drilling fluids in the USA beyond a three-mile parts of the world, environmental impact analyses (EIA) are
limit are controlled exclusively via federal regulations which usually required by contract with the host government or by
differ from region to region. Regulations for the Gulf of Mex- regulation/law. The EIA form will often dictate acceptable
ico, for example, include a static sheen test and two toxicity methods of disposal of waste fluid and/or cuttings based
tests: chronic marine toxicity tests (with mysid shrimp) and on the geology, groundwater and other considerations.
sediment toxicity tests with marine and estuarine amphi- Regulations in each country are usually based on guidelines
pods (leptocheirus or chorophium). In California and else- established by international bodies and in many cases, the
where along the Pacific coast, restrictions are different. In OSPAR protocols are used for both offshore and onshore
Alaska (where drilling is permissible even within the three- operations. This is generally the case whether in Africa or
mile limit), the regulations are different again. Everyone, the Far East. In South America and Canada, the regulations
however, must comply with the standards set forth by EPA, are more like those in the USA, but usually with additional
as in CFR 40 of the Federal Register, which describes the restrictions. In Canada, for example, all drilling fluid prod-
types of non-aqueous base fluids that may be used to drill ucts must pass a microtox™ test which measures the effect
offshore wells: of the additive on the metabolism of a luminescent microbe.
This type of test is much more sensitive than tests on larger
• No discharge of free oil (using a static sheen test); forms of life. In South America, it is common to find severe
• There must be a 96-hour LC50 > 30,000 ppm as per restrictions on the electrical conductivity (salt content) of
EPA’s mysid shrimp toxicity text; fluid or cuttings that can be buried, land-spread (land-treat-
• Limits of contaminants in barite used to densify the ed) or land-farmed.
drilling fluid are ≤1 mg/kg mercury and ≤3 mg/kg
cadmium;
• No discharge of drilling wastes is allowed within three
miles of shore (except for Alaska).

Transportation regulations are divided into nine classes with each having a unique
Transport of materials is regulated by agencies such as: graphic symbol and wording. Individual countries may not
use the same precise language or symbols but the GHS is
• The United States Department of Transportation an internationally agreed upon system that brings consis-
(USDOT) which issues most regulations in the Title tency across standards in different countries. This system
49-Transportation Code of Federal Regulations (49 complements the OSPAR HMCS system mentioned earlier.
CFR);
The regulations for marine transport and ship-borne pol-
• The Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMR) which lution may differ.In 1973, IMO adopted the Internation-
governs transportation of hazardous materials in all al Convention for the Prevention of Pollution by Ships and
modes of transportation whether air, highway, rail or subsequently modified it by protocol in 1978. The Conven-
water. tion is known as MARPOL 73/78and its objective is to limit
ship-borne pollution by restricting operational pollution and
Globally, the United Nations Economic and Social Council reducing the possibility of accidental pollution. Acceptance
issues the UN “Recommendations on the Transport of Dan- of the convention by national governments obliges them to
gerous Goods” and IMO issues the “International Maritime make the requirements part of domestic law. Included in this
Dangerous Goods Code” for transport of dangerous goods convention are guidelines for the design of ships (including
by sea. Another agency, the Intergovernmental Organiza- mobile offshore drilling units or MODUs) and the safe han-
tion for International Carriage by Rail, has developed “Regu- dling and transport of chemicals from and to those ships.
lations for the International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by IMO established various codes for chemicals that are re-
Rail” (RID). In the UN recommendations, dangerous goods quired to be used.

CITED REFERENCES
1. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 (CFR 29),1910 9. http://www.cefas.co.uk/ocns/index.htm.
2. UN Globally Harmonized System of Classification and La- 10. http://www.cefas.co.uk/ocns/guidelines.pdf.

beling of Chemicals (GHS), Revision 3, issued in the Federal
Register, March 26, 2012. 11. Environmental Guidance Document: Waste Manage-
ment in Exploration and Production Operations, API Bulletin
3. ACGIH Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure E5, 2nd Ed., Feb. 1997.
Indices for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents (lat-
est edition). Sax’s Dangerous Properties of Industrial Mate- 12. Environmental Guidance Document: Release Reporting
rials, 9th ed., Lewis, R.J. Sr., (ed.), VNR, New York, New York, for the Oil and Gas E&P Industry as Required by the Clean
1997. Water Act, the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act, and the Emergency Plan-
4. OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits, 29 CFR 1910, Subpart ning and Community Right-to-Know Act, Upstream Seg-
Z, Section 1910.1000, Air Contaminants. ment, API Bulletin E4, 2nd Ed, May 2003.
5. Kirkeleit, J., Riise, T., Bråtveit, M., and Moen, B.E. “In- 13. Guidance Document for the Development of a Safety
creased Risk of Acute Myelogenous Leukemia and Multi- and Environmental Management System for Onshore Oil
ple Myeloma in a Historical Cohort of Upstream Petroleum and Natural Gas Production Operations and Associated Ac-
Workers Exposed to Crude Oil.” Cancer Causes & Control tivities, API Bulletin 75L, 1st Ed, Nov. 2007.
19.1 (2008): pp 13-23.
14. http://web.ead.anl.gov/dwm/techdesc/burial/index.
6. Murray, C., Clark, G., Epps, L., Lin. Terry. “Sampling for Oil cfm.
Mist and Hydrocarbons on Drilling Rigs in Northeast British
Columbia.” WorkSafeBC (2009). 15. Federal Register, Environmental Protection Agency 40
CFR Parts 9 and 435, “Effluent Limitations Guidelines and
7. Steinsvag, K., Bratveit, M., Moen, B.E. “Exposure to Oil New Source Performance Standards for the Oil and Gas Ex-
Mist and Oil Vapour During Offshore Drilling in Norway, traction Point Source Category,” Jan 22, 2001.
1979-2004.” Ann. Occup. Hyg. (2006): pp 109-122.
8. “Drilling Fluids and Health Risk Management: A Guide for

Drilling Personnel, Managers, and Health Professionals in
the Oil and Gas Industry.” International Association of Oil &
Gas Producers (2009).

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
“Principles Of Drilling Fluid Control”, The University Of Texas health professionals in the oil and gas industry), OGP (In-
Petroleum Extension Service ternational Association of Oil & Gas Producers) and IPIECA
(International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conserva-
World Oil, June Edition (yearly) “Guide to Drilling, Completion tion Association), http://www.ogp.org.uk/pubs/396.pdf
and Workover Fluids”
Caenn, Gray, Darley and Rogers, Composition and Proper-
API RP 13A “Specification for Drilling Fluid Materials” ties of Drilling and Completion Fluids, Gulf Publishing, 2011, .
API RP 13B “Recommended Practice for Field Testing of Water Lummus, J. J.and Azar, J. J., Drilling Fluids Optimization – A
Based Drilling Fluids” Practical Field Approach, Penwell, 1986.
API RP 13B-2 - “Recommended Practice for Field Testing of Oil Messenger, J.U., Lost Circulation, Penwell, 1981.
Based Drilling Fluids”
Planning for Drilling in Hydrogen Sulfide Zones: An Outline
API RP 13C – “Recommended Practice for Drilling Fluid Pro- of Safety and Health Procedures. Petroleum Extension Ser-
cessing Systems Evaluation” vice, The University of Texas at Austin.
API RP 13D - “Rheology and Hydraulics for Oil Well Fluids” A Primer of Oil Well Drilling: A Basic Text of Oil and Gas
Drilling. Baker, Ron, Petroleum Extension Service, The Uni-
API RP 13I8 – “Recommended Practice for Laboratory Testing versity of Texas at Austin.
of Drilling Fluids”
OSHA, eTools Home :Oil and Gas Well Drilling and Servicing
API RP 13J – “Testing of Heavy Brines” eTool, Drilling >> Drilling Ahead >> Drilling Fluid, https://
www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/oilandgas/drilling/drillingflu-
API RP 13K – “Recommended Practice for Chemical Analysis id.html
of Barite”
Online “Drilling Waste Management Information System”
API RP 13L – “Recommended Practice for Training and Qualifi- Argonne National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy’s
cation of Drilling Fluid Technologists” (DOE’s) Natural Gas & Oil Technology Partnership program,
National Energy Technology Laboratory, http://web.ead.
API 13M – “Recommended Practice for Measurement of Vis- anl.gov/dwm/index.cfm
cous Properties of Completion Fluids”
Lyons, W.C., Guo, B.and Seidel, F. 2001. Air and Gas Drilling
OGP Report No. 342, May 2003, “Environmental aspects of Manual. New York: McGraw-Hill.
the use and disposal of non aqueous drilling fluids associ-
ated with offshore oil & gas operations OGP, International Canadian Assn. of Petroleum Producers, TECHNICAL RE-
Association of Oil & Gas Producers, http://www.ogp.org. PORT, “Offshore Drilling Waste Management Review”, Feb-
uk/pubs/342.pdf ruary 2001, 2001-0007 (Country-Specific Requirements for
Discharge of Drilling Muds and Cuttings) Calgary.
OGP Report No. 396, “Drilling fluids and health risk man-
agement “, (A guide for drilling personnel, managers and

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
APPENDIX: SAFETY DATA SHEETS, HAZARD LABELS, AND NFPA DIAMOND

Drilling fluids and general rig operations use a number of hazcom/index.html and on the UN website http://www.
different chemicals for various operations; each product has unece.org/trans/danger/publi/ghs/ghs_welcome_e.html).
unique chemical and physical properties which need to be
considered for safe handling. Information about chemicals
and hazards is provided by the supplier in several forms. GHS Safety Data Sheet
These include the Safety Data Sheets (SDS), previously re- The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) is the most comprehensive
ferred to as Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), plus prod- source for information about a chemical product. The SDS
uct and shipping labels, transportation labels, US National includes information on the physical and chemical prop-
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Diamond, American erties, physical and health hazards, routes of exposure,
Coatings Association Hazardous Materials Information Sys- precautions for safe handling, storage, use and disposal,
tem (HMIS®) or other labels which are used in packaging or emergency and first-aid procedures, PPE and other control
transportation. measures, plus additional information. Information on an
SDS should be reviewed and considered prior to handling
The United Nations has sponsored a global standard for or applying a product or when responding to any accidental
classification and labeling of chemicals called the Globally exposure or emergency situation.
Harmonized System (GHS). This GHS system has standard
formats for safety data sheets and product labels. GHS ad- The GHS hazard categories are ranked from 1 to 5 with 1 be-
dresses the hazards related to physical, health, and environ- ing a severe hazard and 5 indicating a minimal hazard:
mental dangers. Information on the safety data sheets and • Category 1: Severe hazard;
product labels should be used to determine safe handling, • Category 2: Serious hazard;
storage and disposal procedures plus the personal protec- • Category 3: Moderate hazard;
tive equipment (PPE) required. ( Additional information can • Category 4 Slight hazard;
be found on the OSHA website https://www.osha.gov/dsg/ • Category 5: Minimal hazard.
Figure FL-A1: Example SDS Hazard Information Section 2.
Figure FL-A2: Example SDS Exposure Controls / Personal Protection Section 8.

FL-A2 DRILLING FLUIDS
IMPORTANT: The GHS hazard numbering format is OP- Some SDSs and labels use precautionary pictograms to in-
POSITE to NFPA 704 transportation labeling and HMIS III dicate the personal protective equipment which should be
labels. On NFPA 704 and HMIS III labels the categories used when handling a product or chemical (Figure FL-A3).
range from 0 to 4 with 4 being a severe hazard and 0 indi-
cating a minimal hazard. It is recommended that:
1. The supplier provide Safety Data Sheets for every
SDSs are comprehensive for all applications of a chemical chemical or product being used.
product. For safe handling and usage, it is recommended
to concentrate on the information that is applicable to the 2. That the location of SDSs be clearly communicated and
particular application of the product, especially the hazard easily accessible for all workers at all times.
information in Section 2 (Figure FL-A1) and exposure con-
trols and personal protective measures covered in Section 3. All workers handling or transporting a chemical prod-
8 (Figure FL-A2). uct should be trained on the information contained on
SDSs and product labels. This training should include
the location of the safe handling information, instruc-
tions on the other information contained on a SDS, and
how to properly make use of that information.
Key GHS terms

Hazard group: Three major hazard groups: 1) health, 2)
physical and 3) environmental.
Class: Class describes different types of hazards (see listing

of classes for each group below). “Gases under Pressure”
Eye protection Safety gloves and “Self-Reactive Substances” are examples of classes in
must be worn must be worn
the physical hazards group.
Category: Category describes sub-sections of classes. The

“Self-Reactive Substances” class has 7 categories. Each cat-
egory has standard criteria to determine which chemicals
belong in that category. Categories are assigned numbers
(or letters) with category 1 (or A) being the most hazardous.
Hazard Statement: For each category within a class, a stan-

dard hazard statement is used. As an example, the hazard
statement for chemicals in the “Self-heating substances
Face protection Respiratory equipment and mixtures” class, Category 1, the standard statement is
must be worn must be worn “Self-heating; may catch fire”. This hazard statement would
appear the product label and on the SDS in Section 2.
Signal word: Danger and Warning are the only two signal
words used. They are used to indicate the level of hazard
and are used on both the product label and the SDS. As an
example, the signal word for “Self-heating substances and
mixtures” class, Category 1, is “Danger”. Within this same
class, “Warning” is used for the less serious Category 2. For
other less hazardous categories, no signal word is used.
Pictogram: Pictogram refers to the GHS symbol on the la-

Safety overalls Safety boots
must be worn must be worn bel and SDS. Not all hazard categories have a pictogram as-
signed to them, see Figure FL-A4.
Figure FL-A3: Personal protective equipment
precautionary pictogram examples.

DRILLING FLUIDS FL-A3
GHS Safety Data Sheets have 16 standard sections: (e.g., skull & crossbones, flame, etc.)
Section 1. Identification of the chemical and its supplier • Precautionary statement(s)
Section 2. Hazard(s) Identification • Description of any hazards not otherwise classified
Section 3. Composition/Information on Ingredients
Section 4. First-Aid Measures The pictograms used for this section in the GHS are shown
Section 5. Fire-Fighting Measures in Figure FL-A4, they have red borders. Hazard pictograms
Section 6. Accidental Release Measures are graphic symbols used to communicate specific informa-
Section 7. Handling and Storage tion about the hazards of a chemical. These pictograms are
Section 8. Exposure Controls/Personal Protection also used on packaging or container labels and lab sample
Section 9. Physical and Chemical Properties or workplace. An easy to understand leaflet explaining the
Section 10. Stability and Reactivity pictograms can be found at: http://echa.europa.eu/docu-
Section 11. Health Effects / Toxicological Information ments/10162/2621167/eu-osha_chemical_hazard_picto-
Section 12. Ecological Information (non-mandatory) grams_leaflet_en.pdf
Section 13. Disposal Considerations (non-mandatory)
Section 14. Transport Information (non-mandatory) Transportation, outer packaging and shipping label picto-
Section 15. Regulatory Information (non-mandatory) grams or placards have black borders with similar icons, also
Section 16. Other Information, including date of SDS prepa- shown in Figure FL-A5.
ration or last revision
Section 3. Composition/Information on Ingredients
SDS Sections 1 through 8 contains general information about This section identifies the ingredient(s) contained in the
the chemical, identification, hazards, composition, safe han- product indicated on the SDS, including impurities and sta-
dling practices, and emergency control measures. bilizing additives. Includes information on substances, mix-
tures, and all chemicals except for special situations where a
SDS Sections 9 through 11 and 16 contain other technical and trade secret is claimed.
scientific information, such as physical and chemical prop-
erties, information about stability and reactivity, toxicology, Section 4. First-Aid Measures
exposure control, and other information for any required el- This section describes the initial care that should be given
ement. by untrained responders to an individual who has been ex-
posed to the chemical.
SDS Sections • Necessary first-aid instructions by relevant routes of
exposure (inhalation, skin and eye contact, and
Section 1. Identification ingestion).
This section identifies the chemical on the SDS as well as its • Description of the most important symptoms or effects,
recommended uses. It also provides the essential contact and any symptoms that are acute or delayed.
information of the supplier. • Recommendations for immediate medical care and
• Product identifier used on the label and any other special treatment.
common names or synonyms by which the substance is
known. Section 5. Fire-Fighting Measures
• Name, address, phone number of the manufacturer, This section provides recommendations for fighting a fire
importer, or other responsible party, and emergency caused by the chemical.
phone number. • Recommendations of suitable extinguishing equipment,
• Recommended use of the chemical (brief description of and information about extinguishing equipment that is
what it actually does) and any restrictions on its use. not appropriate for a particular situation.
• Advice on specific hazards that develop from the
Section 2. Hazard(s) Identification
chemical during the fire, such as any hazardous
This section identifies the hazards of the chemical present-
combustion products created when the chemical burns.
ed on the SDS and the appropriate warning information as-
• Recommendations on special protective equipment or
sociated with those hazards (Figure FL-A1).
precautions for firefighters.
• The hazard classification of the chemical (e.g.,
flammable liquid, category). Section 6. Accidental Release Measures
• Signal word This section has recommendations on appropriate response
• Hazard statement(s) to spills, leaks, or releases, including containment and clean-
• Pictograms (these hazard symbols may be in black and up practices to prevent or minimize exposure to people,
white or be a description of the name of the symbol properties, or the environment. Its recommendations may

Figure FL-A4: GHS

hazard pictograms.

Flammable liquid Flammable solid Pyrophorics

Flammable gas Self-reactive substances (spontaneously
Flammable aerosol combustable) Self-
heating substances
Substances, which in Oxidizing gases Explosive

contact with water, Oxidizing liquids Divisions 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
emit flammable gases Oxidizing solids
(dangerous when wet)
Explosive Division 1.4 Explosive Division 1.5 Explosive Division 1.6
Compressed gases Acute toxicity (poison) Corrosive

Oral, dermal,
inhalation
Figure FL-A5: Examples

of GHS transportation
pictograms (not
comprehensive).
Marine pollutant Organic peroxides

distinguish between responses for large and small spills • Upper/lower flammability or explosive limits
where the spill volume has a significant impact on the haz- • Odor
ard. • pH
• Use of personal precautions (such as removal of ignition • Relative density
sources or providing sufficient ventilation) and • Melting point/freezing point
protective equipment to prevent the contamination of • Solubility
skin, eyes, and clothing. • Initial boiling point and boiling range
• Emergency procedures, including instructions for • Flash point
evacuations, consulting experts when needed, and • Evaporation rate
appropriate protective clothing. • Flammability (solid, gas)
• Methods and materials used for containment (e.g., • Vapor pressure
covering the drains and capping procedures). • Vapor density
• Cleanup procedures (e.g., appropriate techniques for • Partition coefficient: n-octanol/water
neutralization, decontamination, cleaning or • Auto-ignition temperature
vacuuming; absorbent materials; and/or equipment • Decomposition temperature
required for containment/cleanup). • Viscosity
Section 7. Handling and Storage The SDS may not contain every item on the above list be-
This section provides guidance on the safe handling practic- cause information may not be relevant or is not available.
es and conditions for safe storage of chemicals. Manufacturers may also add other relevant properties.
• Precautions for safe handling, including
recommendations for handling incompatible chemicals, Section 10. Stability and Reactivity
minimizing the release of the chemical into the This section describes the reactivity hazards of the chem-
environment, and providing advice on general hygiene ical and the chemical stability information. This section is
practices (e.g., eating, drinking, and smoking in work broken into three parts: Reactivity, Chemical Stability, and
areas is prohibited). Other.:
• Recommendations on the conditions for safe storage, • Reactivity
including any incompatibilities. Provide advice on • Description of the specific test data for the
specific storage requirements (e.g., ventilation chemical(s).
requirements). • Chemical Stability
• Indication of whether the chemical is stable or
Section 8. Exposure Controls/Personal Protection unstable under normal ambient temperature and
This section indicates the exposure limits, engineering con- conditions while in storage and being handled.
trols, and personal protective measures that can be used to • Description of any stabilizers that may be needed
minimize worker exposure (Figure FL-A2). to maintain chemical stability.
• OSHA Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), American • Indication of any safety issues that may arise
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists should the product change in physical
(ACGIH) Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), and any other appearance.
exposure limit used or recommended by the chemical • Other
manufacturer, importer, or employer preparing the • Indication of the possibility of hazardous
safety data sheet, where available. reactions, including a statement whether the
• Appropriate engineering controls (e.g., use local chemical will react or polymerize, which could
exhaust ventilation, or use only in an enclosed system). release excess pressure or heat, or create other
• Recommendations for personal protective measures to hazardous conditions. Also, a description of the
prevent illness or injury from exposure to chemicals, conditions under which hazardous reactions may
such as personal protective equipment (PPE. occur.
• Any special requirements for PPE, protective clothing or • List of all conditions that should be avoided that
respirators (e.g. type of glove material, such as PVC or may lead to hazardous conditions.
nitrile rubber gloves). • List of all classes of incompatible materials with
which the chemical could react to produce a
Section 9. Physical and Chemical Properties hazardous situation.
This section identifies physical and chemical properties as- • List of any known or anticipated hazardous
sociated with the substance or mixture. decomposition products that could be produced
• Appearance (physical state, color, etc.)

Figure FL-A6: Example of shipping label.

SAMPLE LABEL
ICK CODE _______________________________

Product Name________________________
} Product
Hazard Pictograms
ARD
TM
Identifier
}
Company Name_______________________
Street Address________________________
}
City_______________________ State_____ Supplier
Postal Code______________Country_____ Identification
Emergency Phone Number_____________
Labels Signal Word
ng of Keep container tightly closed. Store in a cool, Danger
well-ventilated place that is locked.
nication Keep away from heat/sparks/open flame. No smoking.
Only use non-sparking tools.
}
will be Use explosion-proof electrical equipment.
Take precautionary measures against static discharge. Highly flammable liquid and vapor. Hazard
azard and Ground and bond container and receiving equipment. May cause liver and kidney damage. Statements
Do not breathe vapors.
er, and Wear protective gloves.
abel, Do not eat, drink or smoke when using this product. Precautionary
Wash hands thoroughly after handling. Statements
wn on the Dispose of in accordance with local, regional, national,
international regulations as specified. Supplemental Information
rovided
In Case of Fire: use dry chemical (BC) or Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Directions for Use
fire extinguisher to extinguish. __________________________________
OSHA 3492-02 2012

__________________________________
First Aid __________________________________
If exposed call Poison Center.
If on skin (or hair): Take off immediately any contaminated
OSHA (6742) Fill weight:____________ Lot Number:___________
clothing. Rinse skin with water.
Gross weight:__________ Fill Date:______________
a.gov
Expiration Date:________
Figure FL-A7: Example of product or chemical label.
because of use, storage, or heating This section provides guidance on proper disposal practices,
recycling or reclamation of the chemical(s) or its container,
Section 11. Health Effects / Toxicological Information
and safe handling practices.
This section identifies toxicological and health
effects information or indicates that such data are Section 14. Transport Information
not available. This section provides guidance on classification information
• Information on the likely routes of exposure (inhalation, for shipping and transporting of hazardous chemical(s) by
ingestion, skin and eye contact). road, air, rail, or sea.
• Description of the delayed, immediate, or chronic
effects from short-term and long-term exposure. Section 15. Regulatory Information
• The numerical measures of toxicity This section identifies the safety, health, and environmental
• Description of the symptoms. This description includes regulations specific for the product that is not indicated any-
the symptoms associated with exposure to the chemical where else on the SDS.
including symptoms from the lowest to the most severe
exposure. Section 16. Other Information
• Indication of whether the chemical is listed as a known This section indicates when the SDS was prepared or when
or potential carcinogen. the last known revision was made. The SDS may also state
where the changes have been made to the previous version.
Section 12. Ecological Information You may wish to contact the supplier for an explanation of
This section provides information to evaluate the environ- the changes. Other useful information also may be included
mental impact of the chemical(s) if it were released to the here.
environment.
GHS product labels for packaging, shipping
Section 13. Disposal Considerations

Information about chemicals and hazards is also provided by

chemical and are the same ones used on the SDS. (See
the supplier on packaging or product labels and transporta-
Figure FL-A4.)
tion labels using the same information contained on SDSs.
7. Supplementary information is optional. This is addi-
While these labels may look different depending on the
tional instructions or information that may be helpful.
manufacturer, they all use a GHS defined standard format.
It may also list hazards not otherwise described on the
Due to the limited space on a product or shipping label, the
label. Examples of supplementary information include;
information is condensed from the comprehensive informa-
personal protective equipment (PPE) pictograms indi-
tion on the SDS to only the most important data.
cating what workers handling the chemical may need
Product and shipping labels contain: to wear to protect themselves, directions for use, size,
1. Supplier Identification: Name, Address and Telephone weight, lot number, expiration date, or any similar rele-
Number vant data.
2. Product Identifier(s)
3. Signal Word Shipping labels differ from product labels in that the picto-
4. Hazard Statement(s) grams used are of the transportation format, See Figure 5,
5. Precautionary Statement(s) and other local transportation regulatory information (such
6. Hazard Pictogram(s) as US DOT) may be included.
7. Supplemental information (optional)
Other Hazard Labels & NFPA 704 Label
The elements of a product label are shown in Figure FL-A7:
(“NFPA Diamond”)
Product and shipping label elements: There are several other hazard labels and labeling criteria
1. Supplier Name, Address and Telephone Number of the that are often used. The most common are; 1) the US Na-
chemical manufacturer, importer or other responsible tional Fire Protection Association (NFPA) label or “NFPA
party. Diamond”, 2) American Coatings Association Hazardous
2. Product Identifier: Product name or chemical name, a Materials Identification System (HMIS®) labels (HMIS III),
product code number or batch number. It may include 3) Canada’s Workplace Hazardous Materials Information
the standard chemical descriptor or “CAS number”. System (WHMIS), and 4) country specific regulatory re-
3. Signal Words are used to indicate the relative severity quirements. Only the NFPA Diamond and HMIS III will be
of the hazard and alert to the potential hazard. There covered here.
are only two words used as signal words, “Danger” and
“Warning.” With “Danger” being the more severe haz- IMPORTANT: The numbering format used on NFPA 704
ard. and HMIS III labels is OPPOSITE to the GHS format. On
4. Hazard Statements describe the nature of the haz- GHS SDSs and labels, 1 is the most severe hazard and 4 is
ard(s) of a chemical, including, where appropriate, the the least severe hazard.
degree and type of hazard. All of the applicable hazard
statements appear on the label. NFPA 704 Labels (NFPA Diamond):
5. Precautionary Statements describe recommended NFPA 704 diamonds provide basic information for emer-
measures to minimize or prevent adverse effects re- gency personnel responding to a fire or spill and those
sulting from exposure to, or improper storage or han- planning for emergency response. They are also sometimes
dling, of a product. There are four types of precaution- used on product packaging and for signs outside hazardous
ary statements: materials storage areas. The information on the NFPA 704
1. Prevention (to minimize exposure); Diamond is also useful for workers who use and manage
2. Response (accidental spillage or exposure emer- these materials.
gency response, and first-aid);
3. Storage; The NFPA 704 label has 4 quadrants, the red top section
4. Disposal. indicates flammability hazard, the blue left section indicates
health hazard, the yellow right section indicates instability
Precautionary statements may be combined on the label to hazard and the white bottom section indicates special haz-
save on space and improve readability. Where a chemical ards. A numerical rating is provided in each section to indi-
is classified for a number of hazards and the precautionary cate the severity of the hazard, with a 4 indicating the most
statements are similar, the most stringent statements are severe hazard and a 0 indicating no hazard. See Figure FL-
included on the label. A8 below on how to read a NFPA diamond label.
6. Hazard pictograms are graphic symbols used to com-
municate specific information about the hazards of a Special Hazard symbols and abbreviations include:

Flammability hazard Instability hazard

4 = Easily ignite, or ignite spontaneously 4 = Materials readily capable of detonation
in air. or explosive decomposition or explosive
reaction at normal temperatures and
3 = Capable of igniting under most ambient pressures.
conditions.
3 = Materials readily capable of detonation,
2 = Must be moderately heated or exposed or explosive, but that require a strong
to high ambient temperatures to ignite. initiating source, or that must be heated
1 = Must be considerably pre-heated to under confinement before initiation..
ignite. 2 = Materials that readily undergo violent
0 = Will not burn. chemical change at elevated temperatures
and pressures.
1 = Normally stable materials that can
become unstable at elevated temperatures
Health hazard and pressures.
0 = Normally stable even under fire
conditions.
4 = Materials that can be lethal.
3 = Materials that can cause serious or
permanent injury.
2 = Materials that can cause temporary
incapacitation or residual injury.
1 = Materials that can cause significant
irritation.
0 = Materials that offer no hazard beyond
that of ordinary combustible materials.
Figure FL-A8: How to read a NFPA 704 Hazard label.
1. W indicating that material reacts violently or explosive- tion, but they might not provide specific chemical names or
ly with water quantities.
2. OX indicating that material is an oxidizer and may be
unstable, possibly explosive or able to cause a violent Not only is the NFPA numbering system opposite of the
chemical reaction, even without oxygen or air GHS, but the criteria used for the various NFPA categories
3. COR indicating that material is corrosive, a strong acid is different than that used for GHS Safety Data Sheets and
or base labels. The NFPA rating system can be found in NFPA Fire
4. ACID indicating that material is acidic Protection Guide to Hazardous Materials or NFPA 704 Stan-
5. ALK indicating that material is alkaline dard System for Identification of the Hazards of Materials
6. POI indicating that material is poisonous for Emergency Response. Tables 5.2, 6.2, 7.2 and Chapter
7. SA indicating that material is a simple asphyxiant gas 8 of NFPA 704.
8. RAD (or ) indicating that material is a radioactive haz-
ard
9. BIO ( or ) indicating a biological hazard HMIS III Labels
10. CYL or CRYO indicating that material is cryogenic, Another common labeling system used for packaging and
meaning they are liquid gases at ultra-low and danger- products is the American Coatings Association (ACA)
ous temperatures, below about -150°C (- 238°F). Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS®) labels
(currently referred to as the HMIS III system). The informa-
NFPA 704 diamonds used outside hazardous materials stor- tion on HMIS labels does not replace or substitute for other
age areas indicate the most hazardous material in that loca- regulatory labeling requirements for chemical manufactur-
ers, importers, or distributors, but instead, supplements it

Chemical name Table FL-A1: HMIS III Hazard Numbering System
HEALTH HMIS III HAZARD RATINGS
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
FLAMMABILITY
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD
PHYSICAL HAZARD
2 = MODERATE HAZARD
Personal Protection 1 = SLIGHT HAZARD
0 = MINIMAL HAZARD
Figure FL-A9: HMIS III Example Label.

□ CHRONIC HAZARD or additional information
HMIS III HAZARD RATINGS
Figure FL-A10: HMIS III system index and PPE letters.

Table FL-A2 : HMIS III Health hazard ratings.
Health hazard rating HMIS III explanation / criteria
4 = SEVERE HAZARD Life-threatening, major or permanent damage may result from single or repeated overexposures
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD Major injury likely unless prompt action is taken and medical treatment is given
2 = MODERATE HAZARD Temporary or minor injury may occur
1 = SLIGHT HAZARD Irritation or minor reversible injury possible
0 = MINIMAL HAZARD No significant risk to health
*CHRONIC HAZARD or additional information Chronic (long-term) health effects may result from repeated overexposure
Table FL-A3 : HMIS III Flammability hazard ratings.
Flammability hazard rating HMIS III explanation / criteria
Flammable gases, or very volatile flammable liquids with flash points below 73°F, and boiling points
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
below 100°F. Materials may ignite spontaneously with air. (Class IA)
Materials capable of ignition under almost all normal temperature conditions. Includes flammable
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD liquids with flash points below 73°F and boiling points above 100°F as well as liquids with flash points
between 73°F and 100°F. (Classes IB & IC)
Materials which must be moderately heated or exposed to high ambient temperatures before ignition
2 = MODERATE HAZARD will occur. Includes liquids having a flash point at or above 100 F but below 200 F.
(Classes II & IIIA)
Materials that must be preheated before ignition will occur. Includes liquids, solids and semi solids
1 = SLIGHT HAZARD
having a flash point above 200 F. (Class IIIB)
0 = MINIMAL HAZARD Materials that will not burn
Table FL-A4 : HMIS III Physical hazard ratings.
Physical hazard rating HMIS III explanation / criteria
Materials that are readily capable of explosive water reaction, detonation or explosive decomposition,
4 = SEVERE HAZARD
polymerization, or self-reaction at normal temperature and pressure.
Materials that may form explosive mixtures with water and are capable of detonation or explosive
3 = SERIOUS HAZARD reaction in the presence of a strong initiating source. Materials may polymerize, decompose, self-react,
or undergo other chemical change at normal temperature and pressure with moderate risk of explosion
Materials that are unstable and may undergo violent chemical changes at normal temperature and
2 = MODERATE HAZARD pressure with low risk for explosion. Materials may react violently with water or form peroxides upon
exposure to air.
Materials that are normally stable but can become unstable (self-react) at high temperatures and
1 = SLIGHT HAZARD pressures. Materials may react non-violently with water or undergo hazardous polymerization in the
absence of inhibitors.
MaMaterials that are normally stable, even under fire conditions, and will NOT react with water,
0 = MINIMAL HAZARD
polymerize, decompose, condense, or self-react. Non-Explosives.
in a uniform and user-friendly way. This system is also often and Physical Hazards is communicated by numerical rat-
used for the labeling of products and chemicals used in lab- ings. These ratings range from 0 to 4, with 4 being a severe
oratory and field testing. hazard and 0 indicating a minimal hazard which is the same
as the NFPA system but opposite of the GHS system.
The HMIS label conveys product identity by proper chemi-
cal or common names, code numbers, or other descriptive On HMIS III labels, required PPE for using a product is spec-
terms that clearly identify the material to employees. The ified by a letter, with items identified either as groupings of
presence of chronic health hazards is communicated by an complementary equipment or as individual pieces of PPE
asterisk (*) linked to descriptive information on the Safety (Figure FL-A10). Icons may also be used.
Data Sheet. The severity of any acute Health, Flammability,

Table FL-A5: HMIS III PPE letter definitions.

Symbol Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Required
A Safety Glasses
B Safety Glasses & Gloves
C Safety Glasses & Gloves & Apron
D Face Shield & Gloves & Apron
E Safety Glasses & Gloves & Dust Respirator
F Safety Glasses & Gloves & Apron & Dust Respirator
G Safety Glasses & Gloves & Vapor Respirator
H Splash Goggles & Gloves & Apron & Vapor Respirator
I Safety Glasses & Gloves & Dust and Vapor Respirator
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K Air Line Hood or Mask & Gloves & Full Suit & Boots
X Ask supervisor or safety specialist or S.O.P. for “SPECIAL” handling instructions

HY
DRILLING
HYDRAULICS

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HYDRAULICS HY–i
CHAPTER
HY
DRILLING
HYDRAULICS
T he IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals
with expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge
in developing the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and
This chapter was written under the direction of Dennis Moore, Marathon Oil, and authored by Dr. Shifeng Tian, Signa
Engineering Corp., and George Medley, Signa Engineering Corp.
Reviewers
Dennis Moore, Marathon Oil
Mario Zamora, M-I SWACO

HY–ii HYDRAULICS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-1-7
HYDRAULICS Contents HY-iii
CHAPTER HY
DRILLING
HYDRAULICS Contents
Hydraulic parameters...................................................HY-1
Density........................................................................ HY-1
Viscosity..................................................................... HY-1
Yield point..................................................................HY-2
Rheology models.....................................................HY-2
Flow rate and fluid velocity..................................HY-2
Velocity and circulation rate determinations........ HY-4
Circulation rate for duplex pumps.....................HY-4
Circulation rate for triplex pumps......................HY-4
Applications of Hydraulics..........................................HY-5
Estimating BHP........................................................HY-5
Wellbore pressure management........................HY-5
Annular velocity.............................................................HY-5

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HYDRAULICS HY–1
Drilling hydraulics Density

The material in this section provides a straightforward ex- Density is a measure of fluid mass per unit volume. The densi-
planation of what is covered by the broad term “hydraulics” ty units in common use are ppg, Ibm/cu ft, kg/cu m, and kg/l.
along with a description of basic hydraulic principles utilized The conversion factors between these units are listed below.
in drilling. The intent is to explain generally how hydraulics
impacts the drilling process. A brief description of the equip- 1 ppg = 7.481 Ibm/cu ft
ment related to hydraulics is also provided. 1 ppg = 119.82 kg/cu m
1 ppg = 0.11982 kg/l
The hydraulics chapter in the previous (11th) edition of the
IADC Drilling Manual included a step-by-step procedure to The density of fresh water under standard conditions
design a bit hydraulics program meant to enable the opera- (atmospheric pressure and 60°F of temperature) is 8.34
tor and/or contractor to achieve maximum penetration rates ppg or 1.0 kg/l (also expressed as 1,000 kg/cu m).
with the equipment available. The section on “bit hydraulics”
is now included in the Drilling Practices (DP) chapter of this Like most other substances, the mass of a fluid expands with
manual, which covers improved drilling efficiency. heat and contracts with cold. The density of the same flu-
id, therefore, can be different when measured at surface or
Drilling hydraulics refers to how the drilling fluid in the circu- measured at the bottom of a well. The value of fluid density
lating system exerts pressure throughout the system, par- depends on the temperature and pressure that the fluid is
ticularly in the wellbore. under. This is especially true when using oil (diesel or syn-
thetic) based muds. The density increases as pressure on
Hydraulic parameters the mud increases and decreases as the temperature of the
The amount of pressure exerted by the fluid depends on mud increases. It is essential, especially in high-pressure
the depth of interest, the fluid properties, wellbore geom- high-temperature (HPHT) wells using oil based muds, to
etry and whether the fluid is static (not circulating) or in a account for the effects of temperature and pressure on the
dynamic (circulating) condition. When static, the pressure mud density.
exerted on the wellbore by the drilling fluid (often called bot-
tomhole pressure or BHP) is simply the fluid density or mud Viscosity
weight (MW) multiplied by the true vertical depth (TVD). Viscosity (often denoted as μ) is a measure of fluid resis-
tance to flow. A fluid with higher viscosity results in higher
Circulating the fluid generates dynamic friction (f). Among pressure drop when passing through the same pipe or annu-
other factors, friction is dependent on fluid viscosity and lar space at the same flow rate.
velocity, and is directly proportionate to both. That is, the
higher the velocity (or circulation rate) and the higher the Viscosity measurements are commonly referred to as fluid
viscosity, the higher the friction pressure. Friction is added rheology. Viscosity is measured with a viscometer or rhe-
to the pressure exerted by the MW to give a total pressure ometer. Some of these instruments can measure fluid under
that may be expressed in terms of an equivalent density. various temperatures and pressures. The commonly used
Any back pressure that may be imposed at the surface, units of viscosity in the drilling industry are centipoise (cp),
for instance by circulating through a choke, will also act to pound force-second per square foot (Ibf-sec/sq ft), and Pas-
increase either the static or the dynamic BHP. Note that cal second (Pa-sec). The conversion factors between these
while BHP in the strictest sense refers to the pressure at the units are listed below.
bottom of the wellbore, the pressure in the wellbore at any
depth may be determined by calculating the MW times that 1 cp = 0.0000209 Ibf-sec/sq ft
depth plus the friction generated at that depth plus the sur- 1 cp = 0.001 Pa-sec
face back pressure, if any.
The viscosity of fresh water at standard conditions (atmo-
The circulation rate component of friction is controlled by spheric pressure and 60˚F) is 1 cp. Note that funnel viscosity
the driller. The fluid properties are measured and controlled (FV) may be measured as well. FV is measured by pouring a
by the mud engineer for the most part. known volume of fluid into a Marsh funnel and timing how long
it takes in seconds for one quart of the fluid to run out of the
Density and viscosity are the most important fluid proper- funnel. FV of fresh water is generally considered to be 26 sec.
ties involved in drilling fluid hydraulics’ calculations. Density FV is a relative measurement only and may be useful for com-
is often referred to as MW and is expressed in different ways paring the viscosity of different fluids. FV has very little utility,
depending on the system of units in use. however, in determining actual frictional pressure downhole.

HY–2 HYDRAULICS
Pumping
Initial pump pressure at full rate
caused by gel strength
Pumping Rising
Pump Pressure
Pump Pressure
at full rate pump rate
Initial pump
Rising pressure
pump rate caused by YP
Time Time
Figure HY-1: Pressure change at the start of pumping caused by gel strength (left) and YP (right). Courtesy Signa Engineering.
The viscosity of most fluids depends on the temperature Gel strength exists only when gel structure in the fluid is
and pressure that the fluid is under. formed and does not affect circulation once the gel struc-
ture is broken. Gel structure forms soon after the cessation
Yield point (YP) of pumping and helps to keep cuttings suspended in the cir-
Some fluids display solid-like behavior under a shear stress culating fluid. Gel strength increases during the formation
less than the value of YP. YP is the minimum shear stress re- of gel structure and is commonly measured at 10 seconds,
quired to start this fluid moving. A non-zero YP causes a sud- 10 minutes, and 30 minutes after the fluid remains static.
den pressure change when fluid starts to move or when fluid Gel strength has the same units as YP.
is about to stop moving. The commonly used units of YP in
the drilling industry are Ibf/100 sq ft and Pa. The conversion Rheology models
factors between these units are listed below. A rheology model is a mathematical relationship between
shear stress, τ , and shear rate, ϒ , of a fluid. Various models
1 Ibf/100 sq ft = 0.4788 Pa are required because different drilling fluids respond differ-
ently to changes in shear rate due to their particular com-
Gel strength position. The models provide a way to mathematically pre-
Gel strength is created by the gel structure of a fluid. Similar dict shear stress (resistance to movement) at various shear
to YP, gel strength also causes a sudden pressure change rates (pump speeds). Shear stress and shear rate for drilling
at the start of pumping. The major difference between gel fluids is normally measured with a Fann viscometer. When
strength and YP in terms of hydraulics, however, is that gel using such a device, the shear stress is commonly measured
strength will not exist once the fluid is moving and the gel at shear rates of 600, 300, 200, 100, 6, and 3 rpm.
has been broken, while the effects of YP will not disappear
when the fluid is moving. Figure HY-1 shows the rapid pump Four rheology models are commonly used in the drilling
pressure change caused by gel strength and YP at the begin- industry to mathematically describe the behavior of the fluid
ning of pumping. As indicated by the left plot in Figure HY-1, rheology under changing shear rates:
the pressure surge caused by gel strength at the beginning
of pumping disappears quickly, while the pressure surge
caused by YP (right plot of Figure HY-1) does not. Newtonian model τ = μϒ
Bingham Plastic model τ = YP + μϒ
Gel strength is a status-dependent property of a mud. The Power Law model τ = μϒ n
value of gel strength depends on how well the gel is formed. Herschel-Bulkley model τ = YP + μϒ n.
Gel strength is zero when gel structure is not properly
formed. In the field, one may be able to avoid the pressure YP, μ, and n in these models are constants for a given fluid at
surge caused by mud gel strength by rotating the drillstring a specific temperature and pressure.
to break the gel before the start of pumping. One cannot
avoid the abrupt pressure change at the start of pumping Among these four models, the Herschel-Bulkley model is
or at the cessation of pumping with a non-zero YP by any the best not only because it has three constants, but also
mechanical means such as rotating the drillstring. because the other three models are only special cases of the

HYDRAULICS HY–3
Newtonian
Power Law
Bingham Plastic
Herschel-Bulkley
Figure HY-2: Shear stress τ vs. shear rate γ for fluids defining Figure HY-3: Sample software rheology determination.
the four rheology models. Courtesy Signa Engineering. Courtesy Signa Engineering.
Herschel-Bulkley model (for instance, the Power Law model is shear rate (or fluid velocity).
the special case of the Herschel-Bulkley model when YP = 0).
Since no drilling fluid has an n > 1, the case of n > 1 is not
The constant(s) in the rheology model is the measure of fluid included in the discussion.
resistance to flow. For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is the mea-
sure of fluid resistance to flow. For Herschel-Bulkley fluids, all Historically, YP and μ have been estimated by Eq 1 and Eq 2:
three constants are the measure of fluid resistance to flow.
Eq 1 μ = θ600 − θ300
Figure HY-2 shows the plots of shear stress τ vs. shear rate γ
for fluids that define the four rheology models. Shear stress Eq 2 YP = θ300 − μ
τ is an indication of frictional pressure drop and shear rate γ
is an indication of average fluid velocity. The value of YP is
the intersection of the shear stress axis by these plots. Some In these equations, θ600 and θ300 are the Fann viscometer
fluids (such as Newtonian and Power Law fluids) intersect readings at 600 and 300 rpm respectively.
the shear stress axis at the origin point. The value of YP for
these fluids is zero; however, many of the drilling fluids have Eq 1 and Eq 2 were derived from the Bingham Plastic model.
a non-zero YP. The term YP was first introduced with the Except in rare cases, most drilling mud in common use is
Bingham-Plastic model. It was also used later in conjunc- not a true Bingham Plastic fluid. With these equations, only
tion with the Herschel-Bulkley model (also referred to as two of the normal six readings from the Fann viscometer are
the Modified Power-Law model). In order for a fluid to move used to estimate the value of YP. This approximation was
(γ > 0), the stress on the fluid must be greater than YP. The necessitated by limitations of early viscometers in the field
value of YP determines the vertical position of a curve in and by the need for a quick and easy estimation of rheology.
Figure 2. Therefore, a higher value of YP causes higher shear Unfortunately, this estimation is often grossly overestimat-
stress or frictional pressure not only at the start of the flow, ed. Because YP is defined as the shear stress at zero shear
but also at any shear rates or fluid velocities. rate, it might be better estimated using low shear rate read-
ings from the Fann Viscometer (readings at low rpm). When
The values of μ and n indicate how fast shear stress increas- estimated correctly, the value of YP should be slightly less
es with shear rate. When n = 1, the increase of shear stress than the 3 rpm shear rate reading.
with shear rate is linear and the value of μ is the gradient
of the straight line (such as Newtonian fluids and Bingham Some software offers tools to calculate rheology constants
Plastic fluids). If the value of n is less than one, the shear from all viscometer readings. Figure HY-3 shows one exam-
stress vs. shear rate plot deviates from a straight line. The ple. A user inputs all the viscometer readings into the mea-
smaller the value of n, the greater the deviation from a sured values table. The tool calculates the values of con-
straight line. Smaller values of μ and n, therefore, indicate a stants for each of the rheology models. Viscometer readings
slower increase of shear stress (or frictional pressure) with are shear stress measured in lbf/100 sq ft. The value of YP in

HY–4 HYDRAULICS
the same units should be slightly less than the 3 rpm shear
rate reading as is the case with the Herschel-Bulkley mod-
el in Figure HY-3. It is obvious that the YP of the Bingham
Plastic model in Figure HY-3 is overestimated. If Eq 1 and
Eq 2 are used, the calculated YP would be 12 lbf/100 sq ft,
which is obviously grossly overestimated since the reading
at 3 rpm is only 4 lbf/100 sq ft.
Both temperature and pressure affect the values of rhe-

ology constants as well as the mud density. The values of
viscometer readings can vary significantly when measured
at different temperatures and pressures. Most drilling flu-
id companies have the instruments to measure viscometer Figure HY-4: Fluid velocity profile over a cross-section
readings at various temperatures and pressures. It is good of the annulus. Courtesy Signa Engineering.
practice to involve the fluid rheology measurements at var-
ious temperatures and pressures in hydraulic calculations, Velocity and circulation rate
especially in high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) wells. determinations
Flow rate and fluid velocity Circulation rate for duplex pumps
Flow rate is the total volume of fluid passing through a cross Eq 3 determines the output volume of a duplex pump with
section of a pipe during a unit of time. The most commonly a single stroke.
used flow rate units are gal/min, cu m/min and bbl/day. The
conversion factors between these units are listed below: Eq 3 V1 = 0.5 * π * (2 * D2 − d2) * L * ε
1 gal/min = 0.0037854 cu m/min V1 is the output volume of a single stroke, D is liner diameter,
1 gal/min = 3.7854 l/min d is rod diameter, L is stroke length, and ε is pump efficiency.
1 gal/min = 34.2368 bbl/day If V1 is in gal and D, d, and L are in in., Eq 3 becomes:
Not all the fluid passing through a pipe moves at the same Eq 4 V1 = 0.0068 * (2 * D2 − d2) * L * ε
velocity. Due to the friction between the fluid and the pipe
wall, fluid near the pipe wall moves very slowly (velocity Pump efficiency is usually highest when the pump is new
close to zero), while fluid in the center of a pipe moves much and may be gradually reduced due to wear of pump parts.
faster. Similarly, when passing through an annulus, fluid in Pump efficiency may also be affected by mud properties. A
the center of an annulus moves much faster than it moves pump efficiency value between 0.9 and 0.95 is commonly
near the wall. Figure HY-4 displays a fluid velocity profile (in used in the drilling industry. The best way to obtain pump
blue color) over a cross section of an annulus. efficiency is by measuring the total strokes (S) needed to
pump a known volume (V) of fluid. V1 can be calculated by
The term fluid velocity, in practice, refers to the average ve- V1 = V/S. The pump efficiency can be calculated by substi-
locity of a fluid. An average velocity is defined as flow rate tuting the calculated V1 into Eq 3 or Eq 4.
divided by cross-sectional area. The commonly used veloci-
ty units in the drilling industry are ft/min, ft/sec, and m/sec. The circulation rate of a pump (Q in gal/min) is calculated
The conversion factors between these units are listed below: by multiplying V1 (calculated from Eq 3 or Eq 4) by stroke
per minute.
1 ft/min = 0.016667 ft/sec
1 ft/min = 0.00508 m/sec Eq 5 Q = V1 * Stroke/minute
Circulation rate for triplex pumps

Eq 6 determines the output volume of a triplex pump at a
single stroke.
Eq 6 V1 = 0.75 * π * D2 * L * ε

HYDRAULICS HY–5
V1 is the output volume of a single stroke, D is liner diameter, provides a quick estimation of BHP, it applies to single-phase,
L is stroke length, and ε is pump efficiency. If V1 is in gal, and incompressible liquid only. Although the compressibility of
D and L are in in., Eq 6 becomes: liquid is relatively small, the accumulated effects of fluid
density varying under different temperatures and pressures
Eq 7 V1 = 0.0102 * D2 * L * ε along the entire wellbore may not be negligible. In addition,
cuttings and formation influxes may also exist in the well-
Similar to a duplex pump, the pump efficiency of a triplex pump bore annulus. Wellbore hydraulic software, which handles
is also highest when the pump is new and may be gradually re- fluid compressibility and HPHT rheology, is necessary to
duced due to the wearing of parts. A value between 0.9 and achieve reasonable accuracy in predicting BHP.
0.95 is commonly used in the drilling industry. The best way
to obtain pump efficiency is by measuring the total strokes (S) Eq 11 BHP = P0 + P f + 0.052 ρ Dv
needed to pump a known volume (V) of fluid. V1 can be calcu-
lated by V1 = V/S. The pump efficiency can be calculated by BHP is in psi, P0 is choke pressure in psi, Pf is frictional pres-
substituting the calculated V1 into Eq 6 or Eq 7. sure loss over the wellbore annulus in psi, ρ is density in ppg
and Dv is vertical depth in ft.
Circulation rate of a pump (Q in bbl/min) is calculated by
multiplying V1 (calculated from Eq 6 or Eq 7) by stroke per Wellbore pressure management
minute. Many parameters affect wellbore pressure, so adjusting the
hydraulic parameters facilitates wellbore pressure manage-
Eq 8 Q = V1 * Stroke/minute ment. Of all fluid properties, density has the greatest effect
on wellbore pressure. Higher fluid density increases well-
Annular velocity bore hydrostatic pressure. Higher fluid density also increas-
Average fluid velocity is calculated by dividing the flow rate es the frictional pressure loss when the flow is in turbulence,
by the cross-section area. The cross-section area of an an- although the increase in frictional pressure loss caused by
nulus is calculated by Eq 9: increased fluid density is quite small compared to the in-
crease of hydrostatic pressure.
Eq 9 A = 0.25 * π * (D2 − d2)
Circulating flow rate is another parameter frequently used
A is the cross-section area (sq in.), D is the diameter or OD to control wellbore pressure. It is a widely accepted concept
of the annulus (in.), and d is the diameter of the pipe inside that BHP increases with increased circulating flow rate. This
the annulus (in.). In an open-hole section, D is the hole size. is true when there are no cuttings involved. (See the blue
In a cased-hole section, D is the casing ID. “d” is the drill pipe curve in Figure HY-5.) However, this might not be true when
OD, if the inside pipe is a drillpipe, or is the drill collar OD if cuttings exist in the annulus. The left side of the red curve in
the inside pipe is a drill collar. Figure HY-5 demonstrates the case where the BHP increas-
es, instead of decreases, with the reduction of circulating
Eq 10 V = 19.25 * Q / A rate. This BHP increase with the reduction of circulating rate
is an indication of poor hole cleaning.
V is average velocity in ft/min, Q is the flow rate in gal/min
and A is the cross-sectional area in sq in. Figure HY-4 displays the uneven fluid velocity profile (blue)
over a cross section of an annulus as well as the possible
Applications of hydraulics moving path of cuttings (red) as cuttings are transported to
The two most important applications of hydraulics are to the surface by the circulating fluid. Due to the uneven fluid
maintain wellbore pressure within the desired range and to velocity profile, cuttings tend to move sideways at the same
clean the hole. If wellbore pressure is too low, it may result in time they are being transported uphole. When the circulating
wellbore collapse and/or formation influx. If wellbore pres- flow rate is sufficient, cuttings hit the wall, bounce back and
sure is too high, it may reduce drilling efficiency or cause lost then continue to move uphole (left picture of Figure HY-4). If
circulation. If hole cleaning is insufficient, it can cause down- the circulating flow rate is insufficient, cuttings may not have
hole problems such as stuck pipe, high torque and drag, and enough momentum to bounce back from the wall. In this
low drilling efficiency. case, cuttings may fall back instead of moving toward the sur-
face (right picture of Figure HY-4) or accumulate on the lower
Estimating BHP side of the wellbore at a high-angle section. The falling back
Simplified equations (such as Eq 11) have been used in the or accumulation of cuttings always starts near the wall where
drilling industry to estimate the BHP. While this equation fluid velocity is the smallest over a cross section.

HY–6 HYDRAULICS
increase with circulating rate because higher flow rate caus-

Cuttings Accu.
Region es higher frictional pressure loss. Frictional pressure loss ex-
Bottom-Hole Pressure
ists along the entire circulation path but only when the fluid
Sufficient Hole is moving. Frictional pressure loss gradients over sections
Cleaining Region with different cross-section areas are different. Under the
same flow rate, a section with a smaller cross section area
With Cuttings has a higher average fluid velocity and this creates a higher
frictional pressure loss gradient.
Minimum BHP
No Cuttings
Rheology constants (YP, μ, and n) are the measure of fluid
Optimal Flow Rate resistance to flow. Higher values of these constants create
higher frictional pressure loss when all the other conditions
Circulation Flow Rate are the same. Generally speaking, the value of YP has more
effects when fluid velocity is low, while the values of μ and n
Figure HY-5: Effect of circulating flow rate have more effects when fluid velocity is high. A plot similar
on BHP. Courtesy Signa Engineering. to the one in Figure HY-2 indicates the combined effects of
YP, μ, and n on frictional pressure loss. Higher shear stress
Figure HY-4 displays the uneven fluid velocity profile (blue) means higher frictional pressure loss at the corresponding
over a cross section of an annulus as well as the possible shear rate or flow rate.
moving path of cuttings (red) as cuttings are transported to
the surface by the circulating fluid. Due to the uneven fluid Three parameters—density, viscosity, and velocity—help a
velocity profile, cuttings tend to move sideways at the same fluid to carry cuttings. The combination of these three pa-
time they are being transported uphole. When the circulating rameters provides a fluid with its capacity to carry cuttings.
flow rate is sufficient, cuttings hit the wall, bounce back and With heavy and viscous fluid, less velocity is necessary to
then continue to move uphole (left picture of Figure HY-4). clean the hole. On the other hand, with a low density and
If the circulating flow rate is insufficient, cuttings may not less viscous fluid, one needs to pump at a higher rate to pro-
have enough momentum to bounce back from the wall. In this vide sufficient velocity to clean the hole. A BHP versus pump
case, cuttings may fall back instead of moving toward the sur- rate plot such as the red curve in Figure HY-5 may be used
face (right picture of Figure HY-4) or accumulate on the lower to predict the optimal/minimum circulation rate to clean the
side of the wellbore at a high-angle section. The falling back hole. The pump rate that causes the lowest BHP should be
or accumulation of cuttings always starts near the wall where the minimum pump rate required to properly clean the hole,
fluid velocity is the smallest over a cross section. since any pump rate below this rate results in cuttings accu-
mulation, hence a higher bottom pressure.
If no cuttings are involved or when circulating rate is suffi-
cient to clean the hole, both BHP and pump pressure should

DP
DRILLING PRACTICES

IADC Technical
Resources

contracts and more.
position on a rig.
newsletter.
DRILLING PRACTICES DP-i
CHAPTER
DP
DRILLING PRACTICES
nance and repair.
the reader.
Contributors
Fred Dupriest, Texas A&M University
Iain Hutchison, Merlin ERD Ltd.
Eric van Oort, University of Texas at Austin
Neil Armstrong, Merlin ERD Ltd.
Reviewers
David Chen, Hess Corporation
Gregory Devinish, Baker Hughes Inc.
John DeWardt, DEWARDT & Company
Blaine Dow, Schlumberger
Dennis Moore, Marathon Oil Corporation
Sam Pickett, Chesapeake Energy Corporation
Paul Scott, ConocoPhillips
Boyd Waechter
Aron Deen, Ulterra Drilling Technologies L.P.
John Willis, Occidental Oil & Gas Corporation
DP–ii DRILLING PRACTICES


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-9-3

DRILLING PRACTICES Contents DP-iii
CHAPTER DP
DRILLING PRACTICES
Contents
Drilling mechanics and performance........................DP-1 Shaker material monitoring.....................DP-32
Bit mechanics............................................................ DP-1 Remedial hole cleaning practices..........DP-32
Testing bit performance......................................... DP-3 Avalanche regime practices
Causes of drilling dysfunctions............................DP-5 (40-65° inclination)........................................DP-33
Bit balling.........................................................DP-5 Tripping practices....................................................... DP-34
Bottomhole balling (BHB).......................... DP-7 Low-angle intervals (<40°).................................DP-35
Interfacial severity........................................ DP-7 Preparation and tripping�� DP-35
Vibrations........................................................ DP-7 Tight hole or drag at low angle�� DP-35
Connection practices................................................. DP-13 High- and intermediate-angle intervals
Applying and removing weight on bit..............DP-13 (>40°).................................................................DP-35
Applying WOB............................................DP-14 Tripping with partial bed removal ....... DP-36
Removing WOB..........................................DP-14 Response to pack-offs...............................DP-37
Applying WOB to motor or turbine......DP-14 Tripping with complete bed removal... DP-39
Surge and swab......................................................DP-14 Wellbore stability management............................. DP-39
Torque and drag data collection.......................DP-16 Instability and hole enlargement...................... DP-39
Reaming to condition hole......................................... DP-16 Shales............................................................DP-40
General reaming practices..................................DP-17 Sands.............................................................DP-40
Reaming rotary speed..........................................DP-17 Salt and tar................................................... DP-41
Ductile closure (swelling formations)..............DP-18 Hard formations.......................................... DP-41
Vibrationally induced borehole patterns........DP-18 Mud weight and downhole pressure
Undergauge filter cakes.......................................DP-20 management..................................................... DP-41
Reaming high-strength filter cake��DP-21 Borehole surveillance and response............... DP-43
Instability and enlarged hole..............................DP-21 Fluid chemistry and stability............................. DP-45
Pack-offs at low angle...............................DP-21 Lost circulation ...........................................................DP-46
Pack-offs at high angle.............................DP-22 Types of lost circulation and responses......... DP-46
Hole-cleaning practices............................................ DP-24 Seepage losses...........................................DP-46
Low-angle practices (0-40°)..............................DP-25 Induced fracture losses...........................DP-46
High-angle practices (40-65°)..........................DP-26 Vugular formations and open
Equilibrium beds.........................................DP-26 natural fractures................................... DP-49
Flow rate and rotation...............................DP-27 Fracture or formation breathing........... DP-49
Hole cleaning with borehole breakout.DP-28 Lost circulation practices....................................DP-50
Surface verification of acceptable hole Drilling and tripping.................................. DP-50
cleaning.................................................. DP-29 Running casing........................................... DP-52
Torque and drag monitoring.................. DP-29 Cementing................................................... DP-52

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
DRILLING PRACTICES DP-1
Drilling mechanics and performance PDC cutter

The drill rate that can be achieved with a specific bit is de-
termined by the aggressiveness of its design, the weight on
bit (WOB) applied, the rotations per minute (RPM) and the Indentation
Volume/destroyed min (ROP)
rock strength. When the RPM or WOB are increased, the depth (WOB)
rate of penetration (ROP) should increase proportionate-
Sliding distance per minute (RPM)
ly. If the increase is proportionate, the bit is efficient. Con-
sequently, if the ROP does not incease proportionately to
WOB, it is because something is making the rock cutting
process inefficient. There is a specific dysfunction causing Roller cone insert
the depth of cut to be less than it should be. When drilling
data is examined closely it is clear that in much of the foot-
age drilled the bit is not cutting efficiently and this, rather Indentation
Volume
than rock hardness, is the primary cause of low rates of pen- depth (WOB)
etration. The causes of inefficiency are known and for each
Sliding distance per minute (RPM)
type of bit dysfunction there are steps that can be taken im-
mediately by the driller to improve the efficiency, ROP, bit
life, and borehole quality. There are also engineering rede-
Figures DP-1a and -1b (from top): All bits essentially work
sign options, but the focus of this chapter is the actions that in the same manner. The rock volume removed per minute
can be taken by the driller. is determined by indentation depth and the combined
distance per minute that the cutters travel while engaged.
Bit mechanics
All bits drill in a very similar manner. When weight is applied, Rate of Penetration (ROP)
the cutting structure indents the rock to some depth, and
then as the bit is rotated the rock to the right of the buried Higher RPM
cutting structure is destroyed. Indentation depth in a given
rock is determined by the WOB the driller applies and the ro-
tating sliding distance per minute is determined by the RPM Effect of RPM
Lower RPM and WOB
used. The volume of rock, or drill rate, is the product of both
(Figures DP-1a and -1b). Indentation depths are not large,
and most of the volume of rock removed is from rotation and
the distance the cutters slide per minute. For example, the WOB
teeth of a more aggressive roller cone bit are aligned to stay
on bottom and engaged for a greater distance in the rock, so
they remove more rock volume per minute.
Softer rock
The expected responses to WOB are shown in Figures DP- Effect of rock
2a, -2b and -2c. If the bit is efficient, a plot of ROP vs WOB strength
will form a straight line, regardless of rock strength, bit cut- and WOB
Harder rock
ters and design, or RPM. The straight line is referred to as a
proportionate response, a term that will be used throughout
this chapter.
WOB
Figures DP-2b and -2c show the effects of rock strength and
bit aggressiveness. As rock strength increases, more WOB
will be required to achieve a given indentation depth (depth More
of cut). The change in depth of cut and ROP is approximately aggressive
proportionate to the change in rock strength. For example, if Effect of bit
aggressiveness
and WOB
Figures DP-2a, -2b, and -2c (at right, from top): If the bit is Less
efficient, a plot of ROP vs WOB will form a straight line, regardless aggressive
of rock strength, bit cutters and design, or RPM. Figure DP-2a: Effect
of WOB and RPM. Figure DP-2b: Effect of rock strength.
Figure DP-2c: Effect of bit aggressiveness. WOB

DP-2 DRILLING PRACTICES
Increased
founder point
Increased
ROP
inefficient
ROP 2 ROP
Efficient
1 Increased
inefficient WOB
WOB WOB
Figures DP-3a, -3b (from left): shows a straight-line response of ROP to WOB, indicating an efficient bit up to the founder point. The driller
must limit WOB to remain at or below the founder point. Figure DP-3b shows the result of changing real-time practices or design that elevate
the founder point to a higher WOB. The WOB the driller can now apply without foundering is increased, as is the achievable ROP.
the rock strength increases by 10% the drill rate should be interferes with the depth of cut. The bit becomes even less
expected to decline by about 10%. efficient if additional WOB is applied. Point 2 is referred to as
the founder, or flounder point. The driller achieves peak per-
The bit aggressiveness determines the indentation depth formance by determining the WOB at which the bit founders
and torque that will occur for a given WOB. As shown in Fig- and operating with a bit weight that is close to that point. The
ure DP-2c, a more aggressive bit will drill faster because any process of determining the founder WOB is repeated for var-
given WOB will cause it to indent to a greater depth of cut ious rotary speeds.
(DOC) per revolution.
In the case of bit balling, it is also useful for the driller to con-
When operating efficiently, rock strength and bit aggressive- duct step tests with the third parameter that he controls,
ness effect the drill rate, but large changes in drill rate are which is flow rate. Whether flow rate has any effect on per-
usually due to inefficiency or dysfunction in the rock cutting formance depends on the cause of bit dysfunction, but in-
process. If the bit is efficient, it is only necessary to raise the creased flow rate is almost always effective in increasing the
WOB or RPM in order to drill faster. If the bit is not cutting founder point for bit balling.
rock efficiently, the driller must identify and address the
cause of dysfunction in order to significantly increase perfor- Once the driller goes through the process of identifying the
mance. The types of dysfunctions and the driller’s response founder point, parameters are used that keep the operation
will be discussed. at or just below founder. Performance has been maximized
and cannot be improved further unless the cause of ineffi-
If the increase in ROP is not proportionate to changes in WOB ciency is addressed and the founder point is increased to a
or RPM, something is interfering with the indentation depth. higher WOB.
The poor response to WOB is referred to as bit founder. For
example, Figure DP-3a shows the relationship the driller will Figure DP-3b shows what should occur to increase perfor-
observe between WOB and ROP for bit balling, which is one mance further. In the case of bit balling, for example, if pump
form of founder. horsepower is not already fully utilized, the driller can change
the founder point by increasing the flow rate and nozzle fluid
As weight is initially applied, bits tend to be inefficient at velocity. This keeps the bit clean to a higher depth of cut and
very low loads. The efficiency increases as the weight is in- drill rate. Founder will still occur, but at a higher WOB. In one
creased. In Figure DP-3a the bit has reached its peak effi- field case, the founder point and achievable ROP were elevat-
ciency at Point 1, and a proportionate response is seen at any ed from 120 ft/hr to 500 ft/hr with the same bit when the bit
WOB between Point 1 and Point 2. When the bit is efficient, hydraulics were improved.
increased performance only requires that the driller contin-
ue to raise the WOB. Not only will the ROP increase, but it It might not be necessary for the driller to know why the
will also increase by the same amount for each incremental bit is foundering to find the best current operating parame-
increase in WOB. The response is linear, proportionate and ters. However, it is necessary to know the cause of founder
predictable. At Point 2, bit balling is beginning to occur, which in order to take the specific action required to significantly

5 25
10 50 Inefficient
Founder point
90
85
ROP (ft/hr)
Efficient
Depth
75
15 75 (straight line)
Founder point 50
20 85
25
25 90
5 10 15 20 25 30
WOB (K lbs) ROP (ft/hr) WOB (K lbs)

Figures DP-4a and -4b (from left): In Figure DP-4a, : WOB is increased in 5,000-lb steps, and ROP responds by increasing 25 ft/hr with
each step, up to 20,000 lb. Between 15,000-20,000 lb the bit founders, and the next increase in ROP is less than 25 ft/hr (10 ft/hr). If the
driller were to plot the average ROP at each WOB from the test in Figure DP-4a, it would produce the curve shown in Figure DP-4b. Founder is
the point at which the data is no longer a straight line (non-linear response).
improve the current limitations. For example, increasing the in WOB or RPM be exactly the same. If the bit is efficient, a
nozzle velocity will not improve performance if drillstring proportionate response will yield exactly the same increase
vibrations are causing bit inefficiency. Therefore, the driller in ROP, which is easy to see. If the steps are not exactly the
must have the knowledge and ability to determine the root same, the data can still be used, but the driller must physical-
cause. The drill team’s ability to identify the root causes of ly plot the ROP to see if the response plots as a straight line,
rock-cutting dysfunction in real time has been greatly en- as shown in Figure DP-4b. Using identical steps eliminates
hanced by the digital data now collected and the manner in the need for plotting; it is only necessary to see that the ROP
which it is processed and displayed on many rigs. There are change is the same with each fixed step in WOB to know that
specific actions the driller can take to improve bit efficien- the response is proportionate (straight line).
cy for every cause of dysfunction, and many other design
changes that can be made by engineering. If a downhole motor is being used, the same WOB step tests
are conducted, but the motor differential pressure may also
Testing bit performance be used to observe a proportionate response, rather than
Most performance tests take the form of some type of step just ROP. If the differential rises proportionately with each in-
test. An example step test for determining inefficiency is crease in WOB, the bit is efficient. If the pressure response is
shown in Figure DP-4a. In this case, the driller increases the less than proportionate, the rock-cutting process is becom-
WOB by 5,000 lb and the drill rate increases by 25 ft/hr. If ing inefficient.
the bit is efficient, the next 5,000 lb should yield another 25
ft/hr increase. If the drill rate increases by less than 25 ft/ Drill-off testing is a method developed in the 1950s to min-
hr after the next step in WOB, the response is not propor- imize the time to determine performance at various WOBs
tionate. The increased weight has caused some form of rock (Figure DP-5). The process works well with roller cone bits
cutting dysfunction (founder). While the drill rate has still at moderate to low drill rates, but it tends to be less effec-
increased, the bit has become less efficient. ROP will usually tive with PDC bits. The driller applies a high WOB, locks the
increase with WOB, but if the increase is not proportionate, top-drive position, and continues rotation. The rotating bit
something is wrong. The drilling performance is less than drills ahead and the locked string elongates, transferring the
it should be, and the dysfunction might also be damaging drillstring weight that had been applied to the bit back to the
to the bit. The same step test process can be applied when hook. The amount of drillstring elongation is called “stretch”.
changing RPM. Increase RPM in fixed steps (i.e., 5 rpm), The rate at which the hookload increases then provides an
and ROP should increase proportionately and by the same indication of how fast the string is elongating, which is also
amount with each step. the bit drill rate .
As long as a proportionate response is seen from step to In the following example, the driller is recording the time re-
step, increased performance only requires that the driller quired for each additional 3,000-lb increase in hookload to
continue to increase WOB or RPM to drill faster, and also to occur, which corresponds to a 3,000-lb decrease in bit load.
avoid damaging the bit or BHA. It is important that each step The ROP can be calculated and plotted during each incre-

Calculated ROP
Hookload Maximum ROP

increases as
(5) 20 sec, 106 k # weight drills off bit Founder point
(2)
(5) 17 sec, 109 k #
(4) 15 sec, 112 k #
(1)
(3) 12 sec, 109 k # (4) Starting
WOB
(2) 11 sec, 106 k # (5)
(1) 15 sec, 103 k # Hookload (6)
(100 k)
Calculated weight on bit
Figure DP-5: Drill-off test conducted by observing the time required to drill off 3,000-lb increments of weight on bit. The highest ROP occurs
at the WOB corresponding to the shortest required time per increment.
ment by the string stretch equation shown below. Stretch brations tend to dominate bit dysfunction with PDC bits. For
constants for API DP may be found in reference manuals. these reasons, surveillance practices have been developed in
recent years to continuously plot the amount of work the bit
DP Stretch is doing, and this value shows whether the bit is becoming
= (Stretch Constant for specific DP)*(DP Length) more or less efficient as changes are made in parameters.
*(Step Change in WOB) Eq 1
Mechanical Specific Energy is the work or energy being used
Where units are: per volume of rock drilled. MSE is plotted by the data-acqui-
DP Stretch, in.; sition computer alongside other drilling data, such as WOB,
Stretch Constant, (in./k lb)/k-ft; RPM and ROP. In theory, if the bit is perfectly efficient, the
DP Length, k ft; Step Change, k lb value of the MSE equals the rock strength in psi. But in field
practice, it is primarily used as a relative indicator and it is
“k” indicates thousands not necessary to know the rock strength. The driller makes a
change and observes the MSE to see if rock cutting efficiency
ROP = (DP Stretch/Time)*[(3,600 sec/hr)/12 in./ft) improved or declines.
Where units are: Figure DP-6 shows an MSE curve from a well in which bit
ROP, ft/hr; balling is occurring. The footage where the MSE is high in-
DP Stretch, in.; dicates that there is dysfunction (in this case, bit balling).
Time, sec When the bit drilled from a shale back into a sand, the MSE
fell, indicating the bit’s cutting structure has cleaned up and
The advantage of plotting data is to document the results and is now operating efficiently. Changes in rock hardness also
allow it to be communicated offsite. If documentation is not affect the energy required, but this is minor when compared
needed, drillers usually conduct the test by simply observing to the energy increase when bit dysfunction occurs, so these
the time required for each increment of weight to drill off and large changes in MSE are very useful in showing dysfunction.
then using the WOB corresponding to the fastest time. In this When combined with other information, it can also be used
example, the fastest drill rate would be seen at a WOB cor- to determine the cause of the problem.
responding to the 11- or 12-sec drill-offs (positions number 2
and 3 in Figure DP-5). Chasgnes in MSE can be related to effects of dysfunction
shown in Figure DP-7. If the MSE increases when a change
Mechanical Specific Energy (MSE) surveillance is another is made, the performance is moving further way from the ef-
method for determining drilling performance. Drill-off tests ficient performance, which would be the dashed blue line. If
are well suited to roller-cone bits, intermediate drill string it decreases, the performance is moving closer to the dashed
lengths with significant stored stretch, and bit balling. But the line. For example, the curve for whirl shows that if WOB is in-
procedure does not produce clear results with PDC bits that creased, the ROP performance moves closer to the predicted
drill with very light WOB, because the weight may drill off line, which means that inefficiency due to whirl is decreasing,
before meaningful data can be collected. Also, complex vi- and we would expect the MSE to go down. This is used as a

Rate of penetration (ROP)
Causes and effects of founder

Stick-slip
Bit balling
Efficient bit
w/expected DOC Whirl
Interfacial severity
Bottomhole balling
WOB
Figure DP-6: Example Mechanical Specific Energy (MSE) plot Figure DP-7: Founder, or rock-cutting dysfunction, causes the depth
showing severe bit dysfunction in shales due to bit balling and of cut and ROP to be less than it should be for a given WOB, causing
efficient drilling in sands. Nozzles were changed during a trip to performance to decline. The order in which the various dysfunctions
increase bit cleaning and the MSE curve now shows both shales and are seen as WOB is increased will vary and must be determined by
sands drilling efficiently. the driller in an organized step test.
diagnostic. If the WOB is increased, and the MSE declines, what is occurring in real time. The corrective actions that
we know that whirl was the cause of dysfunction to start can be taken immediately at the rig site will also be dis-
with. As shown in Figure DP-7, there is no other dysfunction cussed. Figure DP-7 shows the effect that each of the major
that improves as WOB is increased (e.g., moves closer to the forms of dysfunction may have on ROP as WOB is increased.
dashed line). In order to identify some of the other forms of At any given point in time only one of these usually domi-
founder, it is necessary to observe additional data, or to have nates. However, this is not always true and that can com-
more information about the drilling conditions. This is dis- plicate diagnosis. The types of rock cutting dysfunction dis-
cussed in the sections below. cussed are:
Bit balling: buildup of material on the bit that interferes
Regardless of the cause of dysfunction, the manner in which with depth of cut;
the driller uses the MSE to maximize real time performance is Interfacial severity: formations with hard inclusions or
the same. To get this performance, the driller must conduct layers that cause axial shocks and break cutters;
step tests by changing one parameter at a time (WOB, RPM Bottomhole balling: layer of ground cuttings held to the
or GPM). bottom of the hole by differential pressure;
If the MSE declines the dysfunction is getting better and Whirl vibrations: lateral motion of the string and bit;
performance is improving. Continue with more of the Stick-slip vibrations: torsional motion in which the bit
same change (i.e., even higher WOB); speed oscillates periodically;
If the MSE increases, the dysfunction is becoming Axial vibrations: axial motion in which the bit depth of
worse and performance is declining. Change the cut oscillates periodically.
parameter in the other direction (i.e., reduce the WOB);
If the MSE stays the same performance is on the The flow chart in Figure DP-8 summarizes a progression of
straight line portion of the drill off curve in Figure activities to maximize performance. There are five forms of
DP-3a. Continue increasing WOB to founder. dysfunction shown and the driller’s response to each. There
are also numerous engineering redesign options, but these
It should be emphasized that the driller cannot simply ob- are not within the scope of the chapter. The flow chart is not
serve the MSE curve and diagnose most root causes, or de- self-explanatory and the dysfunctions, testing procedures
termine the next action. Step tests must be conducted, and and responses are contained in the detailed discussions to
the MSE response to the change observed. It is the response follow.
that is diagnostic.
Bit balling
Causes of drilling dysfunctions Bit balling occurs when drilled material accumulates on the
Each of the categories of bit dysfunction will be discussed, cutting structure that begins to carry some of the applied
as well as the observations that can be made to diagnose WOB, so that the weight on the cutter tips is reduced. Con-

Figure DP-8: Flow chart for diagnosis and response to drilling dysfunction. This chart is not self-explanatory.
Details are explained in the text.
sequently, the indentation depth of the cutters for a given It is essential that the driller know the shapes of the curves for
WOB declines. Balling tends to occur in water-based muds the different dysfunctions in order to conduct logical tests.
and in shales that are relatively young. With few exceptions, While peak ROP can be found easily without understanding
it does not tend to occur in non-aqueous fluids (NAF), sands, the underlying dysfunction, the next steps that should be
carbonates or harder formations. It has been observed in taken to further improve this may not be obvious. There is a
marls, which are carbonates with some clay content. Forma- tendency to maintain peak ROP, and do nothing else.
tions at a similar depth tend to have a similar strength and
should drill at about the same ROP for a given WOB. Con- There are three changes the driller may consider to elevate
sequently, one diagnostic for bit balling is a large difference the founder point to allow more WOB and higher ROP when
between ROP in sands and shales at about the same depth. performance is limited by bit balling.
The bit balls in the shales, then cleans up in the sands, so Reduce the WOB to below founder, increase the RPM,
that the full WOB is again on the cutter tips, and the depth of and then repeat the WOB step tests. Increased RPM
cut will increase to the expected value (Figure DP-6). tends to elevate the WOB at which founder will occur.
There is also gain from the higher RPM itself;
As shown in Figure DP-7, balling occurs as WOB is in- If the pumps are not being operated at full rate and
creased. The shape of the notional curve suggests that once pressure specified in the contract, increase the pump
founder is reached, additional WOB will cause the condition rate. The increased hydraulics improve the removal of
to become even worse. The driller’s understanding of the the cuttings from the bit’s cutting structure and elevate
shapes of these curves allows him to conduct an effective the WOB and ROP at which founder will occur;
step test to find founder, but also to respond in a logical way. If an auto driller is being used, ensure that the WOB set
In the case of bit balling, the driller conducts WOB step tests, point is below the founder WOB previously determined
starting at a very low WOB (less than 3,000-5,000 lb). The from step tests.
notional curve shows that a proportionate response will be
seen in ROP up to the founder point. The driller identifies There are numerous additional engineering redesign options
the founder point when the response in ROP to the next in- to elevate the balling founder point that the driller may dis-
cremental increase in WOB is not proportionate (linear), as cuss with the team. Common responses are to select nozzles
discussed above. The driller then maintains WOB below the to increase the hydraulic energy at the bit, choose a bit with
founder point, or near to it. greater junk slot area, use high-speed motors to increase

ROP at WOB below founder point, and employ inhibitive or

non-aqueous fluids (oil-based mud). If dysfunction is seen in
a non-aqueous fluid, it is very unlikely to be due to balling,
except at extremely high drill rates.
Bottomhole balling (BHB)

Bottomhole balling is not common and is usually seen only
in deep wells with high hydrostatic head. If the hydrostatic
head is sufficient, the crushed material may form a layer on
the bottom of the hole. A filter cake forms on this crushed
layer, and the differential pressure across the filter cake
holds the material down. The granular layer of material
under the bit has the appearance of fine powder but it still
develops very high resistance to shear, due to the pressure
on the grains. The bit is essentially rotating on top of high-
strength powder. As shown in the type curve in Figure DP-7,
Figure DP-9: Hinge failures due to point loading
if bottomhole balling occurs, there will be little response to
in formations with interfacial severity.
changes in WOB. Drill rates are often less than 5-10 ft/hr.
The MSE is often in excess of 1,000,000 psi, meaning that
as much energy is being used as if the bottom of the hole erratic torque when drilling these types of formations. Hard
were made of natural diamond. inclusions tend to damage the nose cutters, while transition
into hard laminations tends to damage the outside cutters, as
Once bottomhole balling is established, the driller might not shown in Figure DP-9.
be able to change performance greatly with the parameters
he controls. The flow rate should be maximized to improve As shown in Figure DP-7, interfacial severity causes bit per-
the hydraulic impact on the crushed material, and higher formance to be inefficient at any WOB. There is no distinct
RPM may result in a small increase in drill rate. founder point. ROP will continue to increase with WOB, but
not proportionately. While higher WOB will always result
The engineering redesign options the team might discuss in higher ROP, there is a load at which the bit will become
are use of clear fluid that does not form a filter cake on the severely damaged. If MSE surveillance curves are used, the
powder, high-speed motors or turbines with diamond im- MSE will increase with increasing WOB during step tests.
pregnated bits suitable for the heat generated by turbines, But the most distinguishing diagnostic is the distinct nature
underbalanced drilling, extended nozzles on roller cone bits, of the bit damage that will be seen. There is no other dys-
and inserts in roller cone bits with aggressive shapes. function that causes hinge failures.
Interfacial severity The driller’s objective is to apply the highest WOB that will
A formation with interfacial severity is one with hard materi- not reduce the bit life so greatly that the it cannot drill to the
al embedded in softer material, or hard streaks layered with next casing point. The WOB that achieves this can only be
soft streaks. When a cutter makes contact with the harder determined over a series of wells by trial and error.
material, the force that is normally distributed across the
cutting structure becomes focused on the smaller hard con- Vibrations
tact point and the structure that supports the cutter breaks. Vibrations are the most common cause of rock-cutting
This results in failures similar to those shown in Figure DP- inefficiency. The design of the bit’s cutting structure and
9, which are called hinge failures. These failures are often bottomhole assembly affects its tendency to vibrate, but
located in the nose of the bit, but they may occur in other in most cases, the manner in which the driller manages the
areas as shown in this example. operating parameters has an equal or greater effect. Recog-
nition and response practices will be discussed for the three
The hard inclusions may be grains of material such as pyrite, forms of vibrations:
or small nodules such as rocks that might be deposited with- Lateral (whirl);
in softer shale in a riverbed, or cherty nodules in a carbonate. Torsional (stick slip);
High-point loading also occurs when the bit enters hard lam- Axial (bit bounce).
inations. This also occurs in horizontal wells drilled through
vertical fractures in which hard calcareous material has been »» Bit forensics and vibrations
deposited. The driller may observe high axial shocks, and The driller can often determine the dominant type of vi-

Lateral
(whirl)
Torsional
(stick slip) Axial
(bit bounce)
Figure DP-10a and 10b (from left): Figure DP-10a (left) shows a uniformly worn bit, indicating no significant
damage due to vibration or interfacial severity. Each type of vibration causes accelerated wear or damage in
specific areas. Figure DP-10b shows the areas of a bit that tend to be affected most by each form of vibration.
The dominant vibration can often be diagnosed from the location of damage observed by the driller.
bration experienced by the bit by examining the location wear will be dominated by only one major form of vibration at
of accelerated wear or damage across the bit face. Bits are a time. Regardless, the driller must look at other information
designed to wear fairly uniformly, with slightly more wear to know when it occurred, or to determine the specific drill-
on the outer cutters than those on the inner rows (Figure ing practice that caused or allowed the vibration. Real time
DP 10a). If the cause of wear is an abrasive formation, rock vibrations monitoring and other mechanical drilling data are
hardness, or long run time, wear will be seen on all cutters. the primary tools used to manage the bit. However, bit foren-
Wear or breakage in only a small area is usually the result of sics can provide a good indication of whether those practices
one of the three forms of vibration listed above. are working as well as desired, and in many cases it may pro-
vide the driller with some understanding of the practices that
Figure DP-10b shows the areas of a bit that tend to be af- need to be changed.
fected most by each form of vibration. Figure DP-11a, for
example, shows a bit with accelerated wear on the outside, Take detailed pictures of each bit pulled. Position the bit in
and no wear on the inside cutters. This indicates the bit has good light and rotate the bit so that the picture taken of each
been operating in whirl. Figure DP-11b shows a bit that may blade or cone is in the same light with no shadows. Begin-
have been primarily damaged by stickslip in a hard forma- ning with the number one blade or cone, take a picture of
tion. There are situations where two types of vibrations can each that essentially fills the view of the camera. Take a pic-
be coupled, with one causing another, so that both are oc- ture of a top view and a general side view showing the gauge
curring at the same time. Also, the dominant vibration may length. Take additional pictures of individual cutters or cones
change as drilling progresses. But in the majority of cases, bit that have unique damage. Thorough photo documentation,
Figure DP-11a and 11b (from left): In Figure DP-11a (left), whirl is diagnosed from the accelerated wear in the outer rows,
with little wear inside the nose of the bit. Figure DP-11b: Stick-slip is diagnosed from accelerated wear in the inner rows and
nose, with little wear on the shoulder. There is also breakage which may be due to formations with interfacial severity

allows other crew members, vendors and supporting Of the three assemblies shown in Figure DP-13, the
engineers to understand the nature of the vibrations one with the lowest wave amplitude will drill faster
and the changes in real time parameters and post-drill because the smaller wave will create less tilt and dis-
design that may be required to address them. placement of the bit from side to side (bit whirl). The
size of the wave depends on imbalance in the BHA,
»» Whirl (lateral vibrations) but also on whether the rotational speed used is close
When the bottomhole assembly is rotated, any im- to one of the BHA’s resonant speeds. A resonant speed
balance tends to cause the BHA to flex and develop a is one at which the magnitude of the wave is amplified.
sine wave (Figure DP-12). The predicted bending stress The modeling for Figure DP-13 was developed for a
for three different BHAs are shown in Figure DP-13 and specific RPM, and the assemblies with the highest dis-
superimposed so that the differences in the magnitude placement off center are those with a natural resonant
of the deflection can be seen. The wave may rotate with speed that is closer to the specific RPM.
the string in a jump rope action, or it may oscillate across
the hole. This lateral movement of the string off To reduce whirl in the BHA, the system must be rede-
center is referred to as whirl. The bit is also signed so that it does not resonate at the desired operat-
part of the string, so bit whirl is not inde- ing RPM. More often, the driller must change the oper-
pendent of BHA whirl. As the wave passes
Whirl ating speed to one at which the BHA does not resonate.
through the bit its face is tilted and pressed Simulations such as the one depicted in Figure DP-13
from side to side. This movement may be small, can also be performed for a given BHA at different RPM
but its negative effect on the bit’s indentation depth and speeds to help the driller understand the range of RPM
ROP is significant. Even low levels of whirl routinely re- that might be quiet with a given BHA. Altogether, there
duce the averaged indentation depth so that the ROP are two approaches to managing resonant whirl. In real
might be a fourth, or even less, of what it should be for a time, the driller must change the RPM so that the BHA
given WOB. The force with which the bit is driven into the in the hole is not resonating, or in post-drill design, en-
side of the hole also accelerates wear in the outside cut- gineering must change the BHA so that it does not nat-
ters (Figure DP-11a), reduces bit life and may cause the urally resonate at the RPM the driller needs to operate.
bit to cut patterns in the side of the hole that create drag.
The cutters on a contemporary PDC bit are much hard- Downhole vibration monitoring tools are used to diag-
er than the formations typically drilled. Consequently, nose the presence and magnitude of whirl in the BHA.
very few formations will wear them rapidly unless there These tools were developed to alert the driller to levels
is some form of vibration creating high local loads of vibration that might damage, the BHA compo-
and impact damage. If the driller is able to manage nents. They do not provide a direct measure of
whirl to low levels, most lateral movement at the
intervals can be drilled Figure DP-12: Bottomhole assembly forms an oscillating sine wave when bit itself. But it is generally
with a single PDC bit. rotated, which may damage the outside cutters of a bit, if the cutting the case that if the driller
structure is not buried quickly, so that the bit resists sideways movement. takes steps to reduce the
Rotation at the RPM used Bit tilt

Bending moment
Shear force
Figure DP-13: Comparison of predicted bending moments, which indicate the magnitudes of the oscillating wave that would exist in
three different BHA designs. Each color represents a different BHA. The shear force, or side loading, on the BHA and stabilizers is also
shown. The assembly with the lowest bending force has less flex when rotating at the RPM used, which is the red curve in this case.

Figure DP-14a shows a step

test in a uniform formation over
a 35-min period. A decline in
MSE in response to increasing
WOB is diagnostic for whirl.
Continue to raise the WOB to
further increase the depth of cut
to constrain the bit whirl and
improve drill rate and bit life.
Figure DP-14b shows a step test

in a non-uniform interval with
harder and softer formations.
With each step, maintain the
new WOB until drilling returns
to the dominant formation in the
interval. The MSE also declines in
the softer formation, as the whirl
that is being suppressed is usually
from the BHA, and present at all
times. If whirl is dominant, the
trend will decline in both formation
types as WOB is increased.
magnitude of the wave in the BHA, the lateral movement at MSE may also be used with step tests to diagnose and man-
the bit will also be reduced, and ROP, bit life and borehole age whirl at the bit. If the MSE declines as WOB is increased,
quality will improve. bit whirl is being suppressed by the increased cutter engage-
ment and the driller should continue to increase WOB. An ex-
The degree to which whirl affects bit performance can be de- ample of an MSE step test in a uniform formation is shown in
duced by conducting WOB step tests and observing wheth- Figure DP-14a. The decline in MSE shows that the increased
er there is a disproportionate increase in ROP to increased ROP is due to reduce whirl, meaning that the increased WOB
weight. As shown in Figure DP-7, whirl is the only form of will actually extend the life of the bit. Not only is ROP increas-
bit dysfunction that improves as WOB is increased (i.e., the ing due to increase energy input, but bit is using the energy
performance of the bit moves closer to the efficiency line). it’s given with greater efficiency. Continue raising WOB if the
Increased WOB increases the depth of cut, which reduces MSE continues to decline or remain the same, or until some
the ability of the bit to move laterally in response to the wave other non-bit factor, such as hole cleaning, limits the ROP.
in the BHA. As the cutting structure is buried more deeply,
there is more surrounding rock, so the cutters have more re- Figure DP-14b shows a WOB step test in an interval in which
sistance to lateral movement. The driller should continue to the lithology is changing. Softer formations are encountered
increase the WOB as long as disproportionate gains are seen in three areas, and the MSE will decline due to the reduced
in ROP. For example, if the first 5,000-lb increase results in energy required to drill. Maintain the same WOB until drilling
a 10-ft/hr gain in ROP, and the next causes a 20-ft/hr gain, returns to the dominant formation type so that a meaningful
that is better than expected. The response is more than pro- comparison can be made within similar formations. If there
portionate. It is not simply that the ROP is increasing, which is a great amount of footage of multiple types of formation,
is to be expected when WOB is increased, but that the re- performance may be maximized by establishing different pa-
sponse is greater than expected when whirl is present. rameters for each type of formation.

In addition to conducting WOB steps test, the driller should the bit may lose depth of cut so there is suddenly less rock
conduct RPM tests to ensure resonant speeds are avoided. resisting bit rotation. The torque stored in the string then
These speeds should be determined after drilling out of cas- accelerates the bit as the string unwinds and the bit travels
ing when the stabilizers are in new hole. Begin with a mod- faster than the string rotation at the surface. After winding
erate WOB and a relatively low RPM and increase the speed clockwise and storing twist in the forward direction, the
in 10-15 rpm steps. Use downhole vibration tools to deter- bit unwinds in the counter-clockwise direction, and sub-
mine the speed at which whirl is lowest. In some cases it has sequently rewinds. This process repeats itself, resulting in
proven to be necessary to stop string rotation completely continued oscillation in bit speed. This occurs within the
between steps in order to dissipate the current whirl ener- general forward motion of the string. For example, if the
gy prior to conducting the next RPM step test. Attempt to rotary speed is 150 rpm and the string is winding 50 rpm
change RPM in continuous steps initially, but if the level of in each direction, the overall downhole bit speed will vary
whirl observed is not responding to changes stop the string between 100-200 rpm. In a typical well, this cycle requires
between RPM steps to and compare the results. 4-10 sec, depending primarily on the string’s stiffness and
length. The torque at the surface will be seen to cycle up and
If downhole accelerometer tools are not available, MSE can down at the same 4- to 10-sec period.
be used to determine the speed at which the bit is most effi-
cient, which usually corresponds to the lowest level of whirl This behavior is called speed or torque oscillation. As the
in the BHA. Conduct RPM step tests and determine the RPM WOB and depth of cut are increased further, putting the
at which the MSE is lowest. It is not possible to predict the system under even higher torsional load, the magnitude of
exact magnitude of whirl in the BHA from the MSE. Howev- the speed oscillations tends to increase. If a point is reached
er, the relative response of the MSE to RPM does typically at which the backward bit speed equals the forward surface
indicate whether the level is improving or increasing. While RPM, the bit comes to a full stop on each backward rotation.
MSE provides a direct measure of the effects of bit whirl on This is referred to as stick slip, or full stick. As the magnitude
rock-cutting performance, downhole vibration tools are re- increases the period will continue to be 4-10 sec, or whatever
quired to know whether the levels of whirl in the BHA are the natural period is for the given string.
damaging.
Moderate speed oscillations do not tend to be damaging.
RPM tests should also be conducted to determine safe ream- Higher levels will tend to accelerate wear in the nose and
ing speeds. When reaming, the bit is free to move laterally inner rows of the bit (Figure DP-11b). It may also damage
creating BHA damage and an increase in side-cutting. or loosen the drillpipe threads to a point that a back-off or
parting of the string could occur, especially when using an
There are numerous engineering redesign options for whirl older pipe with high rotating hours. High accelerations can
the driller can discuss with the drill team. These include also damage downhole tools and electronics. If the magni-
changing stabilizer positions to alter the resonant RPM and tude progresses to full stick rapid damage may occur to the
magnitude of whirl in the BHA, extending the gauge length bit, and if the magnitude of oscillation is even greater the bit
on PDC bits, minimizing the bend angle in steerable motors may rotate backwards so that the PDC cutters are pulled of
to no more than irequired for steering, and using rotary steer- the studs from the backside.
able tools rather than bent motors.
As shown in Figure DP-7, speed oscillations begin to oc-
Almost any BHA will have at least some low level of whirl cur as the WOB is increased, so that the founder point is
when rotated. A need always exists for at least a moderate determined with WOB step tests, as previously described.
level of WOB and depth of cut to constrain the effects of BHA However, because moderate oscillations are not damaging,
whirl on ROP, bit life and the creation of vibrationally induced the driller should continue to raise the WOB somewhat and
borehole patterns. If non-bit factors cause ROP and WOB to drill ahead with an acceptable level of oscillation. The WOB
be limited, these should be addressed to allow higher WOB. should not be limited to eliminate all oscillation, or the drill
Examples of performance limiters that might result in light rate might fall significantly due to the lower depth of cut, and
WOB are inadequate hole cleaning, solids control equip- lower WOB also increase whirl. The driller should consult
ment, inclination control or bit face control. with the downhole tool vendor to determine acceptable lev-
els of speed oscillation and accelerations.
»» Stick slip (torsional vibrations)
As WOB is increased and torque is applied to the drill string, Downhole vibration tools can be used to measure the mag-
bit torque and drag cause the long string to twist and wind nitude of the oscillations in bit speed as additional WOB is
up. As a result, the bit position may be well behind that of applied. The use of downhole tools allows the driller to con-
the string at the surface. At some level of WOB and torque, tinue to run the highest WOB that does not create damag-

Figure DP-15a (left): Oscillation in bit speed measured by a downhole drilling dynamics tool is shown in the upper section. Full
stick slip is indicated in the lower section where the bit speed is zero (or backwards) on each cycle. Figure DP-15b: Regular periodic
torque oscillation at the surface indicates oscillation in downhole bit speed. Figure DP-15b courtesy of Ultra Petroleum Corp.
ing torque oscillations or full stick slip. An example display is er’s response is to temporarily reduce the WOB, increase the
shown in Figure DP-15a. RPM and attempt to reapply higher WOB. Increased RPM
will generally reduce the magnitude of torque oscillations
If downhole tools are not available, the magnitude of the pe- and it may be possible to achieve higher ROP at the higher
riodic oscillations in surface torque is used to establish op- RPM before the allowed threshold in oscillations is again ex-
erating limits (Figure DP-15b). Torque transmits very well ceeded. However, the driller also needs to ensure the new
up the string and downhole torque oscillations will be seen RPM does not create higher whirl. Overall, the highest per-
clearly in amperage or torque curves. The period will be the forming combination of parameters cannot be predicted and
same as the oscillations downhole, usually 4-10 sec. The must be determined in field tests.
WOB is raised until the magnitude of the torque oscillations
reaches a predetermined level the team has agreed on in ad- Torsional oscillation and stick slip can also occur due to
vance. The driller raises WOB until the torque swings equal torque in the string above the bit. Stabilizers do not normal-
that agreed-upon percentage, and then maintains the WOB ly generate significant torque. However, if whirl has caused
while drilling ahead. The rise and fall of the torque during the bit to generate a borehole pattern with under-gauge
simple torque oscillation should be symmetric and smooth. pass-through, the stabilizers will take weight on the pattern
If the system does go into full stick and the bit is stopping and generate torque. Borehole patterns are discussed in the
completely, the shape of the torque oscillations will become section on Reaming to condition the hole. High levels of BHA
asymmetric and the torque will rise slowly and fall very rap- whirl may also simply press the stabilizers into the borehole
idly with each cycle. This is diagnostic of full stick and the wall with great force, which creates torque. The driller’s re-
driller should reduce WOB immediately. sponse is to ensure whirl is minimized so that the borehole
pattern created is not so severe, or that the lateral force in the
Because the period of oscillations is commonly in the range stabilizers is reduce. While the behavior observed will be that
of 4-10 sec, digital displays are required that plot data ev- of stick slip, the actual root cause is whirl in the BHA. The
ery second, or individual cycles cannot be seen. One-second driller will also see whirl damage to the bit because of the low
data is particularly essential in order to determine whether transfer of weight, rather than damage expected from stick-
the plotted torque cycles have become asymmetric in shape, slip. One diagnostic is that if the stabilizers are sitting down
indicating that full stick is occurring. Also, if data is being on a spiral pattern, torque will increase proportionately as
monitored offsite, ensure it is being transmitted at least once WOB is increased, but ROP will not, and MSE will rise. It is
each second or offsite personnel will not be able to see the also likely that wear will be seen on the lower shoulders of the
torque oscillations. stabilizers where they contact the spiral borehole pattern.
When torque oscillations reach the allowed level, the drill- The engineering redesign options the team may consider to

extend the WOB at which stick slip will limit performance swab management. Pipe handling and makeup, hole clean-
includes properly designed depth of cut control on the bit, ing practices and reaming operations are discussed in other
increased drill string diameter and stiffness, use of roller sections of this chapter.
reamers if the torque creating stick slip is due to drag in the
stabilizers due to whirl, use of lubricants to reduce torque in Applying and removing weight on bit
the string, and rig control systems that actively manage top The primary concern when placing a bit on bottom and ap-
drive torque to stop stick slip. plying weight on bit (WOB) is the management of whirl. A
more detailed discussion of the forms of vibrations can be
»» Bit bounce (axial vibrations) found in the Drilling Mechanics section of this chapter.
The source of periodic axial vibrations with roller cone bits
differs from PDC bits. In firm to hard formations drilled at The level of whirl is typically higher when rotating off bottom,
low ROP, roller cone bits may create a three-lobed pattern or with light WOB, than when drilling with normal WOB. In
on the bottom of the hole. Each time the bit rotates, it rides some cases the wear and damage done during connections
up and down three times on this pattern. For example, if the may be greater than that while drilling. When a bottomhole
bit is rotated at 60 rpm, it will rise and fall 180 times per min- assembly is rotated the drill collars flex and form a wave that
ute. If this matches the resonant axial frequency of the drill oscillates around or across the hole. As this oscillating wave
string, the upward movement of the bit will become larger passes through the bit, it forces it against the side of the hole,
and drilling efficiency will decline. This is not common and creating accelerated wear on the outside cutters. Impact
does not occur with PDC bits. damage may also occur in harder formations or at more vio-
lent levels of whirl. The lateral movement in the drill collars is
If periodic axial vibrations are observed with roller cone bits, often referred to as BHA whirl, and that of the bit as bit whirl,
the driller should conduct RPM step tests to determine a but they are part of the same oscillating wave. Tools capable
rotational speed at which the lobed pattern is not creating of sensitive measurements show that there is some level of
axial pulsed at the string’s resonant speed. A disproportion- whirl in any BHA and bit whenever it is rotated off-bottom.
ate gain in drill rate will be observed, or if MSE surveillance The driller’s practices may help to manage the whirl to levels
is available the MSE will decline. If the pattern persists, the that are not damaging.
driller must reduce the WOB to limit the damage. The dam-
age may also be mitigated with shock subs, but these must A common practice has been to apply WOB slowly, and with
be properly selected with spring constants and response normal drilling RPM. However, in recent years, downhole vi-
behavior appropriate for the application or they may not be bration measurement tools and mechanical specific energy
effective. (MSE) surveillance have shown that bits may be damaged
during the time that the depth of cut is low and the cutters
Periodic axial vibrations with PDC bits are usually due to stick are not constrained from moving laterally. This is particular-
slip. As the string winds it shortens, and then it lengthens ly true at such low weight that the beveled chamfer on the
when it unwinds, creating oscillations in WOB and hookload. cutters has not been buried. As WOB and depth of cut are
The driller’s response should be to address the stickslip, as increased, the rock surrounding the cutters provides more
previously discussed. resistance to lateral motion created by the wave in the BHA.
Acute axial events that are not periodic are referred to as Consequently, the recommended practice has become to
shocks, rather than vibrations, and they occur with both start with a lower RPM and to apply WOB quickly. Also,
PDC bits and roller cones. Formations that create high axial WOB should be removed quickly when coming off bottom
shocks tend to have high interfacial severity, which has been for the same reasons. Figure DP-16a shows a connection
previously discussed. The driller should reduce the WOB to during which weight is applied slowly. The high mechanical
limit the damage sufficiently to enable the bit to survive drill- specific energy plotted indicated the high level of whirl oc-
ing the interval. Reduced rotary speed may also minimize the curring. In contrast, Figure DP-16b shows an example of the
damage. Shock subs may be used and the team may consider weight being applied in less than one minute and the MSE is
the use of less aggressive bits, or depth of cut control in the immediately low and the bit is cutting rock efficiently. The
bit design. objective is to achieve depth of cut quickly so that the bit can
resist the lateral force from the wave.
Connection practices The rapid application of WOB reduces bit whirl and wear to
This section discusses management of downhole opera- the trim and outside cutters, which increased average ROP
tions when making a connection, including vibration man- over the life of the bit. Limiting side cutting also helps to en-
agement, torque and drag measurement, and surge and sure vibrationally induced borehole patterns are not created

Figure DP-16a (left): WOB being applied in steps following a connection. The high MSE with the lower WOB indicates
whirl and lateral movement of the bit at low depth of cut. At higher depth of cut, the cutting structure is buried enough
to constrain the lateral movement and the bit cuts more efficiently (reduced MSE). Figure DP-16b: The planned WOB is
applied in less than one minute. MSE is low indicating there is little lateral movement of the bit. Whirl may still exist in
the BHA, but its effect on the bit is being constrained by deeper engagement of the cutters with the formation.
at the start of each stand. There have been no negative is- is in use, the mass imbalance creates significant whirl, even
sues observed in field practices from applying WOB quickly at low string rotational speeds. Light WOB and low depth
in formations as diverse as very soft clays to very hard igne- of cut allows the bit to move more laterally in response and
ous rock. may result in damage to the outside cutters, particularly
in firmer formations. If a higher speed motor is used, the
The sequences for applying and removing WOB are: impact on the cutters may be even greater, particularly in
harder formations. Bent motors also have a strong intrinsic
Applying WOB tendency to create spiral or lobed patterns in the borehole.
After making a connection, increase the pump rate to These are enhanced if the bit is allowed to whirl and may be
the full drilling rate and lower the bit to bottom; started with each stand if light WOB is used. Borehole pat-
Approach bottom with reduced RPM to minimize the terns result in tight hole, the need for reaming, and they are
amplitude of whirl in the BHA (i.e., 80-100 rpm); the primary cause of weight transfer problems while sliding.
Apply the full planned WOB in 30-60 sec; Prior to tagging bottom, bring the pump rate up to full
While applying WOB, observe the surface torque for circulating rate while rotating the drill string at normal
high period oscillations indicating stick slip. The low drill rates when using a motor ( i.e., 20-60 rpm);
RPM used to minimize whirl may cause the system to Apply WOB required to achieve the planned motor
be more prone to stick slip. If stick slip occurs, increase differential within 30-60 sec;
the RPM and attempt to apply WOB again; In harder formations, or when damage to the outside
After full WOB is applied, drill 1-2 ft, and then increase cutters has been seen, consider tagging bottom at a
the RPM to the normal drilling speed. lower pump rate to reduce the bit speed while applying
WOB. Increase the pump rate only after full WOB is
Removing WOB applied
Do not allow the WOB to drill off. As the depth of cut
decreases, the lateral movement of the bit due to whirl Surge and swab
in the BHA will increase, possibly damaging the outside Any upward movement of the string during connections
cutters; will cause a drop in bottomhole pressure, which is referred
Pick up off bottom in a single slow motion. Reduce RPM to as swab. Swab may result in an influx if the bottomhole
immediately to a level that does not cause severe whirl pressure falls below formation pressure. It may also result
in the BHA; in borehole collapse and cavings if the bottomhole pressure
If torque and circulating pressures indicate there is no falls below the equivalent MW required to maintain a stable
need to ream, stop rotation and pull pipe while hole. If an interval is drilled without trouble, and cavings and
continuing to circulate to make the connection; instability are then seen after a trip, it is likely due to reduced
If torque or circulating pressures indicate the need to bottomhole pressure from swab during the trip.
ream, see recommended practices in the Reaming
discussion. The driller should discuss the pore pressure and required
equivalent stability MW with the operator and plan to limit
Applying WOB to motor or turbine pipe movement to speeds that do not reduce the bottomhole
Because the string rotational speed is low when motors pressure below critical levels, both on connections and while
are used, the whirl the bit experiences from the BHA with a tripping.
straight motor is usually not high. However, if a bent motor

Swab occurs when steel volume is pulled Measured depth (ft)

8,000
from the bottom of the hole and mud
Predicted and actual I & D
must flow down the annulus to replace 9,000
it. For example, if a stand containing 2 Predicted slackoff
bbl of steel is pulled in one minute, the 10,000 Predicted rotating
entire annulus must fall by 2 bbl/min as Predicted pick up
11,000 Actual
the stand is pulled. The drop in bottom-
hole pressure that occurs will equal the 12,000
pressure drop down the entire annulus Significant divergence in
pickup and slackoff
that results from a flow rate of 2 bbl/ 13,000
min. Swabbing is not primarily due to a
14,000
plunger effect at the bit, as the pressure
drop across the bit itself is very small. Slackoff Rotating Pickup
15,000
The factors that increase swab are the 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
length of the annulus (depth), the clear- Hookload (k lb)
ance in the annulus, the rheology of the
Figure DP-17: Predicted vs actual drag plots showing a large
mud, and the rate at which the pipe is divergence and potential borehole problem near bottom.
pulled (which determines the flow rate
down the annulus).
If overbalance is low, pick up off the slips very slowly
Surge is a similar process, but the flow will be up the annulus and move the pipe only as far as required to get off the
as steel volume is run in the hole. The bottomhole pressure is slips. Then begin rotation to break the gel strength and
increased by the amount of the pressure drop in the annulus condition the mud prior to pulling additional pipe;
from the bit to the surface. In both cases, the greatest change If a top drive is in use, swab can be eliminated by
in pressure will be when pipe movement is first initiated be- establishing circulation before pipe movement. This is
cause the gel strength that develops as fluid is static resists referred to as pumping the pipe out of the hole, and may
flow. IThe pressure required to accelerate the mass of fluid be necessary when operating with mud weights very
returning up the annulus at the start of each stand is also sig- close to pore pressure or the mud weight required for
nificant. It is therefore particularly important to manage the borehole stability. Swab is eliminated if the volume
first moments of pipe movement. pumped down the DP while pulling pipe equals the
The annulus should be filled at a rate that the keeps it volume of steel pulled per stand;
full while pulling pipe. This will not eliminate the drop in If the mud weight is very close to that required to
bottomhole pressure from swab, but it will prevent the maintain borehole stability, swab during trips may
decline in bottomhole pressure from being even greater; cause the borehole to collapse. If boreholes appear
Drilling connection gas enters when the wellbore stable while drilling, but cavings are found after
pressure during connections falls below formation tripping, the cause may be swabbing. Increase the mud
pressure. This may be due to inadequate base mud weight prior to tripping or reduce the pipe pulling speed.
weight, or to swab. Monitor the trend from one drilling Monitor the volume of cavings on the shaker to assess
connection to the next. If an increasing trend is seen, the effectiveness of these changes. Hydraulic swab and
increase the mud weight to allow for the swab, or stability modeling may also help to establish safe
reduce the rate at which pipe is pulled during pulling speeds;
connections; If the annulus becomes packed off, continued
When tripping, the gas swabbed in as each stand is reciprocation through the pack-off material will result in
pulled is usually a small volume. However, the severe swab and very low BHP beneath the pack-off.
cumulative volume over a number of stands may This may result in an influx or formation collapse.
become a well control risk. Observe the fill volume from Rotate the pipe and move it very slowly when working
the trip tank for any change in the initial behavior during through a pack-off. Consider maintaining a small
the trip; positive pump pressure on the DP while moving pipe so
When drilling with little overbalance, consider short that the bottomhole pressure below the pack-off does
tripping a few stands, and returning to bottom, then not fall as pipe is moved upward;
circulating bottoms up to check for gas. If excessive gas Surge and swab cause the bottomhole pressure to
is observed, raise MW or reduce pulling speeds. increase or decrease, regardless of whether the well is
Consider a second short trip to confirm the changes being circulated. If the circulating wellbore pressure is
were adequate; very close to integrity, the pipe’s downward motion

should be slowed to minimize the additional pressure 8. Record rotating hookload and torque with pumps
created by surge. off;
9. Pick up 20 ft at constant moderate rate and record
Torque and drag data collection pick-up weight with pumps off;
Torque and drag data is collected on connections and plot- 10. Lower string at a constant moderate rate and record
ted against predicted values to help identify borehole prob- slack-off weight with pumps off;
lems before they become major trouble. Example problems 11. After making the connection record, pick up weight
that can be diagnosed from drag data may include poor hole after pulling off slips.
cleaning, instability, filter cake growth, micro doglegs, key
seats and vibrationally induced borehole patterns. An ex-
ample plot is shown in Figure DP-17. The actual pickup and Reaming to condition hole
slack-off drag is diverging significantly from the predicted Reaming is the practice of rotating the bit and bottomhole
behavior near the bottom of the interval. Small variations assembly to condition the hole. This operation is conducted
may be expected, but the drill team should discuss the po- most often in response to tight hole observed during con-
tential cause of trends that continue for several connections nections or while tripping. Reaming to enlarge the hole is
and take immediate action if needed. discussed separately in the chapter on Downhole Tools, and
reaming to improve hole-cleaning efficiency is discussed in
Torque and drag data is collected prior to making a connec- this chapter in Tripping Practices.
tion. Decisions are made based on the trend, more than the
absolute values of torque and drag. In order for trends to be The manner in which reaming is conducted tends to be sim-
meaningful, the measurement practices must be consistent ilar, regardless of the cause of the tight hole. But if the root
between shifts and rotating crews, so standardized proce- problem is understood, the driller may be able to take ad-
dures should be developed. The recommended practices ditional steps that eliminate the actual cause, so that ream-
for measurement of hookloads during pickup (PU), slackoff ing is not required. This section includes discussion of the
(SO) and rotation off-bottom are described below. Uses of behaviors that the driller can observe to determine the root
the data are described in more detail in the Tripping section cause, as well as the practices that may help to eliminate it.
of this chapter.
In routine wells, PU, SO and rotating data can be A wellbore should only be reamed if conditions require it. A
recorded with either pumps on or off, but it should be bit will cut a hole with a diameter equal to that of the bit, and
done consistently. In critical extended reach or deep the bit, stabilizers, and other BHA components should pass
wells it should also be recorded both with and without freely with no excess drag or torque. Even the most difficult
pumps on so that the hydraulic lift effect is extended-reach wells have been drilled with no reaming on
documented; connections or trips when the causes of tight hole have been
Total friction does not commonly change greatly for 3-4 eliminated. There are a number of borehole problems that
stands. If there is no indication of wellbore instability, can cause tight hole and eliminating them often requires new
pack-offs or other unique behavior, the team may diagnostics, new response practices, and a sustained effort
consider reducing the data collection frequency to 3-4 over a number of wells. The driller’s practices have a signif-
stands; icant impact on every known type of borehole dysfunction;
Procedure for recording torque and drag with pumps on though engineering redesign is also often required.
and off:
1. Pick up off bottom and reduce rotary speed to The most common purpose of reaming is to reduce the risk
minimize whirl (40-80 rpm); of stuck pipe due to tight hole. When excess drag is seen
2. Ream up approximately 45 ft with pumps on, then while pulling the BHA the driller must determine whether to
return to bottom while rotating; stop and ream, or continue to attempt to pull through the in-
3. Pick up 20 ft to midpoint of reamed interval and terval. The limits that are set on the hookload the driller will
continue rotating with pumps on; pull before stopping are based somewhat on experience, and
4. Slack off to remove upward drag and record rotating whether it was possible to come though previous tight spots
torque and string weight; with reasonable overpulls.
5. Stop rotating and record hookload while picking up
15-20 ft at moderate constant rate with pumps on; However, the consequence of stuck pipe is great enough to
6. Slack-off and record hookload while lowering the encourage conservative practices. The normal drag and the
string at a moderate rate with pumps on; geometry of the well are also factors. It is usually possible to
7. Pick up bit to midpoint of reamed interval (20 ft) apply a high pulling force, but not necessarily a high slack off
and shut down pumps while continuing to rotate; weight to go back down. In extended reach wells, for exam-

ple, very little of the string weight that might be slacked off movement of the bit. This suppresses the magnitude of the
may reach the bit. If a tight point is encountered and the drill- sine wave in the BHA to some degree. When the bit is off bot-
er continues to pull with high force and not succeed in pulling tom, its lateral movement is not limited and higher levels of
through, it may not be possible to deliver enough downward whirl occur. In softer formations there will be a small amount
force at the stuck point to move the pipe downward, even if of hole enlargement from side cutting by the bit, but the bit
the full string weight is applied. may not be greatly damaged. As rock hardness increases, the
likelihood of impact damage also increases to both the bit
A relatively low overpull limit should be established prior to and BHA.
drilling each hole section at which the driller will stop and
begin reaming operations. A common range for an overpull The rotational speed used depends on the purpose of the
limit is 30,000-40,000 lb. The general reaming procedure reaming operation. If tight hole is being conditioned, it is
described below is recommended in response to any tight common to rotate at 50-80 rpm. But if the purpose is to aid
hole, though some details may vary depending on the cause. in the removal of cuttings at high-angle, reaming speeds of
100-130 rpm are common. Regardless of the speed used it
General reaming procedure is important to ensure it is not a resonant frequency of the
If excess drag exceeds the overpull limit established for string, at which high damaging whirl may be occurring.
the operation while pulling pipe (commonly 30,000-
40,000 lb), stop tripping; The driller may conduct RPM step tests to determine the
Lower the string until there is little or no excess drag; resonant speeds that should be avoided, and those at which
Slowly increase the pump rate to the normal drilling whirl is minimized. The step tests should cover the normal
flow rate; speeds for the type of reaming that is being done. For tight
Begin rotation at a low RPM that does not cause hole, begin with a low speed, such as 50 rpm, and increase
significant whirl; the rotary speed in 5-10 rpm increments to 100 rpm. For hole
Slowly pull pipe and ream upward. cleaning begin at 100 rpm and increase the speed in incre-
ments to the maximum speed that is being considered, typ-
The driller adjusts the pulling speed while reaming based on ically 130 rpm. Hold each speed for only 1-2 min. If available,
the observed torque, drag, and pump pressure. These will the level of whirl in the BHA at each speed can be measured
vary with the cause of the tight hole. For example, if tight directly with downhole vibration monitoring tools. Ream at
hole is due to cavings, the driller is likely to observe pressure the RPM where the lowest lateral vibration is measure. Some
spikes from attempted pack-offs unless the rate of reaming level of whirl may exist at any speed, but a significant change
is very low. But if the tight hole is due to vibrationally induced indicates the speed is approaching resonance.
borehole patterns, there will be no pack-offs and the pulling
speed is controlled to limit the observed torque. The recog- If downhole tools are not available, conduct the same step
nition and response practices for each cause are discussed test and observe the rotating torque or amps at each speed.
below. Torque should not increase greatly with rpm, if at all. A sig-
nificant change in torque from one speed to the next may
Reaming rotary speed indicate the RPM is approaching a resonant speed. If whirl
All bottomhole assemblies will whirl severely if rotated at is increasing, the force between the stabilizers and borehole
their specific resonant rotary speeds. The driller should will increase, which can be seen as increased torque in some
determine what those speeds are for each BHA and avoid cases. Either reduce the RPM or increase it significantly to
them, both while drilling and while reaming. move beyond the resonant speed for the string.
When a BHA whirls it flexes and takes the shape of a sine Pipe rotation speeds in high-angle wells are often chosen to
wave. The wave in the collars oscillates around or across the improve hole cleaning. If the desired speed results in high-
hole, applying high force to the stabilizers and BHA compo- er whirl, use a lower speed and increase circulating time to
nents. The bit is also an integral part of this wave and is tilted achieve hole cleaning. The effect of rotational speed on cut-
and driven into the side of the hole each time the wave pass- tings transport tends to decline above 100-130 rpm, and a ro-
es through, in some cases several hundred times per minute. tational speed with low whirl can commonly be found in this
This causes the bit to cut into the side of the hole and may range. RPM step tests should also be conducted in lower an-
also damage the outside trim cutters. gle wells to minimize whirl. Pipe rotation does not contribute
to cuttings transport at low angle and rotation speeds as low
The magnitude of the whirl is larger when off bottom. When as 50-100 rpm may be considered if necessary to achieve
drilling with the bit on bottom the cutters have a depth of low levels of whirl.
cut and are engaged with the rock, which reduces the lateral

The four dominant causes of tight hole are discussed below, swelling, formations such as salt and anhydrites (known as
along with the driller’s recognition and response practices. evaporates) may have the ability to deform significantly un-
der stress without breaking and the interval may become se-
Ductile closure (swelling formations) verely undergauge. The rate of hole closure will vary depend-
As a hole is drilled, the surrounding stresses in the formation ing on the specific mineralogy of the formation, temperature,
act to force the circumference of the hole inward, reducing and the stresses around the hole. This undergauge closure
its diameter. This inward deformation will then promote may be reamed with the upper shoulder of the stabilizer
stress in a different direction, which is around the hole or blades when tripping out or making connections. However,
tangential to its face. The increasing tangential stress even- the torque and risks associated with reaming will increase
tually balances the collapsing stress and the inward move- the more undergauge the hole becomes. Consequently, the
ment stops. At this point, it is rare for the reduction in hole frequency at which trips are made to ream evaporates should
diameter to be more than a few hundredths of an inch, if not be conservative until the rate of closure is known from field
thousandths. Although this is mistakenly referred to as a experience. In most cases, ductile closure redistributes the
swelling formation, rock that is confined does not literally stress around the hole so that once the excess is reamed
swell. If the diameter of the hole does decline, it is usually the closure does not continue, or the rate of closure is much
due to stress, and even then the deformation in shales and slower. In other cases it may continue almost indefinitely.
sands is so small that it does not account for tight hole. The The following items are steps to consider when encountering
most common cause of tight hole in shales is more likely to ductile evaporate formations:
be patterns that are cut in the borehole wall by the bit when Observe hookload for excess pulls when picking up to
the BHA is whirling. These are discussed in a section below. make each connection. If rotating, monitor for erratic
torque indicating undergauge hole is being reamed by a
If the stress that is attempting to contract the hole is high stabilizer. See General Reaming Procedure above;
enough to cause the hole to deform to be undergauge to the If there is no offset well information available, conduct
stabilizers, it is usually high enough to break the rock. Rather periodic short trips through the evaporate. Begin with
than a tight hole, an enlarged hole is created. While the cav- frequent trips (i.e., after drilling only 2-3 stands), then
ings may interfere with tripping, the tight hole seen is not di- increase the time between trips to determine the
rectly due to reduction in the diameter of the hole. Similarly, minimum period at which the hole must be reamed.
water-sensitive shales are thought to swell due to the uptake Also, determine the number of reaming operations
of water. However, water reduces the shale’s strength, and required before closure stops and reaming is no longer
breakout and enlargement are even more likely in water-sen- required, if possible;
sitive shales than in non-reactive shales. Altogether, the di- The upper shoulder of the top stabilizer must remove
ameter of a borehole may decline slightly due to stress, but in the undergauge material. These may be equipped with
most formation types this change in size is usually so small it carbide or PDC cutting structures that will reduce
will not be noticed. torque and increase the reaming speed;
Consider replacing the upper stabilizer with a roller
While shales and sands rarely become tight due to stress or reamer to reduce the torque required to ream the hole;
In situations where closure does not continue after a
Pass-through less single reaming operation, consider positioning a roller
than bit diameter reamer higher in the drillstring to remove the
undergauge material while drilling ahead. This saves the
rig time required for a separate reaming operation and
may eliminate the risk of stuck pipe while tripping;
Further options the driller can discuss with the drill team are
increasing the mud weight to reduce the rate of closure or
perhaps prevent it, the use of undersaturated water-based
mud to enlarge soluble salts, or isolation of the evaporate
with casing if the rate of closure cannot be managed.
Figures DP-18a and 18b (from left):
Scalloped surface pattern created by PDC Vibrationally induced borehole patterns
bit in which valleys are overgauge and The most common cause of tight hole is patterns in the
raised areas are undergauge. Figure DP- borehole created by side cutting from the bit. These may
18b: Spiral borehole trajectory pattern
with undergauge pass-through. Bit diameter be either undergauged scallop patterns in the face of the
hole (Figure DP-18a), or trajectory patterns in which the

hole periodically moves off-center, thus restricting the pass-

through diameter (Figure DP-18b). In either case, the height
of the upset areas in the pattern determines whether the
stabilizers, bit, or casing will pass freely.
The scalloped patterns are created when the bit whirls and
the blades gear around the hole. The valleys where the
blades strike will be overgauge and the raised areas where
the blades lift up will be undergauge. The number of ridges
will equal the number of blades, plus one.
In recent years, three-dimensional imaging (Figure DP-18b),

has shown that trajectory patterns are also common and a
frequent cause of drag while tripping. A trajectory pattern Figures DP-19: Damage to lower shoulder of a stabilizer
is one in which the centerline of the borehole periodically blade that was attempting to drill the raised spiral
moves off center, which differs from a surface pattern. All in a vibrationally induced borehole pattern.
bits and bottomhole assemblies tend to create trajectory
patterns. Under most conditions they decay quickly and do As explained in the discussion of ductile closure, tight hole
not become large or interfere when tripping or running cas- is usually not created by swelling or deformed shales, but
ing, and may not even be measurable. In more severe situa- by borehole patterns created by whirl. These include hour
tions, they may grow so that the pass-through may be 1-2 in. glassing, rippling, spiraling and micro doglegs at transitions
less than the diameter of the bit. The distance over which the between formations.
pattern repeats itself in a trajectory pattern will be equal to
the distance between the bit and the first stabilizer, because If the amplitude of the pattern is great enough stabilizers
the pattern itself is created by the interaction between the will come to rest on the raised areas in the pattern as the
two. For example, assemblies with near-bit stabilizers typ- string advances, and the driller will see an increase in torque
ically create patterns with ridges in a complete spiral every as WOB is raised, with low corresponding increase in ROP.
3-4 ft. Rotary steerable drilling assemblies with a top sta- Upon pulling out of the hole, the driller should exam the low-
bilizer may create patterns with longer periods equal to the er end of each stabilizer blade for accelerated wear which is
distance from the bit to the top stabilizer. Higher drag with an indication the stablizers is taking weight on a borehole
stabilized assemblies or casing is more likely to be observed pattern (Figure DP-19). The driller may also observe stick
with assemblies that create shorter patterns, as greater BHA slip due to increased stabilizer torque and increased bit whirl
flexibility is required to pass through them. due to loss of weight transfer to the bit.
The factors that increase the magnitude of the patterns that If borehole patterns are observed, the driller may be able to
might develop are low drill rates, high rotary speed, short reduce their severity by taking steps to manage the whirl that
gauge lengths on PDC bits, and active gauge cutters. Low creates them. A more detailed discussion of those practices
drill rate results in a greater number of rotations per foot is provided in the Drilling Mechanics and Performance sec-
drilled, and consequently more side cutting by the bit in each tion of this chapter.
foot. The probability that a significant pattern will be formed Maintain high WOB to engage the bit’s cutting
increases at drill rates below 50-70 ft/hr, and becomes very structure as deeply as possible, which will help to limit
likely at rates below 10-15 ft/hr. The high side-cutting action lateral movement and side cutting;
in bent housing motors when they are rotated is also likely to Conduct RPM step tests to determine speeds that
create spiral patterns, even at higher drill rates. This is one minimize whirl in the BHA (see Drilling Mechanics and
cause of the axial resistance seen when sliding. However, Performance section for procedures to conduct RPM
the most dominant factor in the creation of large patterns is tests);
whirl, which greatly increases the lateral cutting action of the Apply WOB quickly, rather than slowly, after making
bit. If patterns are creating drag, the most important changes connections to minimize whirl and avoid creating a
in real-time practices and design are those that reduce whirl. pattern at the start of each stand. (See Connection
Practices for procedures to apply WOB quickly.)
The primary diagnostic for the presence of patterns is drag or
torque on trips over long intervals. Reaming may tend to re- If a significant pattern is present, drag will be observed when
duce the drag. Also, there are no indications of other causes, picking up for each connection, or while tripping. If drag ex-
such as pack-offs, which suggest cuttings beds or instability.

Additional design changes may be

considered by the drill team to reduce
whirl or limit the side-cutting capability
of the bit. These include, extending the
gauge length of a PDC bit, elimination
of active cutters on the bit gauge, re-
design of the BHA to reduce whirl, and
redesign of any other operational lim-
itations that may be increasing bit whirl
by limiting WOB to control ROP.
Formation
Undergauge filter cakes
If the filter cake is thick, the stabiliz-
ers must shear through it in order to
pass. The shear resistance of the cake
Figures DP-20: Stabilizers remove the original, high-permeability filter cake
depends on the differential pressure
comprising barite and drill solids. The solids-laden cake is replaced with fine barite across it. In high overbalance the filter
and filtration materials that are able to seal the formation face more effectively. cake strength may approach that of
the formation rock being drilled, and
at low overbalance the same cake may
ceeds the established overpull limit (i.e., 30,000-40,000 have almost no strength. The stabilizers must shear through
lb), follow the steps in the General Reaming Procedure. Also: any cake that is undergauged to the blades, but the force
Control the rate at which the stabilizers are reamed required to do so depends more on the differential pressure
upward based on the torque observed. Maintain the across the cake than its thickness and design of the stabi-
peak torque below the operating limits of the pipe and lizer blade.
rotary drive;
A spiral hole is not necessarily undergauge in any given The growth of the filter cake depends largely on fluid de-
foot and a bit alone will pass through it. The drag sign, but the driller can greatly affect downhole cake quali-
observed is due to the high lateral force that develops ty through reaming, tripping, and connection practices. The
as the stabilizer and collars flex to follow this path. downhole cake differs from that observed in API FL and API
Reaming with a stabilizer may reduce the drag until the HTHP tests, as these are conducted with clean mud. In con-
stabilizer can pass through the spiral, but stabilizers will trast, the cake that forms downhole is composed of solids in
not cut deeply enough to straighten the spiral path. proportion to that in the fluid leaving the bit. For example,
Reaming should continue until torque and drag are when drilling with a low-density fluid there might be no barite
manageable. However, it might not be possible to in the mud. API barite has a specific distribution of particle
eliminate the spiral completely, particularly in firm sizes that helps to form an effective cake. If sand is drilled
formations; at high ROP and there’s little barite present, the cake will be
Cutting structures may be included at the top of the composed almost entirely of sand. While API FL tests at the
stabilizers blades that reduce the torque required to surface may show low filtration, the downhole cake may be
ream and increase the reaming rate; quite permeable. As filtrate continues to flows through the
Stabilizers may be replaced with roller reamers to cake, additional solids are stripped out and its thickness in-
reduce torque. The short geometry of the rollers passes creases.
more freely through a spiral pattern and the rollers
reduce torque. However, their lateral depth of cut is Stabilizers play a critical role in that they remove the initial
limited by the lack of lateral force, and they will not solids-laden filter cake (Figure DP-20). Each time a stabi-
completely remove a spiral pattern; lizer blade shears through the cake, it is re-exposed at the
Document the location of tight hole for future trips, diameter of the blade and finer particles are captured. When
casing running operations, and wireline logging; the solids in the face of the cake becomes fine enough, the
The loss of weight transfer due to stabilizers sitting cake behaves more like the filter paper used in the mud engi-
down on the pattern may result in extremely low drill neer’s fluid loss test, and filtration material in the fluid is able
rates. In some cases it may be economic to remove a to effectively seal the gaps between particles. The cake then
spiral pattern with hole opening tools, either while stops growing and may have the appearance and behavior of
drilling or on a separate pass. a cake made of clean mud. Altogether, downhole cake quali-

ty is determined by fluid design, testing

and maintenance of the fluid proper-
ties, and mechanical conditioning by
the driller.
If filter cake quality is needed, use
stabilized bottomhole assemblies
to remove the initial solids-laden Concentration
cake; within enlargement
In sands with a history of filter cake
growth and drag, ream each stand Settling in
to condition the cake in clean mud gauge hole
with stabilizers prior to making a
connection, whether or not drag is Avalanche
zone Breakout due
seen immediately during the Casing set Low bypass, or
to stress
connection. However, do not ream off bottom high pulling speed
on connections unless an actual
cake problem has been observed
while drilling or tripping;
If sands are being reamed and tight
Figures DP-21: Common locations of pack-offs and stuck pipe while tripping or drilling.
hole is still observed on
subsequent trips, discuss the
potential need for changes in the Do not make a connection until the excess drag is
fluid with the team; eliminated. Stop rotation and trip the stand of drillpipe
In higher permeable formations, use API Particle back in the hole. Pull the stand without rotation and
Plugging Tests (PPT) to design the fluid in lieu of API FL observe drag.
or API HTHP testing protocols. These PPTs are run
against material selected to simulate the pore throats of Instability and enlarged hole
the formation being drilled. They are also run at Instability and hole enlargement occur when the stress in
downhole temperature and differential pressure. API the face of the borehole exceeds the strength of the forma-
barite may not be too small to form an efficient base for tion. If the wellbore pressure can be increased, usually by
filtration material if the pore throats are large. A small raising the fluid density, it is possible to reduce the stress
concentration of additional blocking material may be in the surrounding rock to below the rock strength and the
required in the fluid, such as 5-10 ppb of 25-50 micron borehole remains in gauge. If it is not possible to raise the
calcium carbonate. mud weight, stuck pipe may occur while tripping through
intervals in which hole has enlarged. Practices for managing
Reaming high-strength filter cake instability are discussed in the Wellbore Instability section
If drag is seen when picking up to make connections in of this chapter. Practices for managing cuttings transport
permeable formations, begin rotation and ream upward. in gauge hole that is not enlarged are discussed in the Hole
After reaming up, return to bottom with the pumps on, Cleaning section of this chapter.
but without rotation. Do not ream downward. Pick up to
make the connection and observe drag; Enlarged hole reduces the ability to move cuttings or cavings
When tripping, undergauge cake with high shear out of the wellbore. The effect of poor cuttings transport
strength will first be seen when the top stabilizer on operations and performance depends on the inclination
reaches this part of the hole. Mark any depleted sands at the enlargement because the cuttings transport process
on the mud log and watch the hole drag closely as the itself differs with inclination. Figure DP-21 shows locations
top stabilizer approaches the identified sand; where cavings, or the accumulation of cuttings, tend to cre-
Pull pipe until drag exceeds the overpull limit ate drag or pack-off while tripping. Pack-offs are rare in sec-
established for the operation, then stop and proceed tions of a wellbore that are entirely gauge.
with the General Reaming Procedure;
Reaming should be conducted at a rate that creates Pack-offs at low angle
only a small increase in torque, and with little axial drag. In low-angle intervals, the vertical flow of fluid lifts the cut-
If high torque spikes are observed, reduce the rate at tings. At the same time, the cuttings are slipping downward
which pipe is pulled; in the flow stream. If the flow rate is low, the rate of slip-

page may exceed that of the flow, and the cutting remains fluid. If the fluid has normal rheology, they remain separated
stationary or moves downward. This rarely occurs in gauge as they travel up the annulus and do not settle greatly during
hole because fluid properties and flow rates (i.e., gal/min or connections. But when they arrive at enlargements and the
annular velocities) are designed to prevent it. But in sections fluid velocity falls they begin to concentrate, making contact
of enlarged hole, the annulus velocity may fall dramatically, and forming larger masses. As these pack the annulus, the
and the slip rate can easily exceed the vertical velocity. For pressure builds and lifts them out of the hole. Gumbo attacks
example, the annulus velocity in an 8.5-in. hole drilling with have been successfully eliminated by using high gel strength
5-in. drillpipe that has enlarged to 13 in. will be only one- mud to keep the cuttings separated and by drilling gauge
third of that expected. Common fluid properties and flow hole.
rates may not be adequate.
Altogether, reaming practices in low-angle wells require that
The larger material created by the stress failure that enlarges cuttings transport, cavings, and instability be managed si-
a hole is also particularly difficult to transport vertically. Slip multaneously. In low-angle wells:
rate increases exponentially with size, and cavings may slip Observe the drill depth when cavings are observed on
several times faster than smaller cuttings. Because of low the shakers. Document the location of the potential
fluid velocity or higher slip rates, cuttings and cavings that enlargement. Knowing these locations may affect
arrive in an enlarged section may not be able to leave. As decisions made if pack-offs occur later;
they accumulate, the flow area around the pipe declines and If significant enlargement is suspected, increase the gel
the velocity increases, which eventually causes sporadically strength of the drilling fluid. Gel strength is the fluid
movement of some of the material out of the enlargement. property that relates most strongly to the cuttings
The driller will see pressure spikes as the concentrated ma- settling rate during connections when there is no flow;
terial in the enlargement attempts to pack off. If the process Consider pumping high gel strength sweeps as a
is allowed to continue, a pack-off may occur, even during cir- diagnostic for enlargement. If cavings are observed in
culation. the returns, and particularly those that are rounded
from tumbling, there is significant enlargement;
More commonly, the concentration of material in the enlarge- If pack-offs or pressure spikes are observed following
ment does not pack off until circulation is stopped to make a connections, consider pumping high gel strength
connection and the cavings and cuttings settle around the sweeps prior to making each connection to remove as
pipe. The driller may observe drag during the connection, but much large, fast settling material as possible;
the problem is usually not recognized until circulation is be- Consider increasing the circulating time prior to making
gun and the pack-off is pressure-energized. connections to move the larger cavings further up the
annulus so that they do not settle to the BHA during a
This progression of events does not occur easily in gauge connection. Minimize connection time. Do not stop
hole. Pack-offs or pressure spikes while drilling, or follow- circulation with the bit on bottom, to ensure there is
ing connections, are usually strong indications of enlarged space below the BHA should the cavings settle;
hole. The long term solution is to take steps to prevent the Increase pump rates slowly after making connections. If
enlargement, which may require either higher mud weight or a pack-off occurs, stop circulation immediately.
inhibitive fluid. High-pressure differential across the material increases
its strength. Begin rotation and reciprocation while
The material from enlargements also avalanches during applying very low pressure. If circulation can be
trips. The downward flow from filling the annulus while trip- re-established, slowly increase the flow to normal
ping may contribute to the movement. The casing, wireline drilling rates. Once full circulation is established,
logging tools, or the bit may sit down on these bridges. Dif- consider pumping a high gel strength sweep prior to
ferential pressure across the bridge can create high shear stopping circulation. Stop circulation for a brief period
strength in the material, which may even approach that of to determine whether there is still material avalanching
the surrounding rock. Many bridges must be drilled out with from the enlargements, and observe the pump pressure
high WOB. for pack-offs when reinitiating circulation.
Hole enlargement also contributes to gumbo accumulations. Pack-offs at high angle

These large solid masses of sticky clays are often referred In high-angle wells, it is more appropriate to think of cuttings
to as “gumbo attacks.” The bell nipple and/or flow line may as being rolled out than carried out. As the fluid travels lat-
become fully plugged and large pieces of gumbo may fowl erally, gravity causes the cuttings to settle, forming a bed on
the shakers. When sticky formations are drilled the small the bottom of the hole (Figure DP-22a). Drilling fluids are
cuttings are initially separated by a considerable amount of normally in laminar flow. Consequently, once cuttings are on

Next Page
A2
Gravity is greater
than buoyancy
Buoyancy
Fluid Gravity
force
A1 ≈ A2
Figure DP-22a (above): Cuttings travel only a short distance A1
before settling on bottom. Figure DP-22b (right): Bed height
grows and the open flow area declines, until the fluid velocity is
sufficient to roll the cuttings across the bed. The stored mass
in enlarged hole will be significantly greater than in gauge.
bottom, there is very little lifting force to pick them back up Prior to tripping, the well should be circulated with pipe ro-
into the flow stream, and they remain on bottom. As addi- tation to reduce the equilibrium bed height to an acceptable
tional material falls out and the height of the bed increases, level. Cuttings beds are not compacted and will flow freely
the open area above it declines, which causes the fluid ve- though the open spaces around the BHA, if the bed is low
locity to increase. When the flowing area is low enough, the enough.
velocity above the bed is able to roll or skip the top layer of
cuttings along the top of the bed, and the bed height stops When washing or reaming out of hole to remove the bed
growing. This is called the equilibrium bed height. completely, pack-offs can occur due to the mass of cuttings
being deposited just above the top of the drill collars. The ve-
Velocities around drill collars are usually sufficient that there locity around the collars is usually sufficient to mobilize all
is no bed, but unless pump rates are very high, a bed starts to of the bed. This forces the material into the restricted area
grow in the hole immediately above the collars. above the equilibrium bed around the drillpipe. Common
rates for washing are 3-4 min per stand. If pack-offs are seen
The same process occurs in enlarged sections. As solids fall at normal washing or tripping speeds, the cause is probably
out, bed height increases, shrinking the flow area, as above, mobilization of the stored mass in enlargements, rather than
until the fluid velocity required to roll the cuttings is reached. excess washing speeds in gauge hole. This occurs when the
The velocity required to move the surface of the bed is the top of the collars arrives at an enlargement and the high-ve-
same in an enlarged section as a gauge one. Consequently, locity fluid around the collars mobilizes the stored mass.
bed heights in enlarged sections will grow until the flow area Document the depth at which cavings are observed
above the bed is similar to that in the gauge hole (Figure DP- while drilling. Proceed cautiously as the top of the BHA
22b). approaches suspected enlarged hole. Also, if pack-offs
were observed on prior trips, be prepared to ream at the
The equilibrium bed height is not a fixed value and varies with same depth. Even if you have previously cleaned the
enlargement. It is the flow area that is more consistent. The enlargement, it will refill to the original height as soon
result is that an enlarged hole will always contain a higher as drilling is begun and new cuttings start to arrive;
equilibrium bed height and greater volume of stored cuttings If high drag or pack-offs are seen, follow the General
and cavings than the gauge hole. If this large stored mass is Reaming Practice. Stop when excess drag equals the
mobilized quickly, a pack-off occurs. established overpull limit, lower the string until it is free,
establish circulation very slowly, and begin reaming
Pack-offs rarely occur while drilling gauge holes, because very slowly;
if the area above the bed shrinks, fluid velocity increases, If it is possible to establish circulation continue to
reducing the bed height. The problem tends to be self-cor- increase the rate very slowly. The objective is to avoid
recting. However, pack-offs may occur in gauge hole while mobilizing too much of the stored mass in the
tripping without circulation. If the cross-sectional area of the enlargement at once. Do not make rapid changes in
equilibrium bed is greater than the open area around the sta- pump rate. Continue to increase the pump rate to the
bilizers, bit or other small bypasses, the annulus will pack off. highest flow rate possible. Reduce the bed height as

Previous Page
Enlarged hole results in loss of rig time for reaming, but it

also limits the maximum achievable drill rate due to the
poor cuttings transport. It may be possible to achieve sig-
nificantly higher drill rates with little increase in circulating
pressure or indications of pack-offs if a gauge hole can be
maintained. A high priority should be given to using sta-
bility MW and drilling a gauge hole, rather than minimiz-
ing mud weight to only that required to achieve geologic
objectives. Observe shaker returns and discuss increasing
the mud weight immediately when cavings are seen. Set
casing as close to bottom as practical to reduce the length
of open hole below the shoe.
Hole-cleaning practices
This section describes hole-cleaning fundamentals, and
practices required to deliver a level of hole cleaning, such
that operations can proceed without delay, unnecessary
risk, or reduced performance. Special operations related
to unusual borehole conditions, particularly cleaning in-
tervals with breakout enlargement are discussed in the
previous section of this chapter entitled Reaming to Con-
dition Hole.
Figure DP-23 (top): cuttings movement, pumps on.
Figure DP-24: Cuttings movement, pumps off.
Effective hole cleaning is essential to avoid stuck pipe, side-
much as possible prior to washing the top of the collars tracks, failing to run casing to bottom, and other non-produc-
further into the enlarged area; tive time (NPT) events. In addition to major problems, poor
Ream slowly and observe the pump pressure. If hole cleaning may result in high hidden costs associated with
pressure spikes are seen, material is being mobilized increased reaming, circulating and tripping time, and re-
more quickly than it will fit into the gauge hole above duced drill rates. These effects are seen in both vertical and
the enlargement. Reduce the reaming rate; high-angle wells.
If a complete pack-off occurs, stop circulation
immediately. Differential pressure across the pack-off Many of the issues can be addressed by changing practices,
increases its strength. Rotate and attempt to lower the while the remainder may require well design or equipment
string while applying low pressure to establish changes, such as pump capacity, casing points, mud type or
circulation. Continue to reciprocate and rotate with low increased fluid density to prevent hole enlargement. All ben-
pressure. If able to circulate, increase the pump rate efit from the team being aware of the risks associated with
very slowly; the specific hole they are drilling and how these risks vary,
If it is necessary to make a connection while reaming, even with seemingly small changes to the well design. The
consider laying down a single joint of drillpipe rather driller’s real time recognition and response practices may
than a full stand so that the string can be worked have a significant impact on the success of a well.
downward if needed when reaming resumes;
While working the pipe without circulation, rotate Cuttings will move differently in the wellbore depending on
slowly to minimize heat buildup in the pipe due to the hole inclination and the behaviors can be broken into
friction. Periodically stop rotation and allow the tube three main hole cleaning regimes; Low-angle (≤40°), Ava-
body to cool. The temperature in the tube may become lanche (40° - 65°) and High-angle (>65°) regimes. Figures
great enough that the steel is softened and will part DP-23 and -24 show the cuttings movement in these three
with low overpull; regimes with the pumps on and the pumps off. This section
If the previous casing has been set off bottom, the shoe will discuss hole cleaning practices in low-angle holes, and
should also be approached cautiously. The rat hole is then high-angle. Finally, special requirements for avalanche
usually significantly larger than the new gauge hole and zones will be discussed.
the bed height will be high. Manage this area in the
same manner as other enlarged hole.

Net upward fluid is moving at normal velocities. Gel strength is a measure

of the ability of the fluid to resist settling when circulation is
cutting velocity stopped, as when making a connections. The third key fluid
measurement is the 6-rpm reading, which indicates the flu-
id’s ability to resist settling when flow rates are relatively low.
Use of funnel viscosity (FV) to manage hole cleaning is not

recommended. The funnel viscosity provides a general indi-
cation of how resistant a fluid is to flow. But thicker fluids do
not necessarily clean holes well and may have no suspension
capability. It is particularly critical to measure the yield point,
Upward flow Downward gell strength and 6-rpm rheologies in vertical wells when
velocity slip velocity flow rates are low in enlarged hole, or pump capacity is inad-
equate for the holes size being drilled.
Values lower than those shown in Table DP-1 are used in

vertical wells, but other operations are usually modified to
compensate. For example, many intervals are drilled with
Figure DP-25: Cuttings move upward if the upward
fluid velocity is greater than the slip velocity.
clear water with no yield point or gel strength. But higher flow
rates may be used while drilling, and the circulating times be-
fore connections extended.
Low-angle practices (≤40° inclination)
In low-angle intervals the vertical flow of fluid lifts the cut- The values shown in Table DP-1 assume the hole is relatively
tings. At the same time, the cuttings are falling within the gauge. They may be inadequate if the hole is oversized due
fluid at a rate that is called the slip velocity (Figure DP-25). to breakout, because the vertical velocity in the enlargement
If the slip velocity is less than the flow velocity, the cutting will be much lower than in a gauge hole. If the flow velocity is
travels upward. Ideally, the lift velocity is much greater so less than the slip velocity, the cuttings will accumulate in the
that the cuttings are removed quickly. The vertical fluid ve- enlargement.
locity is determined by pump rate and the size of the annu-
lus. The slip velocity is determined by the size of the mate- A second concern with enlarged hole is that breakout cre-
rial, buoyancy, and fluid rheology. Larger cuttings fall much ates material that is much larger than cuttings. Common
faster than small. If the size doubles the slip rate increases fluid properties and flow rates are not designed to transport
four times. At shallow depths roller cone and PDC bits both this material, even in a gauge hole. It may be necessary to
create chips that may be relatively large. A higher-yield point increase the rheology significantly in order to reduce the risk
or longer circulation may be required. At greater depths, roll- of pack-offs.
er cone bits tend to create finer granular material and PDC
bits may create ribbons that stay intact, or these
may come apart while being transported so that only Table DP-1: Common flow rates and rheology in low-an-
granular material is seen at the surface. If there is gle intervals. Higher values are required if sections of
borehole instability cavings must be transported and the hole are enlarged so that annular velocity is low.
their slip rate can be in excess of ten times greater
than cuttings, if not more. Common Low-Angle Parameters
Common flow rates and fluid properties are shown Hole Flowrate Annular Drill Yield
Gel 6-rpm
in Table DP-1 for various vertical hole sizes. Annular size (gal/ Velocity String Point
Strength Reading
velocities of 100-150 ft/min are generally desirable. (in.) min) (ft/min) (RPM) (cp)
If this cannot be achieved, particularly in large hole
sizes, it may be necessary to modify the fluid prop- 17 ½ 800-1,200 70-110 NA 8-14 10-15 8-12
erties to achieve the same level of cuttings removal.
Unlike high-angle wells, drill string rotation does not
help clean vertical intervals. 12 ¼ 650-900 110-150 NA 8-10 8-12 6-10
Yield point provides an indication of how well the 8½ 350-450 120-150 NA 6-8 6-10 5-9
fluid will prevent the cuttings from slipping when the

Gravity
Figure DP-26: Cuttings fall quickly to form a bed. Once cuttings are on bottom, there is no force acting to lift them
back up and hold them in the flow stream. The bed height grows until the fluid velocity above the bed increases
to the point where fluid force can roll or slide the new cuttings along the top of the existing beds.
Indications that there is enlargement that will be difficult to the hole is clean. Cavings will not have been removed from
clean include: enlarged hole if their slip velocity is greater than that of the
Shale cavings or excess sand have been observed on fluid passing through the enlargement, regardless of the cir-
the shakers, indicating enlargement has occurred. Note culating time. If cavings have been observed while drilling,
the depth; consider pumping a high gel strength pill prior to tripping as
Excess circulating or spiking pressures have been a diagnostic to confirm the hole is clean.
observed immediately after connections;
Pressure spikes are seen while drilling and circulating; Pills should not be used routinely, unless it is impossible to
Bridges of cuttings and cavings are encountered when continuously maintain adequate fluid properties or flow
tripping back in the hole; rates required to clean the hole. In most cases this occurs
High rheology diagnostic sweeps return cavings and due to breakout and hole enlargement. Pill volumes depend
excess cuttings; on a number of factors. The rheology should be high enough
so that the slip velocity of the larger cuttings or cavings is
The practices for responding to pack-offs due to poor cut- much lower than the fluid velocity. The pill should then be
tings transport are discussed in the section in this chapter large enough so that the cuttings do not fall out of the bottom
titled Reaming to Condition Hole. of the pill before being carried out of the hole. In larger hole
sizes, large pill volumes should be used to ensure adequate
The normal circulating time prior to making a connection pill height.
should be adequate to move the cuttings far enough above
the BHA that they do not fall to the collars while the connec- To summarize, in vertical wells the flow rates and fluid prop-
tion is made. It is common to pump until the fluid is 100-200 erties commonly used by the industry are usually effective in
ft feet above the BHA. If fluid properties or annular velocities gauge hole, even at very high drill rates. If pack-offs, bridges
are lower than normal, the distance should be increased to or other indications of poor cleaning are observed, it is usu-
allow for greater slippage. ally due to low velocity in enlarged sections, or very low fluid
properties. In this case, normal practices and fluid properties
The minimum circulating time prior to tripping should be ad- should be modified to compensate until the causes of the
equate to pump the annulus fluid from bottom to the surface, enlargement can be a addressed. Operational practices for
or one bottoms-up. Circulation should then continue until the reducing the enlargements themselves are discussed in the
cuttings load on the shakers is minimal. The time required for Borehole Stability section of this chapter.
this to occur will vary greatly, depending on the fluid proper-
ties, flow velocity (particularly in enlargements), and the size High-angle practices (>65° inclination)
of material, all of which contribute to the slippage. A common
range in vertical wells is 1.2-1.5 times the bottoms up volume. Equilibrium beds
Figure DP-26 shows the process by which cuttings move
The lack of shaker material after circulation might not mean in high-angle intervals. Cuttings slip vertically just as they

do in low-angle wells. However, at high angle there is very Table DP-2: Drillstring rotation and flow rate
little vertical fluid flow to slow their rate of fall. The primary parameters to clean high-angle hole.
force acting upward is buoyancy, and that is usually much
less than the force of gravity pulling them downward. Con- Recommended
Minimum Parameters
sequently, a cutting traveling in a horizontal well will come Parameters
to rest on bottom before travelling only a short horizontal
distance. As additional cuttings arrive, the bed height grows. Hole Flowrate Flowrate
Drillstring Drillstring
As the bed height increases the flow area above it will de- size (gal/ (gal/
(RPM) (RPM)
(in.) min) min)
cline and the velocity within the open area increases. At
some point, the flow velocity is great enough to begin rolling
the cuttings along the top of the bed, or the action may be 17½ 1,000-1,200 > 150 900 120
somewhat like skipping. This bed height is called the equi-

librium bed height. The bed cannot grow higher, or lower, 1,000-
12¼ 1,100
>150 800 120
unless conditions change. A layer of material across the top
of the bed will be mobile, but the majority of the bed is sta-
tionary and does not move. Only the new cuttings are trans- 8½ >500 >100 350 80
ported across the top of the bed.

6 >250 >100 175 80
The fluid properties that aid in this type of transport differ

from those in a vertical hole. Suspension, for example, be-
comes less important, as it only delays the time required for cally be maintained at reasonable levels if an annular velocity
the cutting to fall, and once it is on bottom it remains there. of at least 150 ft/min can be maintained, providing it is cou-
The desired fluid is then one that shears the top of the bed pled with the minimum RPM. The 17-1/2-in. hole flow rates
most effectively to roll or skip the cuttings along the surface shown in Table DP-2 would result in annular fluid velocities
of the bed. Thinner fluids with somewhat lower rheology are less than 150 ft/min, even with 6-5/8-in. drillpipe, therefore
more effective at shearing the bed surface than are the high- if a non-dispersive, inhibitive mud system is used higher flow
er rheology fluids used to lift cuttings in low-angle wells. The rates would be advisable. While the values shown will mini-
factors that have the most positive effect on bed height are mize trouble time, they do not necessarily maximize drill rate
flow rate and pipe rotation. In small hole sizes with high flow and performance. As drill rates increase, operators may find
rates it is possible to reduce the equilibrium bed height to additional pump and pressure capacity to be economic, and
almost zero, however this is often not possible. Stable bed new rigs are being equipped for flow rates that significantly
heights are commonly 1-3 in. in high-angle wells, even with exceed these values. Higher values also improve success in
pipe rotation. non-gauge hole.
Flow rate and rotation The drilling program should outline the hole cleaning proce-
Table DP-2 shows typical values for various hole sizes. The dures to be followed for each hole section. The procedures
objective is to maintain a level of solids and equilibrium bed should specify guidelines for flow rate, drill string rotation,
height that does not limit drill-rate performance or create cuttings monitoring, torque and drag monitoring (for wells
risk of stuck pipe. It is neither possible nor necessary to drill >40° inclination) as well as drilling fluid property specifica-
with a perfectly clean hole, unless the ROP is zero. The level tions.
of hole cleaning that is acceptable will depend on planned
subsequent operations, i.e., high ROP drilling, tripping for a The fluid properties recommended for high-angle wells
bit, standard casing run, one-way casing run, floated casing must be effective in all three hole cleaning regimes. A some-
(one-way trip, close to limits or floated). what thinner fluid is more effective in shearing the surface
of the equilibrium bed to move cuttings at high angle, and
The parameters in Table DP-2 assume gauge hole and are yet sufficient 6 rpm and gel strength are still needed to lift
based on general field experience. If parameters approach and suspend them in the avalanche and vertical sections
minimum values, additional operations will be required to of the same borehole. The 6-rpm reading has become the
compensate, otherwise bed heights may become exces- most commonly used value for the design of fluid rheology in
sive, resulting in pack-offs. The potential variability in fluid high-angle wells. This is the value read by a fann viscometer
efficiency, cuttings characteristics and other system con- (Fann 35) with the paddle rotating at 6 rpm. A general prac-
siderations (i.e., tubular size), reinforces the importance of tice is to maintain the 6-rpm reading at 1.1 to 1.5 times the
detailed well planning to ensure the hole cleaning “system” is hole size in inches. This is strongly influenced by the fact that
adequate for your operation. However, bed heights can typi- many high-angle wells suffer stress-induced breakout and

12¼” hole 12¼” hole 8½” hole
9½” bottom hole 5” drill pipe 5” drill pipe

assembly
Figure DP-28: Annular space by hole size & tubular.
and Performance section, and in the Reaming to Condition

Hole section when rotating with the bit off bottom.
Figure DP-27: Rotation causes the

Generally, a minimum of 2-3 times bottoms up is required in
equilibrium bed height to be lower.
order to displace the mobile cuttings above the equilibrium
bed from the wellbore. The actual number of bottoms up cir-
large cavings that must be transported in the vertical hole. culations will depend on the length of the well, parameters
If experience shows that gauge hole can be drilled and only (RPM, gal/min), inclination, hole size, rheology etc. It is im-
small cuttings need to be lifted, the 6-rpm may be reduced portant to continue to circulate until the shakers clean up or
to below this range. The incentive for reducing the rheology background level has been reached. At this point, a cuttings
is to reduce the circulating pressure, which may be import- bed may still exist, but continued circulation alone will not
ant in extended reach wells. In wells with narrow margin or remove it as the height is at equilibrium with the flow and
high temperature, the drill team should also ensure fluids are rotational effects.
tested at downhole conditions (Fann 70 & 75 readings) to
ensure the effect of temperature is understood and adjust- The effect rotation will have depends on the holes size and
ments made if needed. the geometry of the annulus. Figure DP-28 shows the ef-
fect hole size and BHA geometry have on the open flow area
Rotation generates a secondary fluid velocity component, around the pipe. In smaller clearances the equilibrium bed
perpendicular to the axis of the annulus, which, combined height will be lower due to higher velocity, but pipe rotation
with the effects of mechanical agitation assists in lifting more will also have a greater effect on the surrounding bed. The
cuttings from the top of the cuttings bed into the higher ve- velocity around collars in smaller hole sizes usually prevents
locity flow stream in the annulus. This improves hole cleaning the formation of any bed around the BHA. Stabilizers are also
and the resulting lower equilibrium bed height reduces axial effective in keeping cuttings in the flow stream, though a bed
drag, circulating pressure, and the risk of pack-offs (Figure will still form a short distance above the drill collars where
DP-27). The risk of pack-offs increases as the bed height ap- the velocity declines. When washing or reaming out of hole,
proaches critical levels. The bed height also tends to increase the velocity around the collars will completely mobilize the
with drill rate, so rotation while drilling allows for higher ROP bed as the top collar arrives if the clearance is low. Larger
without increasing the risk of pack-offs. Some minimum level hole may not be completely cleaned until stabilizers arrive.
of rotation appears to be essential when drilling at high an-
gle, and this can be seen from pressure and drag increases Hole cleaning with borehole breakout
when sliding long distances with bent motors. The recom- The inability to transport material, leads to it being left in the
mended rotation speeds in Table DP-2 are based largely on wellbore. The location of the accumulation can be depen-
experience and will vary in a given situation. When select- dent upon the mechanism causing the transport problem.
ing a rotation speed the driller should ensure that it exceeds Some causes can be readily identified from surface mea-
the minimum recommended speed for hole cleaning, but surements, e.g., flow rate or drill string rotary speed below
also that it is not a speed that is resonant for the particular minimum hole cleaning thresholds, whereas others may be
string, which creates damaging whirl vibrations. The process less obvious, e.g. change in mud properties downhole, or
of conducting step tests in RPM to determine safe rotating areas of hole enlargement. The recommended practices
speeds while drilling is discussed in the Drilling Mechanics shown in Table DP-2 are generally successful in gauge hole
and lower values can lead to pack-offs, even in gauge hole.

Cross-sectional area of flow:

A1 ≈ A2 Pack-offs
A
Gauge hole B1 < B2 Enlarged hole Figure DP-30: Pack-offs occur when the stored
mass in enlargements is mobilized too rapidly.
Material gathering in enlarged hole.
Figure DP-29: Equilibrium bed height in gauge
and overgauge (enlarged) hole.
However, the majority of pack-offs in field operations occur

when a large mass of cuttings stored in enlarged sections
become mobilized.
As previously described, cuttings fall out to form a bed, and

Figure DP-31: Drag generated by pulling a
they do not move as the bed continues to grow until the ve- tool joint through a cuttings bed.
locity in the declining open area above reaches a critical val-
ue. The velocity at which the fluid can start to move the top of
the bed is the same regardless of hole size, so the flow area at Back-reaming out of hole at a tripping speed faster than the
which the bed stops growing will be similar. As shown in Fig- material can be removed, or across an area of hole enlarge-
ure DP-29, this means that enlarged hole will always contain ment are the most common causes of pack-offs.
a much greater mass of stored material. If the enlargement is
due to breakout, there may also be large cavings within the Surface verification of acceptable hole cleaning
cuttings. While it is not possible to “look down the wellbore” to con-
firm that the level of hole cleaning is adequate, there are
If a significant part of the material in the enlarged section is several measurements that may indicate that bed heights or
mobilized too quickly, it may pack-off in the enlargement it- the risks of pack-offs are increasing, or that poor transport
self, or it may not fit into the gauge hole above. A pack-off is causing loss of rig time due to reduced ROP or increased
is recognized by an increase in pressure due to a blockage circulating time. These include:
downhole and not limited to those obvious on the SPP gauge, Drag (high-angle applications);
or that require to be bled off the PP manifold. Downhole Returns at shakers;
pressure measurement tools (PWD – pressure while drilling) Downhole pressure (PWD), if available.
have confirmed that pack-offs will often attempt to form and
then clear so quickly that they are not noted on SPP gauges. Drag monitoring is conducted to show the driller when a
Also, if the specific PWD tool only measures annulus pres- problem trend is developing, or when a significant sudden
sure and the pack-off occurs in the annulus below the tool, change has occurred in hole cleaning. Differences between
the tool will not record it. actual drag and that anticipated can highlight issues early
and allow action to be taken before they become significant
If hole enlargement has occurred, the driller can greatly re- problems.
duce the likelihood of pack-offs by avoiding mobilizing the
stored mass in the enlargement too quickly, by: Torque and drag monitoring
Not changing the pump rate rapidly to avoid mobilizing In a perfectly clean wellbore drag is a function of the contact
the mass of cuttings in the enlargement; between the string and the borehole wall. As cuttings beds
Moving pipe slowly on connections to avoid high surge build, additional drag is created due to increased resistance
flow; as drillpipe connections are picked up or slacked off through
Controlling reaming rates (cuttings concentration the cuttings beds. Increased bed height or a greater number
arrival). A common rate is 3-4 stands per hour when in of tool joints results in more drag, which determines the cal-
gauge hole; culated apparent friction factor (FF). It is not unusual for the
Washing through enlargements at very low pulling pick-up and slack-off friction factors to be different. Further,
speed if reaming out of the hole. Adjust speed based on it is normal for the pick-up weight to be affected by cuttings
the tendency to pack-off shown by PWD data and induced drag before the slack-off weight. Since torque does
torque. not require the tool joint to continually displace a cuttings

Depth (in MDRT)

12¼-in. d
drilling
g - hookload
oo oad
0
Model data parameters SO FF: 0.15
250 MW: 1.22 sg SO FF: 0.25
Pump hydraulic uplift 0 klbs SO FF: 0.35
500
Block weight 65 klbs ROB
750 Wellbore: PU FF: 0.15
13-3/8” 68ppf, shoe at 650m MD PU FF: 0.25
1000
FF: CH=0.20 OH=0.15 - 0.35 PU FF: 0.35
1250 Model type: soft string SOW - actual
1500
Engineer: IJH, 08 Jan 2007 ROB - actual
PUW - actual
1750
2000
2250
2500
2750
3000
3250
3500 Start reaming stand on connections

3750
10hr ROP 61m/hr
4000 Circulate hole clean for gyro run
4250
4500
4750
Average ROP 40 m/hr
5000
5250
5500
5750
6000
6250
6500
6750
0.25 0.15 ROB 0.15 0.25 0.35
7000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Hookload (klbs)
Figure DP-32: Drag Trending – Hookload vs depth. Solid lines represent computer-estimated hookloads. Slack-
off (SO) weights are in blue; rotating-off-bottom (ROB) weights in green; and pick-up weights in red.

bed it is a less reliable indicator of hole cleaning problems,

unless the bed actually packs off around the tool joint OD.
As opposed to tripping risks, which can come on very quick-

ly, the risks associated with a cuttings bed while drilling vary
over a longer period of time. The resistance of the bed to
tool joint movement is also very small. Trends of hookload
(drag) vs depth provide an excellent method of monitoring
this change, to highlight these changes, and identify when
hole-cleaning efforts are insufficient to prevent an excessive
equilibrium bed height or build-up of material in the wellbore.
Drag in high-angle wells is too complex to predict from expe-

rience. Engineering software is required to model the expect-
ed values. Deviations between actual drag and that predicted
by computer models can be highlighted and then investigat-
ed further to determine if a problem is developing. Actual
drag is measured by measuring hookloads on connections.
Figure DP-32 is a plot of hookload vs bit depth. The solid rep-

resent hookloads estimated by engineering software:
Slack-off (SO) weights:- blue lines;
Rotating off bottom (ROB) weights: green line;
Pick-up weights: red lines.
The estimates for slack-off and pick-up hookloads have been

calculated at three different friction factors (FF). Three field
measurements are made of actual field drag when the bit is
off bottom during connections: slack off (SO), rotating (ROB)
and pick-up (PU). They are recorded at every connection and
plotted against the theoretical lines.
When the actual FF trend differs from the theoretical, the

drill team has the opportunity to discuss possible causes and
whether corrective action should be taken. Interpretation is
aided by annotating the plot with key hole cleaning parame-
ters (RPM, flow and fluid rheology) and the amount of mate-
rial being introduced to the wellbore over a given time (ROP).
Significant changes in the load of cuttings on the shakers
should be documented, as well as the depth at which it oc-
curred.
Both slack off and pick-up hookload trends in Figure DP-

32 indicate higher friction at 3,500 m than is seen deeper
in the wellbore. When the ROP was reduced after 3,500 m,
reductions of drag were also observed. A small increase in
ROP should not significantly change the bed height, so it is
likely that the increased cuttings load is causing a secondary
effect, such as greater drag from the deeper cuttings in en-
larged hole sections. Figures DP-33a and -33b (top and second from top):
Normal PDC ribbons and granular cuttings. Figures DP-
33c and -33d (second from bottom and bottom): Cavings
The team should review information to attempt to eliminate
(blocky and splintery) indicating stress induced breakout
the root cause. However, regardless of the cause, trend mon- has occurred and the hole is enlarged. Document the
itoring allowed the driller to take corrective action before location and watch for drag or pack-offs while tripping.

pack-offs or stuck pipe occurred. When used in conjunction annulus is close to packing off. Consequently, the use of drag
with other available information, this is an invaluable method alone as a hole-cleaning indicator might lead to excessive
for determining whether the hole cleaning is adequate in your circulating time on connections to reduce the bed height,
wellbore. when the bed height is not actually at a critical level. If the
bed height is approaching the top of the hole, dunes start
Recommended practices for measuring pick-up, slack off and to form that attempt to pack off, and pressure spikes in the
rotating hookloads are provided in the Making Connections PWD data will occur. This is an indication that the drill rate
section of this chapter. Because this is used as trending data, should be reduced. If this behavior is seen at low drill rates, it
a standard procedure should be developed for each rig that is is most likely due to enlarged hole, as discussed above.
used uniformly by all drillers.
Gauge holes do not tend to pack off unless the drill rates
Shaker material monitoring are relatively high, or the flow rate is unusually low. The in-
Shaker monitoring is important to verify wellbore cleaning creased hydrostatic head in the vertical interval at higher
and to identify intervals with breakout and enlarged hole. cuttings loads can also increase downhole pressure. The ef-
The lack of material at the shakers after circulating does fect on ECD should be calculated to ensure it is not interpret-
not confirm that the hole is clean. In some cases the flow ed as poor hole cleaning.
rate is not adequate to reduce the bed height to zero, even in Increase drill rate and observe both the drag and PWD
gauge hole. However, it will rarely be adequate to remove all trends. Both should increase, but not greatly;
of the cuttings in enlarged hole. The annulus velocity falls Stop increasing ROP if the ECD trend changes during
so greatly with even a small amount of enlargement that one the stand. Stop raising ROP when a change occurs in the
should assume that enlarged hole is not cleaned unless the trend, or the ECD approaches safe limits to avoid lost
BHA is reamed out of hole. returns;
Check the drag trend on the next connection as an
Monitor the shaker material while drilling for evidence of cav- additional diagnostic. Again, limit ROP if there is an
ings, and document the depth where they are observed, as acute point at which the drag increases, or if total drag
well as the percentage of cuttings vs cavings on the shakers is approaching safe overpull limits;
(Figures DP-33a, -33b, -33c and -33d). If cavings are ob- Attempt to maintain the same minimum circulating
served, alert the team. The team can then decide whether time on each connection. The cuttings are already
to raise the MW to prevent further enlargement. In some resting on the equilibrium bed, and if ECD and drag are
situations, fluid density cannot be increased and some level acceptable prior to the connection, they will be the
of breakout must be allowed. However, hole cleaning will be same afterward. If they are not acceptable, reduce the
severely compromised and the achievable ROP reduced due drill rate so that additional circulation time is not
to poor transport. Prior to tripping, note the locations where needed.
breakout was observed and be cautious when the top of the
BHA approaches these intervals. Additional guidance on Extensive circulation and rotation should not be required on
characterizing and reporting cuttings and cavings is provided connections unless there is significant hole enlargement or
in the Wellbore Stability section of this chapter. unusually low flow rates.
Monitor downhole Pressure While Drilling (PWD) data to en- Remedial hole cleaning practices
sure that downhole pressure does not cause lost returns, and It is always best to avoid a hole-cleaning problem with pro-
to observe trends in hole cleaning. If the bed height grows, active, early intervention, rather than for it to occur and then
the flow area above it declines and an increase in circulat- attempt to solve it, which holds an associated risk of stuck
ing pressure will occur. The bed height tends to be self-reg- pipe. If additional hole-cleaning efforts are required, it is
ulating. It erodes when the bed attempts to increase beyond best to invest more time with parameters exceeding mini-
the equilibrium height. Also, if we attempt to reduce the bed mum hole-cleaning thresholds for the wellbore.
height and return to drilling, new material is quickly depos-
ited. Therefore, the trend in equivalent circulating density Sweeps are very effective in low-angle wells; however,
(ECD) will be relatively stable after the bed is established. It high-rheology sweeps will not remove cuttings from long
should increase with the length of the borehole, although this sections of high-angle wellbore. Most high-angle wells have
depends on the well profile. low-angle sections near surface, and sweeps will accelerate
material out of these areas, giving the impression that they
The PWD trend might help in using the drag trend to maxi- are beneficial. Sweeps do not work in high-angle wellbores,
mize performance. Drag will increase with ROP, but this does since it is impossible for them to pick up or carry the material
not mean the total drag is close to system limits or that the over significant distances. Further, high-rheology sweeps do

of the BHA. The pulling speed during back-reaming is criti-

cal to ensure that the top of the BHA does not catch up with
the cuttings dune in high-angle wellbores. This will lead to
packing off and possible lost returns. Drag monitoring is inef-
fective during back-reaming due to the rotational component
breaking friction.
Back-reaming may be required to assist hole cleaning efforts

if:
Normal cleanup cycles are ineffective in reducing the
bed height low enough for it to pass through the BHA
openings. It is common to circulate and rotate for at
least 2-4 bottoms up prior to tripping. Pull pipe slowly
Figure DP-34: shows a sweep elongating along the top of the hole. while circulating so that the bit does not remain in one
If cuttings are transferred into these areas (with rotation), then they place and undercut the hole;
will only stay there over a short distance before gravity forces them Critical operations will be conducted following the trip
back to the bottom of the hole. A sweep arriving at surface with
little material can give a false impression that the wellbore is clean. out that may require a completely clean hole:
− Casing floatation run (cannot circulate);
not move the cuttings along the surface of the equilibrium − One-way casing run;
bed as effectively as thinner mud. − Tight annular clearances (e.g. running 7-in. casing
in 8½-in. hole);
Combinations of thin fluid followed by very high-density flu- − Logging operations (borderline).
id might reduce the equilibrium bed height. But to suspend
cuttings and actually carry them, the fluid density must If an attempt is made to trip without reaming and pack-offs
be greater than that of the cuttings, which is more than 18 occur that require reaming, the reaming operation should
lb/gal. Also, remember that an equilibrium bed should ex- be continued until the BHA enters the low-angle wellbore
ist across the entire wellbore. Therefore, if the sweep was (≤30°) or a complete cleanup is conducted.
highly effective and able to carry the material, the cuttings
volumes mobilized would cause significant pressure spikes Avalanche regime practices (40-65° inclination)
or pack-offs. In the avalanche regime, between 40°-65°, cuttings which
have formed a bed on bottom will slide down the well when
Figure DP-34 shows a sweep elongating along the top of the pumps are shut down. Inclinations above 65° are gener-
the hole. If cuttings are transferred into these areas (with ro- ally safer, as cuttings drop to the low side and stay stationary
tation), then they will only stay there over a short distance when the pumps are shut down. The forces acting on the
before gravity forces them back to the bottom of the hole. A cuttings are shown in Figure DP-35. At avalanche angles the
sweep arriving at surface with little material can give a false
impression that the wellbore is clean.
Also, if a volume of cuttings is seen in sweeps this cannot be

Path of
used to diagnose a hole cleaning problem because if it picks 40º-60º
cutting
up only a fraction of the mass of cuttings that should be in
the bottom of a high-angle well, it will appear to have a heavy Resisting
load. bed force Fluid force
Buoyancy
Absent reaming or circulation, wiper trips do not remove
material from the wellbore and thus have no effect on hole
cleaning. If it’s decided to ream out of hole and remove the
cutting bed, the bed will rebuild immediately to the same lev- Avalanche, particularly
when flow stops
els as soon as drilling continues.
Back-reaming is tripping out of the hole while pumping and Figure DP-35: Between 40-65° of inclination, a cuttings bed
rotating. The process is described in this chapter in Tripping is still formed as material falls downward in the flow stream;
Practices. The cuttings are moved up the hole by the high however, it once it reaches the wall, it slides downward if
the fluid rheology is not adequate to hold it in place.
velocity around the collars, as well as the mechanical stirring

bed is still formed, but cuttings move differently across its Although problematic and the source of significant non-pro-
surface. Because the fluid tends to drive the cutting into the ductive time (NPT), the industry has a record of solving even
surface of the bed, rather than parallel to it, the cutting is the most complex hole-cleaning issues around the world.
kicked up into the flow stream and carried until it once again Changes in well design require changes of approach, and this
falls out. This process is repeated as it travels up the hole in a is especially true as wells progress from low to high angle and
hopping motion. Drill-string rotation also contributes greatly then extended reach.
to transport. When the cuttings arrive at an angle of 30-40°,
they remain suspended and their slip velocity becomes the Confirm the parameters required for your project, and then
critical factor. ensure the design will allow their implementation, e.g., string
RPM limits for motor bends. Be aware that previous tools
The force from the flow also tends to hold the bed in place, may no longer be appropriate as wellbore design evolves.
but when the pumps are shut down it will slide downhole if Trend drag data and investigate anomalies using all other
the fluid rheology is inadequate to hold it in place. Unfortu- sources of information, e.g., shakers, ROP, drilling-parame-
nately, the high rheology required to prevent avalanching is ter changes. Drill the minimum-size wellbore required. Lim-
not effective at moving cuttings along the high-angle equi- it breakout and hole enlargement. Over-gauge hole makes
librium bed. over-size problems.
Consequently, there must be a compromise and the 6-rpm The final requirement is patience. While a vertical hole may
reading has become the preferred metric. The 6-rpm reading clean up with 1.2 to 1.5 times BU, a record ERD wellbore may
indicates how much resistance a fluid has to slow movement. take more than 8 times BU. The objective is to always trip
We cannot prevent avalanching, but it can be slowed enough on elevators. When this is not possible, a dysfunction exists
to prevent material from collecting to form a bridge or pack which can typically be addressed by changing practices, but
off during the time it takes to make a connection. The guide- may require a re-design to extend hole-cleaning limiters.
lines given earlier for the 6-rpm to range between 1.1-1.5
times the hole diameter in inches are based on requirements
for avalanche angles. Lower values are actually preferred at Tripping practices
high angles where cuttings are moved by fluid shear along This section describes practices for conditioning the well in
the top or the bed. preparation to trip, as well as practices for managing the trip
itself. This includes conditioning the drilling fluid, removing
Cuttings cannot tell the difference between casing and open cuttings at low angle, conditioning or removing the cuttings
hole. Material deposited in the casing in high-angle wells bed at high angles, and management of tripping and back
must be maintained at an acceptable level, as well as in the reaming. The section primarily covers conventional opera-
open hole. tions when the borehole conditions are normal, with limited
guidance on tripping through problem intervals. Practices
General practices include: for responding to tight hole or other problematic borehole
If heavy reaming is required, consider increasing the behavior are discussed in the section on Reaming to Condi-
6-rpm and gel strength of the mud. Large material in tion Hole in this chapter.
breakouts at high angle must be transported through
the avalanche angles; The objective is to prepare the well so that a trip can be made
Clean the rathole left below casing shoes thoroughly on elevators in one continuous operation with no remedial
prior to tripping into casing and continue washing to an or contingency work. When borehole conditions are normal,
angle of 30°; The equilibrium bed height in the rathole the primary requirement prior to tripping is to sufficiently
will be high; remove drill cuttings to prevent their interference with the
When washing at avalanche angles, continue circulating trip or subsequent operations. For example, it is not neces-
to move the cuttings well above the BHA prior to sary for a high-angle borehole to be completely clean to trip
making connections; a drilling assembly, but if the next step is to run a close-clear-
Observe the shakers for cavings and notify the drill ance liner or to float a casing string in hole, it might be desir-
team immediately so that an informed decision can be able to completely remove the cuttings bed.
made on raising mud weight. The bed at avalanche
angles (40°-65°) will grow to equilibrium, which means The practices used to clean a well depend largely on inclina-
it will be much higher in enlargements where the fluid tion. The detailed effects of inclination on cuttings transport
velocity falls. The problems created by enlargement at are described in the Hole Cleaning section of this chapter.
avalanche angles may be greater than at low or high Cuttings move differently in each of the three regimes shown
angle. below. However, all high-angle wells must also include some

section of wellbore at intermediate angles; therefore clean- weight minus swab) is close to pore pressure, conduct a
up practices for high and intermediate angles are discussed 10-stand short trip, then circulate BU to check for gas;
together. 7. Begin pulling pipe without circulation while filling the an-
Low-angle (<40°) and vertical wells; nulus from the trip tank;
Intermediate-angle (40 – 65°) intervals; 8. Monitor the fill rate from the trip tank vs pipe volume
High-angle (>65°) wells. pulled. Any discrepancy may indicate an influx has oc-
curred. If so, return to bottom and circulate bottoms up;
Low-angle intervals (< 40°) 9. While out of hole, continue to monitor the trip tank for
In low-angle wells, the objective of cleanup operations pri- losses or flow.
or to tripping is to remove all the cuttings from the well. In
low-angle wells, any material left may settle to form bridges Tight hole or drag at low angle
that prevent wireline logging, casing running, or which may Common causes of tight hole include:
require rig time to drill out. The cuttings may also pack off Ductile closure;
around the BHA while tripping, resulting in stuck pipe. Filter cake build up;
Vibrationally induced borehole patterns;
Cuttings in low-angle wells slip downward within the drilling Cavings avalanching from enlarged hole.
fluid, which is attempting to lift them out of the hole. If flu-
id properties are adequate, the rate at which they fall within Detailed recognition and response practices for each are dis-
the flow stream is quite low compared to the vertical velocity cussed in the section on Reaming to Condition Hole.
of the fluid. The driller can observe the severity of slippage
from the number of bottoms up required until the shakers Regardless of the cause, the immediate response to excess
are clean. drag is similar. Prior to each trip, establish a limit to which the
driller will pull when tight hole is observed. The limit should
In theory, absent slippage, the last of the cuttings would ar- ensure that if it is not possible to pull through, sufficient
rive at one bottoms up. Unfortunately, there is always some string weight can be slacked off to the stuck point to free the
inefficiency. The objective of fluid design and flow rate during pipe in a downward direction. Over-pull limits are commonly
cleanup is to remove all the cuttings within a reasonable in the range of 30,000-40,000 lb.
amount of circulation time. 1. If excess drag exceeds the established over-pull limit
while pulling pipe, stop tripping;
As discussed in the Hole Cleaning section, if poor cleaning 2. Lower the string until there is little or no excess drag;
is observed in vertical wells, it is usually due to the presence 3. Slowly increase the pump rate to the normal drilling flow
of enlarged hole due to breakout, which results in very low rate;
fluid velocity in the enlargement. Also, the cavings created by 4. Begin rotation at a low RPM that does not cause signifi-
breakout fall much faster than smaller cuttings. Practices for cant whirl;
cleaning enlarged sections are discussed in the Reaming and 5. Slowly pull pipe and ream upward.
Borehole Stability sections of this chapter.
The detailed reaming operations will depend on the cause of
Preparation and tripping drag. The response to a cuttings pack-off is discussed below.
1. Increase 6-rpm fluid rheology to a minimum of one times See the section on Reaming to Condition Hole for discussion
hole diameter in inches as drilling approaches TD (i.e., 8 of diagnostics and reaming practices for other causes of tight
sec-1 for 8.5-in. hole); hole.
2. Prior to tripping alert, the driller to the locations of cav-
ings or tight hole seen while drilling; High- and intermediate-angle intervals (>40°)
3. If the trip speed will initially be limited by swab, model Because remedial operations are often costly in high-angle
the annulus pressure drop to determine the depths at wells, it is better to avoid problems than to attempt to solve
which the pulling speed can be increased as additional them once they have arisen. This section describes cleanup
pipe is pulled; practices prior to tripping, and parameters and trends that
4. Circulate until minimal cuttings are observed, usually can be monitored during the trip to provide early warning of
1.2-1.5 times bottoms up (BU) in low-angle wells. Docu- approaching issues.
ment any cavings observed and the number of bottoms
up circulated; Cleanup practices for all wells with inclinations more than
5. Place the annulus on the trip tank to ensure it remains full about 40° are similar, because they all might contain sta-
while tripping; tionary beds of cuttings on the low side. The cuttings-trans-
6. If the equivalent mud weight while tripping (mud port process for wells of different inclinations is discussed

Tripping for a casing/liner run with a

critical or demanding cement job, e.g.,
production casing (ream out of hole for
complete bed removal);
Tripping prior to gravel packing, running
screens or other open-hole completions
(ream out of hole);
Tripping for advanced casing/liner run;
one way, floated, close clearance etc (ream
out of hole);
Tripping for high-angle wireline logging
(ream out of hole);
Swab and surge pressures will be “felt”
Figure DP-36: Bed height before and after clean-up operations. by the entire wellbore, though the
magnitude increases with depth (see
in detail in the Hole Cleaning section. At angles above 40°, Connections section);
cuttings settle on the bottom of the hole and are not carried Casing is not a safe haven, since cuttings do not know
out, as they are in vertical holes. The cuttings from a bed and the difference between cased and open hole. The
the velocity of the fluid must be adequate to move the mate- cuttings bed will exist at inclinations as low as 40°;
rial on top of the bed in a rolling, sliding, or skipping action. It is not possible to measure cuttings bed height while
Cuttings do not stay in suspension as they do in a vertical drilling, or after circulating bottoms up. Gradual
flow interval. The practices for enabling this type of motion, changes in drag or circulating pressure may indicate the
such as pipe rotation, differ from the lifting motion that oc- bed height has changed downhole, but this doesn’t
curs at low-angle. Consequently, final cleanup practices are necessarily mean it is approaching a particularly critical
different. There are a number of physical processes the drill- level;
er should understand when conditioning a high-angle well. As well trajectories change, it is no longer possible to
The initial state of the cuttings bed will depend on instinctively estimate how hookload will vary as
drilling practices. These are described in the Hole different parts of the drill string transit through build,
Cleaning section of this chapter; drop or turn portions of the wellbore. Accurate baseline
There is no such thing as a “clean hole”. It should be predictions of hookload by depth must be provided by
assumed that there will always be a cuttings bed. This is engineering software to allow abnormal drag to be
a conservative assumption, but it will be true in most identified.
high-angle wells, unless the well has been back-reamed
and the open hole is not significantly enlarged due to Tripping with partial bed removal
breakout; There are two types of cleanup operations: one in which the
An acceptable cuttings bed height is one that allows equilibrium bed height is only reduced to trippable levels,
current and subsequent operations to progress without and one in which the bed is almost completely removed.
delay or unnecessary risk. It may not be necessary to Procedures for both are discussed below.
entirely remove the bed;
Acceptable cuttings bed height varies with the In the first case, the well is circulated and pipe rotated until
operation: the bed is low enough that the cuttings will flow through the
Bed heights while drilling may be quite high, as long as open spaces around the BHA as the string is pulled on the
the resulting drag and circulating pressure are within elevators.
system limits. However, there is some risk if the bed is
not “trippable” if a drill string washout occurs; In the second case, the well is circulated to reduce the bed
When tripping without circulation, the cuttings bed height, but the string is also rotated and circulated as it is
must be low enough to flow through the junk slot and pulled in order to remove the remainder of the bed. Com-
bypass areas of downhole components (principally pletely removing nearly all cuttings is essential prior to gravel
BHA); packing, installing open-hole screens, slotted liners or oth-
Subsequent operations will determine whether some er systems that may plug with cuttings. It is also needed
cuttings may be left in the hole (trip on elevators), or for casing strings where cement integrity is critical, as the
whether they must be removed (ream out of hole): cuttings bed will provide a channel for flow between zones.
Tripping with intent to return to drilling (partial Non-aqueous fluids remaining in the bed may also contami-
bed removal and trip on elevators); nate the surrounding cement and prevent it from setting. Fur-

thermore, reaming may be required

prior to operations that require full
annular clearance, such as running
a casing string with swell packers
or with a narrow cementing margin
between ECD and the formation
fracture gradient.
Reaming is also conducted when

trips that are initially begun on the
elevators encounter excess cut-
tings and pack-offs. Once reaming
has begun, it is usually continued
until the borehole inclination is less
than 30° and a full cleanup circula-
tion cycle is completed.
Perform a clean-up cycle prior to

tripping:
1. Circulate a minimum of 2-3
times BU with flow rates and
RPM in excess of the
minimum recommended in
the Hole Cleaning section Figures DP-37a and 37b (from top): Figure DP-37a: Equilibrium bed flowing
until shakers are “clean.” It is likely through BHA by-pass areas. The bed offers no resistance unless thesolids do
that a cuttings bed still remains in not fit through the open areas and Figure DP-37b: High equilibrium bed does
the hole; not fit through bypass areas of BHA and pack-off and pulls are observed.
2. As rotation is begun, conduct
RPM step tests and use downhole vibrations BHA (Figure DP-37a), unless the bed height is great
monitoring to determine a safe reaming speed. Begin enough to completely pack off and apply force to the
with the minimum RPM recommended in the Hole borehole walls, at which point drag will be seen
Cleaning section for cuttings transport, and increase (Figure DP-37b).
the speed further to locate a safe value with low whirl. a) Pump the slug;
See Reaming to Condition Hole section for discussion b) Continue to POOH on elevators (no pumps or rotary);
of reaming speeds; c) Pulling speed should be the same as that used in the 5
3. Measure or observe the volume of cuttings coming stand test trip;
over shakers every 15 min to determine when the d) Record actual pick up weights in a consistent manner
mobile part of the cuttings bed has been recovered. In every stands and plot these weights against the the-
some cases a second wave of cuttings will be seen oretical weights for a range of friction factors (Figure
about 1 times BU after the hole first appears clean; DP-38). Look for diverging trends (increasing friction
4. Rack back a stand every 15-30 min during the clean-up factor) that would indicate that something is changing
to avoid enlarging the hole due to side-cutting from bit downhole.
whirl or gravity. If the formation lithology is such that
there is no concern with hole enlargement around the Response to pack-offs
BHA then reciprocate the drill string over a stand In high-angle wells, initially assume that over-pulls are due
length while performing the clean-up cycle. The high to cuttings, packing around the BHA. If true, the cuttings are
velocity around the reciprocating tool joints will help to most likely in an enlarged section where the stored mass is
mobilize cuttings beds; too great to fit through the BHA, or in a high bed in the av-
5. Pull 5-10 stands on the elevators (no pumps or rotary) alanche zone. Establish over-pull limits prior to starting the
and monitor for over-pulls and correct hole fill. The trip. Specify a conservative low limit, such as 30-40k lbs, for
purpose of this short check trip is to confirm the bed is the difference between the actual PU weight and the trend
trippable with the BHA prior to pumping the slug; established prior to the packoff.
6. Trip out of hole without rotation or circulation. The If excess overpull is observed, stop pulling and lower the
cuttings will flow through the open areas around the string until there is no excess drag, or a minimum of 2

17½-in. hole section

Depth (ft) hookload (tripping on elevators from TD)
Hookload (klbs)
S/O FF 0.10 S/O FF 0.20 S/O FF 0.30
S/O FF 0.40 S/O FF 0.50 Rot_Off_Bttm Weight
P/U FF 0.10 P/U FF 0.20 P/U FF 0.30
P/U FF 0.40 P/U FF 0.50 Trip#2
Figure DP-38: Tripping plot example showing actual vs predicted hookloads.
stands. Initiating circulation without lowering the string It is important to stage up the flow rate slowly,
will pressure-energize the packed material, creating especially over the first 15 seconds, to avoid excessive
strength and reducing the likelihood that circulation can downhole pressure spikes or pack-offs. Rotary should
be re-established. The distance to run in hole depends also be brought up to the maximum parameters and the
on hole inclination and the potential for material in the hole circulated for 15-30 min. The initial goal is not to
wellbore to move downhole (e.g. avalanche zone, 3-5 clean up the wellbore, but rather confirm if the tight
stands, hole section >65°, 2-3 stands or less). hole is due to cuttings or some other problem in the

wellbore. Monitor for

packing off (pressure or Back reaming – Enlarged hole to gauge hole pack-off
torque spikes) or tight hole.
If these are seen, it may be
necessary to trip in further
prior to establishing
circulation. Ream slowly up
to depth at which the
over-pull occurred. After
circulating and rotating for
15-30 min, shut down and
pick up on the elevators back
Figure DP-39: High velocities around the BHA components completely remove material.
to the same point where the
over-pull was seen. There
are two possible outcomes:
The BHA again pulls tight at the same depth removing excess material. Circulate until minimal
indicating that there is an obstruction in the well cuttings are observed in the returns;
that has not been removed by the short clean-up. 2. Commence back-reaming out of the hole using RPM
It is likely to be a mechanical restriction. See the and flow rates discussed in the Hole Cleaning and
Reaming to Condition Hole section; Reaming sections;
If the BHA does not encounter an overpull at the 3. Start slowly at 15 min per stand. Stage the reaming
same depth, then the cause is mobile and most speed up while watching PWD and surface data for
likely cuttings that have been moved further up pressure spikes, indicating attempted pack-off.
the hole by the short clean-up. At this point Reaming rates up to 3 stands per hour are common.
return to Step 1 of the tripping procedure and Achievable reaming rates in gauge hole depend on
perform a full clean-up cycle before again hole size, pump rates, the initial bed height and other
attempting to POOH on the elevators; factors;
Regardless of whether the restriction moves, if a 4. If drag is observed, use the diagnostic process
pack-off or pressure spikes are seen at any point described above to determine the cause;
during these operations, the restriction is due to 5. Monitor vibrations, torque and pump pressures for
cuttings or cavings. There is no other borehole indications of packing off;
problem that creates pack-off; 6. Back-ream back to the shoe (or ±30-40° inclination)
If the procedure above is unsuccessful and drag and and perform a clean-up cycle prior to POOH on
pack-offs persist, continue washing and reaming until elevators.
the inclination is below 40°. The procedure is the same
as for tripping when the removal of all cuttings is
planned. Wellbore stability management
Wellbore instability results in many billions of dollars in
Tripping with complete bed removal trouble cost for oil and gas operators every year by caus-
Complete bed removal is usually possible by reaming out of ing lost wells, stuck pipe, the need for sidetracks, increased
hole, because the velocity around the BHA is high. As the difficulty in directional control, inability to run casing, poor
mobilized cuttings enter the larger drillpipe annulus above cement quality, reduced drill rates due to poor hole cleaning,
the BHA, they will again attempt to fall out. However, the among other problems. Furthermore, even moderate bore-
bed height around the drillpipe is already at equilibrium with hole enlargement can result in slow drill rates, due to poor
the flow ,so they will remain mobile and travel along the top cuttings removal. Extended reaming and circulating time on
of the bed in a high concentration. If cuttings are mobilized trips and connections may also be required to condition and
too fast, they may not fit into the space above the equilib- clean enlarged hole. However, many of these issues can be
rium bed and will tend to pack-off immediately above the avoided with proper well planning, real-time surveillance
BHA. The reaming rate must be limited to prevent this, and and implementation of operational best practices, as out-
reduced even further when the top of the BHA enters en- lined below.
larged hole with a greater mass of stored cuttings.
1. Perform a cleanup cycle as per the standard tripping Instability and hole enlargement
procedure to remove the mobile cuttings above the When a borehole is cut in a rock formation at depth, the
equilibrium bed. This reduces the risk of packing off by state of stress around the borehole becomes very differ-

Formation trol and downhole pressure management are our main tools
stresses to keep the wellbore stable and avoid losses.
Figure DP-41 shows several examples of wellbore instability

problems that might be encountered in actual field practice.
When stresses are identical on all sides of the hole and the
mud weight is too low, the wellbore will enlarge or “break
Mud out” uniformly on all sides. If the stresses are not the same in
weight all directions, the wellbore will enlarge more on one side than
another (i.e., preferential break-out) and become more oval
shaped. Uneven stress also means that higher mud weight
Hoop is required to stabilize the hole. There are key points to be
stress made regarding specific formations.
Shales
Contrary to common belief, clay-rich shales do not creep or
Figure DP-40: Hoop stress concentration develops around the face flow into the wellbore, despite their well-known clay swelling
of the borehole after the hole is cut as the formation stress attempts
to reduce the diameter of the hole (dashed line). Increasing MW
tendencies. Instead, they tend to enlarge when mud weight
expands the hole and reduces the stress that causes failure. is insufficient for stability or when exposed for long periods
of time to water-based muds that can raise the near-well-
bore pore pressure (discussed in more detail below). The
ent from that of the undisturbed rock. Directly after the bit primary cause of tight hole in shales is vibrationally induced
cuts the hole, formation stresses will attempt to close it or borehole patterns, which are discussed in the Reaming to
at least reduce its diameter. The actual reduction in diam- Condition Hole section.
eter is quite small, on the order of a few thousandths of an
inch (Figure DP-40). The rock will almost always break be- Caliper logs obtained after drilling unstable shales typically
fore the inside diameter declines enough to cause drag on show the hole to be enlarged, not reduced in size. Drillers are
undergauge stabilizers. The borehole thus becomes larger often confused by this, given the fact that unstable shales
rather than tight. However, the attempt to squeeze a larg- give rise to tight-hole problems. In reality, the reduced an-
er circumference into a smaller one creates an elevated nular mud velocity in enlarged shale sections tends to trap
stress around the wellbore called “hoop stress” (or “hoop cuttings and cavings while drilling in the enlarged hole. When
stress riser”). This hoop stress actually holds the key to both circulation is stopped and particularly when pipe is tripped
borehole instability and borehole fracturing/lost circulation out of the hole with modest swab pressures, these solids can
problems. If the high hoop stress around the wellbore ex- become dislodged, fall down the annulus and cause the pipe
ceeds the compressive or shear strength of the formation, and BHA (particularly BHA stabilizers) to stick on more in-
the rock in the face of the hole will break, leading to borehole gauge sections of the hole – hence the characteristic tight
instability and enlargement. This topic is dealt with further hole sticking problem associated with unstable shales. How-
in this chapter. Conversely, low stress holding the wellbore ever, this will also result in hole fill on trips.
closed reduces the borehole pressure required to propagate
a fracture, causing lost returns, a topic dealt with in the sec- Sands
tion on Lost Circulation. Sands are usually stronger than adjacent shales, allowing
them to be drilled with higher rocks stress without breaking,
It is important to understand that the magnitude of the hoop and thus lower mud weights. They therefore still show up
stress around the wellbore is a function of the mud weight.. as in-gauge in boreholes where adjacent shales have been
As the MW is increased the stress around the hole declines. enlarged due to insufficient mud weight support. However,
If it is increased sufficiently that the stresss is less than the in sands it is also necessary to establish a competent filter
formation strength, the rock does not break and the bore- cake for the borehole pressure to act against, particularly in
hole does not enlarge. The mud weight at which the borehole unconsolidated sands. The API Fluid Loss test is generally
remains intact and in-gauge is known as the “stability mud not a good indicator as it is run against very low permeability
weight.” However, the MW must also be limited and lowered, filter paper that does not simulate very high permeability in
if necessary, to avoid pressures that would force the hole unconsolidated sands. Fluid specialists may instead develop
open, such that fracture propagation and mud losses occur. appropriate fluid formulations using API Particle Plugging
Clearly, from an operational point of view, mud density con- Tests, which better simulates the downhole sand. Signifi-
cant enlargement (i.e., greaeter than 1 in.) in unconsolidated

sands is due to inadequate filter cakes and MW. It is not due Mud weight and downhole pressure management
to hydraulic washing, despite the common use of the term, The key to avoiding the majority of borehole instability prob-
washout. lem is proper mud weight application and maintenance, and
real time downhole pressure management. Figures DP-42a
Salt and tar and DP-42b show the downhole pressure in relation to for-
While they are not common, the types of formations that mation pore pressure and fracture gradient. If the downhole
will deform significantly include mobile salts and tar for- pressure exceeds the fracture gradient, fractures may be
mations that may “creep” into the wellbore without failing, opened or created and mud losses will result. When down-
causing under-gauge hole, high-torque in stabilizers, stabi- hole pressure falls below the pore pressure, formation oil,
lizer drag while tripping, and stuck pipe (common causes gas, brine or a combination of these may flow in the wellbore
of tight hole are discussed in the Reaming Practices section causing a kick. Unless underbalanced drilling (UBD) is prac-
of this chapter). Potential responses to creeping formations ticed, this situation is generally to be avoided.
are to ream periodically, drill overgauge hole, use high mud
weight to counterbalance the rock flow, partially dissolve Fracture gradients and pore pressures limit the allowable
the formation with appropriate mud chemistry (under-sat- downhole mud pressures. However, there may be a third
urated WBM for salts, OBM or base oil for tar), and above limiter; the minimum mud weight required for wellbore sta-
all minimize open hole time with expedited running and ce- bility (shown as the dashed line in Figure DP-42a). If the
menting of well-centralized high strength casing. mud pressure falls below this minimum mud weight limit,
borehole instability will ensue. The minimum mud weight re-
Hard formations quired to prevent enlargement is usually greater than that re-
Hard formations, such as limestones, basalts, granite and quired to prevent flow. In high-angle wells the MW required
so one, are usually so strong that they can be drilled with for stability may be 1-3 ppg higher than the pore pressure.
minimum mud weight support. In fact, many can be drilled The available “drilling margin” or “mud window” is the dif-
underbalanced, with a mud pressure that is below the pore ference between the fracture gradient and either the pore
Overgauge hole
Figure DP-41: Schematic overview of several borehole stability problems: overgauge

hole in shales, induced fractures in sandstone, creep in mobile salt.

Pore Stability Fracture

pressure mud weight PRESSURE gradient
Static overbalance
Figure DP-42a: Schematic overview of the Breaking circulation
limitations on allowable downhole mud
LOST CIRCULATION
Solids
pressures: only pressures in the region Circulation loading
shaded green will allow for trouble-free
drilling. Dynamic pressure effects such as Reaming
spudding
Solids
loading
KICK
swab and surge can significantly complicate
downhole pressure management. Some
level of swabbing may be accommodated Swab Surge
with minimum negative impact on wellbore

Pulling jarring up Running/jarring down
stability (hence the extension of the green- through pack-offs through pack-offs
shared area to the left of the optimum
stability mud weight), but if swabs become Variation in annular pressure
too large, wellbore enlargement will happen.
Minimum dynamic Maximum dynamic
mud pressure mud pressure
(Instability) (Lost Circulation)
Downhole equivalent mud weight (ppg)

Figure DP-42b: Downhole pressure
behavior on a deepwater ERD well. While
drilling, downhole pressures (dark blue
points) reasonably stay within the optimum
window (green shaded area) between
fracture gradient (14.1 ppg) and minimum
mud weight for wellbore stability (13.0
ppg). Even though some equivalent mud
weights (dark blue points) are as low as
12.8 ppg, this does not lead to serious
issues for wellbore stability. However,
while pulling out of hole (magenta points),
pressures fall significantly below minimum
mud weight requirements due to swab,
triggering massive wellbore instability. The
hole section was ultimately lost. TIH =
tripping in hole; BU & POOH = (circulating)
bottom-up and pulling out of hole.
Interval between 11 ¾-in. casing and Magenta Sand
Mud density is not constant along the well depth, but circulating, or hole cleaning models can be used to
varies with pressure and temperature. Pressure tends to estimate the instantaneous solids loading of the
compress the mud and make it denser, increasing mud annulus and their contribution to the overall hydrostatic
weight with depth. Temperature, in contrast, tends to head during a particular well operation;
reduce the density. These effects are subtle, but can Downhole pressure is only constant when the pumps
account for variations of several tenths (0.1) of ppg are shut off and there is no pipe movement. It is then
compared to the mud weight measured on surface with equal to the cumulative static hydrostatic head of the
a pressurized scale or through other means. These mud. However, during regular drilling operations, the
variations can be very important when drilling wells static profile is changed by pipe movement, pipe
with small drilling margins such as (ultra-) deepwater, rotation, pipe tripping in and out of the hole, cuttings
ERD and HPHT wells. If pressure-while-drilling (PWD) loading and other factors. Further, the effects are not
tools are in use, rig site personnel should monitor the uniform at all depths. This dynamic downhole pressure,
hydrostatic head on connections to ensure the required a combination of the mud’s static hydrostatic head and
total head is being maintained; all transient effects (see Figure DP-42b), is referred to
Solids in the annulus will contribute to the hydrostatic as the equivalent circulating pressure, or ECD.
head of the mud, and will detract from it when they get Hydraulics and hole-cleaning models have become
removed from the annulus. This load will be observed sufficiently sophisticated that numerous influences on
by rig site personnel from PWD data while drilling or ECD can be predicted and planned for.

Barite sag may occur. Barite sag refers to the settling of

high-gravity weighting material (usually barite). At
intermediate angles (40°-65°), the barite only needs to
settle a few inches for the concentration and mud
density to become high on the bottom of the hole. This
layer then slides down the hole to collect into a longer
column at the bottom, leaving a lighter column above.
The light mud can allow instability, while the heavy
column can result in lost returns while circulating out. It
is often diagnosed by observing dense slugs of mud
returning from the well when circulating bottoms up
after trips or periods without circulation. Static sag also
occurs on HPHT wells due to thermal degradation of
viscosifiers. Dynamic sag may occur on high-deviation
and ERD wells when the mud is pumped at slow rates,
which breaks the gels that suspend barite without
proving sufficient agitatioin to re-blend the barite.
Maintain adequate suspension properties and avoid
slow pump rates.
The effects of dynamic downhole pressure were
previously shown in Figure DP-42a. Swabbing of the
well, by either pulling pipe too fast off bottom, picking
up quickly on connections, or after sudden release of a
stuck drillstring while jarring up or pulling free of a ledge
can temporarily reduce downhole pressure, allowing it
to fall below levels required for wellbore stability. Figure
DP-42b shows an actual field example where routine
swabbing while tripping led to a loss of a hole section.
Conversely, breaking circulation, solids loading, surging
the well, rapid cuttings reaming and downward release
of a stuck drillstring while jarring may lead temporarily
to elevated downhole pressure. This elevated pressure
can close the gap to the fracture gradient and possibly Figure DP-43a (top) shows typical drill cuttings. These
might vary in size, depending on the bit type, formation
exceed it, causing lost circulation.
and drilling conditions. Figure DP-43b shows drill cuttings
from a PDC bit. These can break apart during transport
The driller who drills the most trouble-free wells is keeping and appear as fine grains on the shale shakers.
all static and dynamic downhole pressures consistently with-
in the available drilling margin (the “green” zone in Figures stability problem, it is often advised to raise the mud weight
42a and -42b). New tools and techniques, such as managed by a nominal amount, e.g. 0.2 - 0.5 ppg, and observe whether
pressure drilling (MPD), dual gradient drilling (DGD), casing the situation improves.
while drilling (CWD), and artificial wellbore strengthening,
enable the driller to accomplish this task in narrow margin Borehole surveillance and response
wells. Use of such tools and techniques are likely to increase Operators may develop models to predict the mud weight
in the future. required to prevent breakout and field personnel should
ensure they are aware of the desired downhole pressures.
Estimates are that 90-95% of all wellbore instability prob- When planning daily operations, the team should ensure
lems begin with inappropriate mud weight and/or downhole that dynamic effects are discussed, including observations
pressure management, not the type of mud used. Therefore, and measurements required to maintain the stability EMW
the apparent way to prevent and mitigate such problems predicted during pre-drill planning.. However, there is al-
is to ensure that mud weights and downhole pressures are ways significant uncertainty when modeling the required
appropriately managed. Real-time downhole pressure mea- mud weight. Moreover, modeling is not performed on most
surement tools, possibly augmented by real-time wellbore lower-cost wells. Consequently, field surveillance and re-
stability and hydraulic simulations, are of great value. If insuf- sponse practices are critical to managing wellbore instabili-
ficient mud weight is the suspected cause of a borehole in- ty. Regardless of the stability mud weight calculated, the rig

The appearance of cavings may vary, but the majority will be

similar to those shown in Figures DP-44a and -44b. If the
mud weight is only moderately less than required to stabi-
lize the hole the shape will be long and thin with sharp edges
(typically referred to as “wellbore splinters,” “ spallings” or
“pressure cavings”) that often still retain some of the cur-
vature of the original wellbore on one side. If a significant in-
crease in mud weight is needed they can be more “tabular”
or “blocky” shaped, as shown in Figure DP-44b.
Rig personnel should record and report the character of the

cavings, their percentage of total solids coming across the
shakers, and the likely location/depth from which the cav-
ings originated in the hole. Photo documentation also aids
in discussions with offsite team members. There are many
factors that can determine whether the mud weight will be
raised, but the presence of any amount of cavings should be
communicated to the team immediately.
Wellbore instability is tightly linked with hole cleaning prob-

lems. In fact, it may be argued that the true operational
problem is not wellbore instability itself, but the hole clean-
ing problems that result from it. The team should discuss
any indications of poor hole cleaning. The severity of the
hole cleaning problems can also provide some indication as
to whether the volume of carvings previously seen on the
shaker represents a significant enlargement. There are five
effects that might be observed:
The fluid velocity required to clean the hole will be
much greater than normal. Recommended annular
velocities and flow rates for gauge hole are provided in
Figure DP-44a (top) shows examples of cavings often the Hole Cleaning Practices section. But if, for example,
referred to as razorblades, splinters, spallings or pressure the wellbore enlarges to twice its size, the annular
cavings. These result from inadequate mud weight, and the velocity will fall to one-fourth that in a gauge hole. If
problem can usually be alleviated with a modest mud weight
increase (0.2-0.4 lb/gal). Figure DP-44b shows examples of normal flow rates do not adequately clean the hole, the
tabular or blocky cavings often associated with signifficanly cause is very likely to be enlargement.;
inadequate mud weight. Cavings of this shape suggest that Pack-offs may be observed when drilling or tripping.
a significant increase (0.5+ lb/gal) might be required. Cavings are larger than cuttings, and are therefore more
difficult to clean out of the hole. Enlarged hole sections
site team should always simply observe whether there are will fill with a significant mass of cuttings and cavings.
cavings on the shakers due to breakout, and react appro- In low-angle wells these may avalanche into the gauge
priately if the severity is believed to be affecting operations. hole below when the pumps are shut down causing
The most important immediate response is to report cav- pack-offs around the drillpipe, or they may fall during
ings so that an informed decision can be reached on whether trips and the driller will observe bridges in the borehole.
to increase fluid density. Also, at high angle, a mass of material will accumulate
in the enlargements and the driller may observe
Document and characterize the shaker material. Typical cut- pack-offs when the top of the BHA is pulled into the
tings generated by tri-cone or PDC bits are shown in Figures area. Practices for managing pack-offs and high pulls
DP-43a and -43b. Cuttings are usually the size of fingernails are discussed in the Reaming and Tripping sections of
or smaller- anything larger than that is usually associated this chapter;
with an unstable borehole. PDC cuttings come off the cutter Drill rate / ROP might have to be limited. The unstable
face as long ribbons. By the time these reach the surface they mass of cuttings that accumulates in enlargements may
may have come apart and appear as fine grains, or some may cause pack-offs when attempting to increase the drill
stay intact as shortened ribbons as shown in Figure DP-43b. rate. A gauge hole can be drilled at much higher ROP

without pressure spikes or pack-offs occurring. The oil, which forms an emulsion. These droplets contain
mass of cuttings in the enlargements can be managed salt, usually calcium chloride (CaCl2), which prevents
well enough to avoid catastrophic stuck pipe, but the water from entering the shale through a process called
reduced drill rate may still be costly in terms of rig time. osmosis. If the mud weight and emulsion salinity are
The effects may become seen as normal and routine selected properly, an exposed shale will be stable
practices might include extensive circulation on indefinitely. Rig site personnel must conduct standard
connections, specialized sweeps, control drilling at API fluid tests to measure calcium chloride
reduced drill rates, or extensive pipe rotation and concentration to ensure it is adequately maintained.
reaming on connections and trips. The cumulative Also, electrical stability (ES) tests will ensure the invert
hidden costs associated with these operations on a emulsion remains stable.
daily basis may eventually be even greater than that of
stuck pipe. Increased mud weight to eliminate However, even if a NAF system is used, wellbore instabili-
enlargement may also eliminate these hidden costs; ty will occur if the mud weight is inadequate to reduce the
Cavings are observed after connections. During stress around the hole to below the original unaffected rock
circulating the dynamic downhole pressure / ECD is strength. There simply is no substitute for appropriate mud
increased and this reduces the hoop stress, similar to weight.
raising the mud weight. It is when the pumps are shut
down and the bottomhole pressure drops that the hoop Conventional water-based muds (WBM) such as gel ligno-
stress increases. Consequently, breakout tends to occur sulphonate/gypsum/lime mud and salt-polymer mud, al-
during connections, not while drilling each stand down. low wellbore instability over a certain period of time, even
One option is to use some form of managed pressure when used at the correct initial mud weight. Problems typ-
drilling that allows the downhole pressure to be ically manifest themselves after several days. The shales in
maintained during connections; question are often referred to as the “x-day” shales, with “x”
Cavings and bridges are encountered in the borehole indicating the number of days that trouble-free drilling can
after trips. When tripping there is no circulating proceed, before which the hole section needs to be cased
pressure to help support the wellbore. Swabbing further and cemented. These fluids do not completely prevent the
reduces the downhole pressure each time pipe is pulled. invasion of water into the shale, which pressurizes the rock,
If there have been no cavings while drilling but pack-offs thereby weakening it. To prevent failure while this “mud pres-
and bridges are found when tripping back in hole, sure penetration” occurs, the mud weight can be raised over
swabbing may have reduced the pressure below time to offset the decline in rock strength. However, with long
stability mud weight (see Figure DP-42). The effect open-hole times the required MW quickly exceeds the frac-
can be mitigated by increasing the mud weight prior to ture gradient and losses will occur.
tripping to allow a greater margin for the pressure drop,
by pulling pipe more slowly or by pumping out of hole. Long-term stability requires fluids that employ more effec-
tive chemical mechanisms that reduce or prevent mud pres-
Fluid chemistry and stability sure penetration, including muds based on silicates, alumi-
Though it is not the sole cause of most instability problems, nates, polyglycols and high-salinity brines such as formates.
mud chemistry must be considered when drilling clay-rich Note that many fluids described as “inhibitive,” such as KCl/
shales, in particular. If fluid enters a shale and elevates its polymer muds, which prevent and control swelling of clays
pore pressure, its strength may decline so that the stress in shale cuttings, are not necessarily highly effective at pre-
around the hole is sufficient to fail the rock. Non-aqueous venting pressure penetration and its detrimental effects on
fluids (NAF) such as oil- and synthetic-based muds (OBM/ borehole stability. These muds can be adequate when hole
SBM) are very effective at preventing pressurization. These sections are drilled and cased quickly, but may be inappro-
muds have superior wellbore stabilizing qualities that derive priate if extended open-hole time is required.
from two distinct mechanisms:
NAFs encounter high capillary resistance when Stability in fracture shales differs from intact shales in that
attempting to penetrate water-wet shales, with the wellbore pressure is able to penetrate along the fractures.
barrier to entry often many thousands of psi high. NAFs The strength of a fractured shale is reduced by this pressur-
therefore do not travel easily into shales at normal ization. The reduction may or may not be so great as to allow
downhole pressures. This is also why shales act as borehole failure and gauge hole is seen in many fractured
caprock above accumulations of hydrocarbons, shale plays where initial rock strength is high. However, if
effectively preventing their upward migration due to the strength declines below the stress around the hole and
capillary resistance; instability is seen, steps must be taken to reduce the pres-
NAFs have finely dispersed water droplets within the

sure penetration. The approach to drilling fractured or mi- ing treatments. While it is convenient to base treatments on
cro-fractured formations centers around: rate of loss, success is greatly improved if the actual mecha-
Improve fluid loss control to form a tight filter cake nism of the loss is used to determine the response and treat-
(“scab”) in the opening to the fractures. The goal is to ment, rather than the rate. There are three loss mechanisms,
minimize fluid invasion into the fracture network to limit each with its own unique recognition and response practices.
the rate at which pore-pressure in the fractures
equalizes with the wellbore pressure. Most fractures Types of lost circulation and responses
have virtually no width and deformable material such as
gilsonites, and asphalts combined with barite and other Seepage losses
common mud products may be effective. If the Seepage losses are defined as the flow of whole mud or fil-
fractures have width, it may be necessary to add trate into the matrix of the formation. These losses might
bridging solids, such as graphites and fibers, which are occur in permeable formations where the pore spaces be-
larger than barite. In most cases it is not possible to tween the grains in the rock are larger than the solid par-
completely prevent pressurization of the fractures, but ticles in the mud. Filter cakes composed of bridging solids
the process may be slowed down and the amount of (i.e., barite) and filtration control materials are needed to
breakout reduced for a given number of drilling days; prevent the flow of whole mud into permeable formations.
Use fluids with intrinsically low filtration rates to further Modest whole mud losses to the formation will be observed
limit the rate of pressurization, along with providing if there is a mismatch between the size of the bridging sol-
bridging solids. This might differ between water-based, ids and pore throat sizes of the formation so that the fluid is
NAF and other specialty systems. not capable of forming an effective filter cake. If seepage is
Minimize annular pressure fluctuations. A significant the cause of losses, the rate may decline over time as drill-
increase in mud weight (0.5+ lb/gal) might help ing continues and drill solids deposit to enhance the filter
stabilize a fractured formulation temporarily, but this cake. Rig site personnel may see drag while tripping the BHA
should be done in conjunction with fluid design to limit through the thick cakes that are formed by these drill solids.
filtrate loss. Minimize pressure swabs and surges.
High seepage rates are most common when drilling sands
with clear water due to the absence of any form of bridging
Lost circulation solids (i.e., barite) to provide a base for the smaller filtration
Lost circulation is a source of significant non-productive material (i.e., bentonite) Dispersed bentonite clay particles
time (NPT) and related trouble cost. Severe instances of are quite small and pass freely into large pore throats in
lost circulation are commonly associated with drilling highly permeable sands if a fine barite layer is not present. Rates
depleted sands, drilling highly fractured or vugular carbon- may also be high with muds that do contain bridging solids
ates or drilling low fracture gradient silty-shale, often found (i.e., barite) but insufficient small filtration material to seal
in the transition zone between clean shale and clean sand. the spaces between the barite to prevent clear filtrate from
passing through.
Lost circulation is usually observed by monitoring return flow
rates and pit levels. A reduction in return flow rate and/or re- In higher permeability, API Fluid Loss tests may be mislead-
duction in pit levels signals the downhole loss of whole mud. ing. They are run on very low permeability filter paper and
Because of potential well control risks, the driller should be do not represent the fluid’s performance, or lack thereof,
informed immediately of any observed mud loss. If total in forming filter cakes against high permeability sands. API
mud loss occurs (e.g., a falling annular fluid level), the crew Particle Plugging Tests should be run, which test the effec-
should immediately begin filling the annulus with light fluid tiveness of both the bridging and filtration materials against
to reduce the possibility of a combined loss and well control a medium that simulates the actual downhole permeability.
event. In certain situations, severe losses can also result in In addition to barite, a small concentration of larger materials
wellbore instability and stuck pipe due to the drop in bottom- such as calcium carbonate (CaCO3), asphaltines, graphites
hole pressure, annulus pack-offs with solids migrating down- or micro fibers may be required.
ward towards a loss zone, and underground flow.
If the pore sizes are not known, some experimentation with
Losses are often categorized by the rate of loss. The term particle size might be need. If the loss mechanism is seepage,
seepage refers to any low-rate loss, indicating that a portion the material chosen only needs to be approximately the size
of the flow is returning. Total losses indicate that there are no of the pore throats, rather than the size of traditional lost cir-
returns and the annulus may even be falling. culation material (LCM). Coarser material will block the pore
throats, but it also tends to result in thicker cakes and also re-
These are not the terms used in this document when discuss- quires that solids control material be bypassed. The smallest

material that is effective in blocking the pore throats

should be used. Bridging materials for high perme- Casing test Leak-off test
ability are often in the 25-50 micron size range, as line
Surface or downhole pressure (psi)

opposed to the 400-600 micron range of medium ISIP
sized lost circulation material. FIP
FCP
Induced fracture losses

If the pressure inside the borehole exceeds the
fracture gradient, the rock surrounding the hole is
forced open. The opening is referred to as a fracture.
Mud then extends the fracture as it is lost from the
wellbore. Within the drilling community, the pres-
FIP: Fracture Initiation Pressure (leak off pressure)
sure at which this occurs is referred to by various ISIP: Instantaneous Shut-In Pressure (10 sec after shutin)
terms, including “integrity,” “borehole strength,” FCP: Fracture Closure Pressure (minimum formation stress)
“leakoff pressure,” “fracture initiation pressure,”
“fracture propagation pressure” or “fracture gradi-
ent.” These terms may be confusing, since several Pumping (bbls) Shut-In time (min)
have very specific definitions and are not truly inter-
Figure DP-45: Typical LOT plot showing the fracture initiation
changeable. Because these terms are all commonly pressure (FIP) and fracture closure pressure (FCP). The FIP is
used and misused, it is important to establish their identified as the point at which the pressure/volume plot is no longer
precise definitions. For the driller, what is of most a straight line. The fracture closure pressure is identified as the point
after shut in at which the rate of pressure decline changes.
importance is that if the wellbore pressure is main-
tained below a specific value, a fracture cannot be
propagated, preenting this type of loss. This then (FIP) without conducting an Extended Leakoff Test, which re-
determines the mud weight that can be used, as well as the quires more time. Also, there is usually very little difference
equivalent circulating density (ECD), cementing circulating in the initiation and reopening pressures in shales where
pressure, surge pressures and other dynamic loads that the most shoes are set so that chosing one or the other does not
formation will tolerate without losses. greatly change the operating limits that will be established.
Whether the FCP is used operationally or not, it should be
For a fracture to open, the pressure inside the borehole must recorded, as it is close to the Minimum Stress (MS), which is
exceed the fracture opening pressure, which is either the a value needed for borehole stability modeling.
fracture initiation pressure, if the formation does not con-
tain previous fractures or the fracture re-opening pressure, if The pressure required to open the wellbore is not greatly
previous closed fractures are present. For losses to continue affected by rock strength, and is primarly due to the rock
after the fracture is initiated, the pressure inside the borehole stress around the hole holding it closed. Because the forma-
must exceed only the fracture propagation pressure, which tion stress generally increases with depth, the LOT increases
may be lower. with depth and the formation below the shoe at the top of the
interval will often be the weak point in the open hole (lowest
The opening and propagation pressures can be measured horizontal stress). However, sands and silts that are relatively
during leak off tests (LOTs), which are usually conducted close to the shoe may also be suspect, particularly if losses
below a casing shoe with a short interval of new formation occur at a value less than that measured in the shale beneath
exposed. Figure DP-45 shows an example LOT plot, with the the shoe during the LOT.
Fracture Initiation Pressure (FIP) and Fracture Closure Pres-
sure (FCP) identified. The instantaneous shut in pressure »» Manage borehole pressures
(ISIP) is also shown, which is the surface pressure recorded It is often possible to control the pressures in the wellbore
10 sec after shutting the pumps down. and therefore reduce losses caused by exceeding the frac-
ture opening pressure. This is accomplished by controlling
The re-opening pressure while drilling ahead will be very surge pressure while tripping, pressure spikes while restart-
close to the fracture closure pressure (FCP), which is usu- ing circulation after connections, ECDs while drilling and
ally slightly lower than the FIP. However, in field practice other temporary pressure increases. Pack-offs due to poor
many operators use the recorded FIP as the limit for borehole cleaning and wellbore instability are a prime cause of
hole pressure while drilling ahead (also known as the Leak lost circulation because downhole pressure will continue
Off Pressure, or LOP). The reason is that the closure pressure to rise after the annulus is blocked off while pumping con-
can be more difficult to interpret than the initiation pressure tinues. Use of real-time downhole pressure-while-drilling

»» Discrete pill treatments

While continuous treatments with specifically designed
particle sizes are relatively new, the industry has throughout
its history used pills to build wellbore integrity, either fol-
lowing losses or preemptively to prevent losses,. These can
differ greatly in formulation, but all are designed to prevent
fracture propagation. The most common pills are made of
particulate LCM. Examples include ground nut hulls, fibers,
large calcium carbonate, graphite, and other particulate ma-
terials. Pills may also be made of cement, cross-linked poly-
mers, latex, and other specialty products.
Figure DP-46: Vugular core sample showing vugs which might
be blocked by particulate LCM and larger vugs around a leached Pill treatments are often based on experience, but they are
fracture that must be filled with a pumpable setting material.
historically successful for specific reasons. The amount of in-
tegrity that must be created to stop losses, the permeability
(PWD) tools can be of great benefit in these efforts, partic- of the formation, and the pore pressure in depleted zones are
ularly on wells with tight drilling margins such as extended important factors in determining whether a pill or application
reach or deepwater wells. These allow the driller to observe procedure will be effective. While the success rate of proper-
the downhole pressure and make adjustments if it approach- ly designed and placed pills may be quite high in permeable
es the fracture initiation pressure. PWD tools, however, only formations, these types of treatments have had very limited
report the pressure at one depth, and pulse tools only trans- commercial success in impermeable formations like shales.
mit while circulating. Hydraulics calculations may be made
to predict pressures at other points in the wellbore as well Hesitation squeezing is a procedure in which a pill is placed
when drilling and surge and swab while tripping. The driller and then small volumes are periodically injected. The time
should be aware of the results of this modeling and the im- between injections allows the LCM to lose its carrier fluid to
plications for operations, such as limits to tripping speeds the permeable formation so that it is no longer mobile. Each
for swab and surge. new injection adds more LCM material to the bridge forming
in the fracture near the wellbore, where it is most effective.
»» Proactive wellbore strengthening The fracture opening pressure can be observed at the be-
Lost circulation materials (LCM) may be carried continuous- ginning of each squeeze to ensure it is increasing after every
ly in the fluid that arrest fracture growth as soon as it starts, hesitation period, indicating that the treatment is effective.
and also ensure adequate filter cake development, so that The hesitation process can be stopped when the opening
losses are not seen at the surface. The fracture may still be pressure exceeds that required to drill the interval. LCM that
created in each new foot of hole drilled in the low integrity is packed within the fracture is held in place by stress and the
sand, but its growth is stopped immediately. The anticipat- increased integrity is reliable. There should be no loss of fluid
ed dimensions of the propagated fracture, along with other during deepening of the well as long as the wellbore pressure
design criteria, are the bases for sizing the LCM. This con- required to drilling and complete deeper formations does not
tinuous process is commonly called wellbore strengthening. exceeds this value.
The exact mechanisms of wellbore strengthening are not
fully understood, but properly designed fluids have been If the loss rate is low during fracture propagation losses, it is
effective in widening drilling margins and avoiding losses because there is very little excess borehole pressure driving
in permeable formations, particularly in depleted sands. To the fracture propagation, and it might be possible to reduce
date, however, there are no reliable wellbore strengthening the MW or ECD to below the propagation pressure, which
methods for low-permeability formations like shales. will always stop losses. If MW cannot be reduced and it is
only slightly above the formation integrity, only a small in-
Wellbore strengthening has also been achieved in some cas- crease in closing stress is required and the loss may be easily
es through casing-while-drilling (CwD) operations, even in treatable. High fluid loss pills may be circulating as sweeps
wells with very high mud overbalance. (See separate chap- without stopping to place them and hesitation squeeze. This
ter on Casing While Drilling.) This physical process is also tends to work well in WBM and higher permeability sands
not yet well understood. The operational practices of the where the pill can rapidly dehydrate as it enters the fracture.
vendors who provide DWC systems continue to evolve with However, LCM sweeps are rarely effective in non-aqueous
some notable successes, particularly in cases where the cas- fluids (NAF) with low filtration rates or in impermeable for-
ing size is close to the hole size (>80%). mations such as shales.

Vugular carbonates, and open natural fractures anced (if possible), or using the mud cap variants of managed
Losses in these systems are typically total, with no returns pressure drilling. A discussion on these methods is included
to surface. In vugular formations the resistance to flow into in on Managed Pressure/Underbalanced and Air/Gas/Mist/
the formation is simply the pore pressure in the open spac- Foam Chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.
es. Figure DP-46 shows an example of a vugular carbonate.
Losses will occur anytime the fluid density is overbalanced Fracture or formation breathing
to the pore pressure, and the openings into the carbonate Fracture breathing is the temporary loss of mud when circu-
are larger than the particles in the mud. Because barite and lation is initiated and the ECD is slightly higher than the pres-
other mud solids are quite small, complete lost returns will sures required to (re-)open and extend a fracture. During
occur in even in the smaller holes shown in Figure DP-46. connections, when the wellbore pressure falls back to static
The same behavior is seen in open natural fractures, shallow levels, the formation stress will close the fracture(s), forcing
gravel or oyster beds with large openings. the previously lost mud back into the annulus. This phenom-
enon is most often associated with losses in shales drilled
When losses occur in small vugs the flow may be limited with NAF. The behavior is also called “ballooning” which
enough that only partial losses are seen. But in large vugs, may be misleading as it suggests the volume change is due
the bottomhole pressure will immediately fall to equal the to the wellbore stretching, which is incorrect. The volume
pore pressure in the loss zone and the annulus fluid level may lost and gained during each connection may vary from only
fall in response. If the annulus is not filled the fluid level will a few barrels to hundreds of barrels, depending on formation
fall until the hydrostatic head equals the pressure in the vu- characteristics and how greatly the circulating pressure ex-
gular opening. This annular fluid column will not be stable ceeds the fracture propagation pressure.
and wellbore fluid will swap with formation fluid. If gas or oil
enters, they will migrate upward, lightening the hydrostatic The flowback after the loss is initiated and the first connec-
head, and the annulus may become truly underbalanced. To tion is made may mimic a kick, causing the drilling crew to
prevent this, either mud cap drilling techniques should be shut in the well. If the losses were seen before the connection
used or the annulus should be filled continuously with fluid and the pressure does not rise after shutting in, the cause
at a rate that exceeds the swap rate in order to flush the hy- is likely to be fracture breathing. Bleed the trapped pressure
drocarbon back into the formation. The swap rate depends and observe whether the rate of flowback declines. If the rate
on hole size, pipe size, hole angle, mud properties, etc. A increases the influx may be a kick. If not, continue to make
good starting point for continuous injection of clear water is connections and observe to ensure the rate of flow declines
a minimum annulus velocity of ±100 ft/min. This rate varies during the flowback after each connection, as shown in Fig-
greatly, particularly with viscous mud, and may need to be ure DP-47. The characteristic flowback signatures associat-
increased or reduced after behaviors become better defined. ed with fracture breathing over successive connections will
typically overlay on top of each other in a narrow band. At-
If there is no prior experience to define the size of the vugs, tention should be paid when the flowback signature changes
pump a pill which includes the largest LCM or fibers that can suddenly, which may indicate that an influx has occurred.
safely be displaced. If it happens that the vug sizes are small,
the loss rate will decline immediately. If there is no response, The mud flowback from breathing events may contain sig-
the vugs are too large to be plugged with particulate or fiber nificant gas that is entrained in the mud as it flows down the
materials, and a pumpable setting plug is required to fill the fracture. The normal response to increased gas might be
voids. These include systems such as cement, cross-linked to raise the MW. This can make the problem worse, as the
polymers and gunk plug. The objective is to fill the vugs with additional pressure will allow the fracture to grow to greater
the material, then hold it in place while it develops strength. length into new rock, and the mud will then entrain even more
Because the displacement mud is usually overbalanced to gas. Maintain the current mud weight and observe whether
the pore pressure, over-displacement is a common cause of the gas content declines when circulating bottoms up after
failure. This is particularly challenging in some formations each connection. If the fracture breathing volume is the same
that contain vugs that may be many feet across and might be for each connection, the reopened length of the fracture will
better described as caves. be the same, and the gas near the fracture may deplete.
In any case, treatment is time-consuming as well as expen- Fracture breathing is best prevented by appropriate mud
sive, and the results are uncertain. Even if the treatment is weight and downhole pressure management, keeping bore-
successful, once drilling resumes losses will occur again as hole pressure below the fracture opening/re-opening value.
new vugs or fractures are encountered. In large vugs it may Fracture breathing is most common in shales that are im-
be possible to drill without returns and allow the cuttings to permeable and current wellbore strengthening and lost cir-
flow to the vugs. These systems are best drilled underbal- culation treatments are ineffective. If it occurs in permeable

Flowback in bbls Average and 1δ diagnose the specific type of

loss and a different process may
be used for each. These decision
trees may specify products,
mixing practices, placement
practices, and may include
detailed real time procedures
like hesitation squeezing to
increase the effectiveness of the
treatment. Their success rate
depends on many factors, such
as the magnitude of increase in
borehole opening pressure
required to stop losses. But in all
cases, the likelihood of success
is dependent on execution of
the mixing, placement and
post-placement procedures by
00.00 01.00 02.00 03.00 04.00 05.00 06.00 07.00 the drill team. The drill team
Time min: ss should ensure they understand
the steps in the process that are
Figure DP-47: Flowback fingerprinting identifying abnormal flowback
within one minute of monitoring data (from Ali et al, 2013).
the most critical to success;

Explore options for dealing
with losses that do not involve
sands with a NAF, the extremely effective fluid loss charac- LCM treatments. In many cases, losses occur when the
teristics cause the face of the fracture to behave as if it is wellbore pressure is only slightly higher than the
impermeable so that breathing may be difficult to treat, even fracture propagation pressure and a small reduction in
in sands. The most common response is to reduce circulating wellbore pressure will stop them.
rate or MW so that the behavior stops, or so that the loss and Lower mud weight – but consider the effects on well
gain volumes do not create risk while making connections. control and hole stability;
Reduce circulating rates – but consider the effects on
Lost circulation practices hole-making ability and efficiency, MWD/motor
While drilling in areas with known lost-circulation concerns, functioning, and hole cleaning ability. When losses
it is useful to discuss measures the rig crew can take to pre- occur only while circulating, determine the ECD at
pare for losses while drilling, while tripping, running casing, which they initiate by testing varying pump rates and
and cementing. pipe rotation speeds. It may be possible to drill on with
acceptable or even negligible losses if ECD is reduced. If
Drilling and tripping drilling can be continued the cuttings generated often
Recommendations for drilling and tripping include: work as LCM to slow or stop the losses.
Develop a recognition and response plan for each Reduce pipe rotation speeds – but consider the effects
potential loss zone. Ensure adequate materials are at on drill rate and hole-cleaning ability;
the rig site, and the volume of mud that may be required Treat the mud for lower rheology/viscosity, but
is premixed, if feasible. Have treatments on standby in consider the effects on barite suspension (do not create
case they are needed that are appropriate for the type a sag problem) and hole-cleaning ability;
of loss anticipated (i.e., seepage, fracture propagation, Wait. If losses are not too severe and the ability of
or vugular and conductive fracture). Operators and spotting sweeps/pills are limited, you may want to
vendors often provide decision trees that describe the simply wait for several hours at the previous casing
driller’s immediate response, as well as the proposed shoe before going back to bottom to check for losses.
treatment for loss prevention and mitigation. The driller Especially when using WBMs, the deposition of solids
should be familiar with this plan, and particularly the within the fracture and re-establishment of the filter
immediate response as it may be determined by cake may result in higher borehole opening pressures.
specific local well control concerns. The selection of Thus, losses may become less severe and sometimes
treatment in the operator’s plan may be based on loss disappear altogether. This is rarely successful with
rate alone. In other cases, steps will be taken first to non-aqueous fluids;

Manage downhole pressure in the available drilling maximum allowable trip speeds for surge or swab;
margin/mud weight window. As shown in Figure Use PWD data, if available, to record dowhole
DP-47, the driller that drills the most trouble-free wells pressures during leakoff tests. PWD data cannot be
is the individual that can keep all static and dynamic observed in real time, but peak pressures can be
downhole pressures consistently within the available transmitted after circulation is resumed in order to
drilling margin (the “green” zone in Figures DP-42a and calibrate the suface test data and correct for pressure,
-42b). The PWD tool is uniquely suited for doing this, temperature, and friction effects. Determine the
and for monitoring pressure trends over time that may difference between the peak surface pressure and the
escalate into a lost circulation problem (such as loading peak downhole PWD pressure during the test, and
the hole up with solids because of poor hole cleaning, adjust the entire surface data plot by the same
increasing the risk of annular pack-offs and associated differential
wellbore fracturing). When PWD is not available (for Do not rapidly cool the well with cool drilling fluid. If the
instance on HPHT wells due to temperature limitations MW is very close to the integrity, sudden cooling of a
of the MWD/LWD tools), use can be made of modeled well can instantaneously lower the fracture initiation
downhole pressure values, particularly if they have been pressure and trigger a lost circulation event. If there is a
previously calibrated using PWD data. Note that new large difference in temperature between the mud and
managed pressure drilling (MPD) techniques have the downhole formation, consider staging in to let the
already demonstrated a high value in being able to mud heat up;
optimally manage downhole pressures in difficult Before entering a suspected loss zone, make sure the
drilling margin environments; surface pipe and valve configuration allow at least one
Maintain mud properties in the specified range. Mud mud pump to be rapidly switched to water, seawater, or
rheology and gels may increase with increasing low base oil to fill up the annulus in case the fluid levels
gravity solids content, which will increase ECDs and drop. Also ensure the fill volume required to balance the
surge pressure, with a higher risk of induced losses; fracture closure stress can be measured accurately;
Optimize mud rheology and hydraulics for actual well When drilling near a suspected loss zone, do not carry
temperatures and pressures. Mud rheology and gels are out mud transfers, additions, or dilutions. This may
not constant, but a function of temperature and confuse the monitoring of pit levels. Unintended results
pressure. The mud engineer should optimize them for while changing mud properties may contribute to higher
actual downhole conditions and the driller should be pressures in the potential loss zone. Also, ensure the
aware of downhole changes; mud engineer(s) is available to respond immediately
Take into account the difference in surface and should losses occur;
downhole mud density. The mud density on surface Circulate the hole clean before entering a suspected
may be significantly different from the mud density loss zone. When heavy losses occur, solids present in
downhole due to pressure and temperature effects, the annulus will move down with the fluid towards the
especially with NAFs. Increasing pressure compresses loss zone and may cause BHA pack-off and stuck pipe
the mud causing it to become denser while increasing when heavy losses occur;
temperature causes the mud to expand reducing its Verify that treatments can be pumped through the BHA
density. If pressure while drilling (PWD) tools are in use, and bit. A common recommendation for LCM is a
confirm the equivalent static mud density during maximum concentration of 40 ppb nut hulls and an
connections. Alternatively, the mud engineer can average size of 400 microns or smaller (medium).
calculate it; These values are conservative, and field experience
After connections, break gels first with pipe rotation, indicates that significantly higher concentrations of
then stage up the pumps slowly to reduce surge LCM can be pumped without plugging if the LCM is
pressure. This overall is a good practice to avoid high properly suspended. Operators and vendors may have
peak surge pressures after connections; different specific guidelines on the concentration and
Maintain proper mud weight for borehole stability. make-up of the LCM pills/sweeps that can be pumped.
Keeping mud weight low in an attempt to prevent losses In case there are concerns, a circulation sub can be
may cause wellbore instability, poor cuttings transport, incorporated in the BHA to deliver LCM directly to the
pack-offs and hole collapse. These may increase annulus while bypassing BHA components and/or the
circulating pressure which may lead to fracture bit.
propagation losses. When losses occur, cuttings may
also settle out in vertical sections around the BHA »» When total losses occur:
causing the annulus to pack-off, resulting in stuck pipe; Begin filling the backside with light fluid. Measure the
Control pipe running speeds and do not exceed fill volume. If the type of loss is fracture propagation,

the annulus will stop taking fluid when the total running casing, and improves displacement while
hydrostatic head is reduced enough by the lighter fluid cementing. However, do not over-thin the mud, which
to equal the stress that is attempting to close the may cause barite sag and associated problems ;
fracture in the formation (close to FIP) If the formation Prevent annular restriction: maximize the annular flow
is vugular, the level will fall until it balances the resisting area. Annular restriction is one of the main causes of
pore pressure in vugular or naturally open fractures. losses while running casing or cementing, giving rise to
Observe the annulus to ensure it remains relatively high surge pressures while running casing and high ECD
static after it balances. If not, shut in and observe when circulating and cementing. To prevent annular
pressures for indications of a kick; restriction:
Pull the BHA to a safe position if complete losses are Clean the hole of cuttings. At high angle, circulate to reduce the
cuttings bed height sufficiently that it will pass through the BHA
experienced. Pick up off bottom immediately to provide
open areas and not pack off while pulling pipe on the elevators;
space for cutting and cavings below the bit and avoid
stuck pipe. After starting to fill the annulus, pull the Prevent barite sag in inclinations between 45-60°;
BHA to a safe position. The safest place is the previous Prevent excessive filter cake build-up and ream tight
casing shoe; sections encountered in permeable sands to
Try (if possible) to open up the entire loss zone before condition the cake;
embarking on a heavy remedial treatment, such as Determine safe casing running speeds with a reliable
cement, gunk, or extensive hesitation squeezing, surge program;
especially if such treatment requires additional trips Use equipment that allows flow up the inside of the
with considerable consumption of rig time. Otherwise, casing when required to reduce surge and safe from a
as drilling continues past the treated hole section the well control perspective. Have crossovers and a safety
loss may return as new formation is exposed; valve made up on a joint to stab if flow occurs.
If a remedial treatment is required, try first to establish Spotting large volumes of LCM in the hole on the trip
the location of the loss zone(s). The treatment will not out before running casing is not generally
be successful if applied at the wrong location; recommended. There is risk of plugging float
Direct evidence of losses may be found by comparing equipment, and the LCM pill will also elevate mud
original MWD/LWD logs with those following the loss, rheology and gels, resulting in higher surge pressures
particularly when using NAFs. The loss of NAF running casing, and higher ECDs while circulating and
increases the resistivity in the loss zone; cementing. In certain cases it may be advantageous to
Run a temperature log and identify the loss zone from put LCM in the cement spacers or in the cement itself
anomalies that do not match the background gradient; (see below).
Indirect signatures of loss zones are drilling breaks,
fluctuations in the loss rate with the bit in different Cementing
positions, tight hole due to induced instability or Use cementing design programs, to predict and manage
pack-off problems above loss zones. pressures in the optimum window while cementing and
Losses, especially in deepwater environments, often not have partial or total loss of cement in induced or
occur in ratty, silty sections, particularly at sand/shale natural loss zones;
interfaces; Use lightweight slurries (e.g. foam cement) if applicable
Assume that losses are occurring near the previous / feasible to minimize the hydrostatic head;
casing shoe if there is uncertainty. The formation stress Use thin slurries to minimize the ECD while circulating;
that governs fracture opening typically increases with Add LCM to cement slurries or spacers. Various types
depth. But losses below the shoe are also common in of LCM can be mixed with cement. The effect on
sands and silts, pressure regressions or depletions, and cement properties (rheology, gel/set time, compressive
in tectonically affected zones; strength etc.) should be determined and considered in
the job design. They must be well-mixed/dispersed in
Running casing the cement to avoid plugging of downhole equipment
Recommendations for running casing include: and the casing-formation annulus. Emphasis should be
Circulate the hole clean of all cuttings, and cavings. on avoiding and curing losses while drilling rather than
Material in the hole may interfere with conversion of, or requiring remediation while cementing;
plug, autofill equipment. Material may also pack off in Use cement stage tool, to reduce the hydrostatic head
the annulus and initiate losses; acting on the potential loss zone;
Circulate & condition the mud to optimum rheology, gel Rotate and reciprocate casing. Reciprocation breaks
and fluid loss properties. Conditioning to achieve lower gels aiding displacement and ensures more uniform
YP’s and low flat gels reduces surge pressures while displacement of the cement around the casing,

however, it may increase surge pressures. Use casing and warming the mud;
rotation equipment and rotating liner hangers that Employ managed pressure cementing technology,
break gels and improve mud displacement without wherever appropriate, and whenever technologically
creating significant surge; and economically feasible.
In deepwater, boost the riser prior to and while
cementing, to reduce circulating friction by shearing

DM
12TH EDITION
VOLUME 2 OF 2

This is a volume of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, 1st printing.


USA
ISBN: 978-8-9915095-0-8
Printed in the United States of America. 1st printing. March 2015.

ABOUT THE IADC DRILLING MANUAL, 12TH EDITION

The IADC Drilling Manual is a series of reference guides assembled by volunteer drilling-industry professionals with
expertise spanning a broad range of topics. These volunteers contributed their time, energy and knowledge in developing
the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, to help facilitate safe and efficient drilling operations, training, and equipment
maintenance and repair.
This is Volume 2 of the two-volume edition of the IADC Drilling Manual attempts to bring the best information on drilling
technology and practices to rig crews, drilling engineers and rig management. The manual uses black-and-white and
full-color images, videos, charts and tables to complement the text.
Each of the 26 chapters of the IADC Drilling Manual is denoted by a two-letter code, “DS” for Drill String, for example.
Pages, videos and illustrations are all described with this two-letter designation. For example, “Figure DS-3” indicates the
third figure in the Drill String chapter. These codes are also listed on the tab dividers separating the chapters. The codes
are defined in the table of contents for this manual.
The IADC Drilling Manual will be an evergreen document. Should any reader see an opportunity to improve this manual,
email your suggestions to IADC_DrillingManual@iadc.org.
For other IADC books, visit www.IADC.org/bookstore. Electronic versions of every chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual and
other books are available at www.IADC.org/ebookstore. Or click the QR Codes below.
www.IADC.org/bookstore www.IADC.org/ebookstore
Important information
While IADC believes the information presented is accurate as of the date of publication, each reader is responsible for
his own reliance, reasonable or otherwise, on the information presented. Readers should be aware that technology
contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described
in this book will lead to the result desired by the reader.

VOLUME 2 OF 2

Contents
CHAPTER TAB
Floating Drilling Equipment and

Operations.................................................................. FD
High Pressure Drilling Hoses................................. HP
Lubrication.................................................................. LU
Managed Pressure, Underbalanced
and Air/Gas/Mist/Foam Drilling......................... MP
Power Generation and Distribution..................... PW
Pumps.......................................................................... PM
Rotating and Pipehandling Equipment................ RP
Special Operations................................................... SO
Structures and Land Rig Mobilization................. ST
Well Control Equipment and Procedures........... WC
Wire Rope.................................................................. WR
Appendix with Glossary......................................... AP

FD
FLOATING DRILLING
EQUIPMENT AND
OPERATIONS

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
FLOATING DRILLING EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS FD-i
CHAPTER
FD
FLOATING DRILLING
EQUIPMENT AND
OPERATIONS
nance and repair.
by the reader.
Contributors
Dan Postler, Sierra Hamilton Orlan Lyle, Noble Drilling Services Inc.
Mark Childers, Consultant Calvin Norton, Friede & Goldman. Ltd.
Mark Dreith, Dreith Working Interests LLC John Shelton, Delmar Systems, Inc.
Vamsee Achanta, 2H Offshore Ron Swan, Noble Drilling Services Inc.
Bob Blank, Noble Drilling Services Inc. Rohit Vaidya, 2H Offshore
Taylor Bowles, National Oilwell Varco Meridith Wilson, SK Energy
Chistopher Brachey, 2H Offshore Justin Barrow, Delmar Systems, Inc.
Dale Doherty, ConocoPhillips Jason Pasternak, Delmar Systems, Inc.
Reviewers
Barry Braniff, Transocean Kevin Lake, Atwood Oceanics Inc.
Dave Foster, Transocean Sam Pannunzio, Atwood Oceanics Inc.
Harvey Rich, Atwood Oceanics Inc.
FD-ii FLOATING DRILLING EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-3-9

FLOATING DRILLING EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS FD-iii
CHAPTER FD
FLOATING DRILLING
EQUIPMENT AND
OPERATIONS
Contents
Introduction................................................................................. FD-1 Gravity-installed anchors...................................FD-16
MODU deck mooring line-handling equipment........ FD-16
Environment and safety.......................................................... FD-2
Drum winches.................................................................. FD-16
Environmental impact assessment................................. FD-3
Shallow hazard assessment.............................................. FD-3 Traction winches............................................................. FD-16
Job safety analysis............................................................... FD-3 Windlasses........................................................................ FD-17
Simultaneous operations plans........................................ FD-3 Fairleaders......................................................................... FD-17
Safety training and drills..................................................... FD-3 Auxiliary mooring equipment and hardware...............FD-17
Conclusion..............................................................................FD-4 Connecting hardware..................................................... FD-17
Dynamic positioning......................................................... FD-18
MODU floating equipment....................................................FD-4
Well control and subsea equipment ........................... FD-20
Types of floating MODUs..................................................FD-4
Subsea BOP stacks......................................................... FD-20
Semisubmersibles............................................................. FD-4
Annular BOPs........................................................FD-20
Drillships...............................................................................FD-5
Ram BOPs...............................................................FD-21
Ultra-Deepwater Drillships.............................................FD-5
Kill and choke valves...........................................FD-22
Deck cranes and lifting systems......................................FD-6
Power generation and electrical systems...................... FD-7 Arrangement of a subsea BOP stack.............FD-22
Safety considerations........................................................FD-7 Hydraulic wellbore connectors........................FD-23
Power generation...............................................................FD-7 Flex joint..................................................................FD-24
Configuration.......................................................................FD-7 BOP control pods.................................................FD-24
Management system....................................................... FD-8 BOP stack frame...................................................FD-25
Redundancy and emergency power.......................FD-8 Auxiliary and miscellaneous items.................FD-25
Fire, Safety, and Monitoring..............................................FD-9 Subsea BOP control system......................................... FD-26
Mooring systems and equipment...................................FD-12 Surface control equipment................................FD-27
Types of offshore-mooring systems......................... FD-12 Subsea control pods............................................FD-28
Catenary moorings (conventional, steel, Diverter control system......................................FD-28
poly-insert)........................................................FD-12 Auxiliary and miscellaneous Items.................FD-29
Semi-taut moorings (steel, steel-polyester, Diverter systems..................................................FD-29
steel-HMPE) ....................................................FD-12 Marine risers...................................................................... FD-30
Taut moorings (steel, steel-polyester, Physical operating principles....................................... FD-31
steel-HMPE).....................................................FD-12 Buoyancy modules.......................................................... FD-32
Offshore mooring line components.......................... FD-12 Marine riser handling........................................................FD-32
Stud Link Chain.....................................................FD-14 Horizontal riser handling.............................................. FD-33
Steel wire rope......................................................FD-14 Vertical riser handling....................................................FD-34
Polyester rope.......................................................FD-14 Telescopic joints in marine riser systems............... FD-35
Anchors.............................................................................. FD-14 Emergency disconnect sequence.............................. FD-36
Subsea wellheads...............................................................FD-37
Drag embedment anchors.................................FD-14
Driven anchors......................................................FD-15
FD-iv FLOATING DRILLING EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS
Traveling load compensation..........................................FD-38 MODU well drilling operations..........................................FD-60

Drill string compensator............................................... FD-38 Spud meeting and preparation......................................FD-60
Crown-mounted compensator .................................. FD-39 Setting the foundation pipe............................................. FD-61
Major CMC components...................................FD-39 Drill the hole, run pipe and cement..........................FD-62
Drawworks traveling block motion Jet pipe into the ground................................................FD-63
compensation..............................................................FD-40 Turbodrill the pipe into the ground...........................FD-63
Marine riser tensioners................................................... FD-42 Drilling riserless................................................................. FD-63
Wireline marine riser tensioners................................FD-42 Setting the conductor pipe.............................................FD-64
Inline marine riser tensioners......................................FD-43 Preparing the BOP stack for running...........................FD-64
Marine riser space out and operation......................... FD-66
Guideline Tensioners......................................................FD-44
Running the marine riser and BOP stack.................... FD-68
Riser recoil.........................................................................FD-44
Leak-off test and maximum anticipated
Auxiliary systems.............................................................. FD-46
surface pressure (MASP)............................................FD-70
Cementing.........................................................................FD-46 Drilling below conductor casing.....................................FD-71
Remotely operated vehicles .......................................FD-46 Well abandonment.............................................................FD-71
Location..............................................................................FD-46 Other procedures...............................................................FD-72
Deck structure..................................................................FD-47 Online, offline and simultaneous tubing/
Power, electrical and safety.........................................FD-47 casing handling........................................................... FD-72
MODU marine operations.................................................. FD-47 Simultaneous operations ............................................. FD-72
Vessel stationkeeping......................................................FD-48 Circulating marine riser of drilled cuts..................... FD-72
Approaching location.....................................................FD-48 Diverting well fluids�� FD-73
Spread-moored systems...............................................FD-49 Circulating out trapped gas
Dynamic positioning systems.....................................FD-53 in the BOP stack......................................................... FD-73
Cargo, special well and marine operations.................FD-57 Well testing....................................................................... FD-73
Work boats ......................................................................FD-57 Completions and workovers.........................................FD-74
Deck and overhead cranes...........................................FD-57 Coring...................................................................................FD-74
Bulk and liquid transfer.................................................FD-58 Setting cement plugs..................................................... FD-75
Completion and well fluids........................................... FD-59 Unconventional floating drilling.....................................FD-75
Moving MODU with the BOP stack Managed pressure drilling............................................ FD-75
suspended..................................................................... FD-59 Dual gradient drilling...................................................... FD-76
Weather forecasting and integration Surface BOP drilling........................................................ FD-76
with operations...........................................................FD-60

FLOATING DRILLING EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS FD-1
Introduction
This chapter will discuss floating mobile offshore drilling
units (MODUs), their equipment and how to operate them.
At this writing (Q1 2015) there are more than 900 MODUs
of all types in the world, more than 300 of which are floaters
(nearly 200 semisubmersibles [“semis”] and more than 100
drillships). This chapter will not cover bottom-supported
units (jackups and submersibles), stationary platform rigs,
or tender assist drilling (TAD) units.
The first offshore well was drilled in Louisiana in 1947, fol-

lowed in 1955 with the first well drilled from a floating vessel
using a blowout preventer (BOP), a landmark that occurred
on the California ocean floor. Since these milestones, equip-
ment and processes for drilling from floating vessels have Figure FD-1: Unlike land or bottom-supported offshore
grown enormously and now constitute some of the most drilling, floating drilling rigs are fixed over the well by a
mooring or dynamic positioning system and drill through
sophisticated technologies in the world. Two key character- a pipe connected to the BOP on the wellhead on the
istics of a floating drilling rig distinguish it from an onshore sea floor. Courtesy Diamond Offshore Drilling Inc.
or bottom-supported rig. The rig:
lion. Dayrates for these MODUs can reach $850,000/day,
with total operating rate, including all support services and
• Is fixed over the well by a spread-mooring system or a expendable items exceeding $1,500,000/day. As a result,
dynamic positioning (DP) system (“stationkeeping”); $100-million deepwater wells are common. Some have
•• Drills through a pipe (marine riser) connected to a BOP exceeded $250 million in cost. Assuming an economic hy-
stack that is latched onto a wellhead at the sea floor.
drocarbon discovery is found in deepwater, the develop-
(Surface BOP drilling, which is discussed later in this
ment cost can be tens of billions of dollars, with a 5-10-year
chapter, is an exception.)
horizon for first production. This extremely high capital cost
Today’s floating MODUs are generally categorized by wa- leaves most floating drilling and development to major oil
ter-depth capability as follows: companies, though some independents do conduct floating
offshore operations.
• Shallow-water units (less than 2,000 ft water depth)
are almost all spread-moored semisubmersibles, It has taken the industry more than 50 years to develop the
with a few drillships built prior to the early 1990s; technology to drill economically in deepwater. Compared to
•• Intermediate, or midwater, units (2,000 ft to the first floating drilling units, today’s deepwater rigs are sig-
approximately 7,500 ft) are a mix of upgraded and nificantly larger, with water displacements reaching 90,000
new spread-moored and DP semisubmersibles and a deadweight tonnage (dwt) and beyond. (Deadweight ton-
few DP drillships; nage represents how much weight a vessel can safely carry,
•• Ultra-deepwater units (more than 7,500 ft), of which a
totaling weights of cargo, fuel, freshwater, ballast water, pro-
majority are DP drillships built since the late 1990s. At
visions, passengers and crew.)
present no MODU is rated beyond 12,000 ft water
depth.
Today’s floating rigs can also drill much deeper, with wells
Drilling rigs being built for ultra-deepwater are DP drillships reaching 40,000 ft in depth. (This is the depth of the well,
or semis. Today’s MODUs are built to a standard and certi- not the water depth, which is a separate measure.) Hoisting
fied by Classification Societies, regulated by industry orga- systems must handle loads in excess of 2 million lb to run
nizations and “registered” in a country just like a commercial and pull the marine riser and BOP stack. Subsea BOP stacks
vessel. In the United States for example, the US Department are generally rated for 15,000 psi, can weigh more than
of the Interior regulates the wellbore and the US Coast 600,000 lb, and are well over 40 ft tall. Marine riser tension
Guard regulates the MODU. The classification agencies and systems to structurally support the riser with proper drilling
governments work together and have a powerful influence angles might require pulls beyond 4 million lb.
on MODUs and their operation.
Another complicating factor for offshore operations is the
Higher cost and risks also differentiate floating from bot- variable met-ocean environment (winds, waves and cur-
tom-supported drilling rigs. As of the mid-2010s, con- rents), which impact the motions of the MODU. Met-ocean
struction costs for an ultra-deepwater MODU average conditions can add significant loads to the stationkeeping
$700-$750 million, with some units as high as $850 mil-

FD-2 FLOATING DRILLING EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS
system, whether moored or DP, and complicate supplying the need for very capable stationkeeping systems on large
the rig with expendables. vessels that must hoist and rotate extremely large loads.
The potential to lose location, which is more a concern for
Weather can also be problematic. Arctic conditions can DP than moored MODUs, requires emergency planning and
cause ice loading, and icebergs can force rig moves. Spread- rehearsals/drills to be prepared to prevent well control or
moored MODUs are often temporarily abandoned for safety vessel problems.
while a hurricane or cyclone passes. DP vessels, however,
can often move away from storms. The North Sea, Gulf of Another big difference between onshore and MODU oper-
Mexico, eastern Canada and the west coast of Australia ations is the number of people on the drilling unit. Depend-
can suffer some of the most severe met-ocean conditions ing on the operation, a MODU may have over 200 crew and
for MODU operations. Even in good weather, supplying the personnel aboard. Besides the drilling crew, this includes
floater, usually far offshore, can be a challenge because of marine crew and a host of specialists responsible for rig
lengthy boat and helicopter transit times. Foul weather fur- maintenance and operation. In addition, third-party service
ther complicates water and air transportation, especially for personnel stay aboard the vessel for long periods, because
loading or offloading supply boats in rough seas. of the cost and difficulty of moving personnel to and from
the rig. As a result, newer MODUs will have a very large ac-
Because of the impacts of distance and met-ocean condi- commodation facility, with over 250 bunks in predominantly
tions, offshore wells typically take longer to drill and in some 2-person rooms.
cases to complete than onshore wells of similar types.
Most of the equipment on a MODU is very specialized and
Another complication in floating drilling is reduced fracture expensive, and crews must be trained to use it safely and
gradient, the level at which drilling fluids crack the rock and efficiently. Operations are 24 hours a day, and planning
flow into the formation. This is because the confining pres- ahead is one of the keys to a successfully drilled well. Team-
sure of the rock, acting as a barrier to fluid inflow, represents work and good communications are essential for the drilling
a combination of not only the rock, but the weight of seawa- crews, specialists, and marine personnel to have a smooth,
ter acting on the sea floor. For example, a 10,000-ft well in safe, and efficient operation.
5,000-ft water depth has a confining pressure composed of
the weight of 5,000 ft of rock and 5,000 ft of water. Con- The remainder of this chapter will discuss the unique fea-
versely, a 10,000-ft onshore well has a confining pressure tures of floating drilling equipment and floating drilling op-
composed of the weight of 10,000 ft of rock only; thus the erations, with emphasis on special operations and emer-
well in 5,000 ft water depth has a lower fracture gradient. gency procedures. Obviously, many drilling operations are
The deeper the water and the higher the mud weight needed common to floating, bottom-founded and land drilling. This
to control formation pressures in the well, the greater the chapter and future updates will focus on special aspects of
likelihood of fracturing the formation, resulting in a wellbore such operations for floaters. The IADC Drilling Manual, 12th
stability and/or a well control issue. In conventional (i.e., edition, covers nearly all drilling operations, many of which
non-managed pressure drilling or non-MPD) drilling oper- are interesting and relevant to those specializing in floating
ations, the only solution to low fracture gradients is to run operations. The print version of the IADC Drilling Manual
more casing in the well to cover weaker zones. Because of includes all chapters. Please refer to www.IADC.org/ebook-
reduced fracture gradients, it is not uncommon in deepwa- store to peruse all IADC ebooks.
ter wells to need 7-9 different casing strings to drill the same
depth for which an onshore well might require only 3- 4 cas- Environment and safety
ing strings. While the mechanics of drilling a well are very similar for
floating, bottom-founded and onshore operations, the po-
“Subsalt” drilling is a further complication in deepwater.
tential safety and environmental consequences of an inci-
Such wells are drilled through thick salt lenses, often into
dent offshore, especially in deepwater, make a critical differ-
unknown pressure gradients below the salt. Abnormal pres-
ence. Several environmental and safety risk considerations
sures are common in deepwater drilling, especially in the
unique to floating operations are discussed in this section.
Gulf of Mexico, and the combination of high pressure and
While the risk-mitigation efforts identified in this section
high temperatures (HPHT) in the wells increase the difficul-
are also recommended for onshore drilling operations, the
ty in drilling safely and successfully.
larger consequences of an incident over water has result-
These severe environments, abnormal pressures, ul- ed in increased scrutiny and regulation of all floating drilling
tra-deepwater penetration wells, and potentially long sup- operations by industry, regulatory authorities, communities
ply lines in remote areas require enormous equipment, from and other stakeholders.
the supply boats to the MODU to helicopters. This amplifies
In general, the consequences of an incident during floating

drilling operations include environmental damage from a as the geological formations in the shallow portions of the
spill that reaches the water or, in the event of any injury, de- well. Sea floor risks include obstructions, such as marine or-
lays in medical response and/or evacuation back to shore. ganisms (e.g., tube worms) and subsea infrastructure (e.g.,
The offshore response to environmental and safety inci- pipelines), and geographic issues, such as sea floor moun-
dents poses logistical challenges and requires supplemental tains and boulders. The geologic portion of the shallow haz-
resources not typically relevant to land drilling operations. ard assessment will analyze the likelihood that the proposed
These challenges translate into increased consequence wellbore will encounter shallow flows of water or gas.
and risk. (It’s important to note that MODUs include an on-
board medical clinic to conduct triage for major injuries and Job safety analysis
to treat minor injuries. Most offshore locations have a qual- Hazard assessments are also conducted for offshore safe-
ified emergency medical technician [EMT] on board at all ty concerns. Safety cases identify the hazards and risks
times.) of various operations, and then document how the risk is
controlled and the safety management system in place to
Environmental impact assessment ensure the controls are effectively and consistently applied.
Several proactive steps are typically taken to mitigate the in- Job safety analyses (JSA) are completed for all job tasks. A
creased risks of offshore operations. One of these proactive JSA is a risk-assessment process that helps integrate ac-
measures is an environmental impact assessment (EIA), a cepted safety and health principles and practices into all
process for evaluating the likelihood that the environment tasks necessary for an operation. The JSA is conducted be-
may be impacted as a result of exposure to one or more en- fore starting an operation, and identifies potential hazards
vironmental stressors, such as chemicals, oil, noise, or just for each step of the task, while recommending the safest
the physical presence of a MODU in the water. One key en- way to do the job. A JSA is drafted or reviewed by those
vironmental concern that every EIA will address is the possi- involved in completing the task. The goal is to ensure that
bility of a spill. The EIA will include spill trajectory modeling actions designed to reduce risks as low as reasonably prac-
to simulate how and where a spill might spread in the water. ticable (ALARP) are clearly understood and followed by the
Depending on the likelihood and severity of a consequence, workforce to avoid an incident. Specialized or non-routine
the EIA might result in modifications to offshore operating operations might employ further effort, such as a review of
procedures, such as avoiding operations during certain pe- any potential dropped objects during an operation.
riods of time or increased environmental mitigation mea-
sures. When warranted, the EIA documentation will include Simultaneous operations plans
an environmental mitigation plan. Simultaneous operations plans (SIMOPs) are developed to
consider additional risks that occur when two work activities
All analyses in the EIA are compiled and submitted to reg- are being done at the same time within close proximity to
ulatory authorities and shared with communities and other one another. Communication of SIMOPs risks and hazards
stakeholders to obtain permission for the floating operation during floating drilling operations is required. Well-defined
to take place. Once approval to drill is granted, the mitiga- communication protocols are followed to ensure everyone
tion measures identified in the EIA are implemented. These onboard the MODU is aware and alert.
measures could include increased monitoring, operational
delays, or detailed response planning. For example, if float- Safety training and drills
ing drilling operations are proposed in an area with endan- Workers in an offshore environment require specialized
gered aquatic species or within the migration path of such training, not only for the technical aspects of the job, but
species, certain restrictions to the drilling operation could also for the increased risks that exist there. This special-
be imposed, such as transport of drill cuttings to shore, rath- ized training is closely monitored and tracked to ensure the
er than disposal at sea, or increased frequency of inspec- physical capabilities of the workforce as well as their aware-
tions for leaks or spills. The EIA will identify spill response ness of the additional environmental and safety risks in the
resources that are required onboard the MODU should a offshore environment. Because medical treatment can be
spill occur; it may also require the staging of additional spill more difficult, given the remote nature of floating drilling
response resources close to shorelines to reduce spill-re- operations, training and health education are also closely
sponse time. scrutinized to avoid incidents. As mentioned earlier, medical
clinics with a certified EMT are standard aboard MODUs.
Shallow hazard assessment
Another proactive step typically taken to mitigate the in- Safety plans and drills are conducted frequently offshore
creased risks of offshore operations is a shallow hazard to ensure the workforce understands how to respond to
assessment, which will examine the risks that might be emergencies and how and when to evacuate a MODU. Life-
imposed on the operation by sea floor conditions, as well

react differently to a given environment and must compen-

sate for the resulting vessel motions of heave, pitch, and roll.
This requires unique equipment and procedures to carry out
drilling operations safely and economically.
For example, the vessel must account for the constant

change in vertical distance between the rig and the ocean
floor caused by tides and heave. Various types of vertical
motion compensation equipment are used to maintain a
constant weight on the drill bit and to maintain the riser pipe
connection between the rig and the BOP stack on the sea
floor. As another example, vessel pitch and roll require spe-
cial handling and securing of equipment to ensure that loads
remain in control.
Floating MODU designs have evolved to minimize vessel

Figure FD-2: Semisubmersibles are characterized
by an upper-hull structure supported on vertical motions, and the unique motion compensation equipment
columns connected to submerged lower hulls used on these vessels have evolved as well.
providing buoyancy for the rig. Courtesy Ensco plc.
Semisubmersibles
boats are maintained to ensure personnel are able to escape
Another type of offshore drilling vessel is the semisubmers-
should a significant incident occur.
ible, characterized by an upper hull structure supported on
Transportation logistics for floating drilling operations intro- vertical columns connected to submerged lower hulls pro-
duces other safety challenges. A variety of marine opera- viding buoyancy for the rig (Figure FD-2). The upper hull
tions such as materials supply, rig towing, and rig mooring structure supports the rig’s drilling equipment. While the
may be required, all of which have their own inherent risks. most common semisubmersible configuration is a rectangu-
In addition, the workforce must be transported by boat or lar upper deck supported by two elongated pontoons, there
helicopter, both of which have safety requirements and reg- are a number of other configurations currently in operation,
ulations that must be followed, increasing the training re- such as triangular shapes with three submerged buoyancy
quired of an offshore workforce. pontoons and pentagonal vessels with five pontoons.
Pontoon shapes also vary across the industry. For example,

Conclusion some rigs have torpedo-shaped pontoons, while others have
Despite the emphasis on safety and the environment, sev-
rectangular cross-sections. The size, number and configura-
eral catastrophic incidents have occurred in floating drill-
tion of semisubmersible support columns also vary as much
ing operations. Analyses of incident lessons learned from
as the configuration of the lower pontoons.
these catastrophes have resulted in industry improvements
in avoidance of incidents through detailed hazard analysis, Until recently, stationkeeping for most semisubmersibles
increased understanding of risk potential, improved engi- was based on an 8-point fixed-mooring system. Some
neering and technology advancements as well as a more moored semis equipped with self-propulsion use their
stringent requirements to operate. All of these efforts to- thrusters for fixed-mooring assist (to relieve high loading on
wards improved safety in floating drilling operations have the leading mooring lines). Today, many of the newer semis
significantly reduced the frequency of incident occurrences have fully dynamically positioned stationkeeping systems.
despite increased levels of such operations.
Semisubmersibles generally have better weather operating
MODU floating equipment envelopes than other types of floating MODUs. Semisub-
mersible rigs have superior motions characteristics, com-
Types of floating MODUs pared to ship-shaped or barge-shaped rigs, because their
Floating MODUs come in a variety of configurations, from smaller water plane areas (the area of the columns support-
simple drill barges to the most complex ultra-deepwater ing the upper deck structure) result in proportionally smaller
drillships. The common denominator for floating rigs is that vessel heave. Semisubmersibles with a fixed mooring con-
they are all acted upon by the environmental forces of wind, figuration also experience less pitch and roll when the pre-
wave, and offshore currents. Consequently, floaters require vailing weather shifts than a ship or barge-shaped hull.
different equipment from that used in drilling a well from a
While semisubmersibles have superior motion character-
stationary or bottom-founded unit. Each MODU type will

Ultra-deepwater drillships
As floating drilling moved into deeper waters, the size of the
MODUs increased. Ultra-deep water depths (7,500 ft and
beyond) and deeper overall well depths led to higher derrick
and riser loads and the need for more storage and deck-load
capacity. As a result, ultra-deep water MODUs now need
a derrick capacity approaching 3 million lb, riser tensioning
capacity of 4 million lb, and variable deck-load capacity in
excess of 20,000 short tons. In nearly all cases, this combi-
nation of equipment and storage capacity dictates the use of
a drillship-type configuration to carry these large loads. And,
because of the impracticality of mooring in ultra-deepwater,
these drillships are exclusively dynamically positioned to
maintain station over the wellsite.
Besides larger vessels and equipment load capacities, other

innovations that have further enabled ultra-deepwater drill-
ing include a secondary load path to increase efficiency of
running tubulars and equipment to the ocean floor, and mul-
tiple moonpools or false moonpools to decrease the vessel’s
water-plane area and reduce heave response.
Figure FD-3: Drillships are self-propelled ship-shaped

drilling vessels, with an opening in the middle (called
a “moonpool”) through which the drilling operation
takes place. Courtesy Atwood Oceanics Inc.
istics, they generally have less deck-loading capability than

other floating MODUs.
Drillships
Drillships are self-propelled ship-shaped drilling vessels,
with an opening in the middle (called a “moonpool”) through
which the drilling operation takes place (Figure FD-3). Sta-
tionkeeping for early drillship configurations used tradition-
al 8-point fixed mooring systems, which yield good longi- Figure FD-4: Lattice boom cranes are a major deck
tudinal stability when the bow of the vessel is pointed into crane aboard floating MODUs. Courtesy Noble Corp.
the prevailing weather, but poor stability when the weather
shifts to the beam of the vessel. Moored drillships thus had
high operational downtime due to vessel motions when the
weather shifted away from the “optimal” direction. To over-
come this operational limitation, all drillships built during the
past 20-plus years utilize dynamic-positioning stationkeep-
ing systems, which rotate the ship’s bow into the changing
weather and improve the rig’s weather-related motions. Re-
gardless of their stationkeeping system, drillships still have
greater heave and roll motions for a given environment than
a semisubmersible, because of their larger water plane area.
One significant advantage of drillships over semisubmers-

ibles is their superior deck-loading capabilities. This higher
deck-loading capacity, combined with self-propulsion, make
drillships the vessel of choice for drilling remote offshore
Figure FD-5: Pedestal-mounted knuckle
locations, where resupply of equipment and materials is dif-
boom cranes are important equipment aboard
ficult. floating MODUs. Courtesy Noble Corp.

Figure FD-6: The king post crane features a Figure FD-7: Gantry cranes are used for lifting and
bearing assembly on its top and bottom to keep moving riser joints and other tubulars and various
the crane aligned. Courtesy Noble Corp. subsea equipment. Courtesy Noble Corp.
Deck cranes and lifting systems boom crane (Figure FD-6). King post cranes provide sim-
Many types of deck cranes and lifting systems are used on ilar functions as the slew-bearing cranes. However, rather
semisubmersibles and drillships and they are essential to the than the upper portion of the crane being supported on a
operation of the MODU. They are used for transferring car- slew bearing, the crane is suspended and supported from a
go, equipment, and material to and from work boats along- king post. The king post features a bearing assembly on its
side and from place to place on the MODU. Some cranes are top and bottom to keep the crane aligned. These cranes are
also used for transferring subsea equipment to and from the usually all-electric or diesel-hydraulic driven, with capacities
sea floor. Some can also be used to transfer personnel to and ranging from a few tons to 200 tons or more. These cranes
from the MODU. can include such features as automatic and manual overload
protection systems, and emergency load lowering capability
The two major types of deck cranes in use are pedes- and can be certified for personnel handling.
tal-mounted lattice boom cranes and the pedestal-mounted
knuckle boom crane (Figure FD-4 and FD-5). These cranes The safe working load (SWL), sometimes referred to as the
make use of a slew bearing to connect the stationary pedes- working load limit (WLL), of a pedestal or king post crane
tal to the rotating (slewing) structure of the crane. They can is determined by the designed strength of the crane and
be all-electric, electro-hydraulic, or diesel-hydraulic driven, its load-bearing parts, boom angle (or angles for a knuckle
with capacities ranging from a few tons to 200 tons or more. boom crane), distance of the load from the centerline of the
crane, and sea conditions. Crane operations are also limit-
The hoists of the electric-drive crane are driven by electric ed by wind speed. The SWL or WLL is provided on a load
motors supplied from larger electric motors or variable fre- chart maintained at the operating station for the crane. Load
quency drives (VFDs) powered from the rig’s main switch- charts are calculated for onboard and off-board lifts, taking
boards. The hoists of the electro-hydraulic crane are driven into consideration static load, which is the weight of a load
by hydraulic motors powered by hydraulic pumps that in unaffected by external forces, and the dynamic load, a load
turn are driven by electric motors powered from the rig’s subject to dynamic forces, such as going through the splash
main generators. The lifting function of the knuckle boom zone when in water, wind, vessel motions, etc.
crane uses hydraulic cylinders to raise and lower the knuckle
and main boom. The hoists of the diesel-electric crane are Several special-purpose cranes are employed on MODUs.
driven by hydraulic motors powered by hydraulic pumps Gantry cranes (Figure FD-7) are used for lifting and moving
that are driven by a diesel engine. Lattice boom and knuckle riser joints and other tubulars and various subsea equipment
boom cranes can be configured with such features as active including the LMRPs and Christmas trees. They are usually
heave compensation capability, constant tension capability, electro-hydraulically controlled and operate through a rack
automatic and manual overload protection systems, and and pinion drive forward to aft or port to starboard on the
emergency load lowering capability, and can be certified vessel on a track system. They include a gantry section with
for personnel handling. Knuckle boom cranes can also be trolleys and independently controlled hoists that can be po-
equipped with hydraulically operated pipe handling and ris- sitioned to move various loads. Depending on the operation,
er handling yokes. the hoists can also be synchronized to operate together. The
hoists can be equipped with hooks or can support a lifting
Another type of deck crane in use is the king post lattice

yoke. Operation of the crane may be from an operator’s cab, However, eventually the voltage must be transformed back
a pendant or a radio control console. down to a more common usable lower voltage, which is 480
vac and 690 vac. This requires a very large transformer, so
Overhead bridge cranes are frequently used to move equip- any loss in the cable is gained back in the transformer. These
ment inside spaces within the MODU. These are usually lower voltages are more useful at 480 vac, which is used
electrically powered and travel on an overhead track system on the auxiliary equipment. Most motor control centers
through a rack and pinion drive. They will have one or more (MCCs) use 480 vac as the primary voltage to eventually
hoists with a hook for attaching the load or may use an elec- run the pumps/motors for various equipment. 690 vac will
tro magnet system for attaching the load. A pendant or radio be used primarily for powering an AC drive, the industry
control console is usually provided for operation. having generally moved away from DC drives. Of course,
the lighting distribution has not changed much in voltage,
Some smaller knuckle boom cranes are used for handling
although some installations appear to be adding LED light-
small loads or positioning work baskets. These are usually
ing. There are numerous great features with LEDs, and this
electro-hydraulically operated from either a control station
trend will likely continue to grow in the drilling industry.
near the crane or by controls inside the basket.
Maintenance jibs, chain hoists, wire rope hoists and come- Configuration
alongs are positioned in various locations throughout the Currently, most dynamically positioned vessels are built to
MODU for use during maintenance activities and are usual- either DP2 or DP3 class. (DP2 requires a vessel not lose
ly manually operated with some hoists being electrically or location following a single failure of an active component
pneumatically operated. or system. DP3 incorporates DP2 requirements, as well
as static components and all components and systems in
Power generation and electrical systems any one watertight compartment that could fail from fire
or flooding of any single compartment. See separate sec-
tion in this chapter discussing dynamic positioning.) The
Safety considerations requirements for these classifications rely mainly on the
When working with high-voltage (HV) equipment, all per-
amount of redundancy critical equipment must have. For
sonnel must be trained, proper PPE must be worn, and every
example, the main buss for a DP2-class vessel must com-
precaution taken. At a minimum, special “flash” suits must
prise two sections, with each located in a separate compart-
be worn and a grounding rod used when opening an HV
ment. The buss can be split, comprising four sections total.
compartment. No work should ever proceed without anoth-
A DP3 class requires the same configuration; however, the
er two people present. Depending on the system, there are
two main sections must have a separate means of combin-
interlocks in place to prevent a compartment from opening
ing. This is sometimes called a “ring buss” configuration. All
without the system being de-energized; however, stored en-
critical equipment control systems with virtual memory or
ergy or induced voltage can still be present. Conduct a Job
PLCs attached, will also have a secondary controls system
Safety Analysis (JSA) before conducting any maintenance
and a battery storage/UPS system powering the system.
or other work on HV equipment.
For example, for the DP system, there will be a main control
system powered by UPS with a battery bank located on the
Power generation bridge and a secondary control system normally located in
With the modernization of equipment controls used in drill-
the engine control room (ECR). The secondary control sys-
ing comes automated systems controlled with smart devic-
tem will be powered by a UPS system as well. Theoretical-
es. About 10 years ago, if an engine was powered manually
ly, if an issue occurs with the main control system on the
and successfully started with automatic controls, it was con-
bridge, control of the vessel can be sent to the ECR until the
sidered an advanced system. At present, most MODUs are
issue is resolved. In practice, however, this would be very
designed for minimal human-machine interaction.
difficult to achieve. It is most likely not rehearsed enough
More companies have elected to generate a higher voltage to be effective. On most vessels, all visibility to the outside
main buss as a standard. In the past it was normally a 600- environment is lost at this point, so this procedure would
volt AC (vac) main buss. Today there are different voltages require special instructions and communications with the
generated. Currently, the most common voltages generated captain and the crew. The vessel will also have a minimum
are 11 kv. 6.6 kv and 13.8 kv. Technically these rank as me- of two separate engine rooms and a single ECR. The redun-
dium voltage. Our industry, however, refers to these as high dancy for the ECR is usually the bridge. Although not ideal,
voltage, and they should be treated as such. This concept it is more realistic to move the ECR to the bridge than it is to
facilitates running smaller cable from generator to the main move the bridge to the ECR during an emergency.
buss, which can be distributed around the rig more easily
with smaller ampere-rated breakers and cables.

Management systems Vessels such as these are designed to not lose all power or
Most vessels today have a VMS (vessel management sys- “black out”. If a section is lost, the system will identify this
tem, PMS (power management system), and/or AMS (alarm immediately and provide an alternative means to power the
management system). The PMS tends to be the brains for section. The alternative means can depend on what the orig-
power generation and can control drilling operations as well. inal problem was. The main buss is designed to automati-
The system can decide whether to intervene in drilling op- cally isolate any issues; however, in some cases it can lose
erations. When all settings are properly established and in a section or the entire main buss. If a section is lost, this is
normal circumstances, an engine can start automatically, referred to as a partial black out. If both main switchboards
allowing time for engine warm up. Once the engine is ready, are lost (black-out condition), the emergency generator will
it will run up to operating speed, and close the breaker to put come on quickly, supplying enough power to keep emergen-
the generator on line. cy systems running and to power the UPS systems. While
the emergency generator is going on line, a main engine will
The VMS accomplishes this by sending commands and also start and prepare to go on line, if there was an engine in
awaiting feedback from other systems on the same network. standby mode before power was lost.
When a series of engines meet a certain load demand for
a set period, the VMS will launch this sequence using PMS The main engines will continue to come up until the ves-
information until load demand is within an acceptable range. sel has reached its last normal condition, i.e., powering the
If the load demand has reached a certain level, and no more equipment running prior to the blackout minus some aux-
engines remain to come on line, the PMS will send a com- iliary equipment. If the issue that caused the black out oc-
mand to the drilling bays to slow down or “phase back” their curred on the main buss or the engine that was running at
operation until power demand is brought down to an accept- the time, that equipment will not attempt to start . However,
able range. This is common on vessels with thrusters when the Golden Rule is that all batteries and UPS systems must
current or wind is considered abnormally high. Eddy cur- be maintained and operating to have a successful blackout
rents exist in some locations, complicating stationkeeping. recovery or successful abandon vessel shutdown (AVS/
In this situation, the PMS will work to ensure that the thrust- ESD-0) recovery.
ers have enough power to maintain location, even if drilling
Black-out recoveries differ from AVS/ESD-0 recoveries.
operations must shut down. If the vessel lacks a PMS, pow-
During a black-out recovery, the emergency generator
er-demand monitoring runs locally in the generator controls.
(e-gen) can come on line, but when an AVS situation occurs,
The AMS can monitor engines as well. If an engine encoun- the emergency generator is in a locked-out state until the
ters an alarm condition, the AMS will report this to the VMS AVS pushbutton is back to normal. At this point, the sys-
and in turn start another engine. Once the additional engine tem will recover as if a black-out situation occurred. How-
is on line, the alarmed engine will power down. Precisely ever, during an AVS, if the UPS system for the AVS control
when the engine powers down depends on the alarm con- processor is not working properly, the rig will stay blacked
dition. In some cases, the engine might be powered down or out with no equipment running until the maintenance team
e-stop prior to another engine coming on-line. determines which AVS circuit to jumper out to get the e-gen
to start. This could take five minutes or six hours, depend-
Redundancy and emergency power ing on the maintenance crew’s familiarity with the system.
Power is distributed to enable equipment power up in mul- During this time, if the batteries totally discharge to other
tiple areas around the vessel, including thrusters, MCCs, systems, problems will keep compounding. This is not a
lighting, battery power, and any other devices or equipment good scenario, especially during certain rig operations or if
requiring power. Depending on the vessel classification, close to another structure. The UPS system is now more im-
there might be redundancy in powering the equipment. portant than ever and must stay maintained, including bat-
Distribution systems that power critical equipment might teries. Tests of the UPS system should be conducted at least
require a secondary feeder for powering that same equip- annually and preferably as often as practical to ensure crew
ment. For example, MCCs on a DP2- or DP3-rated vessel familiarity with the system.
with feed thrusters will have two means for power up, a
Activating the ESD system will ensure the safest possi-
normal and an alternate source. These feeders eventually
ble condition of the rig and its equipment to minimize the
come from different sections of the two main switchboards,
consequences of an emergency situation related to uncon-
should one section be lost. Critical equipment, such as the
trolled releases of hydrocarbons or an outbreak of fire. The
MCC referenced above, will have devices installed to de-
ESD system is used to provide a safe and rapid shutdown of
termine whether normal power is lost, then automatically
systems and equipment.
switching the system over to alternate power.

Table FD-1: Fire alarm cause and effect
Audible alarm DCC Operator Consoles (2)
Visual alarm DCC Operator Consoles (2)
Audible Nav Bridge Matrix panel
Visual Nav Bridge Matrix panel
Audible alarm accommodation

Audible DCC Matrix panel (2)
Effect è
Visual alarm accommodation
Audible alarm control spaces

Visual DCC Matrix panel (2)
Visual alarm control spaces
Audible alarm all areas (1)

Audible ECR Matrix panel
Audible alarm machinery
Visual alarm all areas (1)

Visual ECR Matrix panel
Visual alarm machinery

Audible alarm VMS
ê Cause Visual alarm VMS
Manual - Quarters X X X X X X X X X X X X
Manual – Other Areas X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Smoke/Thermal - Quarters X X X X X X X X X X C C X X
Smoke/Thermal/Flame–
X X X X X X X X X X C C C C X X
Other Areas
Explanations: X = single actions. (single detector or manual station)

C = confirmed. (more than one detector)
Note 1: Alarm in all areas if alarm not acknowledged within 2 minutes (ABS SVR 4-7-3/11.1.4).
Note 2: May be made inactive by Chief or Captain by a password protected VDU function.
Fire, safety, and monitoring See Tables FD-2 and FD-3 for cause and effect for gas
alarms and a general emergency action plan, respectively.
Most MODUs will have an AMS (alarm management sys-
tem) that monitors every aspect of the vessel via fire-de- As one can see, the AMS in combination with the VMS is a
tection systems, gas-detection systems, and other safety very powerful tool. Vessels might have several anti-fire sys-
systems. These systems report back to the AMS and, de- tems — sprinklers, deluge, water mist, and/or foam — that
pending on what the alarms are, the VMS can send com- can be operated manually or in some cases automatically.
mands to isolate the issue. For example, infrared detectors Ventilation will be shut down in most areas, fire dampeners
or smoke detectors are installed in every machinery space, will close, water-tight doors will close (thruster areas), and
along with a pull station. The size of the room determines the the helicopter wave-off light will come on. This particular
number of detectors, but at least two sensors will be placed matrix example calls for power to be shut down if certain
in most, if not all machinery spaces. Most cause and effect conditions are met. However, management should take pre-
(C&E) matrix set-ups will ensure that if a sensor indicates a cautions against electrical power tripped automatically until
fire on board a vessel, an alarm will sound locally in the Con- it’s certain that vital firefighting equipment will not be down
trol Room (Table FD-1). In most cases, if a local alarm is not while it’s expected to operate during the emergency.
acknowledged within a certain period of time, the system
will sound a vessel-wide alarm. After a set amount of time, if
equipped, the VMS system can set off the fire-suppression
system in that compartment. However, if two sensors are
indicating a problem in the same compartment, in most cas-
es, the system provides little acknowledgment time before
activating the fire-suppression system.

Table FD-2: Gas alarm cause and effect
Audible alarm all areas except quarters
Audible alarm all areas except quarters

Audible alarm DCC Operator Consoles
Visual alarm all areas except quarters
Visual alarm all areas except quarters

Visual alarm DCC Operator Consoles
Audible Nav Bridge Matrix panel
Visual Nav Bridge Matrix panel

Effect è
Audible alarm VMS Consoles
Visual alarm VMS Consoles
Audible DCC Matrix panel

Audible ECR Matrix panel
Visual ECR Matrix panel
Visual DCC Matrix panel
Audible alarm all areas
Audible alarm all areas

Visual alarm all areas
Visual alarm all areas

ê Cause
Comb. Low 20%LEL-

Quarter Intakes
Comb. High 40%LEL-
Quarter Intakes
Comb. Low 20%LEL-non.
haz.areas
Comb. Low 20%LEL-haz.
areas
Comb. High 40%LEL-non.
haz.areas
Comb. High 40%LEL-haz.
areas
Toxic Low 10ppm-Quarters
Intakes
Toxic High 20ppm-Quarters
Intakes
Toxic Low 10ppm-Other
Areas
Toxic High 20ppm-Other
Areas


Table FD-3: Action plan for emergency situations
Effect è
Close Watertight sliding doors
Activate helideck warning
Trip electrical equipment

Activate fire fighting
Stop ventilation fans
Close fire dampers
Stop air handlers
ê Cause
Fire fighting released X X X X X
Manual alarm call point – Quarters X X X C
Manual alarm call point – Other Areas X X X X C
Smoke/Thermal - Quarters C C C
Smoke in quarters inlet X X X
Fire – Other Areas C C X C C
Manual fire damper closure – Quarters X X X
Combustible Low – Quarters Intakes X X X
Combustible High – Quarters Intakes X X X X X
Combustible Low – Other Areas X X X X
Combustible High – Other Areas X X X X X
Toxic Low – Quarters Intakes X X X
Toxic High – Quarters Intakes X X X


Mooring systems and equipment Semi-taut moorings (steel, steel-polyester, steel-

HMPE)
Types of offshore mooring systems Semi-taut mooring line(s) have grounded components at
Offshore mooring systems for Mobile Floating Units survival tensions, but none at the anchor location for max-
(MFUs), such as MODUs, TADs and flotels, comprise indi- imum design tensions (operating, hurricane, cyclone, etc.).
vidual mooring line(s) for vessel stationkeeping. Eight is the
The semi-taut system typically consists of the MODU wire
most common number of lines, followed by twelve. Offshore
rope and/or chain at the fairlead and significant preset com-
mooring systems can be classified by the arrangement of
ponents (not self-contained MODU components), such as
the mooring lines when examined from an overhead (plan)
insert wire rope or polyester, subsea buoyancy, etc., all used
view, as “spread” (equal angle between all lines) for om-
with anchors that are capable of high-uplift loading (e.g., pile
ni-directional environmental loading or “cluster” (unequal
or vertical-loaded anchor [VLA]).
angles) to favor a predominate environmental force direc-
tion or avoid infrastructure. Spread moorings are preferred, This system is typically limited to use in moderately deep-
but require locations with less subsea infrastructure, e.g., water of approximately 3,000 ft to 6,000 ft (approximately
wellheads, pipelines, manifolds, etc. There are three types of 900 m to 1,800 m), because of operational and survival lim-
MFU mooring systems, when classified by the type of their itations imposed by the mooring system.
line components:
This mooring system poses less danger to subsea infra-
Catenary moorings (conventional, steel, poly-insert) structure, thanks to the reduced amount of grounded moor-
The catenary type is the most prevalent offshore mooring ing components over a conventional system.
system, primarily because most MODUs have self-con-
tained moorings of wire and/or chain (Figure FD-8). This Taut moorings (steel, steel-polyester, steel-HMPE)
mooring system has grounded components at both survival Taut-mooring systems have no mooring line grounded
and operating tensions. component at survival or operating tensions. The system
typically consists of rig wire or chain at the fairlead and
A catenary mooring system typically employs either all chain significant preset components (not self-contained MODU
for shallower water depths (below 2,000-ft water depth), a components), such as insert wire rope, subsea buoyancy,
combination of wire rope and chain for deeper water (less polyester rope, HMPE and an anchor capable of high-uplift
than 5,000 ft, with some exceptions), or a combination of loading (e.g., pile or VLA).
polyester or high-modulus polyethylene (HMPE) rope with
wire rope and/or chain, which works beyond 7,500-ft wa- Taut moorings are used in a much wider range of depths,
ter depth. The water-depth limitation of catenary-mooring and are typically used in shallower water (approximately
systems is controlled by the weight of the system, which re- 500 ft) to avoid subsea assets and deeper waters (beyond
duces the horizontal restoring component, and deployment 10,000 ft) to reduce the operational and survival limitations
and operational requirements. Deployment and operational imposed by an all-steel mooring system.
requirements increase costs relative to taut or semi-taut
mooring systems as water depth increases. This mooring system poses the least danger to subsea infra-
structure because the anchor is the only contact point with
Care must be taken with this type of mooring system around the sea floor during use.
subsea infrastructure, because of the significant amount
of grounded mooring components. The use of polyester or Offshore mooring line components
HMPE can help mitigate the risk of potential damage to sub- Offshore mooring lines primarily contain only a few major
sea assets. component types. In general, the key factors that determine
which mooring components are used and their placement
Catenary moorings can be installed by the preset method are cost, required stationkeeping specifications, desired
(to be discussed later), similar to the taut and semi-taut sys- type of mooring system (taut, catenary, semi-taut), desired
tems, or by the conventional installation method. mooring line strength or minimum break load (MBL), com-
ponent resistance to chafing, and MODU variable-deck
These systems generally use high holding capacity (HHC)
loading. This section discusses the most widely used moor-
drag embedment anchors that require a near-horizontal
ing components, in order of prevalence.
mooring line pull at the seabed.

8a Conventional catenary mooring (500 ft WD)

1: 3000 ft rig chain
2: High holding capacity drag anchor
1 2
8b
Conventional catenary mooring (3,000 ft WD)
1: 5,000 ft rig wire
2: 2,500 ft rig chain
2 3
8c Polyester insert catenary mooring (3,000 ft WD)

1: 750 ft rig chain
2: 4,000 ft 6.3 in. insert polyester
3: 2,500 ft rig chain
1
Figure FD-8a, 8b and 8c:

Typical catenary mooring line
configurations for MODUs. 3 4
Courtesy Delmar Systems Inc.

Stud Link Chain ww If one jacket covers the entire rope core, the
•• Comprises individual steel links that are flash welded rope is said to have closed-braid construction;
and heat treated in series to produce continuous ww If each sub-rope is individually jacketed or
lengths; visible in the finished rope, then the rope
is said to have open-braid construction.
• Chain strength is defined by the Classification •• One of the lightest mooring components used in
Societies ranging from R3, the lowest, up to the mooring systems, it reduces weight by approximately
highest, R5. The most common is R4 strength; 95% over studded link chain and some 80% over
6-strand wire rope;
• Anchor chain has superior fatigue characteristics •• Polyester rope diameters are typically about twice that
and chafing resistance, when compared to wire rope, of wire rope for the same breaking strength, requiring
because of its weight, a damping effect on shallow significantly larger storage reels than an equivalent
minimum-breaking load (MB)L wire rope;
water mooring systems and MODU offsets;
•• When compared to steel components, the high
elasticity and low weight of polyester rope allows it to
• Because of its weight, an all-chain mooring line is provide superior stationkeeping and storm survival
usually restricted to less than 2,000 ft, depending results over other components, when used in an
on the environment. In severe environments optimized mooring system;
it might be reduced to less than 1,000 ft. •• Commonly stored on land on spools/winch drums or
wet stored in near-straight lines;
Steel wire rope •• Polyester rope has excellent fatigue characteristics
•• Consists of smaller steel cables woven together to and can improve the fatigue life of steel components
produce strands that are then woven into larger that are connected in-line by reducing the effect of
diameter cable. Most wire ropes comprise 6 strands dynamic loads applied to the mooring system;
although some use 8. For mooring lines, the wire rope •• Polyester rope is never part of the MODUs self-
is usually coated with drawn galvanized coating. contained system. It is used primarily in deepwater
and ultra-deepwater mooring systems in preset
• Commonly stored on land on spools/winch drums operations.
or wet stored in near-straight lines. Length can
be over 15,000 ft and diameters for MODUs up
Anchors
to 3 ¾ in. Inserts (not part of the self-contained
There are numerous types of anchors used in offshore
MODU system) can be larger in diameter.
moorings, with a large variation in sizes, shapes, installation
Shipping, handling and installation can be a major
methods and holding capacities (Figure FD-9). The three
effort, as reels can weigh over 200 metric tons,
main types of anchors are, from most common to least com-
requiring special care, dock strength and ships.
mon on MODUs, drag embedment anchors (DEA), driven
anchors, and gravity-installed anchors. Each of these three
• Wire rope weight is about 75% less per unit length
categories, which are based upon the anchor installation
than mooring chain. Its service life depends on
method, can further be subdivided into the suitability of the
handling damage, amount of tension seen during
anchor for the design loading conditions, such as “low uplift”
service and the corrosive environment. Average life
catenary mooring systems and “high uplift” taut and semi-
without severe damage is usually 5-7 years, with some
taut mooring systems, and sea floor conditions (sand, clay,
lasting as long as 10 years. Most MODU users change
rock, etc.).
the rope out after a specific time span, such as 5 years.
Drag embedment anchors
Polyester rope Drag embedment anchors (DEAs) are the most prevalent
•• Made of small yarns (or fibers) woven together to
type of modern anchor used on MODUs and for offshore
produce sub-rope strands, which are woven together
to create sub-ropes, which are again woven together temporary moorings. All seagoing commercial vessels, in-
to produce a continuous, larger diameter rope (core); cluding drillships and semisubmersibles, are equipped with
•• The bundle of sub-ropes or each individual sub-rope is a DEA because of their long-documented history (from use
threaded through a barrier (particle filter) to protect on ships and naval vessels to current offshore MODUs),
the rope from particle ingress from soil or marine versatility and ease of installation in widely varying soil
growth, which can cause microscopic tears on the yarn conditions. All MODUs carry DEAs as part of their mooring
and lead to mooring line failure; equipment. Within the DEA category, there are three main
•• The rope core and barrier (or sub-ropes and barriers) groupings of anchors:
are then sheathed in a protective cover(s) or jacket(s) •• Conventional DEAs, which are predominantly used on
that helps prevent tearing of the load-bearing sub- ships and vessels that only use anchors for emergency
ropes;

Figure FD-9: Examples of high-holding capacity drag-embedment anchors. Courtesy Delmar Systems Inc.
or short duration situations. “Stockless” anchors are a Driven anchors

specific type of DEA, so called because they lack long Driven anchors, which cannot be dragged into place, are
stabilizer bars; less prevalent than DEAs for MODU moorings due to the
•• VLA (vertically loaded anchor) DEAs, which are
increased logistical constraints, typically higher-specifi-
capable of resisting mooring loads at high uplift angles
cation requirements and cost of anchors and installation.
without significant reductions in capacity and are
common on some MODUs; Most of these anchors are fabricated with very few cast
•• HHC (high-holding capacity) DEAs, predominantly or forged parts. These anchors are typically high capaci-
used for modern-day MODU and permanent facility ty, as they are optimized for specific soil conditions, and
offshore mooring systems with low uplift at the anchor allow for a wider range of uplift angles for anchor loading
(Figure FD-9). (catenary, semi-taut, and taut mooring systems). They are
used on preset mooring installations and are not part of the
All common MODU-sized DEAs are capable of being in- MODU’s self-contained mooring systems. These anchors
stalled with typical anchor-handling tow-supply (AHTS) can be sorted into the following categories:
vessels without the support of remotely operated vehicles •• Suction piles (suction caissons), which use a
(ROV) or divers. Of the anchor types listed in this section, submersible pump to drive the pile into the sea floor
DEAs generally have the lowest level of anchor-placement by creating a pressure differential between the inside
accuracy and precision, due to the methods of installation. and outside of the pile (Figure FD-10);
Their typical weight for MODU use is 9-15 metric tons, aver- •• Driven piles, which use a subsea hammer, subsea
aging 12 metric tons. vibrator, and/or significant deadweight (i.e., follower)
that pushes the anchor into the sea floor;
HHC DEAs are of fabricated construction. The fluke angle •• Driven plate anchors, which use a suction pile or
can usually be adjusted for hard sandy bottoms at 20°-30° driven pile (i.e., follower) to push the plate anchor into
(lowest angle of penetration) up to 50° for soft muddy bot- the soil;
toms. The drag distance to set these anchors is around 100- •• Drilled and grouted piles, which use a subsea drill to
create the hole for installing the pile and a submersible
150 ft if successfully embedded. Unfortunately their con-
pump for applying the cement.
struction of fabricated steel plate makes them susceptible
to damage.

Figure FD-11: Drum winch. Courtesy Delmar Systems Inc.
Figure FD-10a and 10b: Example of suction piles, a

type of driven anchor. Courtesy Delmar Systems Inc.
Figure FD-12: Traction winch. Courtesy Delmar Systems Inc.
Gravity-installed anchors
Gravity-installed anchors are rapidly becoming more popu- moored condition, but unless the wire rope was on the bot-
lar with both MODU and permanent facility offshore moor- tom, 2-3 layers of the drum proper tension at higher layers
ing systems, predominantly because of their speed of instal- could not be obtained. During the 1980s-1990s, the traction
lation and high-holding capacities. Most of these anchors winch was developed to perform as the tension device. In
are fabricated with very few cast or forged parts. These combination with the drum winch or storage reel, this is now
anchors are typically lowered to a predetermined distance the standard wire-rope MODU mooring system. Besides
above the sea floor, released from the lowering cable, and having band brakes, these winches also incorporate a lock
allowed to free-fall into the soil. bar that is usually dogged into the winches’ drum flange.
Once again, these anchors are not part of the self-contained Traction winches
MODU mooring systems and are used on preset locations. Traction winches (Figure FD-12) operate on a principle sim-
There are two types of gravity-installed anchors, the torpe- ilar to a block and tackle pulley system. These winches use
do-shaped and the OMNI-Max AnchorTM. Torpedo anchors two parallel drums to gain a mechanical advantage. Wire
are typically expendable, because they are non-retrievable . rope loops around the parallel drums multiple times (usually
six), using friction to provide grip. The drum storage winch
MODU deck mooring line-handling equipment supplies a minimal amount of tension that is magnified
MODUs have equipment necessary to deploy and retrieve through the traction winch drums, thus tensioning the wire
mooring lines, rack anchors, store chain and wire rope, and rope while leaving the winch outboard. While more versatile
sheaves and fairleaders to guide the mooring lines in the than drum winches, traction winches are typically heavier,
proper direction. require a larger footprint, and cost more. Traction winches
can pull at a constant torque, regardless of the amount of
Drum winches wire rope left on the storage take-up reel. Therefore, they
Drum winches (Figure FD-11) are primarily used as storage are ideal for applications in which short lengths of wire rope
drums on modern MODU mooring systems. In the ear- must be paid out while maintaining high line tensions and re-
ly days they were also used to tension the wire rope in the

winching operations.
Auxiliary mooring equipment and hardware

There are numerous types of shackles, connecting links,
etc., used to connect the major components of a mooring
system, as well as support hardware. Some of the key com-
ponents are discussed in this section.
Connecting hardware
This encompasses all equipment used in-line between two
mooring components (e.g., a wire rope and a section of
chain). These items are usually taken apart and assembled
on the deck of the installation vessel (e.g., anchor-handling/
tow/supply vessel [AHTS]). Some of these items, such as
connecting links, are used only to connect mooring compo-
Figure FD-13: Fairleaders function as a sheave, guiding
the wire rope and/or chain from the windlass and/ nents into a contiguous line, while others, such as a bearing
or traction winch outward and down the mooring line or friction swivel, are used to free torque from a mooring
toward the anchor. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. line.
taining the capability to pay out longer lengths with tension Almost all connecting hardware are deemed as “chain ac-
from the storage or drum winch. cessories” by class societies, requiring their material grades
to be comparable to those of chain.
Windlasses »» Common chain connecting links
Windlasses are used to haul in and/or pay out anchor chain. There are two types of common chain connecting links –
Figure FD-12 shows a chain windlass attached to the side C-Type and Kenter, with the latter the most common. These
of the traction winch. The slotted wildcat wheel with whelp links are built to go through the wildcat of the windlass in the
located on the windlass assembly must be sized properly horizontal and vertical position without jamming or causing
for the specific chain type and size to allow for the chain damage to any of the equipment. They are manufactured to
to mesh properly, preventing jumping or skipping. Due to be disassembled such that when reassembled they connect
the high tension required, MODU windlasses usually have two equally sized chain lengths. In general, these links do
7 whelps. The windlass feeds the chain through a hawser not have the fatigue durability of a common link, so they are
pipe assembly before being lowered into a chain locker for used as sparingly as possible.
storage. Excess chain not used in the mooring system is typ-
ically stored on the MODU in a chain locker. Some windlass- »» Pear links
es are powered by DC traction motors with the capability These connectors are used to connect two different sizes of
to pay out chain under high load at low speeds. AC-motor chain and thus have the appearance of a pear. They are of-
windlasses can do the same thing, provided they have a big ten used at or near the anchor. Since there are two different
enough energy dissipation system. For rapid pay out under sizes of chain, they are not designed to pass through any of
control speeds, water brakes that can dissipate significant the MODU’s deck equipment.
amounts of horsepower are used. Along with the band »» Assorted shackles
brakes, windlasses usually have a remotely activated chain Numerous types, shapes, weights and strengths of shackles
stopper or lock that can be released under full load. exist, with names that generally describe their appearance.
They are used to connect chain, wire rope, anchors, work-
Fairleaders wire lines, chain chasers, permanent pendantless systems
Fairleaders (Figure FD-13), also called “fairleads”, func- and so on. Most common are the “U” shackle, “D” shackle,
tion as a sheave, guiding the wire rope and/or chain from elongated “U” shackle, and “bow” shackles, similar to what
the windlass and/or traction winch outward and down the is used on the drill floor, deck cranes around the MODU and
mooring line toward the anchor. Fairleaders used for chain air hoists. The difference is these shackles are generally of
must be pocketed and sized appropriately for the type and higher quality, strength and certification. None of this hard-
size of the chain and also the wire rope used. MODU fair- ware is designed to pass through the windless wildcats, fair-
leaders typically swivel along the vertical axis, allowing the leaders, traction winches or store reels.
angle between mooring lines to be modified horizontally, as
necessary, to a limited degree. Care must be taken to avoid
jumping the mooring component off of the fairlead during

»» Swivels Dynamic positioning

Swivels used in modern mooring systems are generally Dynamic positioning (DP) for the offshore drilling industry
placed between the mooring chain and mooring wire-rope means the use of thrusters and/or propulsion, location and
connection. They are used to relieve torque in the wire rope heading reference instrumentation, environmental sensing
at very low tensions. At high tension they are designed to equipment, power plant(s), and a control and monitoring
lock to prevent the wire rope from un-torquing and creating system to reliably maintain a vessel above a designated lo-
a “bird nest”. These type of swivels are intricately machined cation. The DP concept was first used in the drilling indus-
designs with self-lubricating bearings and close tolerances. try in the early 1960s and over the years has developed into
Other less-sophisticated swivels are used in the pendant- the primary stationkeeping method for deepwater and ul-
less system, work wires and other handling hookups. tra-deepwater MODUs. Its use has expanded to many other
»» Quick-release devices types of vessels in and out of the offshore oil and gas busi-
Pelican hooks are the most common quick-release devices ness.
used to release two components under moderate to high
Position-keeping reliability is the key to successful DP oper-
tensions. They are generally not used on MODUs, but on the
ations. DP systems are ranked into three classes – DP1, DP2,
AHTS to release anchors and mooring lines. They generally
and DP3 – by the International Maritime Organization: the
have a lever with a mechanical advantage. Thus, a relatively
higher the number, the more reliable the system. The rank-
small pull can release an arm bearing a much larger load.
ing system is based on the degree of reliability via backup
These devices are necessary in the anchor-handling busi-
and standby capability in the event of a fault in one of the
ness, but can be dangerous if not handled properly.
system components. Almost all DP MODUs today are DP2
»» Catenary modifying equipment or DP3.
With an all-chain, wire-rope or combination mooring sys-
tem, the catenary of the mooring line is controlled by the By definition and design, a DP2 vessel must not lose loca-
in-water weight of the mooring line and tension at both tion in the event of a single fault in an “active” component or
ends. There is on occasion a need to modify the catenary system. Non-active (“static”) components, such as wiring,
shape. This can be accomplished by adding buoyancy or cables, pipes, manual valves, etc., are assumed to not fail
weight along the length of the catenary. and are not included in the reliability analysis. Active com-
ponents and systems include nearly everything else, includ-
• Buoyancy
ing engines, generators, switchboard, sensors, DP control
Buoyancy can be added to the mooring line, typically in the
system, thrusters, computer networks, remote control de-
form of submersible buoys, at most points along its length
vices, etc.
to modify the catenary shape as required to avoid hazards
or infrastructure. Buoys can be in-line with the mooring line, For DP3 class, the vessel must not lose location in the event
or shackled to the mooring line by a pennant line. Fabricat- of a single failure for all DP2 definitions, plus static compo-
ed steel or syntactic foam buoys must be very large to have nents and all components in any one watertight compart-
any effect on the catenary shape, but also strong enough to ment that could fail from fire or flood. In other words, DP3
resist collapse when pulled beneath the sea. Syntactic foam systems must have complete physical separation of back-
is often used for deeper water, but it is fragile and must be up components and systems. The classification societies
protected when handled. Buoyancy can add a more robust (Lloyds, ABS, DNV, etc.) certify a vessel for one of the DP
horizontal stationkeeping component to the mooring design classes by examining the vessel design and system redun-
and/or to clear an underwater object. However, significant dancy. The vessel’s DP system must also successfully pass
operational consideration must be taken for installation a failure-mode effects analysis (FMEA), which conducts a
and recovery of the mooring system. The use of buoyancy single-point failure analysis of the entire DP system to de-
is common practice near subsea infrastructure or hazards. termine whether the vessel would lose location. The FMEA
considers the redundancy concept, the worst-case failure
• Weight design intent, and the worst-case failure. Vessel DP certi-
Often referred to as a “clump weight” and typically placed fication also requires successful passing of FMEA sea trials.
near the anchor or at the chain/wire rope connection of
combination systems, this shortens the necessary catenary The design of a MODU DP system starts with the owner’s
and creates a “stiffer” mooring system. The design should desire to stay on location during specified wind, wave and
prevent the clump weight from rising and falling off the current combinations. The design of the vessel must ac-
ocean bottom, because shock waves will result up and down commodate environmental loads on the vessel, power de-
the mooring line. Clump weights are not often used in mod- mands for thrusters, drilling and hotel (ventilation, heating
ern MODU mooring systems, unless it is a highly unusual and A/C, lighting, safety systems, etc.) loads and the worst-
situation. case failure design intent. Power plant requirements and the

BRIDGE FORWARD
Figure FD-14: Schematic of one version of a complete DP system.
number and type of thrusters are determined by combining Every DP MODU has redundant environmental sensors, in-
DP, hotel and drilling equipment power demands, mainte- cluding sensors for wind speed and direction, motion, and
nance downtime and the FMEA requirement. A key element sometimes current speed and direction. The DP control
in the successful design of a MODU DP system is integration system uses one or more acoustic position systems, usually
of the power plant, thrusters/propulsion, drilling equipment long ultra-short base line (LUSBL) technology with four or
and DP controls with an effective FMEA to deliver a reliable five transponder arrays. Sometimes the acoustic position
and effective vessel. Because these components are usually data are compared with an inertia reference system. Riser
manufactured by different companies, it is critical to inte- angle measurements might be available when the BOP stack
grate all systems to work reliably together. is installed on the sea floor, and can be used to manage the
riser angle just above the BOP stack at less than ½-¾°. The
The majority of DP MODUs are ship units, and the rest are combination of multiple differential global positioning sys-
semisubmersibles. Most thrusters on both types of MODUs tems (DGPS), which has an accuracy of 10 cm vs. 15 m for
are 360° AC-azimuthing thrusters with 5,000 hp, driven standard GPS, and multiple acoustic position reference sys-
by adjustable-speed AC drives. Most modern MODUs per- tems allows for error checking and blending of the reference
mit the removal or installation of thruster units outside of signals in the DP control system. Figure FD-14 shows a first
a shipyard by keelhauling or other methods. This is a great level diagram of one version of an entire DP system. Other
improvement over earlier designs, which required shipyard reference position systems are available and used on other
assistance. Power plants usually have 6-8 engine/genera- types of DP vessels, but the system shown in Figure FD-14
tor skids with more than 45,000 installed horsepower. The is used for DP MODUs.
main power plant electrical bus on modern DP MODUs is
usually 11,000 AC volts.

Flex Joint
Annular BOP
L.M.R.P. Connector
Figure FD-15: Schematic (left) and photo (right)

of a typical subsea BOP stack. Photo courtesy
GE Oil & Gas. IADC drawing at left.
Blind or Shear
Ram Preventer
Pipe Ram Preventers
Wellhead Connector
Figure FD-16: Schematic of annular BOP. IADC drawing.
Well control and subsea equipment

This section is intended to complement the Well Control A subsea BOP stack consists of two major assemblies, the
Equipment & Procedures chapter of the IADC Drilling Man- lower BOP stack and the lower marine riser package (LMRP).
ual, 12th edition, with an emphasis on floating drilling and In the photo shown in Figure FD-15b, the lower assembly
subsea equipment. Differences from onshore and surface consists of ram-type BOPs, while the LMRP consists of two
equipment will be highlighted. Onshore and offshore equip- annular BOPs and two BOP control pods. The typical float-
ment are designed and manufactured from a shared basic ing BOP stack has an 18 ¾-in. bore and is rated for 15,000
philosophy and purpose. While the equipment is much the psi working pressure, with a factory test pressure of 22,500
same, subsea equipment is generally larger, with higher psi. The specifications of the equipment for a BOP stack are
pressure ratings, more complicated and with considerably spelled out in API Specifications and Recommended Prac-
more redundancy. tices. These specs and RPs are often used by government
regulators as references and guidelines for their laws and
Subsea BOP stacks regulations.
Modern subsea BOP stacks are massive, with heights ex-
ceeding 40 ft and sometimes beyond 50 ft. Weights exceed Annular BOPs
600,000 lb and sometimes 700,000 lb. These sizes and Figure FD-16 is a drawing of a typical 10,000-psi working
capabilities have evolved over decades of floating drilling pressure subsea annular. The annular is designed to close
development, driven by increased attention to safety, envi- and seal around most items of any size OD. This includes
ronmental protection and well security. Figure FD-15 shows drill pipe, some parts of tool joints, Hevi-Wate, drill collars,
a drawing and photo of a typical modern subsea BOP stack. some stabilizers and sizes from almost full bore (18 ¾ in. for

Figure FD-17: Schematic of ram BOP Figure FD-19: Schematic of upper and lower shearing
without ram locks. IADC drawing. blind rams. Courtesy GE Oil & Gas. IADC drawing.
do a CSO. Variable bore rams (VBR) are exceptions (Figure

FD-18). VBRs shut around a narrow range of ODs, such as
3 ½-6 ⅝ in. or 4-7 in. The variation may increase to include
casing sizes.
Pipe rams close around a set OD size and most subsea BOP
stack rams will have at least one size for the drillpipe across
the rams when drilling. Another option is to have a casing
ram (e.g., 7 in., 7 ⅝ in. or 10 ¾ in.). For a tapered drill string
(e.g., 4 in., 5 ½ in. and 6 ⅝ in.) the 6 ⅝-in. would be the BOP
Figure FD-18: Variable bore rams. IADC drawing. stack ram size, because that size should be across the BOPs
when drilling ahead. It could also be a VBR with a maximum
subsea) to complete shut off (CSO) of the wellbore. Though
size of 6 ⅝ in. or 7 in.
annulars have working pressures, for durability and life of
the element, they should not be closed and seal on anything VBRs lack the drill string hang-off weight rating and packer
above 70% of rated WP; 50% of rating for CSO. The life of life durability of standard pipe rams. This can be very im-
the packer element is controlled by the OD of the items it portant, because the standard shut-in procedure for floating
closes upon and the pressure placed on it. The operating drilling is to first shut the diverter element, then the upper
pressure used to close the unit is usually 1,500 psi above annular, space out the drill string tool joints, close one or two
ambient pressure, i.e., at the water depth of the annular. pipe and/or VBR rams, and then set the drill string via a tool
However, this can vary, depending on the well pressure be- joint down on the top ram. All manufacturers have tables
ing held by the annular. Subsea annulars have some degree showing maximum tubular weight and size ratings for vari-
of self-seal ability from well pressure, but less than onshore ous ram sizes. Using pipe and/or VBR rams to strip drill pipe
units because of water-depth pressure considerations. into or out of the wellbore has been done subsea, but it is a
With the aid of surge accumulators (usually 15-20 gal) pre- very unusual operation, and only performed in unusual cir-
charged to account for water depth on the open and close cumstances and at low wellbore pressure.
ports, tool joints can be “stripped” slowly through a sealed
annular element. Almost all subsea BOP stacks have two The use of rams that can shear tubulars started in the late
annulars in the LMRP, both with the same pressure rating. 1960s and has developed over the years. The necessity to
However, in some cases the lower unit might have a lower shear pipe during an emergency disconnect of the LMRP is
rating. Most annular designs have better stripping charac- obvious. Consequently, it’s important to be able to shear and
teristics with lower-pressure rated elements (5,000 psi WP seal whatever the BOP stack holds. It might also be neces-
vs. 10,000 psi WP), which explains the use of this option. sary if complete well control is lost. Since the MODU cannot
The upper or top annular is usually considered the “working” instantly move off location in a blowout situation, the well
annular and is the first to be shut in for a kick, with the lower must be shut in.
annular serving as backup.
There are three types of CSO ram blocks. These are blind
Ram BOPs rams that only seal and do not shear; shear rams designed
All ram BOPs (Figure FD-17) used in well control are of the to cut most drill pipe and seal; and casing shears that only
“split gate” type, with two halves closing to the center of the shear and do not seal. Blind rams are rarely if ever used in
wellbore via piston action. Unlike annulars, designated types a subsea BOP stack. Figure FD-19 shows a typical sealing
of ram blocks will only close around a designated OD size or shear ram.

operate at 3,000 psi above ambient, because of the neces-

sity to have sufficient energy to shear tubulars that might
be in the BOP stack. Many subsea control systems are even
programmed to operate all shear rams at 5,000 psi above
ambient, but this especially applies to casing shears. Op-
erating pressures above 5,000 psi are not common, be-
cause the operating piston chambers are not designed for
high pressures. For all-hydraulic control systems, the higher
pressure also reduces reaction time, which improves well
control response.
Figure FD-20: Graphic of a dual fail-safe subsea Kill and choke valves
gate valve. Courtesy Control Flow Inc. All subsea BOP stacks have high-pressure gate valves (Fig-
ure FD-20). Most are designed for fail-safe close, but a few
Casing shears are generally for very heavy tubulars and cas- are designed for fail-safe open. Fail-safe means the valve
ing. The energy to shear is so great that sealability technolo- will default to an open or closed position, should operating
gy is not currently available. All vendors conduct shear tests pressure be lost. Most BOP stacks have at least two out-
for their shear and casing rams on varying tubular sizes and lets on the BOP stack for kill function (pump into the well)
for differing OD sizes and grades of steel material (ductility and two choke outlets (flow out of the wellbore); however,
and tensile). Temperature and ram pressure are also moni- under certain circumstances, their use might be swapped.
tored closely, along with internal wellbore pressure. Like the All well control piping running from the BOP stack has dou-
annulars, ram blocks (all but casing shears) are self-sealing ble valves, i.e., an inner and outer valve on the same valve
after an initial seal and a differential pressure is set across block body and on the same outlet. Both valves are usually
them. Hydrostatic water-depth pressure and the effect in the same horizontal position. This arrangement ensures
of mud weight must also be accounted for in determining that, should erosion occur, it would be outside the BOP stack
the ability to shear tubulars. Formulas and shear tables bore, ensuring that the valves can shut in the wellbore safely.
are available from vendors on their shear-ram designs and Other high-pressure valves might be on the BOP stack, i.e.,
shearing ability. Generally the higher the tensile and ductility one enabling circulation of any kick gas trapped under the
rating the easier the tubulars are to shear. In other words annular BOP after a well kill. The LMRP might also have sin-
for comparable OD and wall thickness, grade E is harder to gle valves on the kill and choke runs, so that the crews can
shear than grade S-135. Most regulators require via the drill- test the lines while running only the LMRP.
ing permit that the operator and drilling contractor demon-
strate that they can shear and seal most tubulars that might The LMRP will also have one low-pressure valve (usually
cross the BOP stack. 5,000 psi) above the flex joint called the mud-circulating
valve. This is not a well control valve. It is used to circulate
Rams must have a locking mechanism on at least the pipe the riser with additional mud to increase annular velocity of
or VBR rams. There are a number of designs but most have the circulated mud to combat the increase in slip velocity of
a piston wedge activated behind the ram piston rod that the cuttings when mud leaves the smaller-diameter casing
closes to lock the ram closed. Another popular design is the and enters the large diameter of the BOP stack and riser.
ratchet or piston sleeve that locks as the ram is fully closed.
The design does not require an additional function where- The operating pressure for all these valves is 1,500 psi above
as the wedge design does. In an emergency, the wedge also ambient pressure. The valves are designed to be pressure
takes time to activate shut in. Some shear seal and casing balanced for water depth and mud weight. The position of
shear BOPs have ram locks, but most do not, as a result of the choke valves on the BOP stack during drilling will depend
their bigger operating piston and overall ram length. A hy- on the desired type of shut in, as follows:
•• A “soft shut in” during a suspected kick means the
draulic lock via a valve circuit on the operating circuit is an-
valves are left open and the pressure is measured at
other alternative. While it is less “positive” as a mechanical
the surface immediately;
lock, it is usually suitable for subsea rams. The reliability of •• A “hard shut in” means the valves are closed while
locks must be very high, since a ram-lock failure subsea on drilling and during the initial shut in of the BOP stack
a wellhead constitutes a major problem. on a suspected kick. The valves are later opened to
determine annular pressure at the BOP stack.
Operating pressure can be an issue for shear rams, with the
standard pressure being 1,500 psi above ambient pressure.
However, most subsea control systems are programmed to

Today, probably the most standard subsea BOP stack ar-

rangement is the five-ram, two-annular setup.
When arranging a BOP stack, one consideration for an ul-

tra-deepwater stack is trip time, with test tools to test the
BOP stack. Generally BOP stacks are tested every two
weeks, unless a casing point is being reached and/or anoth-
er operation indicates a test in the near future. Some users
want a “test ram” on the bottom with no outlets below it, al-
lowing for the stack to be tested from above and thus reduc-
ing the number of trips with test tools. Trip time in 5,000-
10,000-ft water depths can add significant time and cost.
However, the test ram uses a ram cavity not for well control,
but solely for BOP stack testing. As a result, some users are
Figure FD-21: The bottom of a hydraulic wellhead reluctant to accept this arrangement.
connector. Courtesy GE Oil & Gas.
Most BOP stacks consist of two double ram cavities and, for
a 5-ram BOP stack, a single. It is not common to see triple
Arrangement of a subsea BOP stack 18 ¾-in., 15,000-psi WP rams in one body because they are
Modern BOP stacks usually will feature at least two annu-
too heavy to handle in most situations and the distance be-
lars and from 4-7 ram cavities, in addition to a number of kill
tween cavities does not provide for tool joint length; i.e., if
and choke runs. Today all modern BOP stacks have flanged
the tool joint is set down on a ram, the ram above it will not
connections, rather than clamps, because flange connec-
be able to close because of the tool joint.
tions are more reliable and durable. Flanges also have higher
bending-moment capacity than clamps. This is important Most BOP stacks only have two choke and two kill outlets,
should the MODU move off location with the LMRP con- with one outlet below the “working ram” that will be closed
nected because high bending moments could be placed on with the tool joint set down upon it following closure of the
the entire BOP stack and lower portion of the marine riser. upper annular. The next choke outlet is usually below the
Clamp connections are reliable, but must be constantly next ram that will be shut. The kill outlets are arranged so
checked for proper fit and pressure-sealing ability via rou- that the well can be pumped into with the rams closed. Thus,
tine pressure tests. a kill outlet is usually below the two choke outlets and the
bottom ram.
The number and arrangement of rams and kill/choke out-
lets is almost infinite. The pros and cons can be debated
Hydraulic wellbore connectors
endlessly. One is constant is the annulars with the lower
All subsea BOP stacks have at least two full-bore hydraulic
pressure rating, are atop the rams. Since the top annular is
connectors (Figure FD-21), one on the bottom to latch onto
also the “working” BOP their elements also wear out more
the subsea wellhead and one between the Lower BOP stack
quickly and as stated have a shorter life than ram packers.
and LMRP. Almost all BOP stacks are standardized for the
Therefore, LMRP exist such to be able to pull the annulars,
same model connector and pressure rating at both locations.
including the more maintenance-prone control pods, to the
At one time, LMRP connectors were designed to release at
surface for repair and maintenance.
higher lift-off angles than wellhead connectors. However,
Until recently most subsea BOP stacks had four rams, with this feature was eliminated, following requirements for ad-
one a shear seal ram in the top cavity, while the other three ditional hydraulic and electrical connections between the
being VBR. The bottom ram would sometimes be a pipe ram lower BOP stack frame and LMRP frame that prohibited high
of the most common size OD run through the BOP stack, angle releases. All wellbore connectors operate identically:
thus leaving two VBRs above it. More recently, a fifth ram a set of vertical pistons drive a wedge ring up and down to
was added with casing shear blocks right below the shear drive individual wedges into a profile on the wellhead or ris-
seal ram. Due to shear and seal concerns, some operators er mandrel atop the lower BOP stack. All connectors have
wanted two shear seal rams on top, with the casing shear a primary and a secondary set of pistons. Should a leak
below the latter two shear seal rams. Some operators then occur or a control line to the primary circuit be broken, the
became concerned that there were too few VBR and/or pipe secondary system should be able to release the connector.
rams and move to a two shear seal rams, casing shear, three Often the primary and secondary are programmed to open
VBR and one pipe ram on bottom ending in 7 ram cavities. simultaneously to add additional release capabilities to the
wellhead connector.

Figure FD-22: Flex joint installed on an upper

annular BOP. Courtesy GE Oil & Gas.
All items on the BOP stack are connected and seal via met-
al-to-metal seal rings. API designates most as “BX” rings for
subsea use, despite the existence of other ring designs. BX
rings are static seals; however, wellbore connectors must
also be able to have a remote seal between the connector
and wellhead and the riser mandrel. These are designated
“AX” or “VX”, depending on design, and are metal-to-metal Figure FD-23: All-hydraulic BOP control
pod. Courtesy Mark Childers.
seals. Both are now standard API seal rings. Resilient seal
rings are used if a seal area is damaged. However, these are
often considered only temporary and used only to finish should be less than ¾° from vertical. The key to prevention
drilling the well. Multiple designs exist for resilient AX and of excessive wear is to keep the flex-joint angle as near verti-
VX seals, but usually each includes a packer arrangement on cal (zero differential angle) as possible. Most flex joints now
the seal ring. Wellhead connectors all operate at 1,500 psi have wear sleeves that can be replaced in the field in the
above ambient pressure. event of severe wear. Flex joints must have tensile strengths
and bore pressure ratings appropriate for anticipated loads.
Flex joint They must withstand the weight of the BOP stack when
A pivot point is required just above the LMRP to reduce being run and pulled by the marine riser tensioner system.
bending loads imposed by the riser on the BOP stack. Orig- Their design must allow for the differential pressure be-
inally, the industry used “ball joints” for this purpose. Seals tween mud weight inside the riser and seawater outside.
were built into the ball joints, and would pivot under correct This represents millions of pounds of force applied to the
operating pressure conditions. These types of pivot joints flex joint. This demands very robust designs with corre-
are still used as part of the diverter-to-slip joint connection spondingly high costs, especially for ultra-deepwater units.
to provide flexibility between the substructure of the rig and
slip joint. For the “lower ball joint” just above the LMRP, a BOP control pods
“flex joint” was developed by industry in the 1970s as an The two control pods mounted on the LMRP are major com-
outgrowth of the space program. Figure FD-22 is a cutaway ponents of the BOP stack. These two pods are often referred
drawing of a modern flex joint. Laminate layers of material to as the “yellow” and “blue” pods. Today, there are two
interwoven with steel fingers allows the design to flex up to types of control pods, “all hydraulic” and “multiplex”, which
10°. The laminated layers provide resistance to bending mois a combination of coded electronic signals controlling hy-
ments that must be accounted for included in marine riser draulic solenoid pilot valves. Figure FD-23 shows the all-hy-
analysis. draulic control pod and Figure FD-24 the multiplex (MUX)
pod.
If the flex-joint angle between the marine riser and the
BOP stack is too large, it can cause drill string wear and key Both pod types operate in the same manner. Hydraulic fluid
seating. As a general guideline, the angle at the BOP stack is pumped down umbilical lines attached to the marine ris-

er and through accumulators on the BOP stack. Pilot signals

are transmitted via small pilot hoses (3/16-in. OD) for the
all-hydraulic system. For the multiplex system, coded elec-
tronic signals are sent via a shielded cable from the surface
to small control valves in the pods that then direct a hydrau-
lic signal to a large pilot valve. The large pilot valve directs
the power fluid to the designated function on the BOP stack.
Pods have a receiver plate on the lower BOP stack and an-
other receiver plate on the LMRP that allows hydraulic fluid
to pass from the pod to the desired function.
All-hydraulic pods (5,000-10,000 lb) are considerably

smaller and lighter than the 40,000-lb-plus multiplex pods.
For maintenance and repair, hydraulic pods are generally
retrievable by guidelines and/or ROV, but multiplex pods
are routinely not retrievable. However, in dire emergencies
MUXs have been retrieved and re-run. Receiver plates are Figure FD-24: Multiplex or MUX control
required for the pods to be detached from the LMRP. More pod. Courtesy GE Oil & Gas.
discussion will be given in the BOP control section.
against seawater. Pulling a BOP stack for a failed hose could
BOP stack frame cost millions of dollars, so using high-end and specifically
The BOP stack frame, which binds all subsea BOP compo- designed subsea BOP hose is wise, despite the expense.
nents together, at first glance appears to be a mundane steel
frame. However, it is in fact a very complex structural frame Auxiliary and miscellaneous items
with significant strength, flexibility and durability. The BOP Numerous auxiliary and additional items are attached to
stack frames of 40-50 years ago were used solely to run the subsea BOP stacks. For example, the BOP stack will include
assembly down guidelines. However, over time the number, several accumulators facilitating faster closing times and
size, weight and pressure ratings of BOP rams, annulars and operating emergency disconnect and closure functions.
components increased. Similarly, other equipment was add- These large and heavy accumulators are placed on the low-
ed, such as ROVs, EDS and numerous deepwater hydraulic er BOP stack and LMRP. Also, they must have the proper
accumulators. Further complicating the design at the stack nitrogen pre-charge to account for water depth.
frame, the increased size of the BOP stack made it neces-
sary to ship the entire assembly on its side. Rigs further ROV control manifolds on the lower BOP stack and LMRP
must have the capability to fish the assembly off the bottom are also common on modern BOP stacks. The number of
of the ocean, if dropped. All these factors resulted in the functions varies, but the ROV manifolds are primarily for
massive and complex frames of today. emergency operation in case of a well control situation or
to release the BOP stack and/or LMRP, if the primary and
When applying 15,000-psi pressure to the rams, kill and secondary control system fails. Most ROV system enable a
choke lines and the wellhead connectors, the entire BOP hose from the surface to be used to pump into the selected
assembly flexes, putting significant strain on connections function once the ROV plugs the hose into that function. At
in the frame and BOP components. This is especially true a minimum, most modern BOP stacks haul ROV interfaces
between the lower BOP stack and LMRP. It is imperative for the wellhead and LMRP connectors, shear seal ram and
that hydraulic stingers between components align and seal at least one pipe ram.
properly. Consequently, another critical function of the
stack frame is to ensure this alignment. If an accident should Equipment to monitor and log all BOP-stack functions have
knock the frame out of alignment, it will render the entire also become common on the stack. More than 100 items
BOP stack inoperable, or at least impair function. It is also can be monitored, including closing times, ram position,
important, as with all subsea components, to ensure that volumes of fluid used for an operation, pressures and tem-
the frame is properly coated to avoid damage from trips into peratures in the BOP stack wellbore, operating pressures of
and out of the very corrosive seawater environment. the control system, accumulator pre-charge, etc. This data
can also be used to help determine when maintenance is re-
Specially designed high-pressure hoses are used to plumb quired by tracking the number of openings and closures
between the functions and the pods. Standard wire-braid
hose will not survive the corrosive environment or the abuse
put on subsea BOP stacks. These hoses must be protected

All hydraulic BOP control system
Figure FD-25: Schematic of an all-hydraulic BOP control system.
Subsea BOP control system mented from the surface to the subsea pods. All the other
The basic operating system for a subsea BOP control system system components function essentially the same.
might look very complicated, but it is actually very straight-
Besides controlling the subsea BOP stack, the control sys-
forward. Figure FD-25 shows an all-hydraulic BOP control
tem also controls the diverter system. The BOP stack and di-
system and similarly Figure FD-26 shows a MUX control
verter system share a common hydraulic supply system, but
system. The only difference in the methodology between
are isolated to avoid power fluid from each other. The con-
Fig 2.2-1
the two is how the control signal is sent, verified and imple-
trol panels, etc., are typically located together on a common

Basic multiplex BOP control system
Figure FD-26: Schematic of a multiplex (MUX) BOP control system.
or adjacent skids. BOP control systems are designed, regu- Surface control equipment
lated and built to API Spec 16D and in accordance with API The standard major components on the surface control sys-
Standard 53. Operators often refer to the latter documents tem for a subsea BOP are:
in their drilling contracts with drilling contractors; therefore, •• Pump-accumulator-mixing (PAM) unit usually located
they are the governing documents in how these systems are in the hull or deck house area;
designed and built.
Fig 2.2-2 •• Hydraulic manifold or multiplex electronics cabinet(s)
similarly located;
•• Driller’s control panel on the drill floor;

•• Remote control panel, usually located in the OIM’s usually entailing pressure up one side of the pilot valve and
office or bridge; bleeding off the other side. The bleed off can take longer
•• Two hose/cable reels located in the cellar deck or than the pressure up, depending on what pressure the pilot
moonpool area, and all interconnecting electrical, valve will shift in the pod. If glycol is added to the fluid for
electronics and hydraulic hoses. cold weather, it may slow reaction time down at least 30%,
depending on glycol concentration. It is important to use a
There are also support items, such as motor control centers
BOP control fluid with high lubricity, fungicidal and anti-bac-
(MCC), data recording systems, and UPS units, along with
terial content. Without the proper fluid additives, significant
store houses for the spare parts and a large workshop.
problems can occur with growth of microbes, corrosion and
The PAM unit is usually one skid, although the accumula- significant wear of parts. Unlike the MUX reel, usually only
tors are located in separate banks to allow internal compo- limited functions can be controlled with an all-hydraulic sys-
nents — floats, bladders and valves — to be changed out tem while running the BOP stack, because a limited number
and maintained. The PAM also features multiple pumps with of hydraulic functions are available through the axle. Once
diverse power supplies. There are usually two or more elec- the reel is finished rotating, a junction plate is connected to
tric triplex pumps powered from main and/or emergency control the rest of the BOP functions.
electrical supplies, as well as air-drive pumps powered from
rig air and/or a dedicated nitrogen back up. The PAM also Subsea control pods
incorporates a mixing system to combine water (base fluid), Every subsea BOP stack has two control pods, usually des-
a concentrated lubricant agent and glycol (when required for ignated “yellow” and “blue” mounted on the LMRP as previ-
freeze protection) at selectable ratios. ously described above. Figure FD-24 shows a MUX control
pod with the covers off. The MUX pod has a number of ports
The hydraulic manifold features rows of selector valves with that go from the pod to a receptacle on the LMRP, and others
electronic or pneumatic actuators that switch the valves that go directly through the LMRP plate receptacle to a sec-
from open to close or vent. Pressure regulators for operating ond receptacle on the lower BOP stack receiver frame. Also
pressure that send signals to subsea regulators are also part some individual stingers may be included for specific func-
of the manifold. tions. Each pod has at least two electronic processors, as
well as numerous hydraulic solenoid valves to shift the pilot
For MUX systems, the items discussed above are software valves, batteries, regulators and test ports. It also includes
driven in an electronic processor that sends coded signals other sensors for riser angle, wellbore pressure, tempera-
down coaxial cables to the pods. The pods’ processor re- ture and sometimes television and other functions. MUX
turns properly coded verification signals of verification. pods can weigh over 40,000 lb and are very difficult to im-
possible to retrieve to the surface independent of the LMRP.
The driller’s control panel is located on the drill floor with a
graphic schematic of the BOP stack. When in active mode, Figure FD-23 is a large deepwater, all-hydraulic pod that is
it is the master control unit. The BOP can also be controlled nonetheless considerably smaller than the MUX pod shown
from the backup panel, usually located in the OIM’s office or in Figure FD-24. This pod cannot conduct electronic mon-
bridge. Some systems may also have additional stations at itoring or data transmission. It consists of small pilot actu-
lifeboat stations or other manned spaces. The control sys- ating valves shifted by pressure signals from the surface
tem can also be operated from the PAM unit. via the pod umbilical hoses that then shift the pilot valves.
When the pilot valves shift, the power fluid in the hydraulic
The hose bundles for all-hydraulic or MUX coax reels are lo-
conduit on the marine riser and accumulators on the BOP
cated in the cellar deck or moon pool area. They can be very
stack actuate the selected function. In water depths of less
large, because for ultra-deepwater units they must hold over
than approximately 4,500 ft and when using guidelines,
10,000 ft of cable approximately 1 ¼ in. in diameter. The reel
these pods can be pulled to the surface, repaired and rerun
has a hydraulic swivel (all hydraulic) or electric slip ring-type
on short notice. If there are no guidelines, ROVs have suc-
arrangement (MUX) in the axle of the reel so that the BOP
cessfully enabled the pods be retrieved and rerun.
stack can be controlled while it is being run or pulled.
On hydraulic systems, a hose bundle called an umbilical is Diverter control system

used. For modern systems the umbilical may have 60-70 The diverter control system is part of the BOP control sys-
or more 3/16-in. diameter, very high-pressure pilot lines. tem. The diverter portion usually depends on the BOP con-
The hydraulic umbilical, lightweight in seawater, is usually trol system for hydraulic supply, but is isolated hydraulically
4 ¼-5 ½ in. OD. However, the umbilical’s air weight can be from the rest of the control system. Neither system is im-
significant, especially if full of fluid. The signal response time paired by the failure of the other, should a leak or excessive
for all-hydraulic systems can be as high as 15 sec or more, drainage of fluid occur. The diverter system controls over-

Vent Vacuum
up derrick breaker
Pressure relief valve

Bursting disk
P1
Rotary Mud
Flow hose
Rated to 60-psi MGS
system
Pressure relief valve working pressure IBOP
Mud pumps
P1
P1 Pressure indicator F1
F1 Flow indicator Cement unit

pump
Diverter
Closed sealing element F1 F1
Port overboard Starboard
Open sealing element Diverter line Flow line overboard
Slip joint
Diverter packer Slip joint packer

rated to 500 psi rated to 100 psi or 500 psi
Figure FD-27: Schematic of a diverter system aboard a modern floating MODU.
Diverter system
board discharge and shale shaker valves, as well as the pack-
er element just below the rotary to safely redirect wellFig
dis- 2.3-1
charges away from the personnel on the drill floor. It might
also control remote valves leading to the mud gas separator
(MSG) or poor-boy degasser and derrick vent lines.
Auxiliary and miscellaneous Items

A number of auxiliary and miscellaneous items are associ-
ated with the BOP control system. These include ROV in-
tervention panels for BOP and LMRP functions, hydrate pre-
vention injection lines, TV monitoring for MUX systems, and
auto-shear and deadman circuits to close in the well in the
event of loss of BOP control. The acoustic backup system
might also be associated with the BOP control system.
Figure FD-28: Annular-type diverter. IADC drawing.
Diverter systems
The diverter system, especially on a floating MODU in deep-
closed may hinder diversion initially. If wind direction is an
water and ultra-deepwater, is one of the rig’s most essential
issue, the upwind valve can be closed. These valves can be
and critical well control systems. When drilling ahead, gas-
gate or ball valves and are controlled by hydraulic opera-
eous mud and/or a gas bubble might be circulated past the
tors. During this process, the subsea BOP has been shut in
subsea BOP stack. Due to decreasing hydrostatic pressure,
and the concern is now the gas in the marine riser. The flow
the gas at some point after passing the BOP stack will flash
overboard can be extremely noisy and forceful. Therefore,
from liquid phase into gaseous phase, resulting in rapid ex-
all piping and equipment must be designed to withstand ex-
pansion and potential evacuation of the low-pressure ma-
treme forces. In the case of a complete diversion, all gas, oil,
rine riser. To prevent significant damage to equipment and
mud, formation, sand, etc., are blown overboard. Pollution
harm to the crews, a device is necessary to divert the gas
can be of concern if oil is present. Further, if the mud is min-
and fluids away from equipment and personnel.
eral based, its loss will be expensive.
Figure FD-27 is a schematic of a modern floating MODU
Conversely, if it has been verified that gas breakout in the
diverter system. It is set up to divert primarily “unplanned”
marine riser is minimal or nominal and controllable, the flow
and secondly “planned” diversion. When a kick or mud
can be directed through the mud gas separator (MGS) and
starts to have excessive flow out the bell nipple, the diverter
the mud can be separated from the gas and saved. (The
packer is the first item closed in a well control plan. Over-
MGS is sometimes referred to as the “poor-boy degasser”.)
board valves, usually 12-14 in. OD, are opened, if not already
In addition, if crude is present, it will not be discharged over-
in the open position, so that flow can be directed overboard.
board. After going through the MGS, the gas will be vented
It is suggested the valves should be left open, since being

Drill floor
Diverter
Upper FJ
Tensioner rig
Outer barrel
Intermediate FJ
Termination joint and pup joints
Buoyant joints
Figure FD-29: Drawing of an “insert packer” type diverter

without the insert shown. Courtesy GE Oil & Gas.
15 slick joints
up the derrick vent pipe (usually 8- 10 in. OD). Since the MGS
and associated piping is an extremely low-pressure and very
small volume system, this approach can only be used in very Lower FJ
well-planned operation with extremely low volumes. LMRP
BOP
Wellhead
The diverter packing assembly is right below the rotary and Seabed
firmly attached to the substructure, because significant up-
ward forces will occur when making a right angle diversion.
Figure FD-28 is a drawing of an “annular” type diverter as- Figure FD-30: Generic drilling riser
sembly. This type diverter is very similar to a typical annular stack up. Courtesy 2H Offshore.
on the BOP stack, but usually features a much larger ID and
only 500 psi WP. Marine risers FD-Riser1
A riser is a long tubular structure typically made of steel that

The other type, which is much more common on older connects a subsea well to an offshore vessel or platform.
MODUs, is the “insert packer” type shown in Figure FD- For MODU drilling operations, a marine drilling riser is used.
29. This system requires the crew to install a donut insert The marine drilling riser provides a conduit through which
into the assembly. The outer seal assembly via operating drilling operations are performed. The drilling riser provides
pressure behind it squeezes the donut around the tubular the following functions:
across from it. Donut packers come in all sizes of ID and •• Allows fluid transfer between the vessel and well;
even blanks or CSO type inserts. Donut inserts must be in- •• Guides and protects the drill bit, logging tools and
stalled and taken out on every trip. The CSO insert can be other equipment as they pass through the water
installed while the drill string is out of the wellbore. One of column;
the problems with diverter systems is that they occupy a •• Supports external lines such as choke, kill and auxiliary
lot of vertical height beneath the drill floor, thus requiring lines used to control subsea equipment;
an elevated drill floor. This then requires a larger MODU for •• Lands and retrieves the BOP stack.
greater stability.
A generic drilling riser stack-up is shown in Figure FD-30.
Activation for diverter systems should be under 15 sec, in- From bottom to top a generic drilling riser stack up is as fol-
cluding the packer, overboard valves and any other device lows:
that must function. •• Outer conductor and inner casings (in the seabed):
This is part of the well itself. However, the size and
material of the conductor and casings, along with their
interaction with the soil, play an important role in the
response of the drilling riser;
•• Wellhead: This is part of the well itself however the
size and material of the wellhead play an important
role in the response of the drilling riser;
•• Blowout preventer (BOP): The subsea equipment used

to prevent loss of well fluids to the environment in case Table FD-4: Typical marine drilling riser dimensions
of well control emergencies. The BOP is discussed in
further detail in its own section; Outer Diameter (in.) 21
•• Lower marine riser package (LMRP): The LMRP Wall Thickness (in.) 1-2
contains all subsea equipment connecting the riser
Joint Length (ft) 75
system with subsea BOP. The LMRP connects all
systems and external components to the subsea Pup Joint Length (ft) 5 - 40
equipment and provides control of the subsea Joint Weight (lb) 40,000
equipment through these systems. Further, the LMRP
might contain its own annular BOPs. It also has the
capacity to disconnect subsea equipment in the case •• Upper flex joint: The upper flex joint provides a flexible
of an emergency; connection between the diverter and the telescoping
•• Lower flex joint: Located atop the LMRP is the lower joint inner barrel. The upper flex joint allows the
flex joint. The flex joint allows relative angular rotation telescopic joint to accommodate riser deflection by
of connected components. By allowing an angle way of an angular rotation. This angular rotation
between the riser and the LMRP, the flex joint decreases the forces concentrated at riser’s
decreases the forces at the connection, decreasing connection to the vessel;
size and strength requirements for riser components. •• Diverter: The diverter is located atop the riser and is
Flex joints typically have an associated rotational connected to the vessel drill floor. The diverter is used
stiffness between 10,000 and 30,000 ft-lb per degree. to divert fluids away from the drill floor when a well
•• Riser joints: The steel pipe that spans the majority of control event occurs and the well cannot be shut in.
the distance between the sea floor and the vessel. The diverter is discussed later in this chapter;
Joints can be either: •• External lines: Along its length, the riser is supported
ww Slick joints: Bare pipe without buoyancy; external lines such as choke, kill and auxiliary lines
ww Buoyant joints: Pipe encased in buoyant (hydraulics and boost mud). The BOP pod hoses (or
material. Buoyant joints are used to decrease MUX cables) used to control subsea equipment are
the payload of the riser on the vessel. More attached to the outside of the riser.
information on buoyancy is provided in
the buoyancy module section below. Typical marine drilling riser joint dimensions can be found
ww Pup joint/termination joint: Shorter in Table FD-4:
riser joints used to match the length
of the riser to the water depth; Physical operating principles
•• Intermediate flex joint (optional): Located below the Risers are complex structures due to their immense length
telescoping joint, an intermediate flex joint allows compared to their relatively small diameter. Because they
angular rotation of the riser before its initial are so slender, risers are not capable of supporting their own
connection to the vessel. This angular rotation
weight. They therefore must be kept in tension at all times.
decreases the bending loads that must be carried by
Should a riser go into compression due to excessive vessel
the riser pipe and correspondingly decreases the size
and strength requirements of the riser joints; heave, tensioner failure or any other event, the riser pipe is
•• Telescoping joint (slip joint) outer barrel: The larger likely to buckle and is considered to have failed.
barrel of the telescopic joint that connects to the
tension ring. The function of the telescoping joint is for In addition to constantly maintaining tension, the riser sys-
the inner barrel to stroke in and out of the outer barrel tem must resist environmental loads. As current and waves
as the vessel heaves up and down. This decouples the move past the riser, they push on the pipe and can cause
riser from vertical vessel motions; large forces over the length of the riser. Since risers are only
•• Tension ring: The tension ring connects the tension supported at the two ends (the wellhead and the vessel)
system to the riser; these environmental loadings are concentrated at those
•• Tensioners: The tensioner system provides vertical locations. During riser design, finite element analysis is re-
support to the riser. It is connected to the riser through quired to assess the stress response of the riser exposed to
the tension ring at its base and to the vessel at the top. known operating conditions (combinations of wave, current
The tensioner system provides upward force to hold
and vessel motion). The analysis must confirm that factors
the riser while stroking in and out to accommodate
of safety are within acceptable ranges before the riser de-
vessel motions. Further detail on the tensioner system
can be found in the tensioner section; sign can be employed.
•• Telescoping joint (slip joint) inner barrel: The
telescopic joint inner barrel moves with the vessel and Buoyancy modules
strokes in and out of the telescoping joint outer barrel Buoyancy modules are installed on riser joints in order to
(Figure FD-33). Telescoping joints are discussed reduce the weight of the riser and tension needed for stabili-
further later in this chapter; zation. These modules can eliminate up to 90% of the risers

dry weight when submerged in water. This limits the stress basket, rated for 250-kg SWL, is designed to accommodate
on the riser tensioner system greatly. The modules are made two people. The basket movement is remotely controlled by
of a thermoset resin with microspheres of air. Buoyancy wireless radio.
module density and size vary by the water depth at which
they are to be deployed to accommodate increasing water Alternatively, riser joints can be stored in individual bays
pressures. Buoyancy modules may or may not also encase with a structural framework at both ends that captures the
the choke, kill and auxiliary lines. flanges and restricts both longitudinal and transverse move-
ment. Inspection walkways at the pin and box joint levels are
built into this framework with ladders to each level.
Marine riser handling
The marine riser is an essential part of drilling a well from Buoyancy material development permits riser joints to be
semisubmersibles and drillships and constitutes the link stacked nine high on the racks. The introduction of two flat
between the seabed and the drill floor. Riser joints vary in surfaces on the buoyancy modules, 180° apart, stabilizes
length, from as short as 50 ft to as long as 90 ft, though the the riser joints when stored cordwood fashion. Bare riser
latter are rare. The most common riser joints are 75 ft long. joints can be fitted with dummy buoyancy modules to per-
Water depth and design pressure will primarily dictate the mit storage in the same riser racks used for risers with buoy-
wall thickness of the riser joints. Attached to the riser are ancy modules.
choke and kill (C&K) lines, booster line and hydraulic line(s),
which contribute to the overall weight. To decrease the load The riser gantry crane can be either electric or electro-
on the tensioners from long strings of riser joints in deeper hydraulic powered. In the case of hydraulic, power is sup-
waters, buoyancy modules are attached to the outside of the plied by either the rig’s central hydraulic power unit (HPU)
riser. Combined, all of the items listed above can give a ma- or the riser gantry crane’s onboard HPU. The gantry is pro-
rine riser joint a dry weight of over 60,000 lb. vided with safety features such as fail safe brakes, slew stop,
emergency stop, etc. In addition to the main hoists, auxiliary
Mechanized handling devices must be used to safely and hoists are provided to permit maintenance work on the riser
efficiently move a marine riser joint from the riser storage joints without the need for the main cranes.
area to the well center. The most common device is a gantry
crane mounted on rails near the riser rack(s). The riser joint A parking or locking system is provided to prevent uncon-
handling crane is operated from a dedicated operator’s cab trolled crane movement during transit or when it is not in
located on the gantry crane A-frame. operation.
Marine riser joints can be stored either horizontally or ver- For hydraulically powered gantries, power tracks are used to
tically in dedicated storage area(s), depending on rig design contain and protect hoses and/or cable reels for electrical
or drilling contractor’s preference. Each storage position has power, lighting and control cables.
its own handling and delivery requirements.
The riser gantry crane is equipped with four floodlights and
Horizontal storage on the main deck is the most common. two pan/tilt cameras, one at each end, so that the operator
Some drillships have stored their marine riser joints in a hold enjoys a clear view of the hook engagement.
below the main deck.
Control of the riser gantry is from a steel cabin located on
Horizontally stored riser joints can be laid on timber-faced one of the A-frames. The control cabin is generally equipped
racks, cordwood style, between timber-faced fixed buttress- with the following:
es spaced. This permits risers with different water depth rat- ••Seat;
ings to be stored in dedicated bays, or with timber fences at •• Control panels;
both ends of the racks to restrict forward and aft movement •• Cab lighting;
during transit conditions. •• Independent climate control/air conditioning and
heating system;
The above-deck riser handling gantry crane runs on rails ••Horn;
mounted either on the drill floor or the support structure of •• Audible alarm;
•• Flashing beacon;
the riser storage area and/or on a rail(s) on the main deck.
•• Emergency stop button;
The crane generally moves port/starboard, allowing the de-
•• Fire extinguisher;
livery of riser joints to the catwalk machine, which in turn •• Fire detector to be integrated to the central fire and
delivers the riser joint to the drill floor. gas (F&G) system;
•• Power supply and rig phone;
Pin and box joints are inspected either by portable platforms •• Power supply and area radio;
or an inspection basket handled by the gantry crane. The •• Closed circuit TV monitors.

General riser gantry crane technical requirements are:

•• Certification: ABS or DNV;
•• Area classification: Safe area;
•• Hoist capacity: 2 x 25 metric ton;
•• Hoist speed: 0-15 m/min unloaded and 0-8 m/min
loaded;
•• Long travel speed: 0-15 m/min unloaded and 0-8 m/
min loaded;
•• Trolleys capacity: 50 metric ton;
•• Auxiliary hoists speed : 0-15 m/min;
•• Trolley speed: 0-12 m/min.
Horizontal riser handling

The riser gantry will handle horizontal riser joints by means
of fail-safe, hydraulically operated hooks, yoke, and stabi-
lizers (Figure FD-31a). A riser yoke is fitted with guides to
stabilize riser joints during handling. The operator will se-
lect a riser joint, lower the yoke until it rests on the buoy-
ancy jacket and activate the hooks to enter the annulus of
the joint. After a signal is received in the control cabin that
hooks are engaged, the operator raises the joint and moves
the gantry over the catwalk machine. The joint is then low-
ered, and, once resting on the catwalk machine, the hooks
are retracted and the yoke raised clear. The gantry moves
away from the catwalk machine to retrieve another joint and
the catwalk machine moves toward the well center.
When the slip joint is stored adjacent to the riser racks, a

slip-joint spreader bar can be attached to the riser gantry
hooks to move the slip joint to the riser catwalk machine.
When the risers are stored in individual bays, the riser

crane can be automated to move and stop at each riser bay
position using automatic riser bay indexing. The crane is Figure FD-31: Figure FD-31a (top) shows a horizontal
equipped with encoders and necessary instrumentation for riser-storage system, while Figure FD-31b depicts
fully automatic operation. The control cabin contains a key vertical storage. Courtesy Friede & Goldman.
switch that is used to override the automated function to al-
The riser catwalk extends, as a minimum, the full length of
low single function operation of the crane at limited speed in
the riser rack.
the event of a load cell or encoder failure.
The riser catwalk machine is designed to meet ABS or DNV
The riser gantry delivers a riser joint to the riser catwalk ma-
requirements and is certified for operation in hazardous
chine for transporting to the well center for running. The cat-
Zone 1 areas.
walk machine is generally designed to handle the following
equipment typically found on current-generation semisub- The riser catwalk machine consists of a structural frame
mersibles and drillships: with steel bed for tubular transfer, a lift ramp mounted on
•• 75-ft riser joint (slick); estimated weight 45,000 lb; the well end, carrier in the back, stainless steel drag chain,
•• 75-ft riser joint (buoyant); estimated weight 62,000
hydraulic drive motor and gear assembly. A riser articulat-
lb;
ing arm is installed for tail-in and tail-out functions, with a
•• 75-ft slip joint with 60-ft stroke; estimated weight
80,000 lbs; maximum buoyancy module diameter of 58 in. The catwalk
•• Conductor casing of 30 in. and 36 in., with estimated machine runs on flush-mounted rails extending from the ris-
weight of 19,000 lb; er rack to the well center.
•• Push/drive transporter cart with diverter assembly,
spider/gimble, etc. The riser catwalk machine is controlled from the driller’s
control cabin and/or from a radio remote operator panel.
The control system includes an anti-collision system.

the fingers for delivering the riser joints to the riser elevator
located at the edge of the drill floor.
All riser joints are restrained by a pair of hydraulically oper-

ated latches attached to the top of the fingerboard. These
latches hinge vertically to release the riser for transport to
the drill floor. The latches are fail-safe closed to ensure they
remain closed in case of a power failure.
All latches are fitted with contoured polyurethane ends to

suit the buoyancy diameter and prevent damage to the mod-
ule skin. Latch assemblies consist of a support bracket, latch
and hydraulic cylinder and are unitized to facilitate replace-
ment and maintenance. The latch mechanism is sufficiently
sensitive to rotate with the vertical movement of the riser
during removal and storing operations.
The fingerboards have a polyurethane strip on their vertical

webs to prevent damage to the buoyancy modules during
riser movements.
Stainless-steel all-hydraulic lines to the latch cylinders top

the fingerboards for easier inspection and maintenance. All
connections from the fingerboard piping to the latch cylin-
ders are flexible. A grating walkway is attached to the top of
Figure FD-32: Moving marine riser pipe onto the rig floor. the fingerboards, above the hydraulic lines, with removable
sections adjacent to each latch unit.
A transport cart installed on the riser catwalk machine is
utilized to transport diverter, top drive assemblies, spider/ The riser fingers are locked together to offer improved struc-
gimble, tools, etc., to the well center. The transport cart is tural integrity and reduce the loading forces on the fingers
provided with rollers and is affixed to the forward end of the during rig movement when the fingers are full. This locking
riser catwalk machine. The transport frame is rated for 75 mechanism is automated to eliminate the need for person-
metric ton. It is fitted with parking bolts. nel working at height to secure the riser-support fingers.
A protective “donut” or hat with a flange is provided under

Vertical riser handling the storage position of each joint of riser to protect the riser
The riser gantry crane, similar to the gantry used to handle box and flange.
horizontal riser, will handle riser joints by lifting them verti-
cally. The crane uses a fail-safe, hydraulically operated han- A guide system contains the bottom flange of the riser while
dling tool that stabs into the pin end of the joint and expands it is being moved around the storage area. The system con-
to engage a recess machined into the pin. Hydraulic stabiliz- sists of fabricated steel plates and brackets welded to the
ers will restrict swinging of the riser during transport to the bottom of the riser bucket. It restrains the riser during trans-
drill floor elevator. (See Figure FD-31b.) portation to and from the riser elevator. The guides have
sloping tops to ensure that the riser flange cannot become
The riser storage area or bucket is located adjacent to the lodged on top of the guide.
drill floor. Recessed into the upper hull between the longitu-
dinal and transverse bulkheads, the bucket provides storage Design of the vertical riser-handling gantry crane is similar
for 75-ft marine riser joints, complete with C&K, hydraulic to that of the horizontal riser-handling crane. Operation can
and booster lines and buoyancy modules, and the slip joint. be either manual or programed to move the gantry crane
to every riser location. Under normal operation, control of
Risers are stored in fingerboards similar to those in the der- the riser flaps is performed from the control cabin. A touch-
rick. These fingerboards restrain the vertically stored risers screen interface unit allows the operator to select the riser
above their center of gravity. They can be orientated longitu- flap to disengage and make the riser available for removal
dinally or transversely, as determined by the geometry of the or replacement. A secondary or back-up control point on a
bucket, either at the forward and aft ends or port and star- platform located at fingerboard level at the edge of the riser
board sides of the bucket. There is a center aisle between bucket has a touch-screen interface with an additional joy-

riser elevator is to facilitate handling the riser from the riser

bucket storage level to the drill floor level and rotate the ris-
Inner barrel er from vertical to inclined positions. Riser joints placed in
Dual packer
the riser elevator by the riser crane are inclined (up to 30°)
towards the well for attachment of the lifting equipment.
When the elevator reaches the appropriate inclination, the
Tensioner ring
elevator lifts the riser upwards to meet the running tool. Af-
ter the running tool is engaged and the two securing arms
are released, the riser is picked up with the traveling equip-
ment and the lower end of the riser is guided by the guide
Swivel trolley on the elevator assembly and/or floorhand.
Kill and
choke
connections Telescopic joints in marine riser systems
The telescopic joint (Figure FD-33), also referred to as the
slip joint, is a unique piece of the overall of marine riser sys-
tem. It serves many purposes, including:
•• Acts as an adapter between the marine riser system
and the rig substructure;
•• Compensates for the motion (vertical and horizontal)
Outer barrel that occurs between the sea floor and the surface of
the ocean on floating MODUs. Dynamic seal
assemblies are used to prevent discharge of drilling
fluids to the sea;
•• Acts as an interface point between the marine riser
tensioning system and the marine riser system;
•• Provides fluid connection point between the rig drilling
Figure FD-33: Telescopic riser joint. The outer barrel fluid systems, services and the marine riser, such as
supports the entire riser string through the tension the kill and choke lines, mud-circulating line and BOP
ring and riser tension. The inner barrel is connected to control hydraulic power line. BOP control umbilicals
and moves with the vessel. Courtesy GE Oil & Gas. may also attach to the telescopic joint.
stick. Either the touch screen or the joystick can be used for Telescopic joints are specially designed and built to accom-
control. The joystick gives the operator an option for control, plish the tasks above. The telescopic joint is a double pipe
should the operator be wearing gloves. wall construction, with an inner pipe (“inner barrel”) able to
telescopically move within the outer pipe (“outer barrel”),
Riser inspection positions are located in the corners of the with a sealing element between them. The inner barrel is
riser bucket, out of riser movement paths. These dedicated connected to the diverter system, which in turn is connect-
positions provide rigid support of the riser during inspection ed to the substructure. The outer barrel is connected via the
and maintenance operations. The inspection positions are tension ring to the marine riser joints running down to the
not intended for riser stowage. A fixed shelf, located approx- BOP stack. The tension ring is the interface point onto which
imately 1.5 m above the bottom of the riser bucket, supports the marine riser tensioners place their combined loading
the riser. A large inspection hole in the shelf allows person- force.
nel to inspect the seal area, flange and service lines. Near
fingerboard elevation is a hydraulically actuated securing The standard telescopic joint has a stroke distance of 50
system that closes around the buoyancy module and pre- ft; however, for deepwater and ultra-deepwater, the stroke
vents riser movement during inspection. The securing sys- distance can be as long as 65-75 ft. This is necessary, be-
tem is operated from the control cabin of the handling crane. cause in deepwater and ultra-deepwater the “watch” circle
Ladders and an inspection platform are installed around the for vessel position can become very large. (The watch circle
top of the riser to provide for inspection of the pin end of the is the rig offset perimeter around the well location for which
riser. These also provide access to various service lines and special procedures are to be initiated to prepare to discon-
components requiring inspection and maintenance. nect the drilling riser or actually implement the disconnect
to prevent damage due to excessive offset.1)
The riser-handling gantry delivers a riser joint to the riser
elevator, located at the edge of the drill floor, and places it in 1. IADCLexicon.org and API Spec 16D, Specification for Con-
the elevator and is captured by two hydraulic arms. At this trol Systems for Drilling Well Control Equipment and Con-
time the riser is in a vertical position. The purpose of the trol Systems for Diverter Equipment, 2nd Edition, July 2004.

Next Page
It therefore requires more stroke of the telescopic joint. The basic emergency disconnect sequence involves:
Telescopic joints are also the heaviest part of the overall •• Closing both the high-pressure blind shear ram and
marine riser systems, weighing up to 95,000 lb. Because of high-pressure casing shear ram;
their length and weight, they require special storage, han- •• Close choke and kill valves;
dling and running procedures. •• Unlatch the LMRP, choke and kill line connectors.
Floating MODUs move dynamically because of sea con- Floating MODUs are also equipped with automatic mode
ditions relative to the sea floor. The inner and outer barrel function (AMF) safety system, also called a “deadman”. The
construction allows the telescopic joint to extend or reduce AMF IS designed to automatically shut in the BOPs in the
its overall length as needed. A dynamic sealing assembly event of a simultaneous absence of hydraulic supply and
serves as the only connection between the inner and outer control system power of both subsea control pods.
barrel to prevent drilling fluid returning to the vessel via the
Once the AMF is armed, programmable logic controllers in
marine riser from exiting the marine riser system. There are
the system will look for the three conditions below:
usually two packers, one primary and one back up, with only •• Loss of electrical power and communication from the
one activated at a time. multiplex umbilical;
•• Loss of communication from the other pod;
Activation is usually accomplished by hydraulic pressure of •• Loss of conduit pressure.
around 10-15 psi on the packer. This allows some mud lubri-
cation between the inner and outer barrel to reduce packer If all three conditions are satisfied, the EDS/AMF sequence
wear. In the event of a wellbore divert situation with fluid will be activated. The sequence of steps are listed below:
flowing up the marine riser and with the closure of the di- •• Energize LMRP stinger, extend;
verter packer, the control system is programmed to increase •• Energize stack stinger, extend;
pressure on the packer up to 500 psi to prevent fluid from •• Energize LMRP stinger seals, energize;
discharging out between the two barrels. A locking system •• Energize stack stinger seals, energize;
is also installed to allow the inner and outer barrel to be •• De-energize (vent) LMRP stinger, extend;
•• De-energize (vent) stack stinger, extend;
collapsed and locked together in its reduced length to fa-
•• Energize LMRP accumulator;
cilitate handling onboard when motion compensation is not
•• Energize high-pressure blind/shear ram close;
required. This is done during running or pulling operations •• De-energize (vent) high-pressure blind/shear ram
when not connected to the sea floor. close.
The outer barrel near the packing housing is where the The time for each step can vary.
marine riser tensioners are connected. Usually 6-12 ten-
sion lines are connected by wire rope or rod tensioner. The
tensioner ring for dynamically positioned MODUs contains
a horizontal rotating bearing allowing the vessel to change
heading without tangling auxiliary lines. Some systems have
part of the tensioner system latched into the diverter hous-
ing with the lines hooked up. In this way, the telescoping
joint, when run through the rotary, simply latches on to the
ring, thus saving considerable time in hook up. For rod ten-
sioners a split ring may be used to latch around the outer
barrel as an installation method. Hooking up the kill, choke,
mud circulating and hydraulic line is also necessary. The two
BOP control system umbilicals (multi-hose bundle or coax
cable) will be hooked onto the outer barrel. If control pods
are retrievable via wireline, then hose wirelines will be in-
volved. Since this equipment is very heavy and awkward, a
suitable handling system is necessary.
Emergency disconnect sequence

An emergency disconnect sequence (EDS) activates during
an uncontrolled drift off of a MODU from location or other
emergency condition. Either the toolpusher or driller can ac-
tivate the EDS from his respective control panel.

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bending moments caused by lateral marine riser

loading, mud mats are sometimes used on soft ocean
floors. These might measure, for example, 15 ft x 15 ft;
•• Seal areas upon which the seal assemblies seal in the
Latch grooves
for subsea
High-pressure wellhead housing must be protected from damage or
wellhead housing scoring. Therefore, bore protectors/wear bushings are
hydraulic connector
used during drilling. The protectors must be pulled
prior to running casing and seal assemblies. More
recent wellhead designs have evolved and do not
Flowby ports
for cementing
Lockdown require pulling the protectors when conducting
ring (typical) periodic BOP stack testing;
operation
(typical) •• Once casing has been run and the hanger landed in the
wellhead housing, the wellbore must be circulated at a
Foundation rate sufficient to clean the wellbore of cuttings with
pipe housing minimal back pressure. Flow-by-ports are designed
Annular into the casing-hanger shoulders to allow this prior to
packer seal Casing hanger
(typical) cementing the casing;
(typical)
•• After cementing is finished, a seal assembly must be
installed in the annulus between the casing hanger and
Load shoulder wellhead housing. However, some designs place the
(typical)
seal areas on the last casing hanger ID. With modern
designs, seal assemblies are run with the casing
hanger and are usually set by placing weight on the
seal assembly via the tubulars above the running tool;
•• The casing hanger can also be locked down to prevent
it from moving upward and out of the casing hanger
seal area. This upward movement might happen on
Figure FD-34: Typical subsea wellhead.
Courtesy FMC International. production casing, when the casing heats up and
expands from hydrocarbon flow. Almost all casing
Fig 6.0 hangers are locked in place to prevent the hangers
Subsea wellheads from rising;
For floating drilling, the wellhead must be located at the •• After setting the casing hanger, cementing the casing
and setting the seal assembly, the assembly is tested,
mud line or bottom of the sea because of weight and the
usually without making a trip with a test tool. If the
possibility the MODU could leave location. As with onshore
seal assembly does not test, they are retrieved and a
wellheads, the primary purpose of a subsea wellhead sys- new assembly run;
tem is to support casing weight and hold wellbore pressure. •• Finally, the casing running tool is pulled out of the hole,
Since the entire installation must be accomplished remotely, a wear bushing run into the wellhead to protect the
blindly and in a very confined space, the design and engi- next casing’s seal area and drilling is commenced.
neering of a subsea wellhead is difficult at best, with some
aspects unique. Figure FD-34 is a graphic of a typical sub- It should be noted that most of the above is accomplished
sea wellhead starting with the casing housing. Some of the with a minimal number of trips in and out of the wellhead.
unique aspects of this equipment are: Original subsea wellhead designs required multiple trips,
•• Most modern subsea wellheads have 18 ¾-in. bores but in deepwater and ultra-deepwater, this cost is signif-
and pressure ratings of 10,000 psi WP or 15,000 psi icant. Wellhead design has evolved to require fewer trips.
WP. There are other sizes and pressure ratings, but Most subsea wellhead designs are also suited for comple-
this is the most common. Wellheads can also be rated tions with production tubing hanger preparations and offer
for H2S service; the ability to put Christmas trees atop them.
•• Casing is landed and sealed in the wellhead housing,
which must be able to support the casing weight and Modern subsea wellhead design is truly a major accomplish-
the pressure placed atop it once the seal assembly has ment of engineering and manufacturing by the offshore in-
been installed. This can result in millions of pounds of dustry.
force that must be supported by small machined
shoulders;
•• Prior to running the wellhead housing that the BOP
stack will latch onto, the foundation pipe must be
installed with the permanent guide base, as seen in
Figure FD-50. Because this assembly must support
weight of casing and the BOP stack, plus possible large

Derrick
of stroke. They also had a locked or non-motion compen-
sation rating of 1 million lb. When properly installed, their
load variation under normal drilling loads was very minimal,
except at very low loads, i.e., less than 20,000-30,000 lb
hookload. For wireline operations, a one-cylinder motion
compensator is usually hung on the traveling hook to com-
pensate for small loads.
The DSC comprises two compression-type air cylinders

pressurized by air-pressure vessels (APV), as shown in
Figure FD-35. The compensating force (pull on the drill
string) is determined by the magnitude of the system’s air
pressure. As the drilling vessel heaves upward from wave
action, the compensator cylinders are compressed and the
hook moves downward. This downward hook motion is rel-
ative to the drilling vessel but, in actuality, is fixed relative to
the sea floor and the drilling tubular in the wellbore. As the
hook extends, air is transmitted through large hoses back to
the APVs. These hoses are similar to rotary hoses, with one
Figure FD-35: Schematic of a drill string end attached to the DSC and the other to a standpipe in the
compensator. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. derrick. Instrument and communication lines are also usu-
ally attached to the high-pressure hoses. When the drilling
vessel motion is reversed, the air flows from the APVs to the
cylinders, which retract the hook.
During operation, the compensator works at approximately

mid-stroke, and the only movement relative to the drilling
vessel is the drill string, hook and cylinder rods. The travel-
ing block, hoses and main frame remain motionless relative
to the drilling vessel. The driller has a control panel near the
hookload indicator that he must monitor to maintain mid-
stroke, compensator load, air pressure, etc.
The drill string compensator was developed for full-time

Video FD-1: Animation of motion compensation. drilling and other operations requiring the elimination of
Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. drill string motion in the hole and through the BOP stack. In
addition, the driller can increase, decrease or maintain at a
preset level drill-bit weight by controlling compensator air
Traveling load compensation pressure. The DSC eliminates the need to remove the drill
string from the hole to change bit weight.
Drill string compensator
The drill string compensator (DSC) minimizes the effects of Some of the more modern DSC had higher load compensa-
vessel motion relative to downhole activities (primarily drill- tion and locked load ratings, but one of their disadvantages
ing). Its primary use in the drilling mode is to reduce weight- is that the traveling assembly must carry their weight con-
on-bit fluctuations and possible “spudding” of the bit, i.e., tinuously, thus reducing life of the drilling line. For deepwa-
ramming the bit into the bottom of the drilled hole. The ter and ultra-deepwater MODUs, most have gone to CMC
DSC is placed in the hoisting load path between the travel- because of their higher load ratings.
ing block and the top drive. The DSC acts like a spring via a
pneumatic/hydraulic system to compensate for upward and
downward vessel heave.
The DSC approach was the first in load-line motion compen-

sation system, starting in the early 1970s. The initial DSCs,
of which there are still a large number in operation, have a
motion-compensation capability of 400,000 lb and 18 ft

Crown-mounted compensator
The purpose of the crown-mounted compensator is to com-
pensate for the drilling vessel’s movement relative to the
seabed when items are connected to the drilling floor trav-
eling assembly. The purpose of the CMC is to achieve heave
compensation with as little load variation possible at low
and high traveling block loads. The CMC system has a load
compensation rating and a locked rating, with the load com-
pensation ratings ranging from 600,000 lb to over 2 million
lb. The locked rating usually equals that of the drawworks
and/or derrick.
The CMC is installed atop the derrick as shown in Figure

FD-36. It is a passive system, i.e., it reacts to load variations
and corrects. It comprises a pair of vertically mounted hy-
draulic cylinders that convert hookload into hydraulic pres-
sure. The piston rods of the cylinders are attached directly
to the crown block by means of four tie rods. The main lifting
cylinders are hard piped to the fluid side of the accumulator,
which is located adjacent to the cylinders. Figure FD-36: A CMC installed atop a derrick. The CMC
reacts to load variations and corrects. It comprises a pair of
Because the crown block moves relative to the derrick, some vertically mounted hydraulic cylinders that convert hookload
form of length compensation is required for the drill line. into hydraulic pressure. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Therefore, the compensator includes four guide sheaves on
pivoted arms. Both fast line and deadline — passing from the The working air reservoir volume is carefully chosen accord-
crown block — are reeved over the guide sheaves, keeping ing to the volume of the main cylinder and equalizing system
the distance between traveling and crown block essentially configuration. Properly chosen, the air reservoir will provide
constant. the desired lifting force configuration and ensure a nearly
constant lifting force over the essential working stroke of
The design configuration also provides two additional geo- the CMC.
metric effects to minimize weight-on-bit fluctuation:
•• A vertical force trying to lift the crown block when it is Major CMC components
positioned above mid-stroke, in order to counteract for The main mechanical components of a CMC are:
the reduced lifting force of the cylinders in upper •• Water table and crown beams;
position; •• Crown block;
•• A corresponding vertical force acting downward on •• Guide structure;
the crown block when it is below mid-stroke, in order •• Platforms and ladders.
to counteract cylinder compression when the cylinder
is in lower position. The main hydraulic components of a CMC are:
•• Hydraulic isolation valve;
Hydraulic fluid is used on the cylinder side of the system so •• Main lifting cylinders;
that the crown block can be locked in any position. The hy- ••Accumulator;
draulic isolation valve will close in the event of sudden crown •• Hydraulic fluid storage unit (deck mounted).
block load drop (e.g., drill string breakage). The crown block
can be locked in any desired position by remotely closing the The main pneumatic components of a CMC are:
hydraulic isolation valve. The locking and unlocking of the •• Main air valve;
crown block is controlled by the driller via integrated PLC •• Cabinet for APV pressure increase/decrease;
drilling controls. •• Main air valve control cabinet;
•• Working air reservoir (APVs).
The working air reservoir air pressure vessels (APVs) are
One of the advantages of the CMC over a traveling block
connected to the air side of the accumulator. They are
motion compensator system is there is less weight in the
equipped with isolation valves, safety relief valves, air fill
traveling assembly; however, the weight of the CMC at the
valves, drain valves, and manual drain valves.
top of the derrick has a greater effect on vessel stability. Fur-
The purpose of the working air reservoir is to act as an ener- ther, the system is in an awkward location for maintenance.
gizer. It can be compared to an enormous pneumatic spring. With traveling block assemblies becoming heavier, often ex-

Figure FD-37: Drawworks on deepwater MODUs are massive. This drawworks is 48 ft long, 12 ft wide
and more than 17 ft tall, weighing more than 335,00 lb. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
ceeding 200,000 lb, and increasing loads to be compensat-

ed for, the CMC approach to motion compensation on the
drill floor has become more common.
Drawworks traveling block motion compensation

Until recently, the only traveling block motion compensation
on a floating MODU was drill string compensator (DSC) or
crown-mounted compensator (CMC). However, this has
changed with the development of drawworks able to “ac-
tively” compensate very accurately for vessel heave over a
large range of hookloads and different wave trains.
DSC or CMC are “passive” compensation systems. “Active”

systems input and extract energy out of the motion com-
pensation system, whereas “passive” systems do not input
or extract any energy from the motion compensation oper-
Figure FD-38: Image of drawworks from Figure ation. In the case of the drawworks motion compensation
FD-37. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. (DMC), the vessel’s power system supplies energy to the
drawworks as the vessel heaves down. The DMC’s brakes

expend energy as the vessel heaves up to basically keep the 30

16s rig heave period
hook stationary relative the seabed or bottom of the bore- 12s rig heave period
hole. 25 8s rig heave period
Cont. hold limit
Heave amplitude (ft p-t-p)

The DMC system has proven to be more accurate and with 20
less load variation than DSC and CMC systems. Also, the
DMC load limit is that of the drawworks, which depending 15
on its size could be 2.5 million lb or more. This is typical for

some modern DP drillships and semis. Load ratings for DSCs 10
are considerable less, and the largest CMC is 1.5 million lb.
5
It would appear DMC would decrease drill-line life. However,
given the size of drawworks on the new drillships and semis 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
(e.g., 9,000 hp continuous and 12,125 hp intermittent), trav- Hookload (short tons)
eling blocks strung to 14 or 16 lines and drill lines of 2 1/8-2 ½
in. OD, ton-mile life has not been a problem. Usually these Figure FD-39: Example of four heave periods for vessel
MODUs are not using high hookloads, other than to run the heave vs. traveling block hookload for a DMC.
BOP stack and large casing loads.
16 Figure 3
As expected, these drawworks are massive. Figure FD-37
shows one that is 48 ft long, 12 ft wide and over 17 ft tall, 14
and weighing in at over 335,000 lb. It features six AC mo-
tors, each producing 1,500 hp continuously. Figure FD-38 is 12
Block height (ft)
drum based
a photo of the drawing in Figure FD-37. actual
10
The drawworks in the haul-in mode (i.e., vessel heaving

downwards) has program logic that, through sensing vessel 8
motion and with many simulations, determines the power

6
and speed needed to keep the hook position steady relative
to the seabed or bottom of the wellbore. In the payout mode,
4
i.e., vessel heaving upward, the same program logic braking 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
is used with the energy dissipated through resistor banks. Time (s)
During this operation the driller proceeds ahead with drilling

or other operations as if he were on a stationary platform.
An analogy is an airplane on autopilot with course changes 3
the pilot’s only manual operation.
2
The DMC offers a significant advantage when handling drum based
actual
large loads, such as landing or disconnecting the BOP stack
Block speed (f/sec)
1
or landing large casing loads. With DSC the loads are many
times too large to operate in heave compensation mode. 0
This is also true for most CMCs. All these operations for the
DMC require a significant amount of power generation and -1
braking, plus very sophisticated high-speed computers and

software. -2
A DMC system is designed and integrated into a specific -3

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
vessel and MODU design. In other words, each DMC must Time (sec)
be custom engineered to work with vessel motion character-
istics, engine package, generators characteristics, electrical
and electronic systems, drilling system and power manage- Figure FD-40: Example of DMC block speed vs.
ment requirements. This would not be possible without ca- time with 10-ft heaveFigure 4wave period.
and a 12-sec
pable high-speed computer systems.
For one very specific DMC design condition with 14 lines

strung, Figure FD-39 shows a number of heave periods in

relation to vessel heave amplitude vs. hookload. As an ex-

ample, note 14 ft of heave for a 600-short ton hookload with
a 12-sec period. If the vessel should heave higher and faster
than the curve shows, the accuracy of motion compensa-
tion will deteriorate, i.e., bit weight on bottom will vary in-
creasingly as conditions move outside the maximum curves
shown. Figure FD-40 shows travel block heave compensa-
tion in a 10ft., 12-secwave for a specified vessel and power
plant as a function of traveling block height vs. time. The
DMC has the capability to respond to varying vessel heave
motion.
Over the last 15-20 years, development and field use of the
DMC design have proven reliable to the point where they
are the primary motion compensation system for the trav-
eling block to perform drilling, landing casing and installing
BOP stacks. Some MODUs now have only the DMC without
the installation of a DSC or CMC. If they do have a passive
system, it is only as backup for critical operations such as
well testing. Figure FD-41: Wireline marine riser tensioners provide
positive (upward) tension to the marine riser and
Marine riser tensioners compensate for the relative motion between the riser and
the drilling rig. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Wireline marine riser tensioners nitude of air pressure. The most common tensioner systems
Wireline marine riser tensioners provide positive (upward)
operate at 2,400 psi or 3,000 psi air pressure.
tension to the marine riser and compensate for the relative
motion between the riser and the drilling rig (Figure FD- As upward heave of the rig tends to cause an increase in
41). The hydro-pneumatic system comprises hydraulic cyl- wireline tension, the cylinder retracts, thus increasing rope,
inders, sheaves, piston accumulators, air pressure vessels to maintain the selected rope tension. When the cylinder
(APV), and an air-control skid. The tensioners apply tension retracts, fluid in the cylinder is shifted through the riser an-
via wireline to the riser-tensioner ring, located on the slip ti-recoil valve and into the fluid accumulator. Air in the accu-
joint. The tensioners are installed diametrically opposite mulator is then compressed into the APVs. Because down-
one another to avoid any lateral forces on the riser-tensioner ward rig heave tends to decrease rope tension, the pressure
ring and to provide proper fleet angles on the down com- force in the cylinder causes the cylinder to extend, thus
er sheaves. Further, in case of reduced tension in one unit maintaining the selected rope tension. When the cylinder
(bleeding off air for wire cut/slip, maintenance, wire rope extends, air expands from the APVs to maintain pressure in
failure, etc.), there is an opposite force to help center the slip the cylinder.
joint and tension ring.
Tension in the support wire ropes is maintained by hydraulic
Tensioners come in single and dual units, with individual pressure in the tensioner cylinder. The piston accumulator
tensioner ratings ranging from 60,000-250,000 lb. All have pressurizes this fluid. A fluid connection block is installed
a maximum stroke of 50 ft of wire rope. Dual 250,000-lb between the accumulator and the cylinder. The valves in
units are the most common aboard modern MODUs. Wire this block are important parts of the riser anti-recoil valve
rope size varies from 1 ½-2 ½-in. high-strength independent (ARV). In case of wireline breakage, this valve will close im-
wire rope core (IWRC) lang lay construction. (See the sepa- mediately and the cylinder will extend to its full stroke at a
rate chapter on Wire Rope.) very low speed. This is to prevent damage on the cylinder
and other equipment in the tensioner system. This system
The riser tensioner system maintains tension by taking up
is not part of the “Riser Recoil” system covered elsewhere
or paying out wireline in response to rig motion. The wire-
in this chapter.
line is reeved over multiple sheaves at the fixed and movable
ends of the tensioner cylinder, over lead sheaves and idler Two suitably located valve-control skids are used to obtain
sheaves and connected to the riser-tensioner ring. Pressure centralized control of the tensioner system. The driller’s
in the cylinder maintains the extension force. The extension control system interfaces with those units for the operator
force (wireline tension) is directly proportional to the mag- to start, operate, monitor or shut down the total system.

Those units are hooked up on the lines between the air res-
ervoir and the tensioner.
The riser tensioner is fitted with one high-pressure and one

low-pressure accumulator. The high-pressure accumulator
provides an air-fluid interface between the air pressure ves-
sels and the cylinder. Air pressurizes the accumulator fluid,
and the fluid (at the same pressure) pressurizes the cylinder
to create the cylinder extension force. This technique en-
sures full lubrication of the high-pressure side of the piston
and prevents the cylinder barrel corrosion from the constant
high-pressure air. A sealed piston separates the air and flu-
id in the fluid accumulators. The piston rods are made from
nickel-chrome-coated steel material. The cylinders are pro-
vided with a position-measuring system. By using this sys-
tem, the operator can monitor the piston-rod movement of
each individual tensioner cylinder. This system is an import-
ant part of the riser anti-recoil system. The riser anti-recoil
system also includes a PLC and a valve assembly mounted
Figure FD-42: Rod or in-line tensioners apply a constant
between the cylinder and the high-pressure accumulator. upward force to the marine riser via the riser-tensioner
ring. The system comprises cylinders, air/oil accumulators,
The rod end of the cylinder is filled with fluid. As the cylinder
and an air control skid. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
extends, the fluid flows into the partially filled low-pressure
air-fluid reservoir. Retraction of the cylinder permits the
low-pressure air in the air-fluid reservoir to force the fluid Inline marine riser tensioners
back into the rod end of the cylinder. During normal tension- As with wireline tensioners, inline tensioners, also called
er operation, the fluid fully lubricates the piston packing, rod tensioners, apply a constant upward force to the marine
bearings and the rod packing with bearings. riser via the riser tensioner ring located on the outer barrel
of the slip joint. The upward force is maintained to account
The hydraulic fluid used in the tensioners is a water/gly- for the vessel movements. The system consists of cylinders,
col-based, fire resistant fluid. air/oil accumulators, and an air control skid. Figure FD-42 is
a common depiction of a rod tensioner system on a modern
The pressure (tension) variation due to compression and ex-
MODU.
pansion of the air is related to the volume of the APVs. The
APV volumes are selected to provide a variation of approx- The tensioner system typically comprises six tension mem-
imately ±4%, with heave of 4 m and the cylinder stroking bers. Each is a cylinder with tension rating varying from
about its midpoint. It is important to note that the area of 400,000 lb to more than 800,000 lb, depending on the
concern should only be within the expected heave condi- total tension force required for the MODU. Total tension
tions and not over the complete stroke capacity of the ten- requirement is dictated by a number of factors but water
sioner. depth is one of the main factors. Each tension member is
associated with a high-pressure accumulator bank, which
During normal operation, no air is vented from the sys-
provides gas expansion volume and act as a hydraulic flu-
tem. An air compressor is used to increase the air pressure
id receiver for each cylinder. The gas volume is selected to
(tension level) and to replace lost air. The application of an
deliver the required tension and to conform to the tension
air dryer with each air compressor reduces the problems
design criteria specified by the conditions.
caused by water condensation.
The tensioner elements are suspended with a connection
Complete control of a tensioner system is accomplished at
link from single supports beneath the drill floor and are
the centralized and common tensioner control panel, locat-
attached directly to the riser-tension ring using the same
ed in driller’s control room. This panel enables one single
connection link. This gives the cylinder a high degree of
operator to start up, set operation, monitor and shut down
free movement. On some MODUs a tensioner skid system
the complete systems. Only infrequent attention by the op-
allows the entire cluster of tensioners to be skidded off cen-
erator is required.
ter from the rotary even with a marine riser attached to the
tensioners.

As upward heave of the rig tends to cause an increase in ten- The tensioner maintains tension on a wire rope, which is
sion, the cylinder extends and as downward heave of the rig connected to the subsea temporary or permanent guide
causes a decrease in tension the cylinder retracts. base, to idler sheaves beneath the drill floor and then to the
tensioners. The sheaves under the drill floor are on 6-ft cen-
A piston-rod position system, consisting of wheel sensors, ters to correspond to the guide posts on the BOP stack and
enables the operator to monitor the piston rod movement guide bases. The exception to the four guideline tensioners
of each individual tensioner cylinder. This system is also on the guidelines is the two connected to the BOP stack con-
an important part of the riser anti recoil system. The blind trol pods. This allows them to be pulled/rerun for mainte-
side (piston side) of each tension member is connected to a nance and repair.
common low-pressure nitrogen accumulator via hoses and
piping. This low-pressure accumulator will act as a cushion When the wire is reeved around the fixed and the movable
by rapid upward motion of the riser, since the nitrogen on sheave assemblies on the cylinder, a 4:1 mechanical advan-
the blind side will be compressed. On top of the piston, a tage is obtained.
small amount of hydraulic fluid is added to aid lubrication
and to provide vapor phase inhibitors that are beneficial for Tension in the support wires is maintained by hydraulic
controlling corrosion in the blind side of the cylinder. pressure in the tensioner cylinder. The piston accumulator
pressurizes the oil. An oil-connection block is installed be-
During normal operation, no air is vented from the system. tween the accumulator and the cylinder. This block incorpo-
The air compressor is used to increase the air pressure (ten- rates a hydraulic flow shut-off valve. In the case of wire rope
sion level) and to replace lost air. The application of an air breakage, this valve will close immediately. This is to prevent
dryer with each air compressor can reduce problems caused damage to the cylinder and other equipment, just as with the
by water condensation. The air dryer should have a mini- marine riser tensioners.
mum dew point of -40°C.
To obtain a more or less constant tension on the dual um-
Complete control of the tensioner system is accomplished bilical sheave assembly, the piston accumulator air side is
from the control panel in driller’s control room/drill floor connected to an air reservoir. This means that the unit acts
and/or by a local control panel in the moonpool area. These like a hydro-pneumatic spring.
controls enable the operator to start-up, set operation, mon-
itor and shut down the complete systems Riser recoil
Riser disconnect can be performed as a planned or emer-
The riser-tension system is designed in such way that it is gency operation. MODUs must have a system and proce-
possible to operate the system if one pair of tensioners is dure for both emergency and planned riser disconnects that
down for maintenance. To keep the same tension with one will isolate the MODU riser system from the wellbore. The
pair of tensioners out of service, the pressure in the remain- riser disconnect plan should account for site-specific envi-
ing units must increase accordingly. ronmental conditions expected during operations, as well as
any adjacent infrastructure, seabed escarpments, etc.
Guideline Tensioners
Shallow-water to deepwater units up to an approximate wa- A planned disconnect operation involves retrieving the drill
ter-depth rating of approximately 4,500 ft can use guide- pipe, circulating out the drilling fluids for seawater, and de-
lines (usually four) to help guide bits, casing and other items creasing tension for optimum recoil performance. When
in the open wellbore. They are also used to guide the landing environmental conditions are deteriorating, the appropriate
of the BOP stack and retrieval of BOP control pods. Guide- steps should be implemented to prepare the well in anticipa-
line tensioners provide positive tension to the guidelines and tion of a possible riser disconnect.
compensate for the relative motion between the guidelines
and the MODU. In the event of an emergency, the time available for discon-
nect operations is limited and is typically on the order of 3-
Guidelines are never used on DP vessels, primarily because 5 min. The emergency disconnect sequence (EDS) can be
of the yaw variation of the DP vessel and the increased initiated manually, automatically or by ROV at the BOP. The
guideline weight (due to increased length) in ultra-deep- time taken from EDS to riser disconnect is typically 60 sec.
water depths. In addition, with the increased use of ROVs,
guidelines are less needed. However, guideline tensioners During an emergency riser disconnect, the recoil of the
are common on older units, especially shallow-water MO- LMRP-riser system must be controlled. Should the system
DUs. Their standard size is 14,000-16,000-lb tension with recoil occur too quickly, the slip joint could top out, resulting
½- to ¾-in. wire rope. Their operation is almost exactly the in compression in the riser and large impact forces on the
same as wire rope marine riser tensioners. vessel. This recoil is slowed down by an anti-recoil system.

Slack in
tensioner
Prior to Due to
recoil too fast
Recoil of recoil
Due to too
little recoil
Figure FD-45: Wire tensioners and riser

Figure FD-43: LMRP-riser system and recoil. Courtesy 2H Offshore.
BOP. Courtesy 2H Offshore.
Impact
damage Jumpout
Due to Due to
Prior to too little too fast Anti-recoil Anti-recoil
recoil recoil of recoil valve valve
Figure FD-44: Direct-acting (inline) tensioners

and riser recoil. Courtesy 2H Offshore.
These concerns are presented in Figure FD-43 and Figure

FD-44. Conversely, overly slow riser recoil leaves room for
the LMRP base to contact the BOP during vessel downward
heave motions. The direct acting tensioners have ability to
directly control the upward movement of the riser during
Figure FD-46: Riser anti-recoil system
recoil. components. Courtesy 2H Offshore.
Should a system with direct-acting tensioners recoil too
quick, separation (“jump out”) of the outer barrel from the 2. BOP blind shear rams cut the tubulars and close off the
riser tensioning ring and/or compression in the riser could wellbore;
occur. For wireline tensioners, excessive recoil speed could 3. A connector found at the base of LMRP, positioned
cause slack in the tensioner ropes or shackles causing a loss above the blind shear rams, releases. This releases the
of control of riser movement. These concerns are presented LMRP-riser system from the BOP lower stack;
in Figure FD-44 and Figure FD-45. 4. The BOP lower stack is left on top of the wellbore;
5. The MODU with the disconnected riser and LMRP can
Positive tension at the LMRP base along with appropriate move away from the wellbore.
anti-recoil system achieve optimum recoil performance.
Tensioners and anti-recoil with programmable logic con- Immediately upon disconnect, the following physical phe-
troller (PLC) systems are shown in Figure FD-46. The anti- nomenon happen simultaneously:
recoil valve and PLC control the tensioner recoil travel ve- 1. The tensioners and slip (telescopic) joint start stroking
inward, thus making the LMRP-riser system travel
locity and distance by balancing the forces on low- and
vertically upwards towards the vessel. This is termed
high-pressure sides of the tensioner.
riser recoil. During the LMRP connector disconnect
process, the allowable departure angle of the LMRP
In the event of a drive-off or drift-off, the vessel moves from
(upper stack) with respect to the BOP (lower stack)
the well center to a predetermined point of disconnect se-
should not exceed a certain level so the LMRP
lected to limit damage caused by the event. Prior to the point connector does not snag as it lifts off;
of disconnect, an emergency disconnect sequence is initiat- 2. The entire weight of the BOP is transferred to the
ed and the following events occur: wellhead and conductor foundation. The BOP remains
1. Operators initiate emergency disconnect sequence at in a near-static position compared to the LMRP-riser
the BOP control panel; system, which is recoiling upwards;

3. The LMRP-riser system moves away from the BOP; In addition, cement units on MODUs differ from land units
4. The drilling fluid, if different than seawater, discharges in that more they frequently are powered by rig electrici-
to the ocean. ty, replacing the standard diesel engines prevalent in the
past. The electric alternative delivers higher horsepower
Auxiliary systems per square foot, compared to the diesel counterpart. While
more efficient, some operators are reluctant to accept
Cementing electrically powered units. This is because the cement unit
Mechanically, cement units aboard MODUs function exact- would be inoperable during emergencies and catastrophic
ly the same as their counterparts on land. power failures in which the cement unit might be needed for
well control operations. To alleviate this concern, some op-
Offshore units are usually placed on the MODU very early erators have asked for a diesel engine as back up.
in the construction phase in a dedicated “cement room” or
area designated especially for the cement unit. The offshore Newer rigs are also migrating to these sophisticated control
unit could remain on the MODU for the entire life of the systems, allowing cementer and rig personnel, responsi-
rig. Because of the location of the cementing unit, removal, ble for bulk cement delivery, to communicate in a way that
modification or upgrade might only be possible during down hadn’t previously been possible — in a cool, calm and quiet
time at a properly outfitted ship yard. environment free of engine roar. This is a big advance in ce-
ment unit operation. However, with advanced technologies
Staff for critical cement jobs usually consists of a supervisor come advanced problems requiring highly trained electronic
operating the unit and a helper in training. The helper’s other personnel to troubleshoot issues. An electronic technician
jobs include operating the unit during pressure testing and is becoming a familiar part of the cementing crew during
less critical operations, as well as unit maintenance. critical jobs.
Larger operations, such as foaming cement, require addi-

Remotely operated vehicles
tional crew to be sent offshore.
In a floating drilling operation, the marine riser, BOP and
The drilling contractor owns the cement bulk tanks and is wellhead are out of sight and inaccessible by humans, be-
responsible for tank upkeep and maintenance, as well as cause they lie below the waterline and/or on the sea floor.
operation and delivery of bulk cement to the cement unit Remotely operated vehicles (ROV) are used on floating drill-
during cementing operations. ing rigs to observe underwater components, and sometimes
manipulate subsea equipment without risking the safety of
Rig personnel nearly always assist the service company rig personnel.
during any cementing operation. Examples include:
•• Senior marine or drilling personnel operate the bulk The ROV is an unmanned, tethered submersible vehicle re-
system and supply cement to the cement unit from the motely operated from the drilling rig via a reinforced cable,
bulk tanks; called an umbilical or a tether. This tether provides electri-
• Mud company personnel might prepare service cal power to the ROV and allows for the transfer of data be-
company materials, such as spacer, LCM pills, mix tween the rig and the ROV.
fluid;
• Rig personnel often weight cement slurry for the ROV motion is controlled by thrusters that move the vehicle
cementer during jobs; in all directions at speeds up to about 2 knots. Cameras and
• Rig personnel might also assist the cementer with sensors on the ROV provide critical information to the ROV
displacement tank operation during displacement, if operator to control the ROV. Cameras allow rig personnel to
the cementer lacks a helper. observe subsea equipment and surroundings, while sensors
provide feedback on water depth and ROV orientation. An
Subsea cement heads are often supplied by another service
emergency beacon and xenon flasher are typically carried to
company, meaning the cement service company does not
assist in emergency recovery of the ROV, if necessary.
rig up, operate, or load the darts and/or balls. This differs
considerably from the equivalent process on land. The typical work-class ROV on a floating rig will be about 12
ft long x 7 ft wide x 7 ft high (4 m x 2 m x 2 m).
Cement units on MODUs are increasingly more sophisticat-
ed than their counterparts on land. Advanced offshore units An ROV will typically carry the following tools:
are being operated remotely from air-conditioned control •• Cameras: B&W, color, video;
rooms, with touch-screen controls and multiple adjustable •• Sensors: Depth sensor, compass, sonar;
cameras and LCD screens to monitor the physical cement •• Lights for the video camera;
mixing.

•• Manipulator arm(s) allows the operator to physically until fully submerged beneath the hull of the ship, or, for
manipulate objects underwater; semisubmersibles, beneath the lower pontoons. The ROV
••Cutters. system is generally stacked vertically (i.e., control van over
maintenance van) to economize on deck space.
Additional tools and sensors can also be carried.
The primary functions of a rig-based ROV are: Deck structure

•• Drilling support: guiding the BOP onto the wellhead, When installing the ROV system, the weight of the individ-
guiding pipe into the well, replacing gaskets on subsea ual components must be considered, and any deck rein-
connectors, operating the BOP secondary control forcements required must be incorporated into the system
system in an emergency; layout and design. A typical winch can weigh as much as 30
•• “Flying the riser” to inspect the riser for any leaks or tons, and sits on a relatively small footprint. The engineering
anomalies; design of the support structure must incorporate the dead-
•• Control pod inspection for any abnormal leaks; weight of LARS, along with the weight of the fully deployed
•• Inspections of bull’s-eye slope-angle indicators located
umbilical, the TMS and the ROV acting at the umbilical-line
on the LMRP/flex joint/BOP;
sheave. These deadweights used for the design need to be
•• Diving support: Acts as an extra set of eyes, as well as
a tool for divers; increased by a dynamic amplitude factor (DAF) to account
•• Retrieving small objects; for vessels motion (heave/pitch/roll). The DAF can range
•• Cutting of soft lines, wire ropes, and cables; from 1.5-3, depending on the location of the system on the
•• Attaching lifting hooks to larger objects; floating vessel, and classification society requirements.
•• Clearing foreign objects from an area to create a safe
working area; Power, electrical and safety
•• Underwater inspection of structures, equipment and Typical ROV systems require 480 vac and 400 amps power.
pipelines for rust, cracks, deformations, or pipeline This is normally supplied from the vessel. However, a back-
leaks. up generator for supplying this power in an emergency is
provided by the ROV contractor. Provision for refueling the
Some ROVs are equipped to conduct very complex tasks,
generator must be incorporated in the system installation
such as friction welding, drilling into wellheads, and replac-
design. Firefighting, fire and gas detection, and communica-
ing subsea chokes and control pods.
tions (rig telephone system) all must be incorporated with
On a floating drilling vessel, the typical ROV system’s major the rig systems when designing the installation of the com-
components are: plete ROV system.
•• Launch and recovery system (LARS);
•• Tether management system (TMS); MODU marine operations
••ROV; Mobile offshore drilling units (MODU) by their nature must
•• Hydraulic power unit to operate the ROV and ROV
conduct marine, as well as drilling operations. This is espe-
tools;
cially true for units that drill while afloat. Over the history of
•• Control van and maintenance van;
•• Electrical power supply (from rig and/or from a offshore drilling, it has been difficult to cross train between
self-contained generator); the marine and drilling disciplines, due to their different
••Winch. training and background. In recent years, the two groups out
of necessity have developed a much closer working relation-
The ROV system can also include a tooling skid, a survey ship for the performance and safety of the MODU.
skid, and/or a BOP intervention skid. The intervention skid is
designed to operate the BOP secondary control system and On any vessel there must be only one captain or master in
can meet API Standard 53’s 45-sec blind-shear ram closing charge. One of the key responsibilities of the master is to
times. be knowledgeable of events and circumstances in the event
of an emergency. He is responsible for the safety of the
When installing an ROV system, location, deck structure, crew, passengers and vessel. When the vessel is under way
and power, electrical and safety must be addressed: and not in drilling mode, the master or captain is the most
knowledgeable person concerning events and, via written
Location authority, is totally in charge. This is recognized in the rig
The ROV is typically launched over the side of the rig, or in operations manual, which is approved by the classification
some cases, through an ROV moonpool constructed spe- societies and government authorities and constitutes the
cifically for this purpose. A fixed guidance system (rail) is “legal” document for the vessel.
sometimes installed on the rig, allowing the ROV/TMS to
remain captured as the ROV moves through the splash zone On the other hand, when the vessel is on location and solely

conducting drilling operations, whether dynamically posi- vessel in any direction, while propulsion is limited to forward
tioned (DP) or moored, the head drilling person is the most and backward directions.) The rest of this chapter deals pri-
knowledgeable. This individual, often called the offshore marily with spread mooring and DP operations.
installation manager (OIM), then directs the vessel’s pri-
mary operations. In this situation, most operations manuals Approaching location
recognize the OIM as the person in charge. However, the Many spread-moored second- and third-generation
master is still in charge of vessel abandonment, safety of the semisubmersibles, constructed during the mid-1970s to
personnel on board and lifesaving equipment. It is important mid-1980s, were capable of self-propulsion and could as-
that all aboard understand this relationship, which should be sist in approaching location. However, the expense, main-
reinforced through safety meetings and mandatory drills. tenance, classification society requirements and special
crewing resulted in the disconnection and removal of the
Vessel stationkeeping propulsion feature from most of these vessels. Therefore,
As previously discussed, stationkeeping — maintaining a the typical approach requires at least one tug. This is today
vessel over location while drilling a well — is a unique fea- commonly referred to as towing the “barge”, i.e., the towed
ture of floating drilling. There are three systems for float- object has neither self-propulsion nor steering capabilities.
ing drilling stationkeeping. The first and most common is For short moving distances, usually classified as less than
spread mooring, which generally comprises eight or more 500 km and often within a given field, an anchor-handling
mooring lines spread out radially from the vessel, as shown boat (AHB) with towing features will often tow the semisub-
in Figure FD-47. The second is dynamic positioning (DP), in mersible.
which thrusters are used in conjunction with survey, mon-
itoring and control systems to hold the vessel on location. Almost without exception, two AHBs will be used to moor
The third, which is uncommon, combines spread mooring a semi. There are several reasons for this, but the primary
with thrusters and/or propulsion. (Thrusters can move the one is the expense of mooring. Because of the cost of this
operation, it’s important to have a second AHB as backup,

should the first boat breaks down. If the location is especial- designed for the possibility of right-angle bending, if placed
ly challenging, it’s not unusual to have a third boat or tug to on a tail roller of an AHB. (The tail roller is located across the
tow the semi on location while the first two AHBs each run AHB’s stern, over which pendant lines travel when dropping
four anchors. or retrieving an anchor.) The chasers must also be manufac-
tured to withstand wear and tear from sliding up and down
The approach for DP vessels is much easier, because the the semi’s mooring wire rope and anchor chain. The collar’s
only concerns are well location and placement of survey wear points are often hardbanded. However, this can cause
beacons on the ocean floor. Of course, the well location undesirable wear on the anchor chain. Wear notches in the
must be precisely surveyed in, but the beacons for the DP horse collars are often repaired by welding.
system can be approximate, because the vessel’s DP soft-
ware will use surveying techniques to direct the holding lo- Over time, the sizes of AHBs, their winches and brake sys-
cation. To speed things up, the beacons are often placed on tems have grown significantly. 20,000-hp AHB with traction
the sea floor by other boats ahead of the arrival of the DP winches have become common. Unfortunately, the price of
vessel. Often the survey beacons have a release feature that these units has likewise grown, rendering spread mooring
allows them to be retrieved at the end of the well. in ultra-deepwater very expensive. The AHB horsepower is
translated into “bollard pull” that should be sufficient to pull
Spread-moored systems out the entire length of mooring line (wire rope and chain).
This section will discuss the deployment, on station oper- Back tension is supplied by the rig’s winches without the
ation and retrieval of a spread-mooring system. This dis- semi’s mooring line touching the ocean floor. Touching the
cussion will be slanted towards semis, because very few ocean floor, especially for anchor chain, creates significant
spread-moored drillships remain in the worldwide fleet. drag and requires more power to pull the mooring line out.
The anchor-handling winch should ideally have brakes large
»» Mooring system deployment
enough to dynamically lower the anchor and chain to the
As previously described, pendant and buoys attached to
ocean floor in a controlled descent. Most of the earlier AHBs
the anchors are no longer used, other than to mark mooring
lacked large enough winch brakes, and anchors were often
line locations as navigation warnings, if necessary. Running
dropped, resulting in severe damage to anchors, connecting
and retrieving anchors is now performed by a “pendantless”
fasteners and anchor chain.
system. These systems use horse-collar-shaped chasers de-
signed to fit in the crotch of the anchor between the flukes The anchor pattern for a spread-moored semi should be
and shank and then to slide up and down the mooring line. predetermined before the rig is on location. Coordinates
Usually there is a short piece of high-strength anchor chain mark the location of each anchor placement. These coordi-
(25-35 ft) connected to the chaser and a short pendant line nates are entered into survey equipment that also includes
(120-190 ft) sized to fit in holders at deck level on the semi the well location. This survey equipment, usually differential
for storage. The wire-rope length is determined by the ge- GPS, is placed on the semi and AHBs. The tow vessel usually
ometry of the semi, location of the anchor rack and the deck approaches the location into the wind and/or the planned
cranes. At the end of the pendant wire rope is a thimble that heading of the semi once moored. The first anchors to be
fits in a holder on the semi to attach the AHB work wire. run will usually be Nos. 3 and/or 6, if two AHB are being
used and there is no prevailing wind, current or environment
The semi’s deck cranes are used to hand the latter short
(Figure FD-47). If there is, the other two “brest” lines (Nos.
pendent wire rope to the AHB, which in turn connects it to
2 and 7) will be run.
its wire rope “work wire”. The work wire must be at least
25% longer than the water depth. Work wires are very ex- Running anchors out from the semi requires close coordi-
pensive, and damage to one can be very costly. It is possible nation between the AHB captain and the semi’s winch op-
to damage the work wire so severely that the AHB cannot erator. Figure FD-48 is a 3-step sequence drawing of the
run anchors. For this reason, all personnel involved must general geometry for running out and setting anchors. For
take great in handling the work wire. a chain-only system, with the AHB at the semi and hold-
ing only the anchor and a small amount of chain, the AHB
The short chain attached to the pendantless chaser is
throttles to full power and runs out the entire length of chain
also useful for decking anchors on the AHB for inspection
without stopping. If the AHB stops, it is usually question-
or repair. Decking anchors on an AHB is a dangerous and
able whether it can deploy the chain completely out to the
intense operation that is only conducted if absolutely nec-
anchor’s planned location, due to the frictional drag of the
essary. This is especially true if the semi’s mooring chain is
chain on the ocean floor. This is especially true for sandy
attached, as it adds significant weight and difficulty in deck-
bottoms, which have a very high friction coefficient.
ing the anchor. The horse-collar chasers are very strong
and usually cast from high-strength steel. They should be For a combination chain/wire rope mooring system, the

Figure FD-48: General geometry of anchor-handling boat running anchors. Courtesy Mark Childers.
AHB throttles away from the semi with the anchor and line, especially the anchor chain, should not touch the sea
chain, but stops when the chain has been completely run. floor. The exact point where the anchor will be placed has
At this point, the semi needs to break the tail chain off the been pre-calculated, and the winch operator should watch
chain that is being run out. The tail chain stays in the chain his footage counters. At this point, the AHB keeps enough
locker and is attached to a bitter end on the sidewall of the power to stretch the mooring line as the winch operator
chain locker. This is also a safety condition. Should the winch slowly lowers the anchor to the ocean bottom. To perform
operator pay out too much chain and hit the bitter end, this this properly, the AHB must have very high-capacity winch
precaution should avoid letting all the chain out of the locker brakes.
and overboard. After detaching the anchor chain from the
tail chain, the crews connect the anchor chain to the wire To set the anchor correctly, the AHB must pull straight away
rope. The semi brakes, which pays out the wire rope. This from the semi and then slowly slack off tension to lower the
can dissipate the equivalent of thousands of horsepower anchor to the sea floor. The flukes will be dragged back to-
of heat, sometimes the equivalent of more than 10,000 hp wards the semi, thereby setting the anchors. Modern high-
over short durations. tech holding power anchors usually set within a short drag
distance. If the anchor drags back towards the semi more
At this point, the wire-rope winch operator picks up the than 150 ft or so via the tension in the mooring line, the an-
weight of the anchor chain with the winch. Transferring the chor has probably not set and is sliding on the ocean floor.
chain to the wire-rope connection can take 30-60 min, de- The AHB should then unseat or lift the anchor off bottom
pending on the transfer-system design and crew competen- and try again to stretch to the proper mooring line length.
cy. From this point, the AHB runs full throttle with the semi’s The AHB might need to move laterally to find new ocean
wire-rope winch operator dynamically braking the wire- bottom. After setting the anchor, the winch operator will
rope winch. With proper tension and good coordination pull enough tension to ensure an adequate initial anchor set.
between the winch operator and AHB captain, the mooring

Column 4
sponson
Bill of material - One mooring leg
No. Qty. Description Comments
Foundation 14 1 1
reinforcement 3-1/4 in. RQ5 x 280 ft chain Rig chain
(inside sponson) 2 1 3-1/4 in. RQ5 x 1,100 ft chain Top chain
3 2 3-1/4 in. RQ5 x 1,600 ft chain Bottom chain
15 4 1 Hawse pipe Stress Eng. 241073-S-002
5 2 3-1/4 in. RQ5 thin kenter –
1 6 14 3-1/2 in. RQ4 thin kenter –
7 1 1825 Kip swivel Model 193
8 1 #8 RQ4 Pear link –
9 1 20 MT - Anchor with shackle Bruce (Shackle-717 lb)
10 2 3-7/8 in. x 2,000 ft wire rope with wire sockets –
11 2 3-7/8 in. x 1,000 ft wire rope with wire sockets –
12 3 3-7/8 in. x 500 ft wire rope with wire sockets –
Anchor 13 5 3-7/8 in. x 100 ft wire rope with wire sockets –
rack 2 14 1 Swivel padeye with bending shoe Bodewes DWG #8990
13 15 1 Foundation reinforcement in sponson Stress offshore DWG #
6 241073-S001 Rev. 1
5 13
13
13
3 5
6
6
11
13 6
10 3 9
7 8
Bottom 6
12 6 10
11
6
6
Figure FD-49: Example of addition of a third hurricane mooring line on the column corner of a semi. Courtesy Mark Childers.
If modern high-tech drag anchors initially set, they will usu- Due to the consequences of the 2005 Hurricane Katrina in
ally hold the maximum test tension. However, the horse col- the Gulf of Mexico, the US Department of Interior requires
lar should not be removed from the anchor before a satis- much more stringent stationkeeping requirements. Mooring
factory initial set is confirmed. Sometimes a “soak” period analysis resulted in requirements that most semis were un-
is needed for the soil around the anchor to settle and thus able to meet during hurricane season (June 1 – November
obtain a good initial set. 30). The solution was to add a third line on each of the four
corners of the semi; however, there was not enough deck
Once a good initial anchor set is confirmed, the AHB gently space or load-carrying capacity to add the deck equipment.
moves the horse-collar chaser off the anchor without un- To add the third line on each corner, drilling contractors
seating it, and chases it back to the semi. This operation re- came up with some very novel approaches, usually with-
quires sufficient tension on the mooring to prevent the horse out adding any more deck equipment, i.e., windlasses and
collar from “looping” the mooring line, becoming entangled winches.
and even unseating the anchor. The key to this operation is
good coordination between the semi winch operator and the Figure FD-49 shows one configuration, with the third line
AHB captain. After the AHB chases the horse collar back to on a semi’s column. A third chain-only fairleader was add-
the semi, the rig’s deck crane attaches to the pendantless ed along with a hawser pipe and a hang-off device just
chaser thimble eye and stores it in a rack near the windlass above the chain fairleader. The system required consider-
at deck level. able strengthening of the column foundations, but no new
deck equipment. This configuration allowed the original
Once all anchors have been set, they must be post-ten- two-combination wire rope/chain mooring lines to be run
sioned to determine whether they are holding properly. If as usual. Since these two lines are moored on the wire rope
possible, post-tension should be done to a tension level at winches, the windlasses were available to moor the com-
the anchor’s location reflecting the highest expected envi- bination chain/wire rope (with segments as shown)/chain
ronmental load. This should be less than the half-break rat- mooring line, as shown in Figure FD-49. Other than the tail
ing of the lowest-rated element in the mooring line. chain from the rig’s chain locker, all chains had to be carried
onboard the rig and run from an AHB, which on average took
When all anchors have been satisfactorily post-tensioned,
two more days to moor up and two more days to moor down.
they should be slackened down to the predetermined ten-
If one of the original lines needed to be retrieved during the
sion calculated in the mooring design for the location. This
well drilling, the third line chain could be hung off just above
tension is usually less than a third of the mooring line’s break
the fairleader, as the windlass would be needed to complete
rating.
the retrieval of the other line’s chain segment.

The next step is to take a final survey to ensure that the rota- “must operation” to lessen the potential for hurricane winds,
ry center is within the survey’s tolerance, as specified by the currents and waves to overload lines. Pre-calculations
drilling program. If adjustments are required, mooring lines should be performed to determine the exact amount of wire
are slowly paid out and heaved in. When the semi has been rope (in a combination system) or amount of chain (in an
successfully moored, the moving master writes a report not- all-chain system) needed to deploy and reduce tension. The
ing the time and operation of each step. The surveyors also ideal amount of deployment increases with water depth. In
write a report certifying the well location. The authorities deepwater there is usually not much extra line to deploy, so
will also note the position of the MODU and advise all ships the amount to deploy must be remembered during the over-
to prevent the “navigation hazard” from being run over or hit. all mooring design for the location under consideration.
On-station operations While the semi is on location drilling, the marine crew must
During final mooring operations, the drill crew might pick perform maintenance on the mooring equipment. If seawa-
up drilling tubulars and BHA, as well as mix spud mud to ter is used to cool the brake system, drill water or fresh water
prepare to spud. They might also place the permanent guide should be used to flush out salt water and salt deposits in
base in the cellar deck and prepare to pick up foundation the cooling system. Fittings must be greased and controls
pipe. checked for proper operation, especially band brakes and
chain stoppers. Since the mooring equipment is seldom
As the environment, level of intensity and direction change, used, it has a tendency to be neglected, and idle time strains
mooring line tensions will usually be adjusted. This not only the equipment. Maintenance requires drilling and marine
enables the rig to stay over the location, but also maintains departments to cooperate, because electricians and me-
the marine riser angle at the BOP as near to zero as possi- chanics usually do most of the preventive maintenance.
ble and, in severe conditions, reduces high line tensions. The
»» Mooring down
lines may also be adjusted to reenter a well without guide-
Mooring down or retrieving the mooring system is far less
lines. When running the BOP stack, most rigs will move a
challenging than mooring up and deployment. Howev-
precautionary 50 ft or more. This ensures that should any-
er, that does not imply that mooring down is necessarily a
thing be dropped, the object will not strike the wellhead. All
problem-free operation. Marine crews must conduct main-
of this requires tension manipulation and close coordination
tenance and ensure that all equipment is operational, as is
between the drilling and marine departments. Numerous
done prior to system deployment. A Job Safety Analysis
computer programs are available to help crews determine
(JSA) meeting with all involved should be held before con-
the amount of haul in and payout of lines to move the MODU
ducting any operations.
a specified horizontal distance.
Evaluate any severe weather conditions before beginning
Most modern rigs have mooring line tension recorders, and
moor down to avoid being caught by operation-delaying
the ballast control room also records weather and anchor
weather with most of the mooring system retrieved, but the
line tensions at specified intervals. Line tension and rig lo-
AHB unable to retrieve the last anchors. With only a few
cation may be adjusted 2-4 times daily or more frequently.
mooring lines deployed and weather picking up, the semi is
Tension adjustment is usually performed with payout via
vulnerable to breaking mooring lines and/or tugs breaking
dynamic re-generation or haul-in with the motors. Most
tow lines.
winches have DC traction motors that allow haul-in. Some,
however, have AC motors that can similarly be adjusted The start of the moor down is the passing of the pendantless
through the motors, if the proper brake system has been system from the rig to the AHB. The deck crane attaches
installed. Payout is never conducted with the static-band to the thimble eye on the rig end of the pendantless chaser
brakes. These are designed for full stop or full release, but line, lifting the pendantless system out of storage. The deck
are incapable of fine adjustments under tension. Similarly, crane then passes the pendantless assembly down to the
water-cooled brakes are not used for fine adjustments, as AHB, which attaches it to the work wire and then chases the
they are designed for dynamic payout at high speeds. horse collar down the mooring line to the anchor. For this, as
well as to retrieve the horse collar, the rig must keep tension
In severe environments, such as the Gulf of Mexico (hurri-
on the semi mooring line. The AHB must also position itself
canes) and the North Sea (harsh weather and high seas),
to slide the horse collar down the mooring line by giving the
non-operating conditions can force suspension of drilling
work wire at least 25% more length than water depth. Too
operations and slackening of all mooring lines. This usual-
much or too little tension will prevent the horse collar from
ly occurs with the lower marine riser package (LMRP) dis-
sliding down the semi’s mooring line. Conducting this oper-
connected. Mooring lines are slackened to a predetermined
ation properly requires skilled personnel, as well as cooper-
tension so that the leeward lines do not add tension to the
ation between the rig winch operator and AHB captain.
windward lines. In cases of hurricane abandonment, this is a

The AHB captain should not unseat anchors while directly Once all anchors are bolstered to a predetermined tension
over the anchor, since a sudden heave of the AHB will prob- (and be sure that the anchor is firmly bolstered), all brakes
ably break the work wire. Once the anchor has been unseat- and stoppers should be applied. Since the semi was at tran-
ed, the rig will heave in the wire rope until meeting the wire sit draft during the moor down operation, the tow can start
rope/chain connection. At this point, the crews will con- once the tow vessel stretches its towline assembly out.
duct deployment operations in reverse. With the tail chain
hooked on the anchor chain, the crews will heave in all the Dynamic positioning systems
anchor chain. DP operations require a whole different mindset by all in-
volved, compared to spread-moored operations. Significant
A knowledgeable crew member should inspect the wire problems can occur and they usually occur very quick-
rope and anchor chain for damage and wear during the haul- ly, following a certain inevitable course. Over the years,
in process. Since the wire rope is stored on large reels and spread-mooring systems have become extremely reliable
the anchor chain is stored in lockers, this is the only time and secure, with improved hardware and engineering analy-
that severe damage can be assessed. Loose studs, bent sis to determine the correct system for the drilling site. Over
links, stretched links, etc. should be noted. Some repairs are the past 50 years, DP operations have also become much
effected using a “Kenter link”, a connecting link for chain. more reliable through better hardware, software, experi-
Severe damage to mooring wire rope might require cutting ence, operating guidelines and the training of crews. Howev-
and shortening the wire rope or even replacing it, a major er, the vessel will lose location if a failure of any kind should
and costly operation. occur. If the weather is severe, it can happen within minutes.
Bolstering the anchor is conducted at transit draft when »» Operation philosophy

the crews can observe the anchor engage the bolster. If the From a drilling standpoint, all operational planning should
operation is not viewed, the anchor might not seat in the center on the possibility of losing location. As discussed in
bolster or, even worse, can punch a hole in the semi’s hull the equipment portion of this chapter, modern DP systems
pontoon. This has actually happened more than once. Once have been designed with extensive backup hardware and
the anchor is bolstered properly, the thimble end of the pen- software and are more reliable than ever before. Industry’s
dantless wire rope is handed to the deck crane, then stored operating procedures represent the lessons learned from
in the stowage holder. tens of thousands of hours of operations. These procedures
are usually part of the MODU’s operations manual, devel-
Prior to the start of the retrieval operation, the tug has oped by the drilling contractor and generally approved by
hooked on to the semi’s towing bridle. If one AHB tows the the classification society and government agencies.
rig, then the other pulls the last two anchors. If it is a very
short rig move (usually less than 500 km), the weather is Although the DP system is the drilling contractor’s respon-
calm and the forecast is good, the AHB might tow off one of sibility, most operators are very knowledgeable about po-
the pendantless wires from an anchor that is bolstered. In tential problems and scenarios. Both announced and un-
this case the pendantless system must be equivalent to all announced drills should be conducted. The goal is that the
the strength requirements for towing. As previously stated, marine and drill crews will follow the procedures almost by
to pull the last anchor the semi’s mooring line must have ad- rote. JSA meetings are very important, and discussion and
equate tension to chase the horse collar down to the anchor. training on procedures are a must. Excellent and direct com-
This is not easy if not planned. The tow vessel must maintain munications between the DP control room and drill floor is
good tension on the aft line, usually No. 4 or 5, by towing off essential for a smooth and successful operation.
the No. 1 or 2 line. This allows the horse collar to slide down
»» Watch circle and location tolerances
the mooring line to the anchor.
One of the nice things about DP stationkeeping is the “watch
On rare occasions, the AHB might be unable to pull or un- circle”. The watch circle is a tool to define when to take ac-
seat an anchor. However, the AHB captain should exert tion. A yellow watch circle indicates that stationkeeping
extra effort and learned techniques before surrendering on ability is deteriorating. The response should be to cease op-
unseating the anchor. If this fails, the last recourse is for the erations and prepare for the station to be lost. A red watch
semi to move over the line and pull the anchor straight up circle indicates actual loss of location. 2
by ballasting up the hull. Either the anchor will unseat or a
Tolerances are easier to maintain and monitor when the ves-
mooring line will break, as the lines will be under tremen-
sel is constantly under way. When the vessel is not connect-
dous tension and damage to the anchor bolster system
and/or hull could occur; therefore, considerable evaluation
2. Refining the DP Watch Circle”, Lew Weingarth, Trans-
should be conducted before attempting this operation.
ocean Inc., Marine Technology Society DP Conference,
Houston, October 2006.

ed to the ocean bottom via a drilling string, casing or BOP »» Stationkeeping status and alarms
stack, the watch circle is not critical. The vessel’s surface Over the decades, DP operations have developed a standard
location is controlled more by items going in or out of the of four levels of operation concerning staying on location
wellbore, marine riser angle at the flex joint, maintaining a and within a specified watch circle. For all of these condi-
near zero vertical angle of drilling tubulars or casing at the tions, constant communication between the drill floor and
entrance in uncased hole (mud line), latching and unlatching DP operating room should be maintained. The status and
the BOP stack or LMRP, or performing any type of reentry. alarms are:
DP vessel location and its relationship to the wellbore are •• Green or “normal” status: The DP operators and
monitored by multiple means, including differential GPS, master who know what is occurring on the drill floor
acoustic triangulation, marine riser angle at the flex joint activate a green light in the driller’s cabin designating
and, in rare cases, taut wire. All the previously mentioned that there is no imminent danger of losing location, the
monitoring systems have multiple layers of backup with vessel is within the agreed-upon watch circle, and all is
software and default settings to switch to various combina- operating as planned. At least three DP independent
sensor systems are operational with their defaults
tions of backups.
available. Thruster demand with drilling load
The DP control room must closely monitor the weather fore- accounted for is at or below 40%. Marine riser angle
at the lower and upper flex joints is less than ½°. Also,
cast. This is particularly critical for ships, as severe weather
there are at least 30°± of vessel yaw or horizontal
on the quarter and especially the beam will most likely drive
rotation available for the kill, choke, hydraulic, mud
the vessel off location. The bow should be kept within ap- circulating line and BOP control lines available in the
proximately 30°± of the primary force on the vessel. Usually cellar deck/moonpool.
the primary force is wind, but a strong current on the beam •• Advisory or “blue” status: The DP operators and
may cause significant problems for a ship-shape vessel. master are concerned about a situation that has
Generally semis are less sensitive to wind or wave direction, occurred and/or might occur, but feel that, with proper
but can be susceptible to beam currents. caution, normal operations are still warranted.
Weather can cause these conditions, including as
The operations manual should have a section on various winds exceeding 35 knots and currents 2 knots or
wind, wave and current combinations and their relationship higher, with power consumption exceeding 40%. For
to the percent of capability of the DP power system, depend- example, a vessel heading change of more than 20°
ing on the drilling equipment load draw on the power plant. might be anticipated. The blue light comes on in the
The master in particular must fully understand the capabil- driller’s cabin. An example of this situation is an
anticipated weather front not considered a threat.
ities of the DP system and also understand when external
Another example is when one of the redundancies has
forces may cause the vessel to lose location. Once again, the
failed, such as a third level of security on the DP
operations manual and DP operating manuals should give system, but the DP operators and master do not feel
good guidance. DP control room personnel must be very the situation is an immediate threat. When the blue
aware of drill floor activity and planning. If the rig is reen- light is on in the driller’s cabin, the driller should be on
tering the wellbore with critical items, such as casing, or is a higher than normal sense of alert.
trying to land a casing string in the wellhead hanger assem- •• Imminent threat or “yellow” alert: In this case, either
bly, vessel power demand should be low, usually less than something has gone wrong and/or a dangerous
40%. This also goes for latching and unlatching the BOP condition exists. A yellow light comes on the driller’s
stack. Tolerance on location and weather forecast while cabin, and the DP operators and master feel the vessel
drilling ahead for the conductor pipe can be relaxed, relative may be in the process of losing a designated watch
circle in the near future. This could happen due to
to reentering with critical issues or latching/unlatching the
severe weather, failure of equipment or any other
BOP. Just as the DP control room and DP operators must
occurrence that threatens desired stationkeeping.
fully understand critical operations on the drill floor, the drill Examples of circumstances that usually prompt a
floor, especially the drillers, must be attuned to orders and yellow alert include power requirements, such as
requests from the DP operators. The lead drilling opera- drilling load exceeding 65%; flex joint angles
tions person on tour must be prepared to make decisions exceeding 4°; an onboard emergency, such as a fire; or
concerning drilling operations, if and when the marine dean infield emergency, such as a vessel collision. In this
partment warns of a threat. Most the decisions on drilling case, the driller should immediately take planned
operations and corrective action in relationship to DP and action to prepare for disconnecting from the wellbore.
vessel stationkeeping status are made according to prede- If the BOP stack is installed and the rig is drilling
termined procedures, BUT there are always extraordinary ahead, the driller will land the drill string via a tool joint
on a pipe or VBR ram and prepare to shear the tubular.
circumstances that require an available decision maker.
After taking all planned actions, the driller should
stand by in the event a “red” alert occurs. During the

yellow alert, the threatening condition might be can seal the wellbore, but casing shears can only cut casing
neutralized or even eliminated. Even in the case of a or large tubulars such as drill collars, Hevi-Wate and BHA
drift-off or drive-off, it usually takes minutes to reach subs.
the limits of the designated watch circle, so there is
time, albeit limited, to take action. The senior drilling The BOP control system undergoes a particular sequence
person on duty should be alerted and proceed to the during the EDS disconnect process. At a minimum, the
drill floor if time permits. However, the senior person shear blind and casing rams must be closed. Depending on
should be instantly available during this entire period, the system, however, other rams could be closed. Further,
as he is the ultimate decision maker concerning the
the kill and choke lines on the BOP stack must be closed,
drilling operation in case deviation is considered from
followed by the retraction of hydraulic control stingers be-
the pre-established course of action.
•• Emergency disconnect or “red” alert: This alert should tween the lower BOP stack and LMRP. Timing and sequence
follow the yellow alert and should rarely occur without are critical, because shear rams cannot be closed and locked
an earlier yellow alert. This alert should occur if the while the hydraulic stingers are retracting. Accumulators on
vessel is outside a predetermined “red” watch circle. the BOP stack back up the hydraulic line running down the
Red alert circumstances can include: marine riser, but they are also the primary source of hydrau-
ww Complete loss of all motion and position reference lic fluid for the auto-shear function. If commanded from the
systems; surface, the total sequence should take by design no more
ww Predetermined marine riser angles have been than 60 sec. If hydraulic and/or electric connection and
exceeded; power to the surface BOP control unit is lost, the auto-shear
ww Available power is insufficient to hold location
system self-activates. This shuts the well with or without the
and watch circle;
LMRP attached to the lower BOP stack.
ww An onboard emergency, such as a fire has
occurred, and is threatening the vessel;
If the LMRP is disconnected from the lower BOP stack with-
ww A collision with another vessel is imminent;
out using the EDS, a manual rod on the lower BOP stack is
ww Loss of well control is endangering the vessel and
personnel. usually in place to activate a hydraulic circuit. This circuit
closes the shear blind and casing rams, as well as the kill
When the red light illuminates in the driller’s cabin, the drill- and choke valves. When the LMRP is lifted off the lower BOP
er should follow through with the planned course of action stack, the spring-loaded rod extends. The rod is attached to
to disconnect all physical connection from the wellbore. some hydraulic valves and thus activates the hydraulic cir-
There should be no discussion unless the senior person on cuit. This system can usually be deactivated from the sur-
tour intervenes. Depending on the well and the drilling op- face, if desired, as well as by the auto-shear function. This is
eration under way at the time of disconnect, this can be a necessary because in some cases, such as pulling the LMRP
major well-threatening action. For example, should this oc- for repair and/or maintenance, the lower BOP stack will be
cur during wireline logging, requiring cutting the wireline, closed in from the surface.
the thousands of feet of wireline dropped into the wellbore
might be very difficult or impossible to fish out later. Shear- One of the difficulties with the above systems is that testing
ing and dropping casing in the hole is another serious situ- them on the surface before the BOP stack is run can be dif-
ation, should the disconnect occur during a cementing job. ficult and dangerous. It is imperative that the rig work out a
Nevertheless, the plan should be conducted without discus- test scheme that assures the EDS systems are ready to func-
sion, because the major decision makers have thought out tion in an emergency. Unfortunately this has not occurred in
the circumstances and have elected the prescribed course some cases, leading to extremely dangerous well situations.
of action. Generally these systems are not tested subsea, but could be
if concern is high enough.
»» Condition and preparation for LMRP emergency
disconnect The EDS is a last-resort system. Once activated, it cannot be
The equipment section of this chapter provides a detailed stopped. However, if needed, it is indispensable and manda-
description of the emergency disconnect system (EDS). tory for safe floating operations.
This system is used to disconnect the LMRP from the lower »» Loss of location
BOP in the event of an emergency. Since this is an emergen- Though DP has become very reliable, the vessel can still lose
cy disconnect, the well MUST be secured by shutting the location due to equipment failure, software malfunction, op-
BOP stack. Most modern BOP stacks have at least one set erator error, severe weather, or other unanticipated causes.
of shear blind rams and one set of casing shear rams. (See Losing location usually involves the vessel “drifting” off lo-
the well control equipment section of this chapter and, for a cation from loss of thruster power or a “drive off”, when the
fuller treatment, refer to the separate Well Control Chapter thrusters power up autonomously and drive the vessel off
of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.) Shear blind rams

Table FD-5: Considerations for loss of location action plan
MODU’s Operation at Time of Loss of

Possible Course of Action Probable Consequences
Location
Spudding well via jetting foundation pipe Pull up/trip jet string and foundation pipe ASAP Possible loss of foundation pipe and bent drillstring
Possible loss of part of drillstring or at least a lot of
Drilling conductor hole Immediately start POOH
bent drillpipe. May lose BHA
Probable loss of some of the casing as connection
Running conductor casing with most of
Immediately start POOH will be bucked off due to bending moment on casing
casing in open hole
at sea bottom
Open all rams and annulars, pull test string out Marine riser tensioners should stroke the LMRP
Just completed running BOP stack and in
of BOP stack, close rams and kill/choke valves, up and above the BOP stack with
the process of testing it
and release LMRP the test string inside it
With BOP stack in place and drilling ahead Land drillpipe tool joint on VBRs, shear pipe,
Fishing job but with probable high success
with drillpipe in the BOP stack close BOP stack and do LMRP disconnect
With BOP stack in place, tripping drillstring Try to drop drillstring in hole, shut casing shear
Fishing job with possibility drillstring will be cork
with BHA mid-length in BOP stack and rams if drill string cannot be dropped in hole,
screwed. Shear rams may be damaged
open hole. Drill Collars not shearable shut in BOP stack and do LMRP disconnect
With BOP stack in place and wireline Shear wireline, close in BOP stack and do LMRP
Difficult wireline fishing job
logging open hole. disconnect
Hopefully most of wire line will pull out of hole but
With BOP stack in place, cased hole tested Start pulling wireline tools out of hole, close
probably not logging tools. May have to fish tools
for integrity okay and wireline logging BOP stack in and do LMRP disconnect
out of hole
With BOP stack in place and running Shear casing, shut shear rams, close in BOP May end up junking hole but try to fish casing out
shearable casing stack and do LMRP disconnect of hole
Hopefully cement displacement below
Stop cement job, start displacing with mud,
With BOP stack in place and while BOP stack resulting in probable sidetrack.
shear pipe, close in BOP stack and
cementing casing May try fishing job but unlikely success.
do LMRP disconnect
Biggest concern is cement in BOP stack
Displace cement below BOP stack, shear drill Since cement plug is probably required by drilling
With BOP stack in place and setting
pipe, close in BOP stack and permit, fish cement string if possible
cement plugs in open hole
do LMRP disconnect and prepare to set more plugs
Cutting casing near mud line for plug
Pull out of hole May have damaged cutters
and abandonment
Probably pull LMRP, repair BOP control system,
Auto-disconnect and auto-shear should occur,
BOP control completely lost rerun LMRP and assess next step in clean up. De-
which should also close BOP stack including
and drift off occurs pending on operation at time of loss of well control,
shearing what may be inside the BOP stack
this can be a very challenging situation
BOP stack in place and well kill Stop kill process, shut well in at BOP stack Once back on location, connect LMRP, check condi-
operation in process and do LMRP disconnect surface tion of well and pressures, and kill well
Close shear and casing rams, close BOP stack
Loss of well control during well Most important thing is to protect
and do LMRP disconnect. Diverter overboard
kill operation, i.e., blowout vessel and personnel
until disconnect
Close well in with down hole values, disconnect
BOP stack in place and well testing with No damage should occur. Reconnect LMRP, check
Christmas tree in BOP stack, close in with BOP
Christmas tree in BOP stack. well for pressures and open BOP stack when safe
stack and do LMRP disconnect
location. As discussed earlier, any of these circumstances location should allow time for action. If the BOP stack is in-
can happen at any time during any operation. With this in stalled and the weather is extremely benign, it is possible
mind, it is mandatory that the drilling contractor and opera- the vessel can “moor” on the riser and BOP stack as action
tor make pre-event decisions as to what the crews should do is taken and/or completed. Table FD-5 lists some but not all
during every operation during an unplanned loss of location. circumstances that should be considered in the plan, along
Most actions are fairly obvious, but others are not. Because with some suggested actions.
loss of location occurs unexpectedly, all equipment must be
ready, and the DP operators and drillers must know and un- The examples in Table FD-5 are just a few of the possible
derstand and have rehearsed the action plan. situations that can occur during a drilling operation. JSAs
must be performed before every operation so that all crews
The operator, who owns the well, decides upon the prede- including the marine department know what to do. It is im-
termined in coordination with the drilling contractor. Even portant to realize that during a drift off or drive off there is no
in severe weather, the response of the vessel to move off time for meetings and decision making. The response must

be pre-programmed or automatic by the crew; however, de- Cargo, special well and marine operations
pending on the situation and availability of decision makers, An important part of the overall operation of a floating
variations might need to be considered. MODU, both moored and DP, is the interface and competent
operation of cargo handling and marine operation.
If an emergency LMRP disconnect has occurred, determine
whether any hydraulic stingers, electrical connections, etc.,
have been damaged. Upon suspicion of damages, an ROV
Work boats
Most offshore operations have at least two work boats
survey might prove helpful before pulling the LMRP to sur-
that act as supply boats and are attached to the operation
face. If no problems are found and the cause of the emer-
full time. In the case of moored vessels, they may also be
gency disconnect resolved or eliminated, then the LMRP
AHB, because they must be available for moves and pos-
and marine riser can be rerun to the lower BOP stack. Be-
sible redeployment, as well as repair of mooring problems.
fore latch, the seal ring inside the riser hydraulic connector
The “boat” in work boat is somewhat misleading, as these
should be changed. An ROV can do this. With the LMRP
vessels have become quite large, often measuring over 200
hanging a short distance from the lower BOP stack, the seal
ft. They should be more accurately called “ships”. For DP
ring can be released from the LMRP hydraulic connector and
operations, anchor handling is unnecessary, and work boats
dropped on the ocean floor. The second ROV can then place
therefore are strictly for cargo handling and resupply.
a new seal ring in the riser mandrel on the lower BOP stack.
At that time the LMRP can be guided over the lower BOP Modern work boats are designed to carry deck cargo of all
stack, lowered and latched. The seal ring will automatically types, fuel, large amounts of liquid mud and completion
latch into the LMRP hydraulic connector. Hydraulic stingers fluids in below deck tanks, dry bulk material in pressurized
can be extended and hydraulic integrity can be checked be- tanks (P-tanks), as well as sack and container mud plus ad-
tween the LMRP and lower BOP. The next step is to check ditives. For bulk transfer from the work boat to the vessel,
the pressures below the closed rams via the kill and choke especially semis at transit draft, the bulk air-compressor
lines. Circulating out gas or pressure may be required. If system should be able to transfer bulk from the work boat’s
drilling tubulars were hung in the BOP stack, they should be lower deck to a deck elevation that can be well over 100 ft.
pulled followed by a BOP stack test. There should also be an air-dryer system to ensure that the
»» Training and drills bulk material is not wetted. Almost all MODUs have loading
From reading the above, it should be apparent how critical a stations on opposite sides of the vessel, allowing the work
judicious plan is for every imaginable situation when operat- boat to approach from the downwind side. Consequently,
ing a DP MODU. But no matter how well the plan is thought should the work boat lose control due to weather or pow-
out and written, it is only as good as its execution during a er failure, it will not collide with the MODU. All bulk lines
high-stress situation. In other words, rigorous training by all are configured by their connection types and color-coded to
involved is mandatory. This includes the DP operators, mas- prevent line cross connection.
ters, drillers, assistant drillers, toolpushers, OIM, and any
In most drilling markets, marine crews perform all work on
other individuals directly or indirectly involved in an emer-
the work boat. In the Gulf of Mexico, however, MODU roust-
gency stationkeeping situation. After the formal training,
abouts often handle this work. This can create performance
frequent practice drills, both announced and unannounced,
and safety issues, because the MODU crews are more drill-
should be conducted. With a well-thought-out plan for every
ing oriented than the marine crews. Most work boats tie up
imaginable incident, thorough training and numerous prac-
to the MODU to conduct the cargo transfers, especially for
tice drills, the crews should be prepared to respond com-
semis. Extra personnel and safety precautions should be
petently and by rote when an emergency disconnect occurs
taken if this is necessary.
the crews should be ready to respond by rote and with com-
petency. It should be kept in mind that some kind of loose of Special precautions are required when DP ships and work
stationkeeping will occur, so be prepared. boats work together, because the work boat may add addi-
tional stationkeeping load to the DP system, i.e., additional
Formal training is a requirement by the classification societ-
mass may be tied to the vessel that must be compensated
ies and some government agencies for some positions on a
for by the DP software. The work boats should also avoid
DP vessel. The DP operators, master and OIM are required
thruster locations, especially tunnel thrusters, to avoid im-
to take formal training to obtain their licenses. To receive
pacting thruster performance.
necessary licenses all applicable crew members will require
formal training and often recertification on scheduled time
intervals to operate the DP MODU.
Deck and overhead cranes
Deck cranes are the backbone of offshore operations. The
MODU would quickly shut down without adequate working

cranes to move necessary expendables into their proper boom to fold and provides a compact, easily maneuverable
places on the rig. Weather is the biggest challenge in trans- device.)
ferring cargo, especially deck cargo. Cranes on the MODU
can usually pass transfer hoses from the work boat to the MODU cargo lift systems include overhead trolley lifts, el-
MODU in severe weather conditions, if the wind is not too evators, BOP handling systems, marine riser handling sys-
excessive. Most cranes can operate in up to 40-knot steady tems, hoists for large items below deck, chain hoists and
winds, but beyond that and especially above 50 knots, the come-alongs. Certification of all these items though inspec-
deck crane might have trouble slewing, and the load on the tion and load testing is required. The classification societies
hook can swing out of control. Cranes can also be affected are usually the ones that certify lifting equipment, which is
by MODU motion, as most cannot slew or rotate uphill more done annually. A number of commercial crane companies
than 2-3°. In addition, wind and MODU motion significantly can help in the inventory, load testing and maintenance of
affects the motion and swing of the load being lifted. If this all the lifting equipment. This is primarily done for personnel
cannot be controlled, the lift should not be made. Severe safety reasons.
heave of the work boat (usually over 10 ft), can make it very
difficult to “snatch”, or offload deck cargo from the work Bulk and liquid transfer
boat’s deck, depending on size and weight. Some operators All MODUs have bulk storage and transfer systems ranging
do not allow work boats to handle cargo in higher than 10-12 from thousands to tens of thousands of cubic feet of storage,
ft seas. all within pressurized tanks usually referred to as P-tanks.
Because of their size and weight, P-tanks are almost always
Most cargo located and secured on the work boat deck is located within the lower hull of ships and within inside col-
pre-slung (four lines for boxes and tanks) with proper rig- umns on semis. The three items stored in these tanks are
ging at the shore base. Certified and load-tested slings cement, barite and bentonite. Usually the tanks are individ-
should be required. Along with proper slinging, all deck car- ually designated for one of the three, with some crossover
go should have at least two handling tag lines for crews to access between bentonite and barite and between cement
guide the item on the work boat and MODU. Using person- and barite. Bulk is transferred from the P-tanks via a bulk air
nel baskets, deck cranes are also the primary loading device system, usually at 40-50 psi working air pressure. Air can
for personnel between the MODU and work boats. Loading be supplied by bulk air compressors, or more likely regulat-
and unloading personnel is a critical operation, and safety is ed down to 40-50 psi from the 125-psi rig air system. It is
the first concern. wise to have a regulator available so that the rig air can be
used as a backup system, even if the MODU has a bulk air
Modern deck cranes are much easier to operate than the old system. The air dryer system is a critical part of the air sys-
mechanical cranes common in the 1980s. Cranes have also tem, since transferring bulk, especially cement, with “wet
become much bigger, with 350-ton rating and 180-ft boom air” invites caking of bulk on pipe walls and clumps of bulk
lengths (over 200 ft with gibe) not uncommon. Though to form. When bulk clumps, the efficiency of the system can
these cranes are much easier and simpler to operate, the be severely compromised or even become blocked. During
crane operator must be trained, certified and licensed to op- a cement job, inability to deliver bulk cement can lead to an
erate cranes. Once the MODU is on location, one deck crane incomplete cement job or worse. For a well-kill operation,
usually becomes the “work” crane and performs 80-90% of the inability to weight up mud due to blockage in the bulk
the lifting from work boats. This is primarily because its po- lines is obviously serious.
sition on the MODU is the most convenient in relation to the
prevailing weather, work boat loading station and location of Maintenance of the bulk system is necessary, because
material on the MODU’s deck and cargo holes. connections have a tendency to loosen. Bulk matter can
build up in “Ys”, and sweeps and clumps of matter must be
Deck cranes are critical to the operation. When they break cleaned out. Jets or duckbills in P-tanks need to be checked
down, the entire rig often comes to a standstill, so it is essen- for functionality and wear. Before every transfer, especial-
tial to keep them in top working order. This requires 24-hour ly a cement job, the bulk in the tanks needs to be “fluffed
checklists by the crane operators, weekly inspections by up”, so that the bulk is easier to transfer. Fluffing is done by
the mechanic and electrician, a rigorous preventive mainte- blowing air through the duck bills at bottom of the P-tank
nance program, inspection of the cranes’ wire ropes (boom, On floating MODUs, the bulk has a tendency to consolidate
pendants, load and wipe lines), and continual inspection and and become packed due to the constant rocking and motion
certification by the classification societies. Recently knuckle of the vessel. If immediate transfer of bulk out of the tank is
boom cranes have become popular to move items around attempted without fluffing, the quantity most likely will be
the deck and onto the drill floor. (A knuckle boom crane is less than required.
differentiated from a standard crane by an articulated joint,
the knuckle, near the middle of the boom. This allows the If the MODU has a weight system to monitor quantity of

bulk in each tank, the bulk material should also be visually the handling, mixing, filtering, use and disposal of these type
checked to ensure the weight system is working properly. completion fluids.
For bulk systems with extended elevations between sta-
tions, common on semis (i.e., the bulk tanks are low in the A Job Safety Analysis (JSA) is mandatory when using these
columns and the mixing facilities are on main deck), the air fluids. Proper clothing and protective gear should be avail-
transfer system should be monitored to be sure that enough able and used. Hazard data sheets (including MSDS, which
bulk can be transferred at the needed rate. This is especially are online) must be available and read. In addition, instruc-
critical for cement jobs, since cement is usually heavy and tion by knowledgeable personnel on how to handle and use
demands a high rate of bulk supply when mixed at a high the fluids, as well as what to do if a crewman is exposed to
rate. Some MODUs have a central control panel that in- the fluids, is mandatory.
cludes weight indicators of all P-tanks and that allows the
Most of these fluids are used to complete wells, so the en-
bulk operator to monitor and control the transfer of all bulk.
tire wellbore will be filled with the fluid, including the marine
This is very useful from the stability standpoint of the vessel,
riser with its kill and choke lines. Since this can result in a
since relocating large quantities of bulk does affect the load-
large quantity of fluid, the primary mud pits may be needed
ing and stability of the vessel.
for storage capacity and this means they must be thoroughly
All MODUs have a mixing or sack room where mud is mixed. cleaned by washing down and scrubbed clean. Completion
Usually at least two 70-cu ft P-tanks are used to mix mud fluids must be completely clean of particles and fines that
with liquids pumped by centrifugal mix pumps through a can plug the formation, so filtering might be needed even af-
Ventura nozzle below the 70-cu ft mix tank. A table above ter cleaning the mud pits, mud lines, pumps, etc. This takes a
the Ventura nozzle allows addition of special chemicals to lot of time and work, with crews exposed to the fluids.
the mud mixture on a per-sack infusion basis. Many mod-
Once the well is completed, it might be tested, which means
ern mixing systems can inject liquid additives. Sack rooms
that the completion fluid that was forced into the formation
have dust control for eye and lung protection. Dust control
and/or into the wellbore will be produced back to the rig.
equipment may also be available near the solids-control
The main mud pits may be used for storage, but once again
equipment.
the hazardous nature of the fluid must be kept in mind. If a
For cementing operations, the high-pressure pump sys- large quantity of fluid is anticipated to be used, work boats
tem, usually supplied by a third party, mixes and pumps may be tied up alongside the MODU where direct offloading
the cement. The standard pump unit consists of two 400- may occur.
hp pumps, mix tubs, charging centrifugal pumps, silos and
From a rig standpoint, one of the key operations is clean up
equipment to mix in special additives. Some of the newer
after using these fluids. Since they are so hazardous and
units are much bigger and very sophisticated, boasting
corrosive, a complete cleaning with fresh drill water is nec-
pumps rated as high as 1,500 hp. These large pumps can
essary. The marine riser and especially the BOP stack and
reach the formation with completion fluids mixed with prop-
kill and choke lines need to be completely flushed. The drill
pant and can be used as an additional mud/completion
floor, drain lines, decks, mud pits and all circulating lines also
pump to supplement the rig’s primary mud pumps. These
need to be completely flushed of completion fluid residue.
units are usually run and maintained by third parties, but the
Unfortunately, there have been times when cleaning was in-
rig crews will use the pump system to test BOP stacks and
complete, due to the haste to move to the next location. In
kill/choke and mud circulating lines while running the ma-
these cases, the rig and its equipment will pay dearly later.
rine riser. They also can be used in well control situations
where finite low flow rates are required. This cannot usually
Moving MODU with the BOP stack suspended
be done with standard MODU mud pumps.
From time to time the MODU may make a short “field” tran-
sit with the BOP stack suspended on the marine riser while
Completion and well fluids hanging from the traveling block. This usually occurs when
The rig will occasionally be required to handle completion
the MODU moves to another well location that is very close
and well fluids. Almost all of these (calcium chloride, calci-
or when running from an approaching hurricane. This oper-
um bromide, etc.) are extremely hazardous and corrosive.
ation is much more common with DP vessels than moored
These fluids usually come to the rig in tanks. Some rigs are
units, because moored units cannot run from hurricanes,
set up to store the fluid in specially constructed and protect-
while DP vessels can get under way immediately, once the
ed storage pits. These tanks should be handled with great
BOP stack (or more likely the LMRP) is unlatched. This op-
care. If the fluids come to the rig in large quantities, a work
eration may also occur with dual travel block rigs that allow
boat with special hull tanks can transfer the fluid via cargo
the BOP stack not to be pulled and rerun for the next well.
hoses. A third-party serviceman will almost always manage
The only big issue is preventive maintenance (PM) on the

BOP stack and marine riser system. If the condition of the

equipment is good and the quality of the PM system is high,
MODU well drilling operations
This chapter reviews the basics of drilling a well from a float-
sometimes two or three moves over a period of nine months
ing MODU. The key differences between bottom-founded
or more are performed before the BOP stack is pulled.
(jackups and submersibles) and floaters is water depth,
For an infield or short move distance, the rig almost has to well control equipment and wellhead systems, vessel mo-
have a dual load path capability to make the operation a tion, and the possibility of moving or losing location over the
time and money saver. As stated, not pulling the BOP stack, wellhead. Following is a step-by-step outline of a “typical”
which prevents maintenance on it, is done purely as a time offshore floating well; however, it is important to note that
and money saver. Moving speeds for the vessel should be there are many variations. Also included are associated op-
very slow, i.e., less than 1 ½-2 knots, as to not overstress erations.
the joint that is in the rotary and/or to tail out the BOP stack
too far aft of the vessel. Auxiliary lines such as BOP control Spud meeting and preparation
cables need to be taken into consideration, so that they are One of the most under-appreciated phases of drilling a well
not damaged with excess speed. If high ocean currents are is the meeting with the operator, drilling contractor and key
present, they need to be added/subtracted to obtain the net service company personnel BEFORE spudding the well. Not
speed of the marine riser through the ocean. having a spud meeting prior to starting the well is like a quar-
terback and team going to the line on first down without call-
Weather forecasting and integration with operations ing a play and then calling hike. The result will usually not be
Throughout this section, weather considerations have been good, and in the case of an expensive offshore well, could
constantly referenced. With satellite communications avail- be disastrous in terms of loss of money, failing to meet the
able throughout the world and with modern weather fore- objective, and/or the occurrence of a serious well or marine
casting using satellite imaging, the accuracy of weather incident.
forecasts and real time monitoring have become quite good.
The length and detail of the meeting, usually prepared and
MODUs can obtain real-time satellite images to monitor
conducted by the operator, depends on the level of famil-
their surrounding weather conditions, which is particularly
iarity of all parties. If the operator and drilling contractor
helpful for monitoring squalls and thunderstorms that may
have worked together before, especially if the MODU being
pop up outside site-specific forecasts. Every MODU should
used has been part of their efforts in the near past, the spud
have weather forecasts from a recognized weather fore-
meeting can center on the specific well to be drilled. If the
casting company. Most forecasting companies specialize in
operator and drilling contractor and especially if the person-
areas of the world such as the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico,
nel involved have not worked together before, a much more
Western and Southern Australia, North Coast of Australia
detailed spud meeting must be conducted. Key third-party
and areas that have typhoons, cyclones and hurricanes. The
service companies should also attend, especially on difficult
forecasters are not perfect, but they are better than leav-
or challenging wells. These usually include the cementers,
ing forecasting to an OIM or rig manager. The hired weather
mud loggers, electric loggers, directional services (if a di-
forecasting specialist is a must in areas where evacuation for
rectional well is to be drilled), and completion/well tes-
named storms is possible.
ters. Others, such as the wellhead manufacturer and mud
In areas prone to hurricanes, named storms, etc., the drill- company, might also attend. Representatives of companies
ing contractor and operator usually have a plan to prepare providing tugs, work boats, helicopters, shore-based dock
for the possibility of a storm passing over the drilling site. services, communication services, etc., usually do not at-
It is based on the distance from the site of the storm, storm tend, but might attend separate meetings with those they
development, speed of movement, primarily direction and will directly engage with during the well.
intensity of the storm. Since evacuation of the moored ves-
The meeting can be held at the operator’s offices. In some
sels and the moving of DP vessels is part of the plan, consid-
cases a preliminary meeting is held onshore, with a final
erable cost, vessel safety, well security and personnel safety
meeting is held on the MODU. Typical agenda items include:
is at stake. Most of these plans go into effect when the storm
•• Introduce key personnel and review the chain of
is 3-4 days away from possibly passing over the drill site. Af- command;
ter years of performing evacuations, the plans have become • Review operator and drilling contractor policies. One
routine. However, they are based on weather forecasts and of the most important is well control:
good interpretation. ww Does the operator want a hard shut in or a soft
shut in?
ww Who will operate the chokes?
ww How much mud weight increase is allowed in one
circulation?

ww Does the driller have the authority to shut in the in” from all. Also, any conflicts between the drilling
well without notifying anyone? contractor and operator’s safety system
ww How should the diverter systems be set up, i.e., administration must be resolved;
should both overboard lines be continuously •• The main topic is the well plan, including geology;
open or should one be shut in upwind? Should casing program; well profile; fracture gradients; mud
the diverter be left in the overboard mode all system, including mudweights; logging schedule; P&A
the time, i.e., if circulating out marine riser gas and/or well completion; performance goals; record
through the mud gas separator (MGS), should the keeping. Figure FD-50 is a graphic of a typical
diverter system be switched back to overboard deepwater Gulf of Mexico well program.
when completed? Some recent incidents suggest
the answer is “yes”. The key goal of the spud meeting is to establish high-quality
•• Operator reviews key points, such as safety, communication, build teamwork, emphasize safety and per-
communication, responsibility for summoning form the job done correctly.
helicopters and work
boats, crew change
schedule and dates, etc. Wellhead system
What is the setup at the with 18.500º ID
crew-change facility
and what security,
safety training and
identification is
required? Identifying
and dealing with
hazardous chemicals,
especially mud
chemicals, must be
covered. Cutting
disposal and
processing, along with
mud discharge, can be
very important,
depending on the type
of mud and applicable
regulations. Drug,
firearms and alcohol
policies, along with
applicable
environmental
regulations, must be
addressed;
•• The drilling contractor
should review its safety
program and system,
including drills such as
man overboard,
adorning survival suits,
vessel-collision
reaction, abandon-
vessel drills, lifeboat
drills, etc. The
discussion need not be
detailed, but there
should be a brief
description of drills and
their frequency. The
reason for this = PP (Pore pressure = FIT/LOT (Fracture gradient)
discussion is to get “buy

Figure FD-50: Schematic of typical deepwater Gulf of Mexico well program.

Drill the hole, run pipe and cement Jet pipe into ground Drill pipe into ground
using mud motor
Figure FD-51: Three methods of setting foundation pipe. Courtesy Mark Childers.
Setting the foundation pipe together at rotary level; however, today many vendors have
When the MODU approaches location, the first operation invented screw- or snap-together connections, speeding
is to establish location via surveyors. At this time, spread connection time. Atop the foundation pipe is the first stage
mooring can be run or the DP system can deploy locator of the subsea wellhead system. Located inside is a hanger
beacons. Also during this period the rig needs to pick up ledge for the next casing string to land on and threads for the
drilling pipe and the bottomhole assembly (BHA). Spud mud running tool to attach to.
must be mixed and a pit of usually 12-ppg “kill mud” mixed.
The size and length of the foundation pipe is controlled by
Spud mud usually contains only bentonite and some chemi-
structural requirements of the wellhead, how many casing
cals, because it is expendable, i.e., not circulated back to the
strings will be set and the unlikely possibility of sealing off
vessel. Kill mud is at the ready in the event the well starts
hydrocarbon sands. Depth of setting may range from 150 ft
to flow. The kill mud can be circulated down to fill the hole
(three joints) to deeper than 400 ft. Figure FD-51 shows the
and kill the well. Shallow flows are not common, but they
three methods of setting the foundation pipe. Each is dis-
do occur, though they are usually not high volume or pres-
cussed in turn in the following three sections.
sure. If hydrocarbon sands are a potential at these extremely
shallow depths, as projected by seismic surveys, the overall
Drill the hole, run pipe and cement
casing program needs to be adjusted. Since there is no direct
This usually requires a temporary guide base when guide-
shut-in well control during this operation, mudweight and
lines are used and attached to this base (Figure FD-51A).
circulation comprise the key well control method.
This approach is seldom used in modern wells. If used, four
There are three ways to set the foundation pipe, also called guidelines and a bit and hole opener combination are used
the “drive pipe.” (This is a holdover term from shallow-water to drill the hole with a retrievable running tool on two of the
setting methods.) Most foundation pipe is 30 in. with ½-1 in. guidelines.
wall thickness, but it is not uncommon to see 36-in. or 42-
However, the most common approach today is to drill the
in. OD pipe with more than 2-in. wall thickness for deepwa-
hole without a temporary guide base and reenter the drilled
ter wells. Sometimes the foundation pipe joints are welded
hole with the aid of ROVs. Once the hole is drilled, the foun-

dation pipe is run with a running tool screwed into the top of Foundation pipe angles of over 1°, and definitely over 1 ½°,
the foundation wellhead, which also includes the permanent will result in BOP, marine riser and casing wear. High angles
guide base. To cement the pipe in the wellbore, a stinger may also prevent large OD tools from running through the
pipe attaches to the bottom of the running tool and runs to flex joint on the BOP stack, or they can hung up on ram bore
the guide shown at the bottom of the pipe. The stinger-pipe ledges. The goal is to never exceed ½° off vertical. Once the
assembly is guided into the drill wellbore via guideline or foundation pipe is set, the BHA is rearranged, heavy DCs are
more commonly via ROVs . laid down and a new BHA is picked up to drill out the foun-
dation pipe.
Upon landing in the temporary guide base, if used, the foun-
dation pipe is cemented by pumping cement down the run- Drilling riserless
ning string, through the running tool and down through the In water depths less than 3,000 ft and with spread-moored
float. Once the cement is mixed, a dart is released at the sur- MODUs, four guidelines are usually attached to the perma-
face and displacement fluid is used to further displace the nent or temporary guide base that is used for guidance of the
cement down the running assembly and stinger pipe and up drill string in and out of the well bore. The guidelines are also
the foundation pipe and drilled hole annulus. Since the ID of used to retrieve and rerun the BOP stack, the BOP control
the drilled hole is often uncertain due to soft formations and pods from/to the BOP stack and to run/pull the subsea TV
resulting washout, over-displacement of cement is usually to inspect the wellhead and BOP stack. However, in deep-
at least 50% of in-gauge annulus capacity. water, especially beyond 5,000 ft, guidelines are not used.
Several reasons exist for this. The main is that the guide-
Jet pipe into the ground lines become tangled with the marine riser and one other.
This is the most common approach (Figure FD-51B). The The key disadvantage without guidelines is the inability to
foundation pipe is completely run in the rotary and a stinger pull and rerun BOP control pods needing repair. This usually
jet string is placed inside. The jet string consists of heavy or results pulling the LMRP to repair BOP control pods at great
sometimes leaded drill collars with a jet bit just within (usu- expense and rig time.
ally a foot inside) at the bottom of the foundation pipe. As
previously stated, the first stage of the wellhead is placed on DP MODUs do not use guidelines, because they need the
top of the foundation pipe string, along with the permanent ability to weather vane into the weather, and guidelines
guide base. The running tool with jet string is latched into would prevent extensive rotation or yaw of the vessel around
the foundation pipe. High volumes of mud are pumped to the wellhead. When no guidelines are used, the reentry
“jet” the well, with pipe reciprocation as needed. Fluid and method has developed into using at least one and prefera-
formation are circulated up the annulus of the foundation bly two ROVs to visually guide the drill string assembly, cas-
pipe ID and stinger string, exiting via circulating holes in the ing, etc., into the wellhead. Most modern floating rigs have
running tool. Once the pipe is jetted down, friction between two ROV systems on the MODU. ROVs and their support
the pipe and formation holds the pipe in place and the run- facilities are heavy and occupy a lot of rig space. Two units
ning tool is released. are advisable, as repair time and downtime can be high for
ROV systems. In addition, two ROVs at right angle to the drill
Turbodrill the pipe into the ground strings give the ROV operators (called “pilots”) a three-di-
This method is similar to the jetting process, except that a mensional perspective to accurately enter the item into the
turbodrill is placed at the bottom of the stinger string inside wellhead. Moving the bottom of the drill string or item’s bot-
the foundation pipe (Figure FD-51C). This method is more tom over the wellhead can be accomplished by jetting and/
expensive, but is often used if setting depth is deep, ability or moving the MODU; however, the most common adjust-
to jet a hard formation is questionable and/or final depth is ments are made by moving the MODU. Often the item to
in question. Some operators prefer this method, believing it reenter the well is painted white with footage marks on it to
lends better control over the exact setting depth and well- help visually with the reentry.
head elevation above the sea floor.
Since there is no return circulating path back to the MODU,
During the turbodrilling process, inclinometers are placed all fluids pumped down the drill string, out the bit and up
on the guide structures so that TVs and/or ROVs can de- the annulus are expelled to the sea floor. This type of drilling
termine the angle of the foundation pipe. It is critical to keep is conducted without well control shut-in capability. Since
the foundation pipe as close to perpendicular to the ocean all mud, which usually consists of bentonite, a small amount
floor (“zero” degrees with vertical). Since further wellheads of barite and chemicals, flows to the sea, it must be envi-
will hang in the foundation wellhead and the BOP stack will ronmentally friendly. Formations are usually very soft. The
eventually latch onto the conductor wellhead, an unaccept- major drilling challenge is primarily avoiding leaving cuttings
able deviation will result in drillpipe wear in the BOP stack. in the annulus, and therefore sticking the drilling assembly.

Typically the mudweight ranges from 9.3-9.5 ppg, well be- or ROV. In the case of guidelines, a retrievable running tool
low 12 ppg. These mudweights usually keep the well under cannot be used, because the permanent guide base would
control; however, shallow gas or liquid flows can be a prob- block its retrieval. Usually breakaway ties are attached to
lem. Prior to drilling the well, seismic surveys are conducted the conductor pipe near the shoe and are also attached to
to look for shallow gas sand lenses. The batch of kill mud two or four guidelines. At some point a running tool is at-
used to set the foundation pipe should be available to circu- tached to a high-pressure wellhead and the assembly is run
late down the drill string and spot in the wellbore in case of on drillpipe, then guided into and through the foundation
shallow gas or liquid flow. As stated, shallow-gas flows are wellhead. Once again, in modern drilling, ROVs usually re-
rare, especially with modern surveys available prior to spud, place guidelines and guide the reentry.
but if they do occur they are usually of small volume and low
pressure. If the seismic survey does detect a gas lens anom- When the conductor is landed, the cementing operation is
aly, the well is shifted to another location and/or a different begun by circulating the annulus with clean mud. Usually at
casing program is used. least one, if not two, gauge annulus volumes are circulated
and expelled to the sea. On the drill floor a cementing-head
Once the hole is drilled, it is usually not electrically logged. manifold is attached to the running string drillpipe. Most
However, during the drilling, a drillpipe logging tool (MWD, modern floating rigs use a “cement Kelly”, which is a long,
LWD, etc.) is used to log the hole. This is usually more than high-pressure piece of pipe with a cement hose attached to
adequate for formation evaluation. At casing setting depth the top. The block traveling assembly latches onto cement
an additional 40-50 ft is drilled as the “rat hole”, so that the Kelly, thus allowing the ability to space out in landing the
conductor casing will have a little setting depth tolerance. casing and cementing operations to begin quickly. When
Before POOH, there will be at least one circulation or sweep cementing operations begin, cement is pumped from the
of clean mud to clean the hole of cuttings and leave condi- cement pumping unit through cement lines to the drill floor.
tioned mud in the wellbore. When all the cement has been displaced, usually at least 25-
50% more than the annulus gauge of the casing and well-
Setting the conductor pipe bore, a dart with drilling mud is dropped and displaced down
After circulating clean and conditioned mud, conductor pipe the running string to the cement plug located just below the
is ready to be run and cement. When using guidelines, with running tool at the wellhead. When the dart engages into
the bit and BHA pulling the running guide, the frame used to the cement wiper plug, it is then displaced down the con-
enter the wellbore is still lying atop the foundation wellhead. ductor casing to the float shoe where it is lodged. Generally
As the string is pulled out of the wellbore, it picks up the the rig will hold pressure on the plug to allow cement to ini-
guide frame and all is pulled to the surface. When no guide- tially set up. After six or more hours the pressure is bled off
lines are used, which is more common in modern floating to check for flow back. If none occurs, the running tool is
drilling, the drill assembly is just pulled out of the wellbore to released from the wellhead housing, the wellhead washed
the surface with the visual aid of ROVs. and jetted out, and the running string retrieved to the drill
floor. At this time the drill floor is cleared and a new BHA is
Figure FD-34 in the section on wellheads shows a typical made up to drill out the conductor casing.
subsea wellhead with the conductor string connected to
the high-pressure wellhead assembly. As shown, the con- Preparing the BOP stack for running
ductor string with the high-pressure wellhead lands in the BOP stacks and subsea equipment have already been dis-
foundation wellhead. The cement plug that is launched via cussed, but this section will discuss their operation and use.
a dropped dart is located just below the high-pressure well- Figure FD-52 shows a typical deepwater BOP stack with two
head. During the cementing process the plug will act as an annulars, five rams, two hydraulic connectors, a flex joint,
interface between the cement and displacing mud and will and 11 kill and choke hydraulic fail-safe valves. There are also
land on top of a cement float. Cement float (check valves), two hydraulic connectors, two electro-hydraulic multiplex
usually one joint from the bottom, and a cement guide shoe control pods (MUX) and a number of program functions,
are at the end of the string to complete the assembly. For such as Auto Shear and Emergency Disconnect. ROV func-
most floating wells, the conductor is 20-in. casing some tion panels are also on the lower BOP and LMRP. As not-
800-1,200 ft long. For ultra-deep wells, the conductor ed, the elevation of the BOP stack and its components are
might be 26 in. with a liner hanger assembly near the bot- anticipated by setting the wellhead at a specified elevation
tom to enable hanging off another string of casing should and distance from the mud line or sea floor. More advanced
fracture gradient problems occur and another casing string stacks have up to seven ram cavities, with two for blind
be needed to bolster the wellbore. shear seal and one for casing shear that does not seal. How-
ever, most floaters at this time only have four or five rams,
If the conductor casing assembly is longer than the depth of
with one being shear seal and the others usually outfitted
the water, it must be guided into the wellbore via guidelines

Riser mud
circulating line
Riser
adapter
Kill line
Choke line
Flex joint
Annular
code
Upper annular
10K
Riser connector
Lower annular
10K
RAM code
Blind/shear
RAMS
Choke
valve 4-1/2 in. x 7 in.
RAMS
Kill valve
4-1/2 in. x 7 in.

Circular RAMS
valve
4-1/2 in. x 7 in.

RAMS
Pressure transducer PT
Test RAM
Test RAM? Y/N 3-1/2 in. x 6-5/8 in.
Conn stack-up Stack

Conn swallow connector
Tubing
head
spool
Figure FD-52: Typical deepwater BOP stack schematic.
Fig 5.5-1
with variable bore rams (VBR). cants required, condition and availability of latches and
running tools, and almost anything to do with preparing the
In deepwater operations, the BOP stack generally causes the entire subsea system. The checklist can be very long, but is
most downtime. If it is possible to pull, repair and rerun BOP required to ensure a safe and trouble-free running and in-
control pods, it is a significant advantage. Unfortunately, stallation of the subsea systems.
many of the MUX pods are too big, heavy and difficult or
impossible to retrieve, rerun and latch onto the LMRP. This A detailed safety and planning meeting or JSA is required for
means even an o-ring failure could force pulling the LMRP all involved in testing and preparing to run the well control
for repair, because the BOP control pods, along with hy- system. Some of the most obvious things can be forgotten or
draulic stabs, valves, etc., are all located on the LMRP. If only missed without these lists. As an example, are there enough
the LMRP must be pulled, the well must be secured with the BOP control hose clamps, if a rig has never drilled in these
lower BOP stack and probably one RTTS packer, since two water depths? Is the riser stored in the racks in the order
barriers are usually required. If an entire BOP stack must the pipes will be run? Is there enough proper grease for the
be pulled in ultra-deepwater with a lot of open hole, then riser pins and boxes? Does the roustabout who controls the
cement plugs and/or a retrievable packer must be set. Then payout of pod hoses know how to perform this operation?
the marine riser and BOP stack are pulled, the problem di- Are the air torque wrenches set for the proper bolt torque on
agnosed and repaired, the fix tested, and the BOP tested on the marine riser connectors? Has the inner barrel of the slip
the surface. Then, everything is rerun, from latching onto the joint been greased. Is there a regulated air hose installed in
wellhead, testing the BOP stack on bottom and drilling out the cellar deck for the packer seals? Are the kill, choke, mud
cement and/or retrieving plugs. Finally, the wellbore is circu- circulating and BOP hydraulic cellar deck hoses in good con-
lated and conditioned. dition and ready to hook into the slip joint? All these ques-
tions sound obvious and simple, but at one time or the other
It can consume a week of rig time to pull just the LMRP. If all have produced major downtime, because the answer in
the entire BOP stack must be pulled, at least 7-10 days will the end was “no”.
be required, at the cost of millions of dollars and with the
ability to successfully drill the well at risk. The key to pre- Marine riser space out and operation
venting or significantly reducing the risk of this occurrence is Space out and landing of a marine riser via most combina-
to engineer, purchase spare parts and maintain a very strong tion of pup joints can be achieved within an accuracy of 5 ft
preventive maintenance (PM) program and meticulous and even less with some pup-joint length combinations (25,
standards of operation. Running a proper PM program on a 31.25, 37.50, 43.75 and 50 ft) that allow multiple combina-
modern deepwater MODU requires much time and money, tions in the event some pups are not available. It is suggest-
but the evidence is strong that it pays off in the long run, plus ed to have a marine operating manual or computer program
providing more adequate well control. It all sounds easy and that shows riser lengths (non-buoyant and buoyant) and
logical, but requires significant time, dedication, training, pup joint length vs. water depth so that the crews can easily
money and effort. The temptation to save a dime today at space out the marine riser properly. To do this, the distance
the risk of spending a dollar down the road must be resisted. from the mud line to the wellhead connector, height of the
BOP stack, mid stroke of the slip joint, overall length of the
Assuming that there is a strong and well-executed PM sys-
slip joint, diverter traveling assembly length and rotary ele-
tem, a critical part of the operation is to conduct a complete
vation to mean water level must be input. Unfortunately, this
pressure and functional test of the BOP stack on the sur-
apparently simple task is miscalculated too often, resulting
face prior to running it. This includes testing from both pods,
in downtime readjusting, since the improper space out is
ROV ports, all emergency functions and all releases. Tests
usually not discovered until landing, or attempting to land
on the choke and standpipe manifold should also be includ-
the BOP stack.
ed. Historically, tests that are often not completed include
all ROV ports, emergency LMRP release and auto shear. The There are two types of marine riser joints, those without
reason why they are not completed is because the regulato- buoyancy (“slick”) and those with buoyancy. It is also not un-
ry bodies often do not require the tests, which are often very common to have buoyancy rated for different water depths,
difficult to complete adequately. That said, these tests are because the deeper-rated syntactic foam has less buoyancy
now more diligently being carried out. than the shallow water depth rated modules. A color code is
usually used to distinguish buoyancy water-depth ratings. If
Develop a checklist to ensure that subsea systems are ready
significant surface currents are anticipated, the slick joints
to run. The subsea engineer and his crew should develop
might be run at the top. Generally the joints near the BOP
this checklist. The list should include a review of PM sta-
stack are slick; thus, they need to be rotated each well with
tus for all components and checks on fluid levels, battery
new slick joints to reduce key seat damage caused by drill
charges, tools used to run the system, greases and lubri-

Minimum tension (kips)

1200
8.5ppg
9.5 ppg
1000
10.5 ppg
11.5 ppg
12.5 ppg
13.5 ppg
800 14.5 ppg
15.5 ppg
16.5 ppg
17.5 ppg
600
400
200
0
200 600 1000 1400 1800 2200 2600 2800 3200 3600 4000 4400 4800 5200
Water depth (ft)

<caption (remove before publishing)>Figure XX-XX: Recommended “normal drilling” tension vs water depth for mild environment. Assumes 1-1/2% vessel offset.
Assumes 1-1/2% Vessel Offset Figure FD-53: Sample of universal riser-tension curves.
string rotation. Marine riser joints can run in length from place adequate tension on the marine riser. In general, while
50 ft to 90 ft with 50 ft, 65 ft and 75 ft the most common over tension is not a problem, under tension can cause many
lengths. Lengths longer than 75 ft are generally too long to complications, including:
store vertically or on a horizontal rack, but some DP ships •• Excessive metal fatigue in the marine riser (joint
have the deck space for the longer joints. One issue is truck- connectors and pipe);
ing these very heavy joints (40,000-50,000 lb) between •• Structural failure;
fabrication/repair facilities and the dock, as joints much over •• Unacceptably high angles at the BOP stack and slip
joint, resulting in severe key seating (possibly wearing
50 ft may require very special transportation requirements.
a hole and loss of mudweight), an inability to run large
The concept that “longer joints is fewer joints to make up”
OD items through the flex joint and an inability to do
means faster overall running of the marine riser and BOP an emergency LMRP release.
stack. The API has some recommendations on marine riser
inspection and maintenance (API RP 16Q). Even so, the neutral point, or zero tension, should never
extend below the bottom ram location in the BOP stack,
The amount of marine riser tension is controlled by many as tension in the wellhead can lead to fatigue failure. The
factors. If a well is to be drilled in unusual circumstances, tension at the LMRP should be high enough so that in an
engineers should run a recommended site-specific ten- emergency the tension will lift the LMRP off the lower BOP
sion-curve analysis. A special circumstance would include stack. In an emergency release, the riser recoil system (RRS)
high ocean currents (loop currents in the Gulf of Mexico or should prevent the slip joint from accelerating into the rotary
high river currents, such as at the mouth of the Amazon) and knocking the diverter assembly and slip joint up through
that may cause excessive vibration, resonance and side it. The RRS is an important system in the overall marine riser
loading on the marine riser. This situation can cause severe management. Without it, an emergency release could pro-
structural damage to riser joint connectors, auxiliary lines duce significant damage on the drill floor and possible injury
and movement of the BOP and wellhead. However, if no spe- to crewmen. As a warning, old rules of thumb for marine riser
cial environmental or other conditions exist, universal ten- tension used in the past should be strictly avoided. Today’s
sion curves similar to Figure FD-53 can be used on many marine riser systems feature different grades of buoyancy,
wells. With the environment constantly changing, vessel vs. complex slip joints and diverter assemblies. Using outdated
hole position changing, and mudweight varying, simple ten- operating criteria, especially in loop currents and other un-
sion curves are necessary so that the rig management can usual environmental conditions, can create major problems.

Table FD-6: Marine riser and stationkeeping management

Lower flex joint Hole
Operation through 30 in. Slip Joint Lower flex joint differ-
differential angle position Comment
BOP stack conductor angle (°) Angle (°) ential angle GOAL (°)
MAX (°) (% WD)
Rotating drill pipe under 0.75 under 2.0 under 0.5 under 1.0 +/- 2.0 Critical wear angles
Rotating drill pipe under 0.50 under 2.0 under 0.5 under 1.25 +/- 2.0 Critical wear angles
Tripping drill pipe under 0.75 under 3.0 under 0.5 under 3.0 +/- 2.5 ––
Tripping BHA under 0.75 under 2.0 under 0.5 under 2.0 +/- 2.0 Tungsten carbide hardband
Tripping completion
under 0.75 under 3.0 under 0.5 under 3.0 +/- 2.5 ––
string
Stationery tubulars under 0.75 under 3.0 under 0.5 under 3.0 +/- 2.0 ––
Running casing under 0.75 under 3.0 under 0.5 under 2.0 +/- 2.0 ––
Run/Pull full bore under 0.75 under 2.0 under 0.5 under 1.75 +/- 2.0 Hangers , bore protectors, etc
Critical operations under 0.75 under 3.0 under 0.5 under 3.0 +/- 2.0 Well testing, cementing
Miscellaneous under 0.75 under 3.0 under 0.5 under 3.0 +/- 2.5 BOP testing, wireline, etc.
Notes:
1. Riser and stationkeeping management is the balance of rig position and riser system angles to minimize riser component wear and to reduce the possibil-
ity of severe damage and/or failure of the equipment that could result in a rig and personnel threatening condition.
2. To reduce lower flex joint differential angle for spread-moored vessels, the leeward two mooring lines should be slackened. Never tension into the weath-
er! Plan ahead with weather forecasts.
3. Differential flex joint angle is the angle between the BOP/LMRP angle with vertical and riser joint angle with vertical located above the flex joint. MAX
angle should only be used in an unusual situation and not routinely.
4. The riser differential angle alarm should be set at 1° above the goal or at the maximum angle the rig is working towards.
5. If a SSTV is being used, it should be left at the LMRP location looking at the riser angle bulls eye for immediate verification if the alarm should sound.
6. A 2° (not a 5°) bull’s-eye bubble should be used such to obtain the necessary accuracy.
7. Accurate calibration of the instrumentation and sensors is critical for proper operation.
Once the marine riser has been run and the BOP stack within tolerances and the proper wire-rope construction is
latched and tested, operating the marine riser via proper ten- used. If low ton cycles are being achieved via seeing “wick-
sion and vessel positioning every day is critical. Marine riser ers” and broken wires, an investigation should be conducted.
systems, BOP stacks, wellheads and casing have repeatedly Worn sheaves on the tensioners and turndown sheaves are
been extensively damaged, thanks to poor management of common issues on older MODUs. Improper wire-rope con-
marine riser angles, marine riser tension and vessel position. struction can also be problematic, and lang lay construction
Table FD-6 is a set of guidelines that have worked well over should always be specified. (See the separate chapter on
the years for both spread-moored and DP operations. One Wire Rope in the 12th edition of the IADC Drilling Manual.)
of the subtle issues of managing this operation is proper cal-
ibration of the inclinometers with vertical. Permanent guide- Most major wire-rope manufacturers specifically make ma-
base bulls-eye’s platforms should be rigorously calibrated to rine riser wire rope. Specify when ordering. The wire rope
true vertical by the manufacturer when built. Beacon riser must be free of contaminates, such as barite, sand and espe-
brackets, beacons, inclinometers and attachments should cially hematite, which can come from blasting for painting or
also be checked at the factory with certification certificates mudweight material. Hematite should never be used around
supplied with the hardware. Accuracy should be within a MODU, as it can cause major problems in machinery and
+/- 0.1°. The old concept of hanging a BOP stack while run- electric equipment, as well as marine riser tensioner wire
ning it to calibrate the inclinometers is usually very inaccu- rope.
rate when monitoring angles of less than 1°. Subsea hard-
ware has suffered major damage when the inclinometer Running the marine riser and BOP stack
hardware was out of calibration, unknown to the operators. Running the marine riser system is one of the most challeng-
ing operations on a floating rig, especially for ultra-deepwa-
As discussed previously, there are two types of marine riser ter units. Depending on water depth, the operation can take
tensioners: “in line” (rod tensioners) and pneumatic wireline days. The joints are very heavy, long and awkward to handle.
tensioners. For wireline tensioners, a “ton cycle” log must From the time a joint is lifted from storage until it is made
be kept. If all equipment is in good condition and proper- up in the rotary, the joint should be constantly via cranes,
ly installed, ton cycles of at least 6-8 million can be easily arms and other equipment. These joints, especially in windy
achieved; however, it is not unusual to greatly exceed the up- conditions and with rig motion, cannot be manhandled by
per level, if there is minimal heave, wire-rope alignment well tag lines and men leaning their shoulders into the joints. The

best handling systems are the ones in which the marine riser activity” in two rotaries and load paths.
joints are always under full control via a gantry crane, dolly,
guiding arm or other secured control method. Handling ma- One of the most time-consuming steps in running the ma-
rine riser joints via deck cranes swinging in the breeze is a rine riser is pressure-testing the lines. If the rig has a lot of
much more difficult operation. confidence in its PM program, it can test at the start, middle
and after latching the BOP stack; however, if a line does not
While running the BOP stack, it is advisable not to oper- test after running the whole string, considerable time will be
ate it, as a number of BOP stacks have inadvertently been consumed pulling the marine riser to find the leaky connec-
dropped. Depending on many factors, running times vary tion. Assuming everything is in proper condition, most rigs
from three or four joints per hour to as many as 10-12 joints will run at least 10-12 joints before testing.
per hour. The industry average is probably around 5-7 joints
per hour for a well-equipped riser-handling system and Interestingly, one of the most troubling parts of running the
trained crews. Running the marine riser takes a lot of coordi- system is the damage resulting from a lack of coordination
nation between deck crews that operate the deck, overhead between the driller lowering the assembly and the roust-
and gantry cranes and the drill crews on the drill floor. about paying out the BOP control lines. Many assemblies
have been lowered with the brakes still engaged on the BOP
If the riser is stored vertically or horizontally, it usually is control reels, resulting in damage to the lines requiring ma-
transferred joint by joint on a skate or dolly with tracks lead- jor repair and downtime.
ing onto the drill floor. The skates are set up to accept hor-
izontal joints for systems that use gantry-type cranes. The Another sequence that can cause problems is running the
less common vertical-storage systems usually have a dolly slip joint, hooking up marine-riser tensioner lines, installing
system to move the joints near the rotary, where the blocks the droop hoses in the cellar deck onto the slip joint, and
can pick them up while vertical. installing the diverter traveling assembly onto the top of the
slip joint. Using the proper equipment and sound engineer-
Generally, two marine riser-handling tools, preferably the ing with properly trained crews can make this complicated
hydraulic latch type, are used. With two tools, one is in the operation occur within hours; however, poor execution of
riser joint when lifted off the skate and another is being in- one of the last steps, installing the droop hoses and installing
stalled on the next joint by the roustabout crew. These run- the diverter traveling assembly, can cause significant delays.
ning tools do not have pressure test caps installed during the
running procedure, but are ready for the caps to be installed One area that can be particularly difficult is installing ten-
with the joints in the rotary. sioner lines on the slip joint. This can be performed one line
at a time or by using a “tensioner ring”. For some rigs the
If the make up for each marine riser joint involves bolts, their tensioner ring is stored underneath the diverter assembly.
torque must be checked precisely. Under- or over-torqued The slip joint is run through the assembly and then picks it
bolts have caused more marine riser connector damage than up. There are many versions of this operation but it can be
nearly any other action. If make up is too loose, it can lead extremely time-consuming. To make all this run smoothly,
to structural failure of the marine riser system. All marine good engineering, equipment and crew training are critical.
riser connectors are designed to have no movement within
them when made up and, for dog-type marine risers, to have For DP rigs that can perform large heading changes, a num-
the pin in compression loaded into the box. This can only be ber of swivels are used on the droop hoses in addition to the
assured with proper torque for dog-type connectors. Flange slip joint. The swivels allow MODU heading changes, while
marine riser connectors also require precise torques on the not over-torquing the marine riser or droop hoses. A swivel
bolts. Another concern is preventing damage to the buoyan- within the tensioner ring allows the upper tensioner to re-
cy modules. These consist of fiberglass and micro-balloon main with the rig while the tensioner lines swivel with the
material, both easily crushed in the rotary area, on dollies, MODU as it changes heading. The lower part of the tension-
during handling with grab arms, or sliding through the di- er ring remains in the same orientation as the wellhead, BOP
verter housing. stack and marine riser. The droop hoses, especially the kill
and choke lines, should also have swivels to allow horizontal
For dual-load-path rigs, the BOP stack and riser can be run rotation between the MODU and tensioner ring. Depending
under one load path, while the rig drills and sets the conduc- on the moonpool or cellar deck layout, the circulating mud
tor pipe. Dual-load-path rigs are in a minority and usually and BOP hydraulic line may or may not need swivels.
restricted to ultra-deepwater units. They also demand pre-
mium costs because of their large size, special equipment, When landing the BOP stack, it is advisable to land it with
water-depth rating and claimed efficiency over single-load the slip joint in the inner to outer barrel-locked position,
path MODUs. However, they do offer the feature of “dual particularly if the rig is heaving more than normal. “Locked”

TVD (ft) functional and the derrick vent line is open, and that all rup-
4000
ture discs, if used, are intact.
5000 Mudline = 5,081 ft MD
36º
6000 One system that is usually never tested in full operating

28º
7000 mode is the marine riser recoil system (RRS). (See separate
22º
8000
section for discussion of RSS equipment.) The RRS is vital,
9000
especially for wire-rope tensioner systems. With millions of
18º
10,000
pounds of tension on 6-12 tensioner lines, should the marine
riser fail and break into two pieces, the significant energy
11,000
stored in the wire ropes and tensioners could potentially
12,000
16º
slingshot the slip joint and diverter through the rotary table.
13,000
The RRS is designed to reduce this energy via deceleration
14,000
valves. The valves themselves can be tested, but a full sys-
15,000
13-5/8º tem test is difficult and not advisable during well operations.
16,000
17,000
APD PP_rev0
Leak-off test and maximum anticipated surface
18,000
19,000
APD FG_rev0 pressure (MASP)
Casing point - PP Once the BOP stack is landed, initially tested to assume it
20,000
Casing point - FG TD has a pressure seal, a full pressure and functional test should
21,000 Planned MW_APD be done. Retesting varies between regulating bodies but
22,000
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
generally it must be tested every two weeks, after setting
Equivalent mud weight (ppg) casing, subsea maintenance has been done and/or the BOP
stack has been pulled and rerun. A key test besides confirm-
Figure FD-54: Balancing pore pressure (PP), fracture ing all functions work properly and hold a specified amount
gradient (FG) and mudweight (MW) becomes more
of pressure is the time rams, annulars and kill/choke valves
difficult the deeper the formation is penetrated. Graph
close. API and most regulatory bodies require the rams to
shows an example projected graph of PP, FG and MW.
close in 45 seconds, annulars in 60 sections and kill/choke
valves the same or less of the rams as measured.
means the stack is in the collapsed position and not the
stroked-out position, which tends to land the inner barrel in In offshore drilling, especially in deepwater, balancing pore
the rotary. In this state, should the rig heave more than the pressure (PP), fracture gradient (FG) and mudweight (MW)
stroke of the slip joint, a “two block” condition will occur, to maintain well control becomes tougher the deeper the
potentially resulting in severe damage. As the assembly is well penetrates formations. Every Application to Drill Permit
lowered in preparation for latching the BOP stack, the ma- (ADP) requires, along with a well profile (Figure FD-49), at
rine-riser tensioner lines, if properly spaced out, should start least in USA waters, a projected graph of PP, FG and MW, as
picking up the weight of the assembly. As the assembly is shown in Figure FD-53. (Figures FD-49 and FD-53 refer to
lowered and the BOP stack is latched onto the wellhead, an the same example well.)
initial low-pressure test is conducted to ensure that the well-
head connector is sealed to the wellhead. From a drilling efficiency standpoint and to obtain respect-
able rates of penetration (ROP), mudweights must be min-
After the initial test on the wellhead via the kill or choke line, imized, but not so light that the well will come in. In smaller
the slip joint will be stroked out and the diverter assembly in- holes where equivalent circulation density (ECD) adds back
stalled on it. Assuming that the space out ended with the slip pressure to the formation, there is an equivalent increase in
joint near mid-stroke, the assembly can be lowered off the mudweight and pressure on the formation when circulating
riser-running spider and latched into the diverter housing. the wellbore. In other words, for example, the well might be
drilled with 14.0-ppg mud, but the friction of circulating up
At this point the subsea BOP test can begin. All functions
the annulus of the drillpipe and casing/open hole can add
must be tested. Usually the emergency release, auto-shear
another 0.3 ppg equivalent density to the bottomhole pres-
systems and ROV ports are not tested subsea; however, if
sure (BHP). Therefore, the formation at bottomhole sees a
the system is new and never run before, it is probably wise
pressure equivalent of 14.3 ppg when the well is being circu-
to do so. Surface systems must also be tested, including
lated. The reverse can also happen if the drillpipe is pulled
choke and standpipe manifolds and diverter system, includ-
out of the hole too fast and swabbing occurs. Swabbing will
ing overboard valves. Other tasks include pumping liquids
reduce the equivalent mudweight and might bring in the
through the diverter systems, checking that the MGS is
well. Unfortunately, many wells have been swabbed in, ow-

ing to a desire to make fast trip times. The reverse can also casing liners are set, frequently of unusual ID/OD sizes. Be-
occur by going into the hole too quickly. This is a pump ac- low salt, drilling can be a real challenge, with salt flows and
tion and could break the formation or fracture it. When this shifting formations even when casing is set. High pressures
occurs there is a risk of the well coming in. and temperatures (HPHT) are also a challenge, especially in
the North Sea and some places in the Gulf of Mexico. Even
This said, it is important — and also required by most reg- so, the vast majority of wells drilled around the world are
ulatory agencies — to check the formation integrity at the not that challenging, with normal pressures and reaching
casing shoe of the last casing string to determine whether TD with three or four casing strings. Rank wildcats in under-
the formation has the integrity to hold anticipated mud- developed areas can offer logistic challenges when local
weights and ECD to drill deeper formations. The subject governments and politics are less than stable.
well, shown in Figures FD-50 and FD-54, shows six casing
strings and a seventh, if one is set at total depth (TD). The In deepwater, where water depth can comprise a significant
anticipated “margin” between pore pressure and fracture portion of the total well depth, high-strength and large drill-
gradient lies between 1.5-2.1 ppg, depending on the cas- pipe sizes are often used. 6 5/8-in. drillpipe is very common
ing point. Formation or “leak-off” tests will be conducted on deepwater rigs. Such pipe offers the strength needed to
on all casing shoes, with the possible exception of the first run deep drilling assemblies, supply desired bit hydraulics
(foundation pipe) and last casing strings (production cas- and run casing loads exceeding 1 million lb. Tapered drill
ing which is not drilled out). To conduct the test, the casing string is also common, with 6 5/8-in., 5 7/8-in. and 4-in. a
float and shoe is first drilled out, penetrating the formation typical ultra-deepwater combination. Even with these drill
past the “rat hole” used to drill the last casing string. This is strings, special heavy 6 5/8-in. drillpipe casing-landing strings
usually 30-50 ft below the “rat hole”. The well is circulated are not uncommon.
clean, the annular closed on the drillpipe and a calculated
amount of pressure applied to the formation via the kill line Discharging and disposing of wellbore cuttings is another
or drillpipe. If the test should fail because the “shoe test” issue unique to offshore. Centrifuges extract barite from
is too low, the standard procedure is to squeeze the casing mud and the cuttings discharge. Depending on mud type
shoe with cement. Should the shoe test or leak-off test fail, and its expense, cutting dryers can also be used. This can
more than one cement squeeze might be necessary. If the allow in some cases dried cuttings to be shipped onshore
anticipated fracture pressure cannot be obtained, then a de- and disposed of as non-hazardous waste. Cuttings dryers
cision on drilling ahead is needed. Usually the decision is to also occupy less weight and space cutting containers, criti-
drill ahead, anticipating that an unplanned casing string or cal on some rigs, especially smaller semisubmersibles. All of
casing liner must be set. The additional casing may jeopar- this is expensive and consumes a lot of deck space, handling
dize the entire well by reducing casing ID and being unable and weight, which is a stability issue. Since modern synthet-
to reach the primary objective and TD. ic muds can be extremely expensive ($300 to over $500 per
barrel), saving mud through centrifuging, drying and other
Rig personnel must recognize when the maximum antici- means is part of the offshore process of efficient drilling.
pated surface pressure (MASP) is exceeded. Fortunately,
MASP is very rarely an issue in the field. MASP determines As the well deepens, space and weight can be an issue, as-
the pressure rating for casing, wellheads and well control suming that a pending large casing job is imminent. With
equipment. There are numerous ways to calculate MASP, the pipe racks loaded with casing, P-tanks full of cement,
but the concept is to determine what the maximum surface mud pits full, high mudweights and drill strings long and
pressure would be during a well control incident. This deter- heavy, problems can arise if the BOP stack must be pulled
mines the BOP working-pressure rating, casing rating, etc. for repair. A marine riser takes up significant deck space. Its
The MASP is an item that is presented in the ADP and is weight could push the allowable variable deck load (VDL)
usually present on the MODU for review. beyond the vessel’s registration. Newer DP ships generally
do not have these potential space constraints, but third- and
Drilling below conductor casing some fourth-generation semis might be susceptible.
Once the BOP stack has been set and tested, drilling below
Weather can always be an issue, depending on the need for
conductor casing becomes very similar to onshore drilling.
supplies, MODU cargo space and overall rig loading. This
In many wells that might have formation difficulties, mud
is especially true for smaller semis. What can compound
systems are switched from water base to mineral base, and
the situation is if the onshore facility is a long way from the
if not switched on the setting of the conductor casing is
rig location and work boats are limited. This is more likely
not done on drilling out, it is done on the next casing string
to occur in developing countries, especially in the southern
(sometimes referred to as the surface casing). Due to the
hemisphere. These factors require planning by the opera-
fracture gradient issue and especially in deepwater, more
tor’s drilling and vessel marine departments, in conjunction

with his onshore materials unit. Experience has shown that The following are some of the more common that are largely
if a new well is to be drilled in a remote, under-developed restricted, though not necessarily exclusive, to offshore:
area, it is best to have the MODU arrive at location with all
third-party equipment fully installed and commissioned, Online, offline and simultaneous tubing/casing
along with all expendable well supplies needed to, at a mini- handling
mum, set the conductor casing. Almost all modern floaters can handle both make up and
break out simultaneously. Some might only have one of
Well abandonment these load paths, with limited offline capabilities, while oth-
After the well has been drilled, evaluated via logging and ers boast full “dual handling” capability, allowing drilling
casing run, if appropriate, the well will be temporarily or per- while running casing or marine riser. The degree to which a
manently abandoned. Temporary abandonment is exactly rig can conduct dual operations varies with equipment and
what the words mean: the well will remain for possible fu- setup, but the total purpose of this arrangement is efficien-
ture reentry, perhaps used for further evaluation, producer cies of time and expense. A partial list of typical dual-han-
or something else. Offshore wells are expensive, so many dling activities includes:
are temporarily abandoned to be brought back online, if de- •• Making up stands of drillpipe offline while drilling;
sired. Permanent abandonment is once again exactly what •• Making up conductor casing while drilling the
the words mean. conductor hole;
•• Making up production tubing while working over or
For temporary abandonment, the regulating agency redrilling the well;
quires that productive zones, if perforated and/or with the •• Laying down large drillpipe while the rig is doing
potential to flow, must be totally isolated via cement plugs completion work via a work string.
and/or packers. During this process there will be positive
There is no question that online/offline capability saves
tests, negative tests (to see if the plugs are holding under
time, but it also requires more rig equipment, drill floor
a negative pressure) and verification of the plugs’ locations
space, crews and coordination at additional cost.
by tagging them with a drilling assembly. Two barriers must
separate the hydrocarbon zone and the sea floor.
Simultaneous operations
Permanent abandonment follows the same concept. All hy- This is akin to the previous discussion, but might involve
drocarbon-bearing zones must be sealed and tested. Pack- more than drilling tubulars. This could include the following:
•• Drilling while running marine riser and BOP stack;
ers can be used and cement plugs are always tagged. The
•• Abandonment of the well while pulling the marine riser
positive pressure test is fairly straightforward; however, the
and BOP stack;
negative test is a little trickier. Unlike the positive test, where •• Running Christmas trees while operating on the main
holding pressure verifies the barrier, a negative test is a flow- wellbore, with or without the BOP stack and marine
back test. The rig should not be offloading mud from the pits riser in place;
or have pills in the wellbore, as these can mask the condition •• Picking up or laying down tubulars while doing wireline
of the well if it is flowing. Upon setting all plugs (cement or and coiled tubing work;
packers) and cutting and/or explosively removing the mud •• Running subsea equipment such as flying leads while
line casing and wellhead, all debris must be removed from working on the well.
the well location. This is usually required by law. ROVs might
As with online/offline tubulars handling, this can be a real
be required do a survey.
time saver, but requires significant planning, as well as more
For temporary abandonment, a protective cap is usually equipment and more crews. Further, safety can be prob-
placed on the wellhead for protection from outside environ- lematic if these simultaneous operations are not conducted
ments, such as fishing nets and dropped objects. For perma- with safety foremost.
nent abandonment, explosives and cutters are used. Strings
of casing might be cut and pulled from the wellhead and Circulating marine riser of drilled cuts
wellbore. Explosives are used to sever the foundation pipe Most marine risers are 21-in. OD with an ID of 18 ¾-20-in.
and conductor casing. If explosives are used in shallow The bore of the typical subsea BOP stack is 18 ¾ in. When
water, the size of the pressure wave must be determined to drilling with a small bit, say 12 ¼ in. or smaller, there is a cor-
avoid damaging electronic equipment on the vessel hull or responding lower circulating rate. When cuttings come up
the hull itself. the wellbore into the marine riser, the annular velocity slows
due to the large ID to the point where the “slip velocity” be-
Other procedures comes insufficient to transport cuttings up the riser. This re-
There are dozens of other procedures and operations that quires an additional boost from increased annular velocity.
occur on an offshore drilling operation, just like onshore. Annular velocity is increased by circulating additional mud

through the mud-circulating line, usually 5-in. or more OD, closed, the next step is to close a ram to monitor pressure
on the marine riser that enters the well stream just above and eventually kill the well (Figure FD-52). This process can
the upper annular on the BOP stack. Usually an additional potentially trap high-pressure gas between the annular and
mud pump is used to circulate the mud line at low pressure, ram shut in to kill the well. One reason for the kill valves just
boosting the annular velocity in the marine riser. The boost below the upper annular (Figure FD-52) is to circulate out
line is also used to clean out gumbo or other formation cut- the trapped gas following the well kill operation and with the
tings that require higher velocities in the riser, remembering rams open. With the upper annular still closed, the kill valves
that ambient temperature is much lower in a seawater envi- under the annular are opened, the pressure bled down and
ronment and that gumbo has a tendency to “gel” into chunks any gas under pressure should flow up the kill line on the
or slabs, if the mud treatment allows it. This extra volume of marine riser. Subsequently, a reverse circulation down the
mud being circulated must be accounted for in monitoring choke line and out the upper kill line under the upper annular
the well for influx of formation fluids. can be performed to clear all gas and check that in fact all
gas has been evacuated. Even though most of the gas can be
Diverting well fluids circulated out via this process, it is sometimes necessary to
Most diverter systems on modern floaters are set up to di- open the annular slowly, let marine-riser mud drop and force
vert overboard via the marine riser through two or more 12- the gas up the kill line. This routine should be conducted on
in. to 14-in. OD lines routed overboard. The fluids can also every well kill procedure if any gas is suspected within the
be diverted under a controlled rate through the mud gas BOP stack.
separator (MGS). In deepwater and ultra-deepwater wells, it
is not uncommon for heavily gaseous fluids to flow past the Well testing
BOP stack and enter the marine riser. If this occurs, it is pos- A detailed discussion of floating well testing is beyond the
sible that the gas will flash from liquid phase to gas phase, scope of this chapter, but it is a major component of offshore
causing significant marine-riser annular flow increase. If drilling. This said, well testing from a floating MODU is an
possible, the flow can be controlled by closing the divert- operation that takes a considerable amount of equipment
er. To save expensive mud, the fluid can be directed to the and planning. It is usually conducted by third-party service
choke manifold and then the MGS. Sometimes it is possible companies under the operator’s direction. Even so, the drill-
to go directly to the MGS, but the volume and pressure must ing contractor is heavily involved, because the MODU is the
be kept within the pressure ratings of the flow lines, rupture key piece of equipment. Major pieces of equipment for the
discs (if present) and MSG. Most floating diverter elements well test include a Christmas tree that fits inside the BOP
located below the rotary table are rated for 500 psi. When stack, downhole valve assembles to open and close the well,
the diverter element is closed and flow occurs, back pres- production tubing, manifold at the rotary level, deck and pip-
sure is placed on the marine riser and slip joint packer(s) ing, salt-water spray cooling, test/separator/manifold and
that must be accounted for, because these components are burner booms (usually two for wind considerations).
also low-pressure items.
Some massive well tests have been carried out from floating
The takeaway here is that it is serious business to divert well MODUs for gas, oil and a mixture. Considerable planning
fluids. Actions should be decided well in advance. The need and safeguards must be taken. There are short-duration
to divert well fluids sometimes arises so quickly that the only tests that can last for days and long-term tests that might
course of action is to immediately divert overboard by clos- span months. Some tests actually flow into storage barges
ing the diverter element under the rotary. The deeper the moored alongside the MODU or even into flow lines, if the
water depth, the more likely the mud in the marine riser will area has infrastructure. Since a live well is flowing, safety
have liquid to gas conversion, which can result in eruptions procedures are critical and should be well thought out and
if uncontrolled. This is why it is wise in an emergency-divert rehearsed. A list should be available of actions to be taken in
scenario to leave the diverter system in overboard mode in the event of any anticipated occurrence, such as excessive
both directions to avoid flowing to and overpressuring the flowing pressure, malfunction of surface flow equipment,
MGS system. any specified equipment abnormality, loss of vessel
stationkeeping, etc.
Circulating out trapped gas in the BOP stack
All subsea BOP stacks have at least two annular BOPs, both Drill stem tests in which drillpipe is used as the producing
usually located in the LMRP package. The upper annular is string are not very common. Most well tests are done with
the “working” annular and the first to be closed in for a sus- production tubing, especially if high pressures are anticipat-
pected kick. The lower annular is a back up, especially if the ed. The well should generally not be opened or flowed ex-
upper was used to strip into/out of the wellbore, or should cept in daylight, unless the test duration requires night flow.
the upper annular not seal. Once the upper annular has been

Riser overpressure
protection/backup MPD
flowline
Figure FD-55: Managed pressure drilling (MPD) marine riser, rotating head and flow lines. Courtesy Weatherford.
A standby boat is usually recommended for safety reasons. dure is mandatory. When the test is complete, the MODU
There should be at least two ways to perform any critical should be washed down to rinse salt water from the rig and
operation in the event of a failure. Surface pressures should reduce corrosion.
be minimized via downhole chokes with the use of down-
hole recording charts. When burner booms are used, a large Completions and workovers
cooling system is required, because burning off oil and gas Completion and workover operations from a floating MODU
produces a lot of heat. Modern burner booms are designed have become much more common as deepwater produc-
to reduce heat radiation, but salt-water cooling spray is al- tion with subsea completions has increased. MODUs are
most always required. A well-thought-out well kill proce- often used during initial completion work, such as running

Christmas trees, flying leads, running completion tubing and

all downhole equipment for the completion. However, to re-
duce costs in the future, intervention vessels, most of them
ship shape, will likely perform most of this work.
Coring
Coring from a floating MODU is much the same as onshore
or from bottom-founded MODUs. The key to successful cor-
ing from a floating MODU is to reduce or eliminate vertical
motion of the drill string at the coring bit. Modern drill-string
motion compensators are much more sensitive to weight-
on-bit variation. Most coring can be done successfully with
minimum motion from the MODU.
Setting cement plugs

Setting cement plugs from floaters is much the same as
from onshore rigs and bottom-founded MODUs. Balanced
and unbalanced plugs for sidetrack, abandonment, plug
back, etc., are used and set the same — and with the same
problems — as onshore. “Tapping”, or setting weight on a
cement plug, is standard procedure to determine whether
the plug was set successfully. Positive and negative pressure
tests are usually required if in cased hole.
Unconventional floating drilling

The preceding has dealt with “conventional” or “standard”
floating drilling technology; however, over the past 20 years
a number of new “unconventional” concepts for drilling from
a floating MODU have been developed and are in use to-
day. The following unconventional drilling techniques are
not recommended for every well drilled offshore; however,
there are situations and circumstances where they should
be considered.
Managed pressure drilling (MPD)

MPD offshore is the same technique used onshore with
some variations to maintain “constant bottomhole pres-
sure” without a full column of mud open to atmosphere at
the top of the mud column. In other words, flow is not out
of a bell nipple that is open to atmosphere where the mud
flows down to solids-control equipment. MPD’s sole pur- Figure FD-56: Managed pressure drilling (MPD)
pose is to adjust the bottomhole pressure to avoid fracturing surface choke manifold to control bottomhole
the formation while keeping the well under control by ad- pressure. Courtesy Weatherford.
justing back pressure on the annulus via a closed-loop mud
system. and the annulus return. The mudweight is not sufficient to
keep the well under control when open to atmosphere, but
For floating drilling, this is one solution for ultra-deepwater by putting back pressure on the column, it adds enough “ar-
where fracture gradients in combination with extreme water tificial” mud pressure to adjust the bottomhole pressure to a
depths cause so many problems. In recent years, a few rigs desired level. The drilling mud choke manifold at the surface
have implemented this very expensive technology to drill is shown in Figure FD-56. Note that there is a rotating head
wells that, if drilled conventionally, might not prove success- just below the slip joint. Mud returns are usually taken just
ful. -One approach to using MPD from a floating MODU is below the rotating head, but some systems take them up the
shown in Figure FD-55. A “closed loop” is used that can keep kill and choke lines on the marine riser. MPD takes special
constant pressure on the formation via controlling chokes equipment and training of crews to conduct successfully

ocean bottom next to the BOP stack. Figure FD-57 shows

the layout of one system, which has also been referred to as
a mudlift pumping system.
Another approach is to inject gas, usually nitrogen, to “light-

en” the mud column somewhere in the marine riser to lower
the equivalent mudweight. It is very similar to gas lift in pro-
duction, except with mud and nitrogen. The injection point, if
not at the BOP stack, is usually somewhere in the marine ris-
er length. The location of the injection point and amount of
gas injection is calculated before starting to drill the well. As
you can imagine, this approach takes a lot of special equip-
ment, training of crews and study. This approach can also be
tricky concerning well control; therefore, rigorous training is
necessary. Only a few MODUs have tried this method, but
with reasonably success, especially in the Gulf of Mexico.
To learn more about DGD, review the separate chapter of

the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition, entitled “Managed
Pressure, Underbalanced and Air/Gas/Mist/Foam
Drilling”. Two other authoritative references on MPD and
underbalanced drilling, respectively, are “Managed Pressure
Drilling” and “Underbalanced Drilling: Limits and Extremes”,
both written by Bill Rehm, et al, and published under the
auspices of the IADC Technical Publications Committee.
Also, visit www.iadc.org/ubo-mpd-committee/, the website
Drillstring valve of the IADC Underbalanced Operations and Managed
(DSV) Pressure Drilling Committee.
Surface BOP drilling

Figure FD-57: Dual gradient drilling Surface BOP drilling (SBOP) drilling started in the mid- to
(DGD) equipment schematic. late 1980s in the Far East, purely for economic reasons. If
this method is used in the proper situation and under certain
conditions it is a comparatively inexpensive way to drill wells
without endangering the environment, the MODU and the from floaters. Figure FD-58 shows two basic configurations
crews. of equipment used for SBOP. The key observation is that the
primary well control via a BOP stack is directly below the
MPD has been successfully used in the Gulf of Mexico, Asia non-tension slip joint in the cellar deck/moonpool. Below
and West Africa. Some systems require extensive MODU the BOP stack is a more or less standard onshore wellhead
modifications; however, the goal is not to make so many to land casing hangers. Below the onshore-type wellhead is
modifications that the MODU cannot be used in conven- a tension ring to hold the wellhead and BOP stack and to
tional drilling. For more information on MPD, go to the chap- place proper tension on the riser/casing. Usually standard
ter in this manual titled “Managed Pressure, Underbalanced casing is used for the riser, but since fatigue due to vessel
and Air/Gas/Mist/Foam Drilling”. motion can be an issue, it is usually only used a limited num-
ber of times. Then it is used as casing on a drilled well. An
Dual gradient drilling emergency subsea shut-in device (ESSD) via shear rams
Dual gradient drilling (DGD) is exactly what it implies: there may or may not be on the ocean floor mounted on the sub-
are two mud columns of different mudweights in the same sea mud-line suspension system.
well. Unlike MPD, this approach is strictly for offshore.
It has the same purpose as MPD, which is to manage the If the MODU stationkeeping system fails, the riser/casing
bottomhole pressure and the mud columns so that they will will fail. This has occurred more than once. Without an
not fracture nor allow formation fluids to flow into the well- emergency shut-in device at the ocean floor, this leaves the
bore. To accomplish DGD, a pump package is placed just well open to the sea. To prevent a blowout, the mud should
above or near the BOP stack. The package can be part of the be heavy enough to kill the well from the sea floor to the
marine riser systems or a separate package sitting on the wellbore bottom, which has been the case in the Far East.

The ideal and safest place to use SBOP is when: modifications should be minimal. However, if
Surface
casing
Figure FD-58: Surface BOP drilling (SBOP) schematic with subsea emergency shut-off device (A) and without (B).
•• There is a very high degree of confidence that the conventional and SBOP are both planned, experience
MODU will not lose station. This usually means a has shown that most cellar decks are too small to
moored vessel in a very benign environment, such as handle all the equipment, especially if an ESSD is also
the Far East. However, SBOP has been used on at least being used. The ability for the MODU to change back
one ultra-deep DP vessel, but it also used an ESSD; and forth from SBOP mode to conventional floating
•• Only three casing strings will be run, thus reducing the drilling is a big economic plus; however, the advantage
weight that must be supported by the rig’s tension of using an older MODU, which is smaller than the 5th
system. This also means a smaller, lighter BOP (13 5/8 generation units, is eliminated. The original concept
in.) can be used. However, some MODUs have used was to use an older, cheaper dayrate MODU, but
larger-bore BOPs. The use of subsea BOP stacks, recently most of those MODUs have been retired.
which are much taller and heavier than the standard •• There are a sufficient number of wells and the savings
SBOP stack, is not practical. This can be a major from drilling them in SBOP mode will defray MODU
problem if the rig is going to alternate between modifications.
conventional and SBOP drilling without offloading the
other system; It is critical not to use the SBOP method, especially without
•• The pressure gradient is normal pressure (less than 12 the subsea ESSD, if abnormal pressure is anticipated and/
ppg) and the loss of the riser/casing will allow the or MODU stationkeeping might be difficult. That said, hun-
mudweight in the borehole to kill the well; dreds of wells have been drilled with SBOP, mostly in the Far
•• Development drilling will be conducted where all the East. None has been drilled in the USA or the North Sea. One
wells are similar, and thus there is a high degree of DP MODU drilled an SBOP with an ESSD in over 9,000 ft of
confidence concerning well control;
water in Brazil. “IADC Surface BOP Guidelines for Floating
•• Significant modifications to the MODU are not
MODUs” discusses SBOP operations in detail.
necessary. If the rig is only going to drill with SBOP,

HP
HIGH PRESSURE
DRILLING HOSES

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
HIGH PRESSURE DRILLING HOSES HP-i
CHAPTER
HP
HIGH PRESSURE
DRILLING HOSES
nance and repair.
by the reader.
CONTRIBUTORS
Ron Trujillo, Global Oilfield Consulting LLC
Dr Tibor Nagy, Rubber-Consult Ltd.
CO-AUTHORS
Alexandra Bukszár, ContiTech Rubber Industrial Ltd.
Attila Mihály, ContiTech Rubber Industrial Ltd.
Jocelyn Mangunsong, ContiTech Oil & Marine Corp.
HP–ii HIGH PRESSURE DRILLING HOSES


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-8-4

HIGH PRESSURE DRILLING HOSES HP-iii
CHAPTER HP
HIGH PRESSURE DRILLING HOSES

Contents
Introduction..................................................................... HP-1 Operating temperature.......................................HP-5
Mechanical properties................................................. HP-1 Oil-based muds.....................................................HP-5
Dimensions and tolerances................................ HP-1 Barge-attended offshore rigs............................HP-5
Connections............................................................ HP-1 Operating limits....................................................HP-5
Test pressure..........................................................HP-2 Inspection and testing..................................................HP-5
Working pressure..................................................HP-2 Flexible choke and kill hose........................................HP-6
Flexible specification levels (FSL)....................HP-2 Introduction...........................................................HP-6
Temperature ranges.............................................HP-2 Design......................................................................HP-6
Burst pressure........................................................HP-2 Dimensions and tolerances...............................HP-6
Marking....................................................................HP-2 End connectors.....................................................HP-6
Recommended dimensions................................HP-4 Performance verification tests.........................HP-6
Care and maintenance.................................................HP-5 Working pressure.................................................HP-8
Handling..................................................................HP-5 Flexible specification levels (FSL)....................HP-8
Twisting...................................................................HP-5 Temperature ranges............................................HP-8
Clearance................................................................HP-5 Flexible well test hose..................................................HP-9
Safety chains/slings.............................................HP-5 References.......................................................................HP-9
Vibration and pulsation......................................HP-5

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HIGH PRESSURE DRILLING HOSES HP-1
Introduction
Rotary drilling hose is the flexible connector between the
top of the standpipe and the swivel, which allows for vertical
travel. It usually comes in lengths of 45 ft and longer (Figure
HP-1).
Rotary vibrator hoses are flexible connectors between the

mud pump manifold and the standpipe manifold to accom-
modate alignment and isolate vibration. They are normally
30 ft in length or less (Figure HP-2).
High-pressure cement hose functions as a flexible connec-

tion between the cementing pump and the overhead drilling
system (Figure HP-3).
High-pressure mud hoses should not be used for gas service

or operations where it is intended or likely that the hoses will
be exposed to well effluent. These hoses are covered by API
RP 17B - Flexible Pipe, 5th Ed. Mud and cement hoses should
not be used as choke and kill lines, which are covered in API
Spec 16C - Choke and Kill Systems.
Figure HP-1: Example of a rotary hose. Courtesy ContiTech.
Note: work at API is in progress to include requirements for
flexible hoses used in air, gas, foam or mist drilling.
Mechanical properties
Dimensions and tolerances
The length of each hose assembly should comply with the
dimension specified in the purchase agreement within the
tolerances specified below and in Figure HP-4. All dimen-
sions discussed in the following paragraphs are detailed in
Figure HP-4 and Table HP-1.
For hose assembly lengths up to 6 m (20 ft), the finished un-

pressurized hose length tolerance should be ±65 mm (±2.5
in.). For hose assembly lengths up to 6 m (20 ft), the lengths
Figure HP-2: Vibrator hoses. Courtesy ContiTech.
of the hose assembly after pressurization to its specified
working pressure should not differ by more than 65 mm (2.5
in.) + 0.01L, where L is the length of the hose assembly.
The tolerance for finished, unpressurized hose assembly

lengths exceeding 6 m (20 ft) is ±1%. For longer hoses,
the lengths of the hose assembly after pressurization to its
specified working pressure should not change by more than
±2 %.
Connections
Rotary hose assemblies should be furnished with either
swaged or chemically bonded couplings. Hose couplings
should be crimped, designed and manufactured to be fit for
purpose with the hose assembly they are attached to. End
connectors that are attached to the hose couplings with line
Figure HP-3: Cement hoses. Courtesy ContiTech.
pipe threads should not be used in hose assemblies with
working pressures exceeding 34.5 MPa (5,000 psi). The

HP-2 HIGH PRESSURE DRILLING HOSES
pulsations are not expected;

FSL Level 4: Rotary
and vibrator hoses used in
air, gas, foam or mist drilling
- high-frequency pressure
pulsations are expected.
Temperature ranges
The minimum operating
temperature of hose assem-
blies covered by API Spec 7K
is -20°C (-4°F). The manu-
facturer may specify a lower
Figure HP-4: Rotary vibrator and drilling hose dimensions. Refer to Table HP-1. Courtesy ContiTech.
temperature.
end connector should either be butt-welded onto the hose Each hose assembly should
coupling or machined from the same piece of material that be rated by the manufacturer to operate in one of the three
the hose coupling is made of. temperature ranges specified as follows:
Temperature range I: -20°C to +82°C (-4°F to +180°F);
Test pressure Temperature Range II: -20°C to +100°C (-4°F to +212°F);
Each high-pressure hose assembly with rated working pres- Temperature Range III: -20°C to +121°C (-4°F to +250°F).
sure up to 7,500 psi should be hydrostatically tested to
2.0 times the working pressure; 69-MPa and 103.4-MPa If the minimum operating temperature specified by the
(10,000-psi and 15,000-psi) cement hoses should be test- manufacturer is lower than –20°C (–4°F), the low-tempera-
ed to 1.5 times the working pressure, as specified in Table ture bending test should be carried out at the minimum op-
HP-1, using water as the test medium. Hold test pressure erating temperature specified by the manufacturer.
should for at least 15 min. The pressure test should be re-
corded on chart or graph and kept on file by the manufactur- Burst pressure
er for a minimum of 10 years. High-pressure mud hose assemblies should be designed
to have a minimum burst pressure of 2.5 times the working
Work is in progress at API to change test pressure to 1.5 pressure. Hose assemblies with rated working pressure of
times working pressure for all high-pressure hoses. 69.0 MPa (10,000 psi) or higher should be rated with a min-
imum burst pressure of 2.25 times the rated working pres-
Working pressure sure. The test medium should be water. Maximum surge
Pressure surges are added to the operating pressures and pressures encountered in the hose should be included in the
the total pressure must not exceed the working pressure rat- working pressure.
ing in Table HP-1.
Marking
Flexible specification levels (FSL) The hose assembly manufactured to comply with API Spec
Flexible specification levels (FSL) define different levels of 7K should be marked with API 7K, the month and year of
design verification requirements. manufacture, the rated working pressure, the test pressure,
FSL Level 0: Cement hoses – with no pressure pulsation the working temperature range, FSL level, operating and
requirement; storage MBR, and the manufacturer’s identification. Each
FSL Level 1: Rotary and vibrator hoses for vertical hose assembly should have a longitudinal lay line of a differ-
(non-directional) drilling – low-frequency pressure ent color than the hose cover. (Figure HP-4)
pulsation requirement (NOT recommended for
directional drilling); D = Inside diameter
FSL Level 2: Rotary and vibrator hoses for directional
drilling high-frequency pressure pulsation requirements F = For rotary hose, dimension should be 6-18 in. from the
(recommended for directional drilling with down- inboard to the end of the coupling. For vibrator hose, dimen-
linking). sion should be 6-10 in. from the inboard end of the coupling.
Work is in progress at API to include further flexible specifi- L = Nominal length
cation levels, namely:
FSL Level 3: Rotary and vibrator hoses used in air, gas, NOTE: Hose manufacturers should mark the hose with the
foam or mist drilling - high-frequency pressure notation “Attach Safety Clamp Here.”

Table HP-1: Dimensions and pressures for rotary drilling, vibrator, cement, and mud-delivery hoses
Inside Diameter API Rated Working Test Pressure Safety Minimal Burst MBR operationala
Remark
mm (in.) Grade Pressure MPa (psi) MPa (psi) factor Pressure MPa (psi) m (in.)
A 10.3 (1,500) 20.7 (3,000) 2.50 25.8 (3,750) 0.9 (36)

B 13.8 (2,000) 27.6 (4,000) 2.50 34.5 (5,000) 0.9 (36)
C 27.6 (4,000) 55.2 (8,000) 2.50 69.0 (10,000) 0.9 (36)
50.8 (2.0)
D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 0.9 (36)
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 1.2 (48) cement only
G 103.4 (15,000) 155.1 (22,500) 2.25 232.7 (33,750) 1.4 (55) cement only
A 10.3 (1,500) 20.7 (3,000) 2.50 25.8 (3,750) 0.9 (36)
B 13.8 (2,000) 27.6 (4,000) 2.50 34.5 (5,000) 0.9 (36)
C 27.6 (4,000) 55.2 (8,000) 2.50 69.0 (10,000) 0.9 (36)
63.5 (2.5) D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 0.9 (36)
E 51.7 (7,500) 103.4 (15,000) 2.50 129.3 (18,750) 1.2 (48)
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 1.2 (48) cement only
G 103.4 (15,000) 155.1 (22,500) 2.25 232.7 (33,750) 1.5 (60) cement only
C 27.6 (4,000) 55.2 (8,000) 2.50 69.0 (10,000) 1.2 (48)
D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 1.2 (48)
E 51.7 (7,500) 103.4 (15,000) 2.50 129.3 (18,750) 1.2 (48)
76.2 (3.0)
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 1.5 (60)
G 103.4 (15,000) 155.1 (22,500) 2.25 232.7 (33,750) 1.6 (64) cement only
H 138.0 (20,000) 207.0 (30,000) 2.25 310.0 (45, 000) 1.8 (72) cement onlyb
C 27.6 (4,000) 55.2 (8,000) 2.50 69.0 (10,000) 1.4 (55)
D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 1.4 (55)
88.9 (3.5)
E 51.7 (7,500) 103.4 (15,000) 2.50 129.3 (18,750) 1.4 (55)
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 1.6 (64)
C 27.6 (4,000) 55.2 (8,000) 2.50 69.0 (10,000) 1.4 (55)

D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 1.4 (55)
E 51.7 (7,500) 103.4 (15,000) 2.50 129.3 (18,750) 1.5 (60)
101.6 (4.0)
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 1.8 (72)
G 103.4 (15,000) 155.1 (22,500) 2.25 232.7 (33,750) 2.0 (79) cement onlyb
H 138.0 (20,000) 207.0 (30,000) 2.25 310.0 (45,000) 2.2 (87) cement onlyb
C 27.6 (4,000) 55.2 (8,000) 2.50 69.0 (10,000) 1.5 (60)
D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 1.5 (60)
127.0 (5.0)
E 51.7 (7,500) 103.4 (15,000) 2.50 129.3 (18,750) 1.8 (72)
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 2.0 (79) b
D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 1.8 (72)
152.4 (6.0) E 51.7 (7,500) 103.4 (15,000) 2.50 129.3 (18,750) 2.0 (79)
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 2.2 (87) b
Continued on page HP-4.

Table HP-1 (cont'd): Dimensions and pressures for rotary drilling, vibrator, cement, and mud-delivery hoses
Inside Diameter API Rated Working Test Pressure Safety Minimal Burst MBR operationala
Remark
mm (in.) Grade Pressure MPa (psi) MPa (psi) factor Pressure MPa (psi) m (in.)
D 34.5 (5,000) 69.0 (10,000) 2.50 86.3 (12,500) 2.5 (98) b
203.2 (8.0) E 51.7 (7,500) 103.4 (15,000) 2.50 129.3 (18,750) 2.7 (106) b
F 69.0 (10,000) 103.4 (15,000) 2.25 155.2 (22,500) 3.0 (118) b
a MBR is taken to the center line of each hose.

b Not included in API Spec 7K, 5th Ed., but expected to be part of 6th Ed. Addendum.
Source: API Spec 7K, 5th Ed.
Recommended dimensions Use the following equation to determine the recommended

length of hose:
Hose length LH = LT/2 + π R + 2C + S
To avoid kinking the hose, ensure that the hose length of
the hose and standpipe height are such that the hose has a Where:
normal bending radius at the swivel when the hose is in its LH = Length of hose in meters (ft)
lowest drilling position and at the standpipe when the hose LT = Length of hose travel in meters (ft)
is at its highest drilling position R = Minimum bend radius in meters (ft); for values see
Table HP-1
C = Coupling length in meters (ft)
S = 0.3 m (1 ft) allowance for contraction in LH due to
C = Coupling length, m (ft)
maximum recommended working pressure in feet,
Hs= Vertical height of stand which is one foot for all sizes
pipe, m (ft)
R = Min. radius of bending of
hose, m (ft)
LT = Length of hose travel, m (ft)
Standpipe height
Z = height, m (ft) from top of Use the following equation to determine the recommended
the derrick floor to the end
of hose at the swivel in its standpipe height:
lowest drilling position
HS = LT/2 + Z
Where:
HS = Vertical height of standpipe in meters (ft)
LT = Length of hose travel in meters (ft)
Z = Height in meters (ft) from the top of the derrick floor
to the end of the hose at the swivel when the swivel is
at its lowest drilling position
When the actual hose length is greater than the calculated

length, the standpipe height should be increased by half the
difference between the actual length and calculated height.
Configuration analysis is recommended to avoid over-bend-

ing and early failure of high-pressure mud and cement hos-
es. 3-D computer modeling can be used for the analysis.
Hose end connections

Rotary hose assemblies with working pressure greater than
34.5-MPa (5,000 psi) line pipe threads should not be used
to affix the end connections to the hose coupling. End con-
nectors should not be welded to hose assemblies in the field,
Figure HP-5: Layout for rotary hose. as this will damage the hose. In all applicable situations, it’s
Courtesy ContiTech. recommended that all rotary hoses have either one-piece or

butt-weld couplings. The connections between the rotary Vibration and pulsation
hose, standpipe and swivel should be consistent with the Continuous flexing damages the drilling hose and reduces
design working pressure of the system. The connections at- its service life. Pulsation dampeners should be installed in
taching the hose to the swivel and to the standpipe should the mud pump discharge line and suction stabilizers in-
be as tangential as possible. The use of a standard connec- stalled in the mud pump inlet line to reduce the magnitude
tion on the swivel gooseneck will ensure this relationship at of the pressure surges. The manufacturer should provide the
the top of the hose. The gooseneck on the standpipe should pre-charge pressures for the dampeners and stabilizers.
be selected to provide for connecting the rotary hose at an
angle 15° from vertical. Operating temperature
Hose assembly operating temperature should not be out-
Care and maintenance side the designated temperature range specified earlier.
Operating a hose assembly outside its designated range will
Handling shorten its service life and may lead to an accident.
To minimize the danger of kinking, the hose should be re-
moved from its crate, laid out in a straight line, and then lift- Oil-based muds
ed by means of a catline attached near one end of the hose. The use of oil-based muds with an excessively high aromatic
If a catline is used to remove the hose from its crate, the content will cause the hose inner liner to swell and shorten
crate should be rotated as the hose is removed. It’s recom- its service life. It is recommended that oil-based muds be
mended to use a carrier to protect the hose when moving to held to a minimum aniline point of 150°F.
a new location. It is considered bad practice to handle hose
with a winch, to bang the hose from a truck gin pole, or to Barge-attended offshore rigs
place heavy pieces of equipment on the hose. When rotary hose is used as a flexible line between barges
and offshore drilling rigs, use care to ensure that the hose
Twisting aligns between both end connections. It is recommended
Hose should not be intentionally back twisted. Twisting is that swivel joints be used at both ends. Drilling in rough
sometimes employed to force the swivel bail out of the way. weather and high seas will result in abnormal flexing and
This places injurious stresses on the structural members jerking of the hose, and cause premature failures.
of the hose body, because one spiral of reinforcing wires is
opened and the other is tightened, thus reducing the resis- Operating limits
tance of the hose to bursting and kinking. In order to prevent Operating personnel should be advised on the highest and
twisting, it is suggested that a straight swivel be installed on lowest drilling positions, length of standpipe, etc., for which
one end of the hose. Each length of hose has a longitudinal the hose was selected and drilling operations should be car-
lay line of a different color than the hose cover. This should ried out within such limits.
be used as a guide in making certain the hose is installed in
a straight position. Inspection and testing
It is essential to properly care for the flexible hose once in-
Clearance stalled and in service. The frequency and degree of inspec-
Hose installations should provide adequate clearance be- tion depends upon the severity of service. It is recommend-
tween the hose and the derrick or mast. ed that the operator record all inspection data for the hose.
This information will be used by the manufacturer when
Safety chains/slings evaluating the condition of the hose during the inspection
Safety chains/slings should be as short as possible, without schedules. In general, the hose should be inspected regular-
restricting the movement of the hose when the swivel is at ly. Follow or exceed these minimum guidelines:
its highest or lowest point of operation. The safety chain/
sling at the standpipe end of the hose should be attached Once a month (or during installation/removal): Visual
upright to the derrick upright, rather than to a transverse inspection;
girt. The chain/sling can then move upward, if the traveling Once or twice a month: On-site pressure test;
block is raised too high. The safety chain/sling at the swivel Initial and every six months: Major inspection;
Annually: 2nd major inspection.
end of the hose is attached to the lug on the swivel body or
housing. The minimum breaking strength of chains/slings There are a number of critical elements in the hose that
up to 4-in. hose size is 16,000 lb, and above 4-in. hose size cannot be thoroughly checked through standard inspection
is 32,000 lb. techniques. Apart from dissecting the hose body, the best
way to evaluate the condition of the hose is through review

Permissible test media: mud, oil and water, with the

precaution that all air should be bled off;
Duration of test pressure limit should not exceed 10
min;
Field test pressure should not exceed 1.25 times the
maximum rated working pressure (Table HP-1).
Flexible choke and kill hose

Introduction
The flexible choke and kill hose can be used as an integral
part of the blowout preventer. These hoses are important
when a kick occurs during drilling. (A kick is an unexpect-
ed entry of water, gas, oil or other formation fluid into the
wellbore.) This can occur when the pressure of the medium
entering in the wellbore is higher than expected. To prevent
the blowout, high density mud is pumped through the kill
hose. The pressure of the well is adjusted by the quantity
of the mud passed through the choke line (Figure HP-6 and
Figure HP-7).
At the date of the writing this document, API Spec 16C, 1st
Figure HP-6: Flexible choke and kill hose installed
Ed. is the valid standard, but work is in progress at API to
on a jackup drilling rig. Courtesy ContiTech.
issue API Spec 16C 2nd Ed.
Design
Typical constructions of bonded and non-bonded flexible
choke and kill lines (Figures HP-8 and HP-9, respectively).
Bonded and non-bonded assemblies are shown in Figures
HP-10 and HP-11, respectively.
Dimensions and tolerances

See Table HP-2. The length of each hose assembly should
comply with dimensions specified in the purchase agree-
ment within the proper tolerances. The standard overall
length tolerances of flexible hoses up to 6 m (20 ft) should
be ±65 mm (±2.5 in.) with the tolerance of longer lines be-
ing ±2%. The standard tolerance for length change from
Figure HP-7: Choke and kill hoses on subsea atmospheric to working pressure is a maximum of ±2% of
BOP stack. Courtesy ContiTech.
the overall length. The length tolerance for LMRP choke and
of the operating conditions recorded during the hose service kill hose is to be specified by the manufacturer, after lengths
life, in particular maximums and peak conditions. and orientation (3D) modeling is completed.
Field testing of rotary hoses, when required for establishing End connectors
periodic safety levels of continued operations, should be Flexible choke and kill hose end connectors should have
conducted with these factors as a guide: welded or one-piece pipe design. The pressure rating should
During visual inspection, examine all external damage be equivalent and not higher than the pressure rating of the
to the body, end fitting, and couplings. Safety chains/ flexible hose. Pipe threads are not acceptable end connec-
slings should be checked and properly attached for tions. Figure HP-12 shows typical flexible choke and kill hose
safety compliance; end connectors.
All back twist must be avoided;
Hose should be suspended in normal unstressed
position from standpipe to swivel;
Performance verification tests
Rate of pressure should rise not less than 1,000 psi/ Since choke and kill hoses may be employed as an integral
min, nor greater than 10,000 psi/min; part of the blowout prevention equipment, API Spec 16C

1: Fluid-containing inner tube 4: Cover rubber 1: Fluid-containing inner tube 5: Intermediate sheath
2: Rubberized textile 5: Outer armoring 2,8: Tape 9: Cover
3: Reinforcement windings 3,4,6,7: Reinforcement windings 10: Outer armoring
Figure HP-8: Typical bonded flexible choke and Figure HP-9: Typical non-bonded flexible choke and
kill line constructions. Courtesy ContiTech. kill line constructions. Courtesy ContiTech.
Figure HP-10: Typical bonded flexible line assembly. Courtesy ContiTech.
Figure HP-11: Typical non-bonded flexible line assembly. Courtesy ContiTech.
Figure HP-12: Typical flexible choke and kill hose

end connectors. Courtesy ContiTech.

Table HP-2: Flexible choke and kill line sizes and rated working pressures
Inside Diameter Rated Working Pressure Test Pressure Minimum Burst Pressure
in. (mm) psi (MPa) psi (MPa) psi (MPa)
2 (50.8)
3 (76.2)
5,000 (34.5) 10,000 (69.0)a 11,250 (77.6)
3 1/2 (89)
4 (101.6)
2 (50.8)
2 1/2 (63.5)
10,000 (69.0) 15,000 (103.5) 22,500 (155.0)
3 (76.2)
4 (101.6)
2 (50.8)
2 1/2 (63.5)
15,000 (103.5) 22,500 (155.0) 33,750 (233.0)
3 (76.2)
4 (101.6)b
2 (50.8)
2 1/2 (63.5)
20,000 (138.0) 30,000 (207.0) 45,000 (310.0)
3 (76.2)
4 (101.6)b
a
Test pressure of 5,000 psi choke and kill lines will be changed to 7,500 psi in of API 16C, 2nd Ed.
b
4 in. 15,000 and 20,000 psi are not included in present API 16C, but are expected to be in 2nd Ed.
Source: API RP 16C
Table HP-3: Flexible choke and kill line flexible specification levels (FSL)
Flexible Specification Level Definition
Includes all design, material and design validation test requirements including hydrostatic
FSL 0
internal pressure, bending flexibility, burst test and exposure test.
FSL 1 Includes FSL 0 and flexible line fire test.
FSL 2 Includes FSL 0 and flexible line high temperature exposure test.
FSL 3 Includes FSL 0, flexible line fire test and flexible line high temperature exposure test.
defines design verification testing, a series of mechanical Temperature ranges

tests, including exposure to high concentration of H2S, hy- Each hose assembly should be rated by the manufacturer
drostatic internal pressure test, bending flexibility test, burst to operate in one of the five temperature ranges specified
test, decompressions etc. In addition, a fire test minimum as follows:
of 1,300°F (704°C) for 30 min. might be required. The test Temperature range A: -20°C to 82°C (-4° F to 180°F);
pressure is specified in Table HP-2. Temperature range B: -20°C to 100°C (-4°F to 212°F);
Temperature range K: -60°C to 82°C (-75°F to 180°F);
Working pressure Temperature range P: -29°C to 82°C (-20°F to 180°F);
Pressure surges are added to the operating pressures and Temperature range U: -18° C to 121°C (0°F to 250°F).
the total pressure must not exceed the working pressure rat-
Note: API 16C Spec 2nd Ed. is expected to contain additional
ing in Table HP-2.
temperature levels, and will allow combinations of different
temperature levels.
Flexible specification levels (FSL)
FSL designations are not included in the present API Spec
16C, but are expected to be in the 2nd Ed. FSL listed in Table
HP-3 define different levels of design verification require-
ments.

Flexible well test hose References

There is no recognized industry standard for well-test hoses.
However, in view of the typical operating conditions (5,000 1. API Spec. 7K 5th Ed. (2010) Drilling and Well Servicing
psi operating pressure or lower, with a very high variation Equipment
in the duration and frequency of operation), the API spec-
2. API RP 7L 1st Ed. (1995) and Addendum 2 (2006) Pro-
ifications for choke and kill hoses (API Spec 16C) and pro-
cedures for Inspection, Maintenance, Repair and Re-
duction hoses (API Spec 17K- Bonded Flexible Pipe, 2nd Ed.
manufacture of Drilling Equipment.
and Spec 17J - Unbonded Flexible Pipe, 4th Ed.) should be
considered. Choke and kill hoses are designed to withstand 3. API RP 17B 5th Ed. (2014) Recommended Practice for
short-term high-pressure operation; production hoses must Flexible Pipe.
withstand continuous periods of operation with a high risk
of rapid decompression. Such decompression can cause col- 4. API Spec. 17K 2nd Ed. (2005) Specification for Bonded
lapse of the hose liner as entrained gas, which has entered Flexible Pipe.
the hose body during the long periods of operation under
pressure, permeates back into the hose cavity. Since choke 5. API Spec. 17J 4th Ed. (2014) Specification for Unbond-
and kill hoses may be designed for short-term gas exposure, ed Flexible Pipe.
the manufacturers should be consulted regarding applicabil-
6. API Spec. 16C 1st Ed. (1993) Specification for Choke
ity to well testing.
and Kill Sytems.
7. 7. API Spec. 16C 2nd Ed. (2015 in print) Specification

for Choke and Kill Equipment.
8. 8. API Spec. 5B 15th Ed. (2008) Specification for

Threading, Gauging and Thread Inspection of Casing,
Tubing, and Line Pipe Threads.

LU
LUBRICATION

Enhancing
operational
integrity by
ensuring a
competent
workforce
Accreditation
LUBRICATION LU–i
CHAPTER
LU
LUBRICATION
PRINCIPAL AUTHOR
Sean Komatinsky, Castrol
REVIEWERS
Mike Faulkner, ENSCO
Tom Reynolds, Castrol

LU–ii LUBRICATION


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-2-4

LUBRICATION Contents LU-iii
CHAPTER LU
LUBRICATION
Contents
Tribology.......................................................................... LU-1 Lubrication program and practices........................ LU-10
Mechanisms of wear.............................................. LU-1 Introduction............................................................ LU-10
Types of lubrication................................................ LU-2 Lubrication program baseline............................ LU-10
Boundary lubrication......................................... LU-2 Goals of a lubrication program......................... LU-10
Mixed-film lubrication...................................... LU-3 Lubrication opportunities................................... LU-11
Hydrodynamic lubrication............................... LU-3 Lubrication survey................................................ LU-11
Hydrostatic lubrication..................................... LU-3 Lubricant suppliers............................................... LU-11
Functions of a lubricant........................................ LU-3 Management of change (MOC).......................LU-12
Lubricant formulation............................................ LU-4 Fluid conditioning & contamination
Base oils................................................................ LU-4 control......................................................................LU-12
Lubricant additives............................................ LU-5 Lubricant storage and handling........................ LU-14
Lubricant properties............................................... LU-5 Used oil analysis.................................................... LU-14
Applications.............................................................. LU-7 Used oil analysis service selection..................LU-15
Engines.................................................................. LU-7 Appendix: Definitions............................................... LU-A1
Gears..................................................................... LU-7
Greased applications........................................ LU-8

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
LUBRICATION LU-1
Tribology b. Improved plant availability and reduction in lost

The fundamentals of lubrication are derived from tribology, production
which is the study of surfaces moving relative to each other. 3. Efficiency improvements
Tribology evaluates the aspects of friction, lubrication and a. Lower energy costs
wear. There are a number of factors that can influence how
these surfaces interact, including surface roughness, mate- Mechanisms of wear
rial types, speed, pressure and contamination. Successful The necessity of lubrication and the possible opportunities
utilization of lubrication, however, can be a highly effective are based on component tribology, or evaluation of how
tool at minimizing negative outcomes such as premature internal component surfaces move relative to each other.
wear. Each lubricated application has unique operating conditions
and stresses which can make it subject to different mecha-
The basic reason for lubricating components is the need for nisms of wear. It is important to understand the wear causes
equipment to perform a specific task with an acceptable and opportunities of different applications to enable proper
level of efficiency, reliability and cost. What is acceptable avoidance of these conditions.
can vary from organization to organization, but many equip-
ment manufacturers have provided a baseline expectation Abrasive wear: The most common type of wear, normally
for their equipment with respect to lubrication and mainte- caused by contaminants moving between the surfaces in the
nance regimes. Despite the established baselines, there are lubricant. Contamination sources could come from surface
many lubrication opportunities to improve efficiency and re- base metal or dirt from external sources. These particles
liability, resulting in overall lower costs. These opportunities are normally the same size or larger than the lubricant film
will be discussed later in this chapter. thickness and result in scratching or scaring of the surface.
Particles which cause abbraisve wear can be embedded into
The costs associated with poor lubrication are quite stag- component surfaces or broken into smaller particles which
gering, according to several estimates. Nearly 70% of equip- can cause Erosive wear.
ment failures can be attributed to lubricant-related failures
at a cost of over $7 billion annually. This is a cost that cannot
be recovered. Poor utilization of lubricants has a cascading
damage effect that cannot be reversed by corrections in im-
proper practices. Correcting lubrication problems as early Deep scratch due to
possible helps avoid further damage progression, but at- abrasive wear
tentiveness to utilizing lubrication best practices from the
start yields the maximum benefit of reliability, efficiency and
cost-effectiveness.
The opportunities to develop a lubrication program are

numerous, and the benefits are quite extensive. Although
there is a baseline expectation on what a lubricant can do,
this is merely an average and minimum expectation of per-
formance in various applications. A better understanding of
lubrication and the increased availability of lubrication tools
has yielded increased improvements with minimal invest-
ment. The amount of the return will vary from organization
to organization and also be dependent on the current lubri- Figure LU-1: Visual depiction of abrasive wear.
cation culture and resources available to implement addi-
tional initiatives. Abrasive wear is the most common type of wear and results
in nearly four of every five component failures. This type of
The most obvious benefits, however, will fall into three pri- wear can be managed through proper lubricant handling,
mary groups. minimizing sources of external contamination and utiliza-
1. Reduced equipment life cycle costs tion of filtration.
a. Reduced maintenance costs
b. Reduced lubricant expense Adhesive wear: The result of the welding of surfaces due
2. Improved operational reliability to insufficient lubricant film thickness or insufficient addi-
a. Reduced unplanned downtime tive chemistry. The welding of surfaces is then followed by

LU–2 LUBRICATION
the shearing of these welded sections from the base metal. manage the cyclical loading. Observations of changing com-
Factors that can increase the potential for adhesive wear ponent conditions through vibration and used oil analysis
include utilizing a lubricant viscosity that is too low for the may indicate a condition of increased wear prior to serious
application, using a lubricant which has insufficient additive failures.
chemistry which does not adequately protect from inciden-
tal surface contact or abnormally heavy component loading Erosive wear: Caused by the impact of particles in the lu-
including high speeds or high temperatures. Normally this bricant that erodes internal components. High levels of con-
type of wear is very catastrophic to internal components tamination in systems cause this type of wear as the lubri-
and is caused by improper lubricant selection or changed cant carries particulates through the system. High system
operating condition which the lubricant film strength or ad- pressures, fluid velocity or particulate hardness can increase
ditive chemistry is no longer sufficient to mitigate. the erosive wear of system components. Erosive wear is
similar to the process of sand blasting. Minimizing external
LOAD Material transfer or contamination and effective use of filtration will resolve this.
particle formation
Corrosive wear: Corrosion of internal components is caused

by the presence of moisture on ferrous components or a
chemical reaction. Some lubricant additives could be cor-
rosive to some internal metals. Common examples include
extreme-pressure gear additives with yellow metals in worm
gears or zinc anti-wear additives with silver lined compo-
Figure LU-2: Visual depiction of adhesive wear. nents in Electric Motive Diesel (EMD) engines.
Avoidance of adhesive wear is normally mitigated by proper Types of lubrication

lubricant selection for the operating conditions of the equip- Now that we have evaluated the types of common wear
ment, proper lubricant conditioning and validation of lubri- mechanisms, we can evaluate the different types of lubri-
cant properties through used oil analysis. cation that will help minimize component damage from pre-
mature wear. Each lubricated application has unique internal
Fatigue wear: Heavy cyclic loading of surfaces can result in operating conditions and stresses that are a function of sys-
the weakening of surfaces, leading to cracks and separation tem design, component condition, equipment loading and
of surface material. Surface material released is normally operating conditions. Throughout the operation of a com-
much larger than the fluid film and can result in deep scar- ponent, there are various stages of lubrication that ensure
ing or additional stress on component surfaces. This type of a level of protection of internal surfaces. These four primary
wear is also commonly referred to as micro-pitting . types of lubrication are boundary lubrication, mixed-film lu-
brication, hydrodynamic lubrication and hydrostatic lubrica-
Fatigue wear is normally mitigated by utilization of the cor- tion. Typically a given component experiences at least two
rect lubricant with regard to viscosity and additive blend to types of lubrication during its normal operation.
Boundary lubrication
Boundary lubrication exists when there is little to no lubri-
cant between the surfaces, and some contact is expected
between the metal surfaces. This condition is existent in
almost all applications upon startup as there is insufficient
motion or hydrostatic lubrication (described below) to sep-
arate the surfaces.
Lubrication in this scenario is provided by the accumulation

of anti-wear wear additives on internal surfaces, such as
zinc dialkyldithiophosphates (ZDDP) or molybdenum disul-
fide (MOS2), which provide a softer cushion that releases as
the surfaces touch each other under pressure. Although the
anti-wear additive handles most of the loading in this lubri-
cation type, some contact and wear between surface base
metals can be expected.
Figure LU-3: Visual depiction of fatigue wear.

LUBRICATION LU–3
Oil film
Figure LU-4: Visual depiction of boundary lubrication.
Mixed-Film Lubrication
Mixed-film lubrication is a mixture of a partial lubricant film Figure LU-6: Visual depiction of hydrodynamic lubrication.
to separate the surfaces but is not sufficient to prevent high-
er points in the surface from touching. In this condition the boundary lubrication (metal-to-metal) contact is not ac-
chemical anti-wear additives on the surface provide lubrica- ceptable at any point. An example where hydrostatic lu-
tion for any touching of surfaces. brication is commonly used is on gas turbines or generator
bearings to reduce potential wear on startup.
Figure LU-5: Visual depiction of mixed-film lubrication.
Mixed-film lubrication is a condition most observed during

equipment startup periods where there is not a sufficient
speed to move the lubricant and create full separation of the
surfaces. This condition could also exist at normal operating
speed when the lubricant viscosity is too low for the operat-
ing conditions.
Oil pumped
Hydrodynamic lubrication
Also referred to as “full-fluid film lubrication,” it is represent- Figure LU-7: Visual depiction of hydrodynamic lubrication.
ed by a full separation of the surfaces with no metal-to-met-
al contact. The full load is carried by the lubricant film. Functions of a Lubricant
With an understanding of different wear patterns in com-
Hydrodynamic lubrication is the most desirable state of ponents and the types of lubrication, we now evaluate the
lubrication, where internal contact of moving surfaces is specific functions of a lubricant that mitigate component
minimized. To achieve this level of lubrication, the proper stresses or improve efficiency by performing a number of
lubricant viscosity is necessary for a given component oper- functions:
ational temperature, speed of movement between the sur-
face, component loading and clearance tolerances between Reduce or Modify friction/wear: Friction from the move-
the surfaces. ment of internal parts is an engineering reality along with
the byproducts of wear, heat and noise. The sliding of two
Hydrostatic lubrication surfaces against each other without any separating medium
Hydrostatic lubrication is achieved with the forcing of a lu- has an unacceptable level of friction from wear, efficiency
bricant film into internal contact points to support the load- and reliability perspectives. Thus, the primary function of a
ing in a static or starting position. This is normally achieved lubricant is to modify this friction to a point at which a com-
through pre-lube pumps and used on applications where ponent can be expected to efficiently and reliably perform

LU–4 LUBRICATION
its task. The reduction in wear from the modification of fric-

tion between internal surfaces is the most significant benefit Base Oils
of effective lubrication. Base oils are the foundation of any lubricant formulation and
serve several key functions, including:
Remove heat: Relative motion from the movement of inter- • • Establishes the viscosity of the oil that has the primary
nal surfaces creates heat that can be potentially damaging impact on the fluid film thickness and supporting of the
to internal components. Lubricants serve as a cooling me- load during component operation;
dium by absorbing heat as it passes internal surfaces. This • • Serves as the medium to deliver the additives for the
heat is then carried to oil coolers or sumps to further remove purpose of protecting internal system components and
the internal heat from the component. the base oil itself.
Prevent corrosion: The presence of heat and moisture in Base oil types: Base oils have the greatest influence on the
applications with ferrous components creates a significant function of the lubricant and can have significant variation
potential for internal corrosion and damage to internal sur- depending on feed stock and refining process. Base oils are
faces. Lubricants contain corrosion inhibitors to prevent the refined (mineral) or manufactured (synthetic) with some
potential for damage when moisture and heat are present. very significant different variations in composition and per-
The additives serve to coat internal surfaces and protect formance. Each of these base oils are categorized into five
them from exposure to corrosion-developing conditions. different groups based on their composition and physical
properties (Table LU-1).
Corrosion can also form as a result of the creation of cor-
rosive byproducts during normal operation. Lubricants may Table LU-1: Base oil types and composition.
also contain additives that neutralize these harmful byprod-
Base oil Saturates % Sulphur % Wt Viscosity
ucts. In the case of diesel engines, lubricants contain a base
Group Wt Index
additive to neutralize acids that are created from the com-
Group I Less than Greater than .3% 80 to 120
bustion of sulfur in the fuel. (mineral) 90%
Group II Greater than Less than .3% 80 to 120
Remove contaminants: Internal contamination is existent (mineral) 90%
with most component designs based on the various internal Group III Greater than Less than .3% 121+
stresses, equipment duty cycles and sources of external ex- (mineral) 90%
posure. The lubricant utilizes a two-pronged approach to re- Group IV Polyalphaolefins (PAO)
moving contamination by cleaning internal surfaces of these (synthetic)
deposits and transporting the contamination to installed Group V All Synthetic base stocks other than PAO
filtration. (synthetic)
Provide a seal: Lubricants also serve as a barrier or medi- The mineral base oil groups (1-3) are separated by the evalu-
um to seal internal components from the ingress of exter- ation of the levels of saturates and sulphur and the viscosity
nal contaminants. Sealing lubricants include greases that index of the fluid. The quality of the base oils is represented
encapsulate contaminants in seal areas or highly viscous in ascending order:
lubricants under pressure to seal out contaminants such as • Group I (Mineral): Group I mineral base oils are the
water. lowest-quality base oil stocks that are categorized by
their higher level of impurities, high aromatic content and
Lubricant formulation poor viscosity index. Due to greater utilization and
Now that we have a an overview of the internal component performance demands from OEM applications, Group I
mechanisms of wear, types of lubrication and functions of base oil usage has declined significantly;
a lubricant, we can evaluate how a lubricant is formulated • Group II (Mineral): Group II mineral base oils have
to provide effective lubrication in a variety of components. reduced impurities including sulfur, wax and arromatics,
Lubricants are a complex formulation of two primary com- providing better viscosity index and thermal stability.
ponents, a base oil and additives, to efficiently and reliably Group II mineral base oils have become the standard in
operate a given component. The variations of base oils and most of today’s modern mineral lubricants, providing a
additives can be significant depending on the needs of the “best value”with respect to cost and performance;
application’s design and operational demands. Together, • Group III (Mineral): Group III mineral base oils, also
these components provide the right balance necessary to referred to as “highly refined base stocks,” have many
achieve the expected operation of the component. performance properties that can be comparable to some
synthetic base oils;

LUBRICATION LU–5
• Group IV (Synthetic): Group IV is comprised of Solid lubricants, such as MOS2, can be used in
polyalphaolefin base stocks and is often referred to as application where there are very extreme loading
PAO. Like all synthetics, polyalphaolefins are derived conditions that create temperatures too high for
from chemicals to produce a highly uniform and stable traditional sulphur phosphorus EP additives;
base oil. PAOs have excellent thermal stability, high • Foam inhibitor: Additives that inhibit the formation of
resistance to oxidation, good flow at low temperatures foam from the churning of air in the component by
and a high viscosity index. Polyalphaolefin base oils are facilitating the release of the air from the lubricant. The
the most commonly used synthetic base oil type and are formation of foam can significantly reduce the fluid film
used in a number of applications including engines, strength by enabling air pockets to penetrate between
hydraulics, gearboxes and some compressors; internal surfaces. Foaming is normally caused by low oil
• Group V (Synthetic): Group V synthetics encompass all levels or leaking fittings that enable air to enter the
other synthetic base stocks. Like the Group IV system. Significant foaming can lead to increased wear of
polyalphaolefins, Group V synthetics are also derived the surfaces and significantly lead to foam inhibitor
from chemicals and chemical reactions. Group V base additive depletion;
oils have historically been used in niche applications, but • Dispersant: Additives that encapsulate contaminants in
have expanded in use due to the increased complexity of the lubricant so they can be carried to installed filtration;
offshore equipment designs, increased stress on • Emulsifier: Allows mineral oil to be mixable with water.
components and an advancing lubricant culture of Frequently used in metal-cutting oils and in some
operators to more effectively utilize these advance fluids. lubricants for wet applications;
Group V base stocks used in the E&P market include • Detergent: Additives used to keep internal surfaces
polyalkylglycols for high-temperature gearbox or gas clean from contaminants. Detergents are designed to
compression, synthetic esters for reciprocating coat internal surfaces of components during normal
compressors and environmentally responsible expected operation to prevent deposits from forming.
hydraulics, and polyolesters for refrigeration Detergents may have a limited abilty to clean existing
applications. system deposits;
• Oxidation inhibitors: This additive type is necessary as
Lubricant additives equipment operation causes heat, moisture and other
Because base oils have certain limitations by themselves, contaminants to degrade the base oil. Oxidation
lubricant additives are necessary to achieve an expected inhibitors significantly reduce the rate of oxidation to an
level of performance in a component. This expected perfor- acceptable level so a reasonable fluid life can be
mance includes achieving an expected life of the oil and of achieved;
the component in normal operating conditions. Thus, lubri- • Viscosity index improvers: Viscosity index improvers
cant additives are specific components which are added to enhance the base oil to provide better stability with
base oil for the purpose of protecting or enhancing the base regard to changes in the fluid’s viscosity through
oil, cleaning and protecting internal system components or temperature changes. Viscosity index improvers can also
neutralizing internal contaminants. Below are a list of the critical when operators face significant changes in
most common types: operating temperatures, such as aviation applications
• Anti-oxidant: Minimizes the formation of resins, varnish, and arctic operations. A higher viscosity index enables
acids, sludge and polymers; the lubricant to either thicken or thin at a slower rate as
• Anti-wear: Designed to adhere to internal surfaces to operating temperatures fall or rise;
provide a sacrificial layer in the event of slight metal-to- • Pour-point depressants: The pour point of a lubricant is
metal contact. This additive is most important during the temperature at which a lubricant becomes a
mixed-film lubrication where the fluid separates most of semi-solid and no longer maintains its expected flow
the surface, but some contact is likely to occur; characteristics. Pour-point depressants enable a
• Friction modifier: Used to achieve either reductions in lubricant to flow at very low temperatures to prevent
friction in applications like engines or a specific level of lubricant starvation to components;
friction in transmissions or fluid couplings; • Corrosion/rust inhibitors: Internal metallic components
• Tackifier: Used to assist the lubricant in adhering to a are subject to corrosion in the presence of moisture and
surface so a fluid film can be maintained; heat. Lubricant corrosion/rust Inhibitors serve to slow
• Extreme pressure: Also referred to as EP additives, the corrosion process on internal surfaces.
these are required for applications, such as gearboxes,
which are under heavy load. The EP additive adheres to
the gear surface and is activated by temperature to
provide a cushion between contact of the gear teeth.

LU–6 LUBRICATION
Table LU-2: ISO industrial lubricants viscosity grades. operating temperature.

Ranges are listed in centistokes at 40°C.
Grade Minimum Maximum SAE gear oils are specified on a scale of 10 to 140 and are
2 1.98 2.42 measured at 212°F. Multi-grades are also classified simi-
3 2.88 3.52 larly to SAE engine oil ratings by giving both the winter and
5 4.14 5.06 hot weight of the oil. Examples of common multi-viscosity
7 6.12 7.48 grades include 80W90 and 85W140 for mineral SAE gear
oils and 75W90 and 80W140 for synthetic SAE gear oils.
10 9.00 11.0
15 13.5 16.5
Saybolt universal seconds (SUS): A less commonly used
22 19.8 24.2
form of kinematic viscosity that is a measurement of a fixed
32 28.8 35.2 quantity of a lubricant through a tube at a given temperature.
46 41.4 50.6 Some OEMs still reference this as part of their specification
68 61.2 74.8 when selecting an oil viscosity, and it is best to convert this
100 90 110 specification to ISO or SAE when evaluating the correct oil
150 135 165 viscosity to utilize.
220 198 242
320 288 352 Figure LU-8 compares the scales of the different viscosity
classifications. To use the chart, select a viscosity on a des-
460 414 506
ignated scale (ISO, SAE Engine, SAE Gear or SUS) and draw
680 612 748
a line straight across. This will give the reference to other
1,000 900 1,100
lubricants within other viscosity scales. Note that this does
1,500 1,350 1,650 not ensure that another lubricant may be suitable because
other factors, including additives, may not be appropriate
Lubricant properties for some applications. This chart compares the property of
Viscosity is the measurement of a fluid’s resistance to flow viscosity only and is only a tool to compare and identify pos-
and is the single most important property of a lubricant. Vis- sible suitable lubricants.
cosity in any application determines the fluid film thickness
to satisfy the type of lubrication. Viscosity is normally de- Viscosity index is an indicator of how the viscosity changes
termined by measuring a fluid’s flow at a given temperature with changes in temperature. As a lubricant cools it becomes
depending on the classifying body. less viscous, or thicker, and as it heats up it becomes more
viscous, or thin. This is applicable across all lubricant types.
International Standards Organization (ISO) viscosity grades: However, the rate at which it becomes more or less viscous
The vast majority of industrial lubricants have their viscos- can have important implications to the fluid film thickness
ity specified by the International Standards Organization depending on our operations. Viscosity index is represented
and are measured in centistokes (cSt) and normally at the as a numerical number in which 95 is the lowest industry
reference temperature 40°C. ISO viscosities range from 2 standard and increases up to 500+. In this scale, the higher
centistokes to 3,200 centistokes as shown in Table LU-2. numbers represent a fluid that changes at a slower rate with
regard to temperature. Higher viscosity fluids thicken slower
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) viscosity grades: as temperature falls and thin slower as temperature rises.
Automotive engine and gear lubricant viscosities are speci- The table below provides a comparison of three different
fied by SAE grades. Each SAE engine and SAE gear viscosity fluids with different viscosity indexes (Table LU-3).
range is different and should not be used as a comparison.
Table LU-3: Influence of Viscosity Index on
rate of viscosity change.
SAE engine oil viscosities include 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40,
Fluid Viscosity Viscosity at Viscosity at
50 and 60. Multi-grade, or multi-weight, oils are referred Index 40°C 100°C
to by a W following the cold start viscosity. For example, a Castrol Alpha SP 95 220 cSt 18.7 cSt
15W40 diesel engine oil has a viscosity in line with a SAE 15 220 Mineral EP
at cold temperature startup. The multi-viscosity lubricants Gear Oil
utilize additives called copolymers that expand as the equip- Castrol Alphasyn 140 220 cSt 25 cSt
EP 220 Synthetic
ment reaches full operating temperature. The effect of these
PAO Gear Oil
copolymers is to change the viscosity of a lower-viscosity oil
Castrol Alphasyn 235 220 cSt 39.7 cSt
and enable it to have a viscosity of a higher SAE grade at full PG 220 Synthetic
PAG Gear Oil

LUBRICATION LU–7
Kinsmatic Saobolt
viscosities
Grade systems
viscosities
combustion process, to cartridge or separator filtration
cst cst SAE SAE SUS SUS for removal;
40ºC 100ºC ESO AGMA Engine oil gearoil 210ºC 100ºC
• Neutralize acids created from the combustion in fuel
sulphur, which can corrode internal piston liners, rings
800 200 4000
40 680 8 and valves.
600 3000
500
30 450 7 150 150 2500
400
350 320 6 125
2000
1800
Although diesel engine lubrication technology has not
300
250 20
100
1500
1200
changed significantly in some respects, there have been
220 50
200
5 90 90 1000 changes in several diesel engine-associated factors that are
working to change this.
15 80 800
150
150 4 40
70 600
3 50W
100 100 30 60
500
10 400
80 9
68 2 25W 55 Significant reductions in global fuel sulphur content have
8 300
60
7 1
20 50 250 changed oil stress by minimizing the need for higher total
50 46
40 6
45
200 base number (TBN) additives to neutralize the sulphuric
32 15W
30 5
10W
150
acid created from the combustion of fuel sulphur. However,
22
20 4
5W
40
100 this has led to increased stress on other aspects of the lubri-
50
15 15
70
cant, as TBN is no longer a leading limiting factor in the con-
10 10 55 demning of diesel engine oils. Low engine loading conditions
are also creating additional internal soot which places stress
on engine oil detergents and dispersants.
Figure LU-8: Comparative viscosity classifications.
Changes to engine designs including increased horsepow-
As we learned above, for equipment to operate effectively, er-to-weight ratios, fitting of exhaust after treatment and
we need the proper lubricant fluid film to ensure separation increased use of turbochargers are further creating stresses
of internal surfaces. This acceptable fluid film is normally a on other components of the oil.
range where the viscosity enables sufficient flow between
the surfaces and sufficient thickness to separate the surfac- Hydraulics
es. If an oil thickens too quickly as temperature falls, it could Hydraulic systems fluids are designed to facilitate mechan-
starve the internal surfaces of proper lubrication, resulting ical functions and transfer of power through fluid flow un-
in increased wear, stress on internal bearings and reduced der pressure. The hydraulic system utilizes a number of
cooling capacity. When the oil becomes too thin, it no lon- key components including, a reservoir, pumps, directional
ger supports full separation of internal surfaces and results valves, relief valves, actuators, heat exchangers, pipes, hos-
in increased wear. Selecting a fluid with the right viscosity es, accumulators and filters to transmit force into a mechani-
index for your operations can ensure you have the right fluid cal action. Modern rig designs have increased the utilization
film throughout daily and seasonal temperature changes. of hydraulics in many applications of the drilling rig systems
including valve control, materials handling, dynamic posi-
Applications tioning, top drives and Blow out Preventer applications.
Engines The reliable and efficient transmission of power is depen-

Diesel engines remain the heart of the vast majority of E&P dent on a variety of factors including the proper viscosity
operations and are relied on to generate the electrical power to transmit power at desired rates, the correct fluid type to
necessary to operate nearly all components involved in the ensure proper protection of internal system components
drilling and production processes. Engine oil lubrication is and the right filtration to maintain an acceptable level of
designed to mitigate the stresses of the various components fluid cleanliness. Hydraulic components are highly sus-
and reactions occurring during normal rotation and com- ceptible to internal damage from contamination due to the
bustion process. The primary functions of diesel engine oil small component tolerances, pressures and duty cycles of
are to: the system. The vast majority of component failures, over
• Lubricate internal bearings to minimize friction and wear; 75%, can be attributed to system contamination from ei-
• Remove heat from combustion components, including ther moisture or particulate.
pistons;
• Remove contaminants from internal surfaces to facilitate Viscosity selection is primarily a function of system design,
proper lubrication of piston rings and cooling of piston pump type and operating temperatures to achieve the cor-
under crowns; rect flow of hydraulic oil to system actuators. Selecting a
• Carry contaminants, normally carbon from the viscosity which is too low can risk damage to system com-

LU–8 LUBRICATION
ponents by not providing a sufficient fluid film and too high • Good air release properties
of a viscosity may cause slow response times and potential • Good water separability properties
damage from cavitation. Cavitation occurs when vapor • Good shear stability
voids are created due to restricted inlet flow at the pump in- • Excellent filterability
let. As pressure increases the vapor void implodes causing a • Seal compatibility
shock which can damage internal system surfaces. • Environmental performance where required
• Fire resistance for high temperature application
Hydraulic system cleanliness is imperative on attaining the
maximum life of system components and the hydraulic fluid. Gears
Fluid contaminants wear internal component surfaces and, The lubrication of gears has an important role in oilfield
in some severe cases, particles can block servo or spool operations as the loading profiles and duty cycles have in-
valves causing system inoperability and catastrophic failure creased significantly. The fundamentals of gear lubrication
to these components. Additionally, this wear and particu- come down to a few different concepts including:
late movement through the fluid also generates heat which
impacts the life of the hydraulic fluid as heat contributes to Gear design: Different gear designs present different lu-
fluid oxidation. Maintaining a cleanliness level at or better bricant needs depending on the orientation and forces on
than OEM or industry standards can extend system com- the gears. Gears can transfer power directly in line with the
ponent and fluid life by several multiples compared to cur- gears or have thrusting loads as they transfer power. Gears
rent operating conditions. When evaluating hydraulic fluid can also transfer power at right angles, which may require
cleanliness there are four primary elements to maintaining gear designs and lubricants that can accommodate slide
the proper cleanliness level in hydraulic systems and are: forces between the gears. Some gear designs, such as worm
• Utilization of the correct installed filtration – Most gear drives, may have yellow metal components that require
hydraulic specific lubricant types to avoid surface corrosion from the
• Use of good lubricant transfer practices when filling extreme pressure additives in traditional EP gear oils.
system reservoirs
• Use of Desiccant Breathers and/or reservoir vent Gear loading: The loading profile, including both force and
filtration to minimize the ingress of moisture and shock loading, has created a need for additional lubricant
particulates base oils and additives to handle exceptionally high loads.
• Utilization of secondary installed filtration or external For extreme loading conditions, the oil film is mostly dis-
filtration placed from between the gear teeth, forcing the extreme
• Finally, the fluid type is of critical importance as the fluid pressure additives on the surface to carry more of the load
needs to meet several key system design and operating of the gears. Excessive shock loading may require additional
properties including: solid additives to absorb the shock loads and avoid surface
• OEM Specification fatigue of the gear surfaces. The most common form of sur-
• Viscosity Index requirements face fatigue is micro-pitting, which is observed in applica-
• Excellent Oxidation Resistance tions such as high-pressure mud pumps.
• Anti-wear for protection of internal components
Table LU-4: AGMA to ISO gear oil scale.
Viscosity ranges for AGMA Lubircants
Rust & Oxidation inhibited gear Extreme Pressure gear Synthetic Gear Oils AGMA ISO Equivalent grade
oils AGMA Lubricant # lubricants AGMA Lubricant # Lubricant #
0 0S 32
1 1S 46
2 2 EP 2S 68
3 3 EP 3S 100
4 4 EP 4S 150
5 5 EP 5S 220
6 6 EP 6S 320
7, 7 Comp 7 EP 7S 460
8, 8 Comp 8 EP 8S 680
8A Comp 8A EP 1000
9 9 EP 9S 1500

LUBRICATION LU–9
Table LU-5: NLGI grease grades.
NLGI Grade Worked Penetration Application Description

at 77°F (25°C)
mm/10
000 445 to 475 Semi-fluid Softest grease. Just enough thickener to keep the oil from
running out. Gear case lubricant.
00 400 to 430 Very soft Gear case lubricant.
0 355 to 385 Soft-grease gun Low temperature handling in centralized lubrication systems.
1 310 to 340 Grease gun Needle and multiple row roller bearings. Number 0 and 1
greases generally are used for low-temperature operation in
centralized lubrication systems.
2 265 to 295 Grease gun Ball and roller bearings, moderately loaded and medium-
speed applications. Most common grease grade for general
purpose greasing.
3 220 to 250 Grease cup Wheel bearings, precision and high-speed use. Pre-lubed
ball bearings, double-sealed and double-shielded type.
4 175 to 205 Grease cup High-speed, lightly loaded applications. Water-pump grease.
5 130 to 160 Grease cup - Brick Very stiff grease. Also used in high-speed and valve
type applications. Rarely used in modern equipment
6 85 to 115 Brick grease Solid-type grease. Pillow-block lubrication. Rarely seen in
modern equipment.
Gear Oil Standards: Although some OEMs still list specific lower base-oil viscosity. Likewise, additives such as rust-
oils approved for use, many gear OEMs utilize different gear and oxidation-inhibitors, extreme-pressure additives and
lubrication standards such as the American Gear Manufac- solid lubricants are used in greased applications with similar
turer’s Association (AGMA), ISO or API GL(Table LU-4). operational demands as traditional lubricants.
Greased applications The consistency (hardness) of a grease is graded by the

Greased applications remain one of the most challenging penetration of a weighted cone into the surface of the
applications to lubricate for several different reasons. This grease. The NLGI has established a set of standards based
is in part because many operators do not fully understand upon penetration limits to indicate the various consistency
the fundamentals and challenges of greasing various com- grades (Table LU-5).
ponent types. To better enable and understand we must first
understand what a grease is and the primary components of The first challenge of greasing is that there is not a visual
its formulation. or measurable indication of the grease condition or quan-
tity inside of greased applications. Unlike most traditional
A lubricating grease is a fluid oil lubricant in combination lubricated applications, there are no fill levels for validation.
with a thickening agent that produces a plastic-like material Furthermore, grease distribution is a function of system de-
and is used in areas where fluid oil lubrication is mechani- sign and proper greasing techniques to ensure the grease is
cally unsuitable. The thickener acts like a sponge to hold the fully distributed.
lubricant and additives in the right place to lubricate the in-
ternal components. Greased systems also rely on specific procedures to pre-
grease or fill bearings or components prior to assembly and
Grease comprises three major components: the base oil, ad- shipping. Failure to properly grease prior to assembly or
ditives and the thickening agent. The major constituent of commissioning may not be noted by equipment operators
grease is the lubricating oil, which represents approximately during the commissioning and early part of the equipment’s
80-85% of the grease. The thickener represents 7-12% of life cycle. This period is critical, as improper greasing of new
the remaining product and additives the remaining content. bearings can cause unrepairable damage which significantly
reduces the bearing life.
The considerations of grease selection with regard to base
oil viscosity and additives are very similar to those of tradi- Greased systems may also have limited lubrication points
tional lubricants. Slower-speed applications normally utilize that can make full distribution of new grease challenging if
a higher base-oil viscosity and higher-speed applications a operators do not understand these limitations.

LU–10 LUBRICATION
Table LU-6: Grease thickener compatibility chart. In addition to considering thickeners, attention
should also be paid to additives. To assure additives are compatible, check with the lubricant manufacturer.
Polyurea Conventional
Polyurea Shear Stable

Calcium 12 Hydroxy
Calcium Sulphonate
Lithium 12 Hydroxy
Aluminum Complex
Compatible
Calcium Complex
Calcium Stearate
Lithium Complex
Lithium Stearate
Barium Complex
Incompatible
Borderline
Clay
Aluminum Complex I I C I B I I I C I C
Barium Complex I I C I C I I I I I B
Calcium Stearate I I C I C C C B C I C
Calcium 12 Hydroxy C C C B B C C C C I C
Calcium Complex I I I B I I I I C C C
Calcium Sulphonate B C C B I I B B C I C
Clay I I C C I I I I I I B
Lithium Stearate I I C C I B I C C I C
Lithium 12 Hydroxy I I B C I B I C C I C
Lithium Colmplex C I C C C C I C C I C
Polyurea Conventional I I I I C I I I I I C
Polyurea Shear Stable C B C C C C B C C C C
In addition to the challenges above, there are also a number current program should be completed. It would also be help-
of aspects of different greases that have a significant impact ful to consult a lubrication professional to review your pro-
on the compatibility between two greases. While we still fo- gram and provide objective feedback on strengths, weak-
cus on the base oil and additive compatibility, we must also nesses and opportunities. The particular need for an outside
evaluate the impact to the thickeners when mixed with other assessment is that the current status of lubrication program
greases. The mixing of incompatible thickeners will compro- is the output of the experience and perceived needs of the
mise the primary function of a grease by holding and distrib- members of the organization. A new set of eyes, and some-
uting the lubricant in the bearing. Incompatibilty between one with experience beyond your particular organization,
thickeners will cause either the hardening or softening of can have a fresh perspective and view of other successful
the thickener which will lead to starvation of lubricant to the industry practices that may be a good fit and value- driver
bearing and wear. See Table LU-6. for your program.
Lubrication Program and Practices This review should encompass not only a review of the
procedures and equipment status, but an evaluation of the
Introduction Lubricant Culture of the organization. Lubricant Culture
The fundamentals of a lubrication program for E&P organi- will focus on the values and behaviors of all levels of the
zations and operations comprise a systematic approach to organization regarding lubricant-related activities. This can
lubrication that encompasses the entire life cycle of lubri- encompass all levels including Management, Procurement
cated applications. These fundamentals are meant to pro- and Maintenance. An evaluation of the relationship with the
vide the necessary focus, management commitment, pro- lubricant and lubricant service suppliers can also be helpful
cedures and resources to the lubrication program, as there to determine if their culture adds value to your operations.
is significant value to be realized when the program is imple-
mented correctly. Goals of a lubrication program
Following the baseline evaluation of the lubrication program,
Lubrication program baseline there should be some realistic goals of further development
Before any actions are taken in developing or fine-tuning an of the program. With the increased availability of lubrication
organizations lubrication program, a full assessment of the tools, resources and guidance, there are a number of oppor-

LUBRICATION LU–11
tunities for every customer. A few of the main goals that are combination of the opportunities that will have the biggest
normally part of any program typically fall into one of the impact and ones that could be quick wins. When reviewing
categories below: opportunities that will have the biggest impact, consider all
• Reliability: Equipment downtime is very costly, impacts such as financial, manpower and reliability to the
particularly when it is unplanned, so equipment reliability operations. Resolving problems can demonstrate the value
becomes one of the most common goals of any and positive contribution that effective lubrication can con-
lubrication program. Equipment reliability should be tribute to an organization. This approach will facilitate a bet-
compared to OEM normal expectations when good ter appreciation and focus within the organization’s main-
routine maintenance practices are employed. Through tenance group, leading to a greater discipline and positive
proper utilization of lubricants, the exceeding of OEM attitude in conducting lubrication-related activities.
overhaul periods is becoming more prevalent and
achievable; Lubrication survey
• Standardization: Standardization can be applicable to The lubrication survey is the primary control document to
many different aspects of lubrication, including document every lubricated component at a worksite. It is
processes associated with lubricant selection, utilization one of the most important tools in managing lubricant ac-
and review of effectiveness. Every organization has tivities, as it provides guidance to field personnel regarding
standards with regard to lubrication but may have what products to lubricate equipment with. The Lubrication
variations from worksite to worksite that may include use Survey is a “living document” and evolves as the worksite
of different oil types, different oil suppliers, different changes equipment, operating area or operating condition.
storage and handling procedures and different focuses In addition to making changes as they arise, it is best prac-
regarding the utilization of lubricants; tice to review this document at least every two years to val-
• • Reduce life cycle costs: Goals associated with reducing idate that all components and lubricants remain valid. This
life cycle costs include, but are not limited to, extended document should be controlled by a single person to avoid
overhaul intervals, extended oil drains and reduced any unauthorized changes.
manpower costs;
• • Lubricant culture development: Perhaps the most The lubrication survey should capture all important details
important goal to consider is the development of the of each lubricated application including:
lubricant culture, which focuses specifically on the • Component name;
advancement of the processes and behaviors associated • Component OEM and model;
with the utilization of lubricants within an organization’s • Lubricant in use;
operations; • Component lubricant capacity;
• An entrenched approach to lubrication is still very • Component sampling identification name;
common in most industries despite increasing • Component sampling frequency.
competency of the understanding of lubrication and
the opportunities. Time-based change intervals, Lubricant suppliers
failure to utilize oil analysis in an effective manner, There are differing levels of opportunities that may exist
poor handling, significant contamination and failure from different lubricant suppliers. These can include the
to achieve reasonable equipment life targets are all lubricant manufacturer and the lubricant distributor. Most
signs that the lubricant culture may not be lubricant manufacturers no longer maintain a staff and fleet
penetrating through all levels of the organization; resources to deliver the lubricant to the end user, but instead
• Developing the lubricant culture is nothing that rely heavily on a network of third-party lubricant distribu-
changes overnight, so expect this to be a longer- tors. These distributors are relied on to store, repackage,
term goal. A good lubricant culture takes a filter and deliver lubricants in the manner prescribed by the
commitment from the highest levels of the customer. Lubricant distributors, as an authorized agent for
organization down to the lowest levels. The the lubricant manufacturer, may have the flexibility to cus-
necessary support and resources need to be tomize their approach to supplying a customer’s needs, but
employed to ensure that the necessary education, they also have limitations, as they have some firm proce-
procedures, personnel and equipment are in place dures to follow specified by the lubricant manufacturer.
to move from a “reactive” lubricant culture to a
proactive one. When considering a lubricant provider, note that there are
no two lubricant providers that provide the same service.
Lubrication opportunities This can include a number of different factors, and consider-
From the lubrication program assessment and review of ing the five “rights” of lubrication can be a tool to help evalu-
goals should come a list of lubricant opportunities that are a ate which lubricant provider is best for your needs.

LU–12 LUBRICATION
• Right price: Price is a key component, but different prices change to a different oil viscosity may be required.
can be evident if suppliers propose different lubricant
types; Training is the single most effective way to improve your lu-
• Right product: The correct product is necessary to brication program and develop the culture that is desired. All
properly lubricate equipment. This right is without personnel that manage, procure or handle lubricants should
exception, and a supplier should be able to supply be participants in a level of training surrounding lubrication.
products that meet your component and operating A part of this education should also include an overview of
demands; the organization’s lubrication program, program goals and
• Right packsize: The right packsize provides the balances commitment to achieve these goals. An effective training
the needs of product quality, limitations on storage and program will be quickly noted on the bottom line.
safety of transfer. Package sizes that are well in excess of
what one could use over 12-18 months deterioration Training resources are available from a number of areas,
beyond the point of usability. Package sizes should also including lubricant supplier technical representatives, pro-
be appropriate for safe handling, including the use of bulk fessional publications, professional certifying groups and
storage containers, such as offshore totes, which are independent professional lubrication consultants. These
safer to handle than multiple drums; resources are highly effective and can range from providing
• Right location: It is also imperative that the supplier has very basic-level training to more advanced training, which
the products you need in the location you need them. In can also lead to attaining a professional lubrication certifi-
emerging markets where there is limited supply from cation.
most or all suppliers, it may be necessary for the
customer to coordinate their own logistics as a matter of Fluid conditioning & contamination control
reality. Your supplier, however, should be able to assist in Fluid conditioning is an expanding practice in offshore lu-
providing the most efficient, reliable and effective route brication management programs with the goal of extending
to market; equipment and lubricant life through effective contaminant
• Right service: Selecting a lubrication supplier with the removal. Increased availability of advanced filtration equip-
right service can add significant value, depending on the ment along with improved lubricant blending technology
availability of internal lubricant expertise and the has enabled the effective filtration of contaminants without
effectiveness of the organization’s lubrication culture. stripping the lubricant of key additives.
There are a number of service opportunities which a
Lubricant Supplier can provide, including: The vast majority of contaminants in lubricated components
• Technical assistance on lubricant selection; fall into three primary categories, particulates, moisture or
• Lubricant rationalization; process fluids. Particulates represent the most prevalent
• Review of lubrication practices; form of contamination in lubricants, but can be the easiest
• Review of lubrication storage; to resolve. While most installed filtration is adequate to deal
• Lubricant training; with contamination from normal operations, it can easily
• Development of a management of change protocol; become overwhelmed and ineffective when excessive con-
• Used oil analysis; tamination is introduced. Improvements in installed filtra-
• OEM interface; tion and external filtration units has significantly improved
• Root cause failure analysis. the operators ability to manage excessive contamination at
the worksite. The financial benefits in reduced maintenance
Management of change (MOC) costs, extended component and fluid life are well document-
Any change within an organization should be a managed pro- ed and has enabled several operators to justify the instal-
cess that includes a full evaluation of the proposed change lation of permanent advanced filtration units on key com-
and a detailed plan to execute this change. This should be ponents. Additionally, use of pre-delivery filtration services
completed for any change in lubricant for any application. for new oils has enabled both the effective commissioning
requirements of Turbine and Subsea component manufac-
For simplicity, most OEM recommendations surrounding turers but served a benefit for the continual operation of
lubricant viscosities are communicated based on ambient other components as well.
air operating conditions. It is important for operators to pay
particular attention to the temperature bands reflective of Particulate contamination is normally a key part of used oil
the annual seasonal changes. The selection fot he right lu- analysis for critical components which may have close toler-
bricant and viscosity should ensure the lubricant meets the ances between internal components. Common applications
service requirements specified by the OEM over this entire for this type of analysis include turbines, hydraulic systems,
temperature range. In extreme changes of temperature, a bearings, pumps, and valves. Particulates are evaluated

LUBRICATION LU–13
Table LU-8: ISO 4406:1999 particulate count

Table LU-7: NAS 1638 particulate count reference scale.
reference scale. Source: ISO 4406.
NAS 1638 Maximum Particulate Count per size range Number of particles per milliliter ISO 4406 Scale
Cleanliness Level Number
5-15 μ 15-25 μ More than Up to and including
0 250 44 2,500,000 >28
1 500 89
1,300,000 2,500,000 28
2 1000 178
640,000 1,300,000 27
3 2000 356
320,000 640,000 26
4 4000 712
160,000 320,000 25
5 8000 1425
80,000 160,000 24
6 16000 2850
40,000 80,000 23
7 32000 5700
20,000 40,000 22
8 64000 11400
9 128000 22800
10,000 20,000 21
10 256000 45600 5,000 10,000 20
11 512000 91200 2,500 5,000 19

12 1024000 182400 1,300 2,500 18
640 1,300 17
and reported by size ranges via two primary standards, the
National Aerospace Standard (NAS) 1638 (Table LU-7) 320 640 16
or International Standards Organization (ISO) 4406:1999 160 320 15
(Table LU-8). These methods break down the particulate 80 160 14
counts by specific size ranges to help operators understand 40 80 13
the potential damage to systems with known internal clear- 20 40 12
ances. Although the NAS 1638 standard is still utilized by 10 20 11
some operators and OEMs, the ISO 4406:1999 is becoming
5 10 10
the preferred standard particulate test as it further stratifies
2.50 5.00 9
the particulates into three distinct key micron size ranges of
1.30 2.50 8
4μ, 6μ and 14μ. The NAS 1638, however, only evaluates two
ranges which are 5-15μ and 15-25μ. Because the ISO 4406 0.60 1.30 7
goes into a greater level of detail it would be recommended

to standardize to this standard. OEM or maintenance sys- Table LU-9: NAS 1638 to ISO 4406
tem references can easily be converted utilizing the conver- conversion chart.
sion chart below. OEM or maintenance system references Conversion of NAS 1638 scale to ISO 4406
can easily be converted from NAS 1638 to ISO 4406 utiliz- NAS 1638 Cleanliness ISO 4406 Cleanliness
ing the conversion chart (Table LU-9). Level Level
0 12/9/2006
The next step in particulate contaminate control is to es-
1 13/10/7
tablish the target cleanliness levels for each component.
Target cleanliness levels can sometimes be established by 2 14/11/8
the OEM for critical components, but operators may have 3 15/12/9
to further evaluate the opportunities and risks for other 4 16/13/10
components which should be part of the contaminant mon- 5 17/14/11
itoring program. Some considerations in this process should
6 18/15/12
include component sensitivity, duty cycle, downtime costs,
7 19/16/13
replacement costs and component life expectancy. These
variables should be considered against the costs to achieve 8 20/17/14
various cleanliness levels to find the right balance for the 9 21/18/15
component and operations. 10 22/19/16
11 23/20/17
The second most significant source of contamination is
12 24/21/18
moisture which can come numerous sources. However,
installed filtration is normally cartridge type filters which
have no or little effect on the removal of moisture. Exces-

LU–14 LUBRICATION
sive moisture can also cause significant damage to internal transmission fluids. Transfer pumps should also be dedicat-
filters, reducing their ability to effectively remove particulate ed for each product group if feasible. If this is not possible,
as well. Because of the challenges of moisture on internal then a flushing procedure should be executed for each time
components and filtration, the use of a filtration system the pump is used.
designed to handle moisture is recommended. Although
removing the source of the moisture is the most effective Shelf life of packaged lubricants is another common issue
solution, it is not always a design or operational reality. So with lubricant storage, as there are a number of packaged
the use of coalescing type filters or vacuum dehydrators lubricants on a worksite that may be past the fluid’s usable
may become a necessity to manage the moisture to a rea- life. Each product is manufactured with a limitation as to
sonable level. how long it will meet the advertised performance. This lim-
itation is a function of many factors including time, fluid type
The contamination of process fluids is a bit more challeng- and storage conditions. Over time, lubricants can be subject
ing as chemicals or oils can easily mix and contaminate the to the additives gradually falling out of suspension and oxi-
lubricant. The removal of this type of contamination is cost dation of the base oil. Specific fluid types of fluids can also
prohibitive, would have to be completed at a shore based fa- have different usable life, as each base fluid has different
cility and may not even be possible. In the cases of contam- limitations. Finally, the conditions of where the lubricant is
ination from process fluids it is best to control the source, stored have a big impact, as exposure to moisture and heat
flush the component and refill. can further degrade the fluid. Each product is manufactured
with a specific date of manufacture, and most usable lubri-
Lubricant storage and handling cant life is between 2-8 years, depending on the product and
Lubricant storage and handling have a significant impact on storage conditions. Contact your lubricant supplier to make
the quality of lubricants that will be put into various com- sure you have an understanding of the anticipated life of the
ponents. Because some applications, such as turbines and product if you have questions or concerns.
hydraulics, have very tight internal tolerances, it is critical to
ensure new lubricants remain clean, dry and free of contam- Used oil analysis
ination in storage and when transferred. Improper storage A key component of any Reliability Program is an effective
increases the potential for contamination to enter equip- Used Oil Analysis Program. Used oil analysis should be used
ment, as moisture and particulates can enter through con- to support and validate the operational condition of a com-
tainer or tank vents or access points. Lubricants that have ponent and the suitability of the lubricant to support the
high-demand volumes for the operations should be stored operational condition. There are four different ways to con-
in storage tanks that are hard-piped directly to the equip- duct an evaluation of the fluid and each method has unique
ment sumps if possible. Drum- and pail-packaged products opportunities and challenges with regard to the timely and
should be stored in an enclosed space to avoid the intrusion accurate review of a lubricant’s and components operation-
of moisture or particulate and exposure to direct sunlight. al condition. Additionally, different means of testing may
only provide raw data requiring interpretation, either at the
All storage, fluid transfer equipment, and fill points must be worksite or through an experienced fluid-condition analyst.
tagged and labeled. New (neat) fluids should be sampled by
a laboratory on arrival to verify cleanliness and to establish 1. Visual analysis: A visual analysis is a useful tool that
baselines. Since most fluids are not delivered “ISO Clean”, should be utilized for oils to identify serious levels of
the product should always be filtered before adding it to the contamination. For clean oils, such as hydraulic or
equipment’s reservoir. Product bulletins and MSDS sheets turbine oils, the presence of small quantities of water
should be accessible to all users. or visible particulate can be easily observed in the
sample. The presence of water in hydraulic or turbine
Lubricants should be transferred with the understanding oil samples causes the sample to appear hazy. For
that contamination can come in the form of particulates that higher-viscosity oils, such as engine or gear oils, it can
collect in transfer equipment (pumps and fill containers) be helpful to let the samples settle for twelve to
that may not have secure lids or in the form of cross-con- twenty-four hours to see if there are any layers of
tamination from lubricant residue. Transfer containers contamination that have settled out of the sample.
should contain lids that prohibit the collection of airborne Excessive moisture in gear or engine samples can give
particulate. Additionally, containers should be used for each the oil a milky appearance.
fluid type to ensure that there is not any contamination from 2. Laboratory used oil analysis: The sampling of used
additives from the residue of another lubricant that may not lubricants at a shoreside laboratory location is the core
be appropriate. These product groups include engine oil, part of most reliability programs. This level of analysis
zinc-free engine oil, hydraulic oil, gear oil, and automatic utilizes the correct testing equipment and methods to

LUBRICATION LU–15
attain accurate results for a variety of key lubricant Develop a list of three or four labs to evaluate as part of the
parameters and is also interpreted by an experienced process. Speak with lubricant professionals or peers at other
lubricant professional. organizations to see what opportunities may be available.
3. Worksite Used Oil Analysis: Significant Visit the labs to engage in a discussion on their operations
advancements in onboard used oil analysis equipment and what opportunities may be appropriate for your organi-
have simplified onboard testing with improved zation, including setup, test suites, sample processing times,
accuracy over previous onboard test kits and can reporting, lab qualifications, advanced testing and training.
provide immediate test results with a decent level of The lab culture should be in line with the culture of your
accuracy. This type of testing is recommended for use maintenance program and also facilitate growth to where
in operational locations where there is a poor you want your program to be in the future. When visiting
availability of shore-side used oil analysis services or if any laboratory verify the quality control methodology that is
there are very long logistics options to get samples to place by visiting each work station, view the documentation
a reliable testing facility. Some testing devices utilize at the work stations and query the technicians knowledge.
software to store and trend the test data for better Additionally, ask for the safety stats for that individual lab-
operator review. The use of this equipment requires a oratory as well as the documentation of any audits done in
level of understanding on interpretation of results into the last 12 months.
maintenance actions. However, onboard testing
equipment should only be used to enhance, not 2. Select test suites for each component type that will
replace laboratory testing. provide the level of information needed to evaluate
4. Real-time installed sensors: Advancements in sensor component and oil stress. Availability of advanced
technology and demands for better real-time testing may also be appropriate for conducting
information have increased the use of sensors to expanded evaluation of oils in critical applications.
evaluate oil conditions such as water content, Testing such as analytical ferrography can be useful in
particulate content, etc. The use of these sensors can identifying contamination sources and the severity of
be valuable in critical components such as thrusters contamination beyond traditional particulate testing
and turbines to receive sufficient advanced warning of methods.
potential lubricant or component failure. Although this 3. Select a delivery format that communicates results in
technology can be useful in a number of applications, a way that is understood by operators and adds value
it is very costly and may not provide value in less to maintenance decisions. Evaluate the reporting
critical or sensitive applications. Despite the ability to formats and web-based platforms of different
provide critical analysis of the lubricant real-time, providers to see what opportunities may be available.
laboratory oil analysis should still be conducted to If operations are international, consider a multi-lingual
validate all parameters of the lubricant’s condition. service to help facilitate a clear understanding with all
staff.
Used oil analysis service selection
When evaluating and selecting a service which meets your Try to select only one provider, if possible, to establish
operational needs, it is important to also evaluate what the consistency in your reliability program. Some laboratory
laboratory can do for your operations as your lubrication providers now offer a network of global labs that can help
culture matures. There are a number of different providers standardize the testing and reporting to provide a consistent
which offer a variety of services, but the goal is in selecting level of service. Another option is to consider is sending all
the service which is right for you and your operations. samples from global operations to a single processing point
to ensure consistency in testing and interpretation.
1. Review the equipment to be sampled and the testing
frequency to determine the necessary scope of
service.

LU–A1 LUBRICATION
APPENDIX: DEFINITIONS
Additive: A chemical added in small quantities to a petro- Oxidation stability: The resistance of a petroleum product to
leum product to enhance particular properties. oxidation. Used as an indication of the service life and stor-
age life of lubricants.
AGMA: American Gear Manufacturers Association. One of
their activities is to establish and promote standards of gear pH: A measure of acidity or alkalinity. Used to evaluate the
lubricants on an industry-wide basis. condition of used oils.
API: American Petroleum Institute. A society to further the Pour point: The lowest temperature at which anoil will start
interests and standards of the petroleum industry. Some of to flow. Of limited use in determining cold weather capabili-
the API projects have been the crankcase oil service classifi- ties of an oil, but often used as an indicator.
cations and drilling industry thread compounds.
SAE grades: Viscosity grades of both crank-case oils based
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials. An organiza- on kinematic viscosity measurements.
tion devoted to “the promotion of knowledge of the materi-
als of engineering, and the standardization of specifications Saybolt universal seconds (SUS or SSU): The reported vis-
and methods of testing.” Many of the current petroleum cosity of a given oil at a given temperature as determined
product tests are in accordance with ASTM test standards. in a Saybolt viscosimeter. This method of determination has
been largely superseded by kinematic systems where the
Anti-seize compound: A grease-like material containing unit is the stoke or centistoke.
powdered metals or metallic oxides, frequently applied to
threaded joints to facilitate separation and to prevent sei- Turbine oil: Top-quality rust- and oxidation-inhibited oil
zure. used for long-service or exacting applications.
Ash content: In lubricating oils, generally referred to as Viscosity: Measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. It is usu-
“sulphated ash.” Represents the non-combustible residue, ally expressed in terms of the time required for a standard
usually due to the presence of metallic additives. The choice quantity of fluid at a specified temperature to flow through a
of engine crankcase oils in some cases is dependent on the standard orifice. The higher the value, the more viscous the
sulphated ash content of the oil. liquid. Viscosities of petroleum oils are commonly reported
in Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS or SSU). Kinematic vis-
Demulsibility: The separation of an oil/water emulsion. Lu- cosities are reported in centistokes (Cs). European systems
bricants with good demulsibility qualities will rapidly sepa- include Redwood and Engler, all of which can be related to
rate from water when the mixture is at rest. Saybolt Universal Seconds. SAE, ASTM and AGMA have
established viscosity grades that have been recognized
Dropping point: Lowest temperature at which a grease be- throughout the industry.
comes sufficiently fluid to drip under a particular ASTM test.
Has only limited significance to service performance. Viscosity index (VI): The measure of the rate of change of
viscosity within a given temperature range. A lubricant with
Gear oil (industrial): High-quality oil for gear cases. Perfor- a low viscosity index changes in viscosity faster with tem-
mance levels typically specified by AGMA lubricants num- perature compared to a lubricant with a higher viscosity
bers. Where EP properties are not required, turbine oils with index. Highly refined mineral and synthetic lubricants have
rust and oxidation inhibitors are generally recommended. higher viscosity indexes than most.
For worm gears and heavily loaded gear cases, and EP-type
gear oil, different from automotive gear oils are used. Indus-
trial EP gear oils should not be used in automotive service.
Grease: An oil lubricant in combination with some thicken-

ing agent to produce a plastic-like material, used where fluid
oil lubrication is mechanically unsuitable. Common thicken-
ing agents are various metallic soaps, silica gel, silicones and
clay. The major component of the grease is the lubricating
oil, while the thickening agent allows the lubricant to remain
in a semi-fluid state.

MP
MANAGED PRESSURE,
UNDERBALANCED AND
AIR/GAS/MIST/FOAM
DRILLING

Enhancing
operational
integrity by
ensuring a
competent
workforce
Accreditation
MANAGED PRESSURE MP–i
CHAPTER
MP
MANAGED PRESSURE,
UNDERBALANCED AND
AIR/GAS/MIST/FOAM
DRILLING
PRINCIPAL AUTHORS
Don Hannegan, P.E., Weatherford
George Medley, P.E., Signa Engineering
Bill Rehm, Drilling Consultant
Reuben Graham, Weatherford

MP–ii MANAGED PRESSURE


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-6-0

MANAGED PRESSURE Contents MP-iii
CHAPTER MP
MANAGED PRESSURE, UNDERBALANCED

AND AIR/GAS/MIST/FOAM DRILLING Contents
Introduction................................................................... MP-1 Designing and planning an
Air, gas, mist and foam drilling......................... MP-2 underbalanced drilling well.............................MP-13
Underbalanced drilling......................................... MP-3 Impact of UBD operations on regular
Managed pressure drilling.................................. MP-3 rig personnel........................................................MP-14
Variations of managed pressure drilling........ MP-3 Rotating control devices...................................MP-14
Deepwater applications of MPD......................MP-5 Drill string non-return valves
(NRVs or floats).................................................MP-15
IADC UBO/MPD committee
Technical support.............................................MP-5 References............................................................MP-15
Key enabling equipment......................................MP-5 Air/gas/mist drilling..........................................MP-15
Managed pressure drilling..........................................MP-5 Why drill with air/mist?...................................MP-16
Continuous circulating devices................................. MP-7 Typical air drilling problems............................MP-17
Constant bottomhole pressure................................. MP-7 Wet hole...........................................................MP-17
Constant bottomhole pressure/bottle-up Mud rings.........................................................MP-17
(or trapped) pressure......................................... MP-7 Key seat and dropped pipe.........................MP-17
Constant bottomhole pressure/back- Downhole fire..................................................MP-17
pressure control....................................................MP-8 Shale, oil shale, gilsonite, coal and other
Dual-gradient drilling..................................................MP-8 common formation problems................................MP-17
Dual-gradient subsea pump.............................MP-8 Air volume requirements.................................MP-18
Controlled annular mud level...........................MP-8 Mist drilling rules...............................................MP-18
Mud line pumping (Riserless)..........................MP-9 Corrosion problems and solutions................MP-18
Dual-gradient/mix fluid using gas..................MP-9 Drying a wet hole...............................................MP-18
Dual-gradient/mix fluid using liquid..............MP-9 Foam drilling........................................................MP-19
Mud cap drilling...........................................................MP-10 Introduction.........................................................MP-19
Floating mud cap drilling.................................MP-10 The history of foam.......................................MP-19
Pressurized mud cap drilling...........................MP-10 Foam, mist and in between........................MP-19
Other MPD techniques............................................MP-10 The advantages of foam..............................MP-19
RCD only................................................................MP-10 Typical foam drilling problems...................MP-20
Enhanced kick/loss detection only................MP-10 Gas volume fraction......................................MP-20
Constant bottomhole pressure/back- Water volume (liquid volume)...................MP-21
pressure control using gas injection..............MP-11 Gas volume......................................................MP-21
Equivalent circulating density Corrosion issues.............................................MP-21
Reduction tools....................................................MP-11 Operational considerations.............................MP-21
ECD control: Concentric drill pipe..................MP-11 One-pass system.................................................MP-21
Common MPD equipment components.............MP-11 Recycle foam.........................................................MP-21
Rotating control devices....................................MP-11 Air hammer drilling...................................................MP-21
Returns flow path................................................MP-11 Limits to the air hammer.................................MP-22
Chokes/manifolds...............................................MP-11 Air/gas directional drilling........................................MP-22
Flow meters...........................................................MP-12 Primary equipment for foam gas drilling.............MP-22
Auxiliary pumps...................................................MP-12 Surface air lines and the blooie or
Gas busters/separators.....................................MP-12 flow line....................................................................MP-23
Drill string float valves.......................................MP-12 Blooie or flow line..............................................MP-23
Underbalanced drilling.............................................MP-12 Sample catching.................................................MP-23
Introduction.........................................................MP-12 Airline manifold..................................................MP-23
Why drill underbalanced?...............................MP-13 References............................................................MP-23

IADC
Safety Toolbox
IADC SAFETY TOOLBOX


MANAGED PRESSURE MP-1
applicable to the development, broad industry acceptance

Introduction and range of practical uses of each of these drilling methods.
Depending upon the subsurface characteristics of a specif-
ic well, the challenges to drilling with a conventional mud For over a century, conventional rotary drilling with jointed
system whose annulus returns are open to atmosphere may pipe and weighted drilling-fluid (mud) systems has largely
include: been practiced with annulus returns (mud and cuttings) that
• Slow rate of penetration (ROP); are open-to-atmosphere under the rig floor. When the rig’s
• Excessive drilling fluids cost; mud pumps are on, annulus returns exit the top of the well-
• Excessive non-productive time (NPT); bore through a drilling or bell nipple and gravity flow from
• Well-control scenarios associated with drilling hazards beneath the rig floor to mud-gas separation and solids con-
such as kicks, losses, differential sticking and balloon- trol equipment.
ing phenomena;
• Prospect being deemed un-drillable for economic, safe- When the mud pumps are off, the weight of the mud in
ty or technical reasons; the hole is intended to overbalance pressure in formations
• Reservoir damage due to mud and cuttings evasion; that are exposed to the wellbore. The primary well control
• Hydrostatic pressure due to the column of fluid in the barrier is the hydrostatic head (pressure) generated by the
annulus causing mud losses requiring an excessive column of mud and cuttings in the wellbore annulus during
number of casing strings, especially in deep water; static conditions. Annulus returns must surface at or very
• Situations where the safe mud-weight window between near atmospheric pressure for drilling to progress without
the well either flowing or falling in and losing returns is interruption. Should the mud column height fall or the re-
very narrow; turns rate increase, an interruption to drilling ahead may
• Need to characterize the reservoir while drilling. be the least consequence. The most troublesome inherent
weakness of a conventional circulating fluid system is the
This chapter discusses drilling methods in the order each fact that the only way to immediately adjust the equivalent
became generally accepted for their ability to mitigate these weight of the mud in the hole to deal with changing and/or
and other challenges to conventional overbalanced drilling unexpected downhole pressure environments is to change
operations (UBO): air, mist, foam drilling, underbalanced the pump rate.
drilling (UBD) and managed pressure drilling (MPD).
Initially all wells drilled with cable tool rigs were underbal-
In most cases these drilling methods are practiced with the anced. In 1895, rotary drilling with joined pipe was intro-
support of service contractors who provide the location with duced with a fluid that had to be circulated to transport
applicable enabling tools and technology. However, when cuttings out of the hole. As time went by, attitudes changed
such operations are being conducted, duties of regular rig from the early “gushers” when a blowout was a time for cel-
personnel are usually impacted in some way. The purpose ebration to realizing that such an uncontrolled release was a
of this chapter is to provide some valuable “need-to-know” health and safety issue and resulted in environmental dam-
information about these drilling methods and applicable age, not to mention a waste of natural resources. This set
required equipment. This information will help rig person- the stage for today’s conventional wisdom—drilling with an
nel better understand why the method is being practiced, open-to-atmosphere mud returns system (drilling nipple or
as well as to work safely around and with this specialized riser) under the rig floor, where a weighted mud serves as
equipment, while contributing to a successful drilling oper- the primary well-control barrier by overbalancing the forma-
ation. tion drilled into.
An influencing factor on the development of these technol- A key to successful drilling programs has been and remains
ogies and their specialized equipment is that much of the linked to the ability to efficiently navigate changing and
world’s remaining prospects for conventional and non-con- sometimes relatively unknown safe mudweight windows to
ventional oil and gas resources are increasingly more difficult as deep an exposed wellbore depth as practical. Safe mud
to drill safely, effectively and/or efficiently with conventional weight windows are those between formation pore pressure
circulating fluids systems. It may be said that most of the and fracture pressure or wellbore stability gradient at a spe-
“easy” wells have already been drilled, and those remaining cific depth, and in English units of measure, often expressed
promise to be more challenging, with a growing number be- in ppg equivalent (ppge). A map of downhole pressure en-
ing un-drillable with conventional means for safety, techni- vironments at various depths and formations, Figure MP-1,
cal and/or economic reasons. It may also be said that the provides some insight of the challenge.
old proverb “Necessity, who is the mother of invention” is

MP–2 MANAGED PRESSURE
is much higher than that of air or mist. Very soft formation

or unstable shale generates problems for drilling with foam,
as the wellbore integrity is poor.
Underbalanced drilling
The IADC UBO/MPD Committee’s Glossary of Terms de-
scribes underbalanced drilling (UBD): “A drilling activity
employing appropriate equipment and controls where the
pressure exerted in the wellbore is intentionally less than the
pore pressure in any part of the exposed formations with the
intention of bringing formation fluids to the surface.”
The official definition of UBD by the Alberta Energy Board

is somewhat more descriptive: “Drilling with the hydrostatic
head of the drilling fluid intentionally designed to be lower
than the pressure of the formations being drilled. The hy-
drostatic head of the fluid may be naturally less than the
formation pressure, or it can be induced. The induced state
Figure MP-1: Predictions of safe mud weight windows used for
planning fluids and casing programs. Courtesy Weatherford. may be created by adding natural gas, nitrogen, or air to the
liquid phase of the drilling fluid. Whether the underbalanced
status is induced or natural, the result may be an influx of
Air, gas, mist and foam drilling formation fluids which must be circulated from the well and
Air and gas drilling was introduced in the 1950s primarily for controlled at surface.”
purposes of optimizing drilling performance and cost, typi-
cally in hard-rock formations or in grossly depleted forma- Put more simply, UBD is drilling with a hydrostatic mud
tions. Of all drilling fluids, air and gas offer the greatest pen- weight intentionally maintained below adjacent wellbore
etration rates, are least likely to cause formation damage, reservoir pressures to invite hydrocarbons to be produced
and have the greatest ability to drill in loss circulation zones. to the surface. UBD-specific well control principles ap-
However, air and gas drilling also has the least ability to drill ply. The primary objective of UBD may be to either reduce
safely in high-pore pressure zones or to cope with formation non-productive time when drilling zones where kicks and/
water. Drilling with air, gas or mist is not a common practice or losses are prevalent or to enhance the productivity of the
in marine environments. completed well or reservoir characterization while drilling.
UBD may be practiced on land and offshore. Drilling ahead
Mist drilling is where compressed air or other gas (e.g., ni- with hydrocarbons being produced to surface in marine
trogen or natural gas) is injected into the well with incom- environments is regulatory-restricted in some jurisdictions
pressible fluids such as fresh water, formation water or for- and requires specific approval in advance. Producing reser-
mation oil. voir fluids to surface while drilling underbalanced offshore
can present rig space and logistics challenges that must be
The history of foam drilling also dates back to the 1950s carefully considered.
and is commonly used to enable loss circulation zones to be
drilled with returns to surface. Recyclable foams were not Several methods are used to invite the well to flow while
available until late in the 1990s, which enabled the utiliza- drilling. Drilling with twp-phase fluids (nitrified fluids) and
tion of foam drilling offshore due to smaller footprints and injection of an inert gas in the annulus returns path (du-
environmental regulation. al-gradient UBD) are common when drilling into depleted
formations. The flow drilling method is applicable when
Foam drilling operations may obtain penetration increases of drilling horizontally into inclined fractures, such as found in
seven to nine times that of conventional mud drilling (mostly the Austin Chalk in Texas and Louisiana. In this case, the for-
in hard rock). The advantage of no lost circulation (in most mation is not depleted, per se, but mud is lost in the fracture
cases) is a critical economic and environmental advantage. below, allowing reservoir pressure gas to enter the wellbore
The ability to recover samples in the form of drill cuttings from above, resulting in an underbalanced condition.
can be extremely important in exploratory wells. In addition,
foam allows the use of much lower velocity in large wellbore UBD requires dedicated specialized equipment, careful
wells versus dry gas or mist drilling, resulting in lower equip- pre-planning, hydraulic flow modeling, HazId/HazOp pro-
ment needs. The ability of foam to carry out produced water cesses, crew training and interactive drilling program imple-

MANAGED PRESSURE MP–3
mentation for safe and effective application. It also requires An influx of hydrocarbons is not invited, but everything is in
all involved parties to know when to engage conventional place to contain any that may be incidental to the operation.
well control procedures and when they are not required. The primary objectives of MPD are to reduce NPT by miti-
gating drilling hazards, enhance well control and drill pros-
Managed pressure drilling pects otherwise deemed un-drillable for safety, economic or
The specialized equipment and techniques to practice MPD technical reasons. MPD may be practiced on any type of rig,
safely and effectively have evolved on many thousands of whether it has a surface or subsea BOP.
land-drilling programs over the past four decades. The use
of its key enabling tools and application of its root concepts Variations of managed pressure drilling
have become so commonplace that many consider drill- There are four key variations of MPD, each intended to ad-
ing with a rotating control device (RCD) and drilling choke dress specific challenges to conventional drilling programs.
is ‘just the way you drill’ and may not relate such to MPD
technology, per se. (The main function of an RCD is to divert Constant Bottomhole Pressure (CBHP): Applicable to
flow and to prevent any surface release from returning flu- drilling in narrow, shifting and/or relatively unknown mud
ids, thus maintaining a safe environment on the rig floor. See weight (EMW) windows that manifest kick/loss scenarios
separate section on Rotating Control Devices.) such as illustrated in Figure MP-2.
This is in part due to the fact that the term was not coined
until its onshore pioneered root concepts were introduced
to offshore drilling decision-makers in 2003. A predominant
difference between UBD and MPD is that the former invites
the well to flow while drilling and the latter does not. This
key distinction opens considerable opportunity for MPD to
be practiced on all types of offshore rigs.
The IADC UBO/MPD Committee describes MPD as:
“MPD—an adaptive drilling process used to precisely control the

annular pressure profile throughout the wellbore. The objectives
are to ascertain the downhole pressure environment limits and
to manage the annular hydraulic pressure profile accordingly. It
is the intention of MPD to avoid continuous influx of formation
fluids to the surface. Any influx incidental to the operation will be
safely contained using an appropriate process.
Figure MP-2: Well flows when not circulating and mud losses
“MPD process employs a collection of tools and techniques occur when circulating due to the addition of circulating
which may mitigate the risks and costs associated with drilling annular friction pressure (AFP). Courtesy Weatherford.
wells that have narrow downhole environmental limits, by pro-
actively managing the annular hydraulic pressure profile. CBHP enables drilling with a lighter mud that avoids loss-
es when circulating and applies surface backpressure (BP)
“MPD may include control of back pressure, fluid density, fluid when not circulating to prevent well flow, as illustrated in
rheology, annular fluid level, circulating friction and hole geome- Figure MP-3.
try, or combinations thereof.
Pressurized Mud Cap Drilling (PMCD): Applicable to drill-
“MPD may allow faster corrective action to deal with observed ing in severe to total loss circulation zones with a sacrificial
pressure variations. The ability to dynamically control annular fluid and no returns to surface, as illustrated in Figure MP-4.
pressures facilitates drilling of what might otherwise be econom-
ically unattainable prospects.” Returns Flow Control for HSE (RFC-HSE): Applicable
when drilling with a closed-loop circulating-fluids system
MPD is drilling with an equivalent mud weight (EMW) equal for health, safety and environmental reasons only. Key
to or greater than formation pressure or the pressure re- components of a closed-loop system are an RCD, drill
quired for wellbore stability and less than fracture or leak- string non-return valves (floats) and a dedicated choke
off pressure. The mud weight itself may or may not impart system that is manual, semi-automatic or programmable
a hydrostatic head pressure less than formation pressure. logic controlled (PLC) automatic. A PLC automatic choke

Dual-Gradient Drilling (DGD): Applicable for achieving

two or more depth versus pressure gradients in the mud
returns path primarily for managing the wellbore pressure
profile, as illustrated in Figure MP-5:
For CBHP, PMCD, and RFC-HSE variations, some of the

same dedicated equipment required for UBD is used: e.g.,
drill string non-return valves in most cases, a fit-for-pur-
pose RCD design, and a dedicated drilling choke manifold.
For DGD and depending upon the specific method, a dual
gradient in the returns path back to the rig may be achieved
by injecting a gas, lighter mud or by using subsea mud-lift
pumps in deepwater.
Like UBD, all variations require careful pre-planning, hydrau-

lic flow modeling, HazId/HazOp processes, crew training
and interactive drilling program implementation for safe and
effective application. Also like UBD, all variations require all
Figure MP-3: The amount of surface BP applied during jointed involved to have a clear understanding of when and when
pipe connections is typically equal to the circulating AFP
experienced while drilling the last stand. Courtesy Weatherford.
not to engage conventional well control procedures. How-
ever, unlike UBD, which may not be permitted offshore by
a regulatory body, MPD is likely to be permitted on a case-
by-case basis provided that operator objectives are clearly
defined and adequate pre-planning and well control contin-
gency plans are well defined and understood by all stake-
holders.
Figure MP-4: PMCD involves placement of a heavy

viscous mud cap above the source of severe to total
losses, augmented by surface BP to prevent reservoir
fluids’ migration to surface, and drilling with a sacrificial
fluid such as seawater. Courtesy Weatherford.
system enables early kick-loss detection, identification Figure MP-5: DGD is accomplished by using mud-lift pumps,
of ballooning phenomenon in real-time, and the ability to mud dilution or inert gas injection that removes some or all
conduct frequent dynamic formation integrity tests (FITs) of the hydrostatic head otherwise generated by the column
of mud and cuttings above. For example, if mud-lift pumps
and leak-off tests (LOTs) without drilling interruption. are on the seafloor for deepwater DGD, all of the hydrostatic
Dynamic FITs are particularly beneficial because it’s better head otherwise created by a tall column of annulus returns
to know sooner than later if the fracture pressure is less than in the marine riser is removed, and the wellbore is exposed
what is required by subsequent drilling, casing running and only to seawater gradient. Courtesy Weatherford.
cementing operations

Deepwater applications of MPD IADC UBO/MPD Committee technical support

CBHP and PMCD have been safely and effectively practiced The IADC UBO/MPD Committee has been active in devel-
globally on prospects deemed un-drillable with convention- oping recommended practices and HSE Guidelines for both
al means for safety, economic or technical reasons. This is MPD and UBD. Subject matter experts on the committee
understandable when considering that new technology is have strived to aid the industry in safe and effective practice
most often applied only when conventional wisdom fails. of both drilling methods, and those interested in practicing
RFC-HSE is just beginning to be seen as maybe a better way UBO or MPD are encouraged to access the results of their
to drill some prospects that could be drilled conventionally. collective thinking via IADC’s website.
Although there have been hundreds of riserless DGD appli-
cations, DGD with a marine riser and subsea BOP is still in Key enabling equipment
its infancy. One enabling tool that is most common to the drilling meth-
ods discussed in this chapter is the RCD. The availability
On floating rigs such as moored semisubmersibles and dy- of RCD designs applicable to enable drilling on any type of
namically positioned drill ships, the kit required to practice land and offshore rig with closed and circulating fluids that
CBHP, PMCD and RFC-HSE variations has evolved to include can be pressurized have played key role in the evolution and
several offshore RCD configurations, PLC automated choke wide acceptance of the drilling techniques discussed in this
manifold systems for early kick-loss detection, real-time chapter. Methods of applying surface back pressure may
determination of actual drilling windows, ability to conduct also require the use of drill string non-return valves or floats.
frequent dynamic FITs and quantify ballooning phenomenon Choke systems may be manually operated semi-automat-
upon each jointed pipe connection. ic or PLC automatic. UBD and MPD can be safely practiced
with a manual or semi-automatic manifold system. Howev-
The RCD should be tested and rated by the provider in ac- er, applications of MPD on challenging onshore wells and
cordance with API 16RCD. Deepwater designs include those most offshore wells have prompted the development of PLC
suitable for being configured on top of a collapsed upper automatic choke control systems.
marine riser slip joint, above the marine riser tension ring
and below the slip joint, below the marine riser tension ring, Other key enabling equipment to practice the drilling meth-
and anywhere within the marine riser itself above the subsea ods discussed in this chapter that is likely to be in addition to
BOP. The bodies of the RCD designs to be configured below the rig’s regular equipment includes downhole deployment
the riser tension ring to serve as a marine riser spool section valves, mud /gas separators of sufficient capacity, nitrogen
and therefore must have suitable tensile strength, typically production units, pitless air drilling systems, air compres-
3,000,000 lb. sion, mass-flow meters, gas chromatographs, continuous
circulating systems, and systems to make and break foams.
Another marine design is the “Docking Station RCD”, Figure
MP-6, whose body is configured above the tension ring and Such specialized equipment is most often provided by ser-
below the rig’s telescoping slip joint. In this configuration, vice providers and often rented or leased by the operator
the slip joint above requires an inside diameter that permits or rig contractor. When air/gas/mist/foam drilling, UBD or
deployment and retrieval of the RCD’s bearing and annular MPD are practiced on their rig, regular rig personnel should
seal assembly. Each design requires a dedicated running familiarize themselves with the required specialized equip-
tool for deploying the RCD’s bearing and seal assembly, fa- ment and receive training from the provider if asked to assist
cilitating transition from conventional drilling to MPD and in its safe operation and/or maintenance.
vice versa.
Figure MP-7 is a schematic that may be considered a state- Managed pressure drilling
or-the-art equipment configuration for the practice of CBHP, As mentioned in the introduction to this chapter, MPD is de-
PMCD and RFC-HSE variations. In this case, the RCD is confined as “an adaptive drilling process used to precisely con-
figured below the marine riser tension ring, a location that trol the annular pressure profile throughout the wellbore.
does not require modifications to the rig’s existing upper The objectives are to ascertain the downhole pressure en-
marine riser system, as well as enabling significant headings vironment limits and to manage the annular hydraulic pres-
changes on drill ships. The ease at which the RCD’s bearing sure profile accordingly. It is the intention of MPD to avoid
and annular seal assembly may be deployed and retrieved continuous influx of formation fluids to the surface. Any in-
facilitates relatively rapid transition from conventional drill- flux incidental to the operation will be safely contained using
ing to MPD and vice versa. an appropriate process.”

Figure MP-6: Marine Series RCD whose body is an integral component of the marine riser system. Courtesy Weatherford.
MPD includes the four variations briefly described in the These different variations and techniques precisely control
introduction. They and subsets based upon their root prin- annular pressure using combinations of applied pressure
ciples have been described by the IADC in their MPD Selec- (usually at the surface), hydrostatic head and dynamic fric-
tion Tool. Go to http://mpdtool.iadc.org/ to register and use tion. These three elements of annular pressure are in turn
the tool. Or scan the QR Code. affected by altering the combination of back pressure, fluid

Figure MP-7: A state of the Art MPD equipment configuration may

be used for multiple variations of MPD. Courtesy Weatherford.
density, fluid rheology, wellbore geometry, and circulation pumping is stopped (planned or unplanned), BHP drops. The
rate to generate appropriate pressure downhole in the annu- only ways to change BHP are to change either the rig pump
lus to accomplish the objectives described in the definition. rate (frictional pressure) or the mud weight. The system is
applicable offshore and on land. These systems can be used
The primary variations of MPD and subsets based on their in combination with other MPD techniques to provide more
root concepts currently recognized by the IADC and spoken flexibility. Static mud column pressure may be less than pore
to in the aforementioned MPD Candidate Selection Tool are pressure.
briefly described below.
Constant bottomhole pressure

Continuous circulating devices CBHP drilling refers to any technique wherein the bottom-
A continuous circulation device (CCD) allows circulation hole pressure remains essentially constant whether the rig
to be maintained when the drill string is broken for a con- mud pumps are on and fluid is circulating or rig mud pumps
nection. The mud pumps are never intentionally stopped or are off and the well is static.
restarted during the connection process. One type of CCD
device encloses the tool joint within a pressurized chamber Constant bottomhole pressure/bottle-up (or
while breaking or making a connection, enabling full “drill- trapped) pressure
ing” circulation with the rig pumps while a new stand is The trapped pressure form of CBHP MPD entails closing
made up to the drill string. a valve (usually a choke) to trap pressure at the surface to
compensate for reduced dynamic friction effects as the
Alternative methods utilize pump-in subs (one per stand) rig pump rate is reduced prior to a connection. This simple
made up on the drill string as part of each new connection MPD technique can be attempted using the rig annular BOP
that divert flow below the tool joint being made up and also and a choke (“bottle- up” technique) similar to a well control
allow continuous circulation while making connections. choke.
This functionality allows for constant BHP once circulation When the pump is stopped, EMW BHP equals mud weight
is initiated. Circulating friction maintains the BHP, so when plus the trapped surface annular pressure. As the rig pump

is started up, the choke is gradually opened to compensate Dual-gradient subsea pump
for the increase in friction pressure at the bottom of the hole. Dual-gradient subsea pump (also known as dual-gradient
A balanced combination of circulating friction pressure, mudlift or subsea mudlift) systems are used on offshore in-
mud weight and back pressure maintains BHP and avoids stallations after the rig BOP and marine riser are installed.
or mitigates pressure spikes during normal operations and They use two fluids of different density to achieve a desired
in the event of problems such as pump failures, RCD leaks, bottomhole pressure. Typically a heavy mud is in the well-
choke washing/plugging, etc. bore up to or slightly above the mud line, with a lighter-weight
fluid, usually close to seawater gradient, in the riser.
The only methods of changing static BHP or BHP range are
by changing the mud weight, the annular pressure or both. A pump is used to lift cuttings and returning mud from the
The system is applicable to land and marine operations. wellbore near the mud line back to the drilling vessel. Mudlift
Static mud column pressure may be less than pore pressure. systems incorporate a rotation seal above the BOP and,
through manipulation of the pump speed, can create back
Constant bottomhole pressure/back-pressure pressure on the wellbore. Mudlift systems have significant
control flexibility in adjusting and modifying the wellbore pressure
CBHP or backpressure control MPD, also known as dynamic profile.
annular pressure control (DAPC), can be used with either
hydrostatically underbalanced or hydrostatically overbal- A subsea anti-U-tube valve often proves useful with these
anced drilling fluids. systems to simplify and/or improve well control procedures
and to prevent the unwanted u-tube effect of having a heavi-
An RCD is typically used to close the annulus while manu- er equivalent mud from the surface to TD inside the drill
al or automatic manipulation of a surface choke imposes or string than what is in the annulus.
relieves annular back pressure at the surface corresponding
to decreases or increases in circulation rate. Any time the rig Either pump speed or pump power can be used to measure
mud pumps are off during connections, an auxiliary pump flow from the well to detect kicks early and limit the size of
or backpressure pump introduces a flow stream through the any influx. The rotating seal at the BOP allows the kick to be
surface choke to impose pressure on the annulus and main- stopped and circulated out of the wellbore without having to
tain a constant bottomhole pressure. This pump may also be shut the BOP.
used at other times when the rig mud pumps are off, such as
when tripping. In this way, choke pressure is substituted for Controlled annular mud level
friction pressure as the circulation rate is decreased. When Controlled-riser mud level systems are applied after the
the rig mud pumps are brought back online and the circula- riser and BOP are in place and use an instrumented marine
tion rate is increased, the backpressure pump may be turned riser joint and pump system to return cuttings and fluid back
off as the choke pressure is reduced. to the drilling vessel. These systems also use two fluids of
different densities to control the wellbore pressure gradient.
This affects more precise control of annular pressure than
the bottle-up (or trapped) pressure technique because the The system can be utilized to place the annular fluid at dif-
choke is never 100% closed. This may facilitate detection ferent levels in the riser to achieve variable control over the
of reservoir fluid influxes or loss of circulation by various wellbore pressure, the effectiveness being based on fluid
means including annular pressure increase or decrease, in- density and placement.
creased or decreased returns rate, choke position changes,
etc. These changes can be corrected by closing or opening Unlike mudlift drilling, these systems do not have a rotating
the choke to increase or decrease BHP. seal above the riser. These systems work by adjusting the
level of heavy mud in the riser, thus changing the hydrostat-
ic head. The BHP (both dynamic, for equivalent circulating
Dual gradient drilling density (ECD) effects, and static, for trip/connection mar-
Dual-gradient drilling refers to drilling with two fluids of dif- gins) can be adjusted up or down by changing the fluid level
ferent density in the wellbore at the same time. Normally, in the riser by increasing or decreasing the return pump rate
one fluid extends from the rig to the bit and back up the an- with respect to the surface pump rate.
nulus a certain distance. The second fluid then exists in the
annulus from the top of the first fluid back to the rig level. These systems can also be used to adjust for ECD during ce-
menting, completion and intervention operations. The sys-
Several variations of dual-gradient drilling are recognized by tems are applicable to intermediate water depth in subsea
IADC.ß marine operations.

accomplished in one of several ways, including through an

Mud line pumping (Riserless) external parasite tubing attached to a surface or intermedi-
Mud line pumping is a variation of riserless drilling, which ate casing string, through an annulus formed by a temporary
has historically been used for top-hole drilling before the rig concentric casing string, or, in offshore applications, through
BOP and marine riser are run. a riser boost line near the mudline.
Mud line pumping differs from conventional riserless drill- The lower density fluid or light material is separated from
ing in that subsea pumps move the drilling fluid, including the original circulating fluid at the rig so that it can be re-
cuttings, from the subsea wellhead back to the rig through a used; otherwise, a continuous supply of the base mud and
small bore riser. This allows engineered mud to be used in the light-weight additive must be available.
top sections of the well. This has significant safety and opera-
tional advantages compared to drilling with seawater or using The original mud is returned to the pits for pumping down
a pin-connector and riser. The system is applicable in subsea the drill string. Due to the depth of the injection point, there
marine operations, typically in shallower water depths. Static may be a delay in achieving the desired effect until the mix-
fluid column pressure is greater than pore pressure. ing process results in the required mixture density. Due to
the constantly changing fluid density profile in the riser,
Two other variations of dual-gradient drilling rely on dilution achieving a constant BHP may be challenging and require
of drilling fluid. One method mixes gas with the drilling fluid, automation. The system is applicable from intermediate to
while the other mixes liquid with the drilling fluid. deepwater subsea marine operations. Static mud column
pressure is greater than pore pressure. ß
Dual-gradient/mix fluid using gas
Achieving a dual gradient by mixing gas with the drilling fluid
may be done either onshore or offshore, although it has his-
torically only been done onshore. When done offshore, this
system is used after running the rig BOP and marine riser.
Hydrostatic head of the circulating fluid is reduced by

injecting gas (e.g., nitrogen [N2]) into the drilling annulus.
The gas injection may be accomplished in one of several
ways, including through an external parasite tubing attached
to a surface or intermediate casing string, through an annulus
formed by a temporary concentric casing string, or, in offshore
applications, through a riser boost line near the mudline.
The gas is not normally recovered; thus, a continuous supply

must be available. After removal of the gas, typically through
a mud-gas separator, the original weight mud is returned to
the pits for circulation down the drill string.
The amount of gas introduced into the annulus determines

the relative reduction in BHP. Due to the depth of the injec-
tion point, there is a delay in achieving the desired effects as
the existing mud/gas mixture in the riser changes to the new
mixture average density. The compressible nature of gas
makes achieving a constant BHP challenging and requires
a wider operating-pressure window than when using an in-
compressible fluid. Static mud column hydrostatic pressure
is greater than pore pressure. Sea Floor
Dual-gradient/mix fluid using liquid

When this system is used offshore, the BOP and marine ris-
er are in place. The hydrostatic head of the circulating fluid Figure MP-8: The Controlled Annular Mud Level variation
is reduced by injecting a lower-density incompressible fluid of DGD allows control over wellbore pressure by varying
or material into the drilling annulus. The injection may be hydrostatic head. Courtesy Signa Engineering.

be held on the annulus at all times while drilling below an

Mud cap drilling RCD. Increasing surface pressure indicates hydrocarbon
Mud cap drilling (MCD) refers to techniques wherein total migration up the annulus. Additional annular fluid is period-
or near-total loss of circulation occurs and drilling is accom- ically injected into the annulus in order to bullhead any for-
plished by maintaining a “cap” of mud in the annulus, while mation fluid influx back into the formation, thus decreasing
injecting a sacrificial drilling fluid down the drill string with the annular pressure back to the initial value. This makes the
no returns to surface. process extremely predictable.
Floating mud cap drilling If the fluid level is not maintained at the surface (similar to
Floating mud cap drilling is simply drilling without returns. floating mud cap drilling described above) but can be mea-
The mud level in the annulus drops to a level that the pore sured and monitored to maintain it more or less at a con-
pressure in formations open to the wellbore will support. tinuous level, this may be considered to be PMCD by some.
Drilling continues with a sacrificial drilling fluid, usually wa- PMCD, like other forms of MCD, requires a good supply of
ter, pumped down the drill string according to conventional annular fluid as well as of sacrificial drilling fluid, which is
bit hydraulics and to facilitate hole cleaning. Fluid may be usually water. The system is applicable to land and offshore
pumped continuously into the annulus to mitigate any po- operations of all types. Static mud column pressure is slight-
tential influx from the formations. This method typically ly below or equal to pore pressure.
requires a large volume of sacrificial fluid. The system is ap-
plicable to land and marine operations, although it has his-
torically been applied primarily onshore. Static mud column Other MPD techniques
pressure is equal to or greater than pore pressure. Other recognized MPD variations may offer little actual an-
nular pressure control and are meant primarily for monitor-
ing or diversion of fluid returns only.
RCD Only
The RCD-only technique simply adds an RCD to the conven-
tional BOP stack on the rig to divert all fluid (either liquid or
gas) returns from the rig floor. No additional devices to deter-
mine kicks or losses such as flow meters, pressure sensors,
pit level indicators, flow restriction devices, etc. are used. This
is a reactive rather than a proactive MPD technique and is
somewhat limited in that it does not actually manage the BHP.
Enhanced kick/loss detection only

Objectives of early kick/loss detection (EKLD) include quick
identification of kicks or circulation losses, thus facilitating
mitigation before these events can escalate into a major
well-control event.
Seabed
EKLD systems also help to differentiate kicks and losses
from other downhole events such as ballooning and breath-
Figure MP-9: Mud line pumping is a variation of riserless drilling, ing. This is accomplished through the employment of vari-
which has historically been used for top-hole drilling before the
ous equipment on the rig consisting of combinations of flow
rig BOP and marine riser are run. Courtesy Signa Engineering.
meters, pressure sensors, pit level indicators, etc., in addition
to conventional drilling operation monitoring systems. The
operator is only alerted to a potential event. No incremental
Pressurized mud cap drilling response or reactive systems are present. This is a very lim-
PMCD, also known as closed-hole circulation drilling ited MPD technique in that it does not actually manage the
(CHCD), is drilling without returns but with the annulus fluid BHP, but only helps monitor potential changes to the BHP.
level maintained at the surface.
Still other MPD variations are less likely to be encountered
The annular fluid has a hydrostatic head that is slightly below in the field, as they are in the development stage or have
pore pressure equivalent, requiring a slight back pressure to limited applicability.

Constant bottomhole pressure/back-pressure ECD control: Concentric drill pipe

Control Using Gas Injection This technology uses a concentric drill pipe that allows drill-
CBHP or backpressure control using gas injection is carried ing fluid to be pumped down the annulus between the inner
out almost exactly like the CBHP/back-pressure control and outer strings of concentric pipe with returns up the in-
technique, except that the circulating fluid density is reside of the inner string. This de-couples the annulus from
duced by the addition of a gas phase. The technique can uti- the circulating drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure, enabling a
lize either hydrostatically underbalanced or hydrostatically different fluid density to be maintained in the concentric drill
overbalanced drilling fluids. pipe/wellbore annulus.
Gas is most commonly introduced into the circulating fluid

either through the drill string or into the casing-drill string Common MPD equipment components
annulus using either an external parasite tubing string or a
temporary concentric casing string. An RCD is typically used Rotating control devices
to close the annulus while manual or automatic manipula- Virtually every MPD operation requires the installation and
tion of a surface choke imposes or relieves surface annular utilization of an RCD, including rotating BOPs and the more
back-pressure corresponding to decreases or increases in common rotating head (RH). The RCD seals around the drill
circulation rate. Control of annular pressure is most com- pipe and allows the annulus to become pressurized, thereby
monly accomplished using the bottle-up (trapped) pressure facilitating choke backpressure for unconventional drilling
method, but may be accomplished, at least in theory, by uti- operations. An RH affects a seal on the annulus by friction
lizing an auxiliary annular pump as described in the other between the RH sealing element and the drill string. The seal
CBHP method sections. around the drill string with a rotating BOP is affected by hy-
draulic pressure exerted behind the sealing element similar
If necessary, choke pressure is substituted for friction pres- to the manner in which a BOP element seals around pipe.
sure as the circulation rate is decreased and vice versa when Unlike a BOP ram or annular preventer, an RCD allows the
the circulation rate is increased. Use of annular pressure rotation and vertical movement of drill pipe.
may facilitate detection of reservoir fluid influxes or loss
of circulation by various means including annular pressure RCDs should not be confused with BOP devices. Although
increase or decrease, increased or decreased returns rate, the RCD helps to isolate a pressurized wellbore, they are not
choke position changes, etc. These changes can be correct- designed or required to be part of well control operations, or
ed by closing or opening the choke to increase or decrease to be a part of BOP equipment.
BHP. Due to fluid system compressibility, modifications
require more time to affect the bottomhole pressure than Returns flow path
when using incompressible fluid systems commonly used Many of the failures in MPD operations can be directly at-
with other CBHP/back-pressure methods. tributed to poor flow path and piping designs and rig-up.
For example, a 100-ft run of 4-in. XXH piping with several
Equivalent circulating density reduction tools right-angle turns can produce as much as 50 psi induced
This technology involves installing a turbine pump in the drill pressure at 400-500 gal/min (depending on fluid proper-
string to pump all or part of the returning circulating fluid up ties). On a well with a true vertical depth (TVD) of 4,000 ft,
the annulus to counteract the incremental pressure drop of this equates to an extra 0.24 lb/gal equivalent seen solely
the fluid circulating through the annulus and thus maintain due to surface piping by the wellbore at depth. This increased
a constant BHP. pressure may very well put the pressure profile outside a safe
drilling window.
The tool must be positioned deep enough to provide suf-
ficient benefit yet shallow enough to continue the benefit In general, at a given flow rate, the larger the piping internal
as the tool moves deeper when drilling progresses. These diameter (ID), the lower the pressure drop per foot. Straight
tools are normally restricted to the cased portion of the well piping runs are better than turns. If a turn is required, large
and thus may need repositioning as drilling progresses. The radius turns produce less pressure drop than a more acute
system is applicable to offshore and land operations. These turn. It is also important to keep the flow piping the same ID,
systems can be used in combination with other MPD tech- since changing ID creates additional pressure drop.
niques to provide more flexibility. Static mud column pres-
sure is more than pore pressure. Chokes/manifolds
In many MPD variants an MPD choke manifold is a critical
component of the MPD equipment spread. The choke man-

ifold houses the choke, which creates the variable flow re- should be analyzed and the MGS equipment rating should
striction that controls the wellhead pressure, which in turn be checked to ensure it can handle any contingency flow.
controls or manages the wellbore pressure profile, often at a
relatively constant bottomhole pressure (BHP) in both static Drill string float valves
and dynamic conditions. Many MPD operations involve situations where backpres-
sure is held on the annulus during connections or any time
The choke in MPD operations is used to control wellbore circulation is not underway. This backpressure is effectively
pressure, but unlike conventional drilling choke manifolds, applied throughout the system and results in a “U-tube” ef-
MPD choke manifolds are not used as secondary well-con- fect from the drilling annulus into the drill string. To coun-
trol equipment. teract the U-tube and prevent flow up the drill string, non-
ported floats (also known as non-return valves or NRVs) are
The MPD choke manifold can be designed for the chokes to commonly carried as part of the string near or in the bottom-
be operated manually or automatically. In automatic MPD hole assembly. This facilitates trips and connections and pro-
choke systems, computer control manipulates the choke tects the crews, isolating the inside of the drill pipe from any
automatically via an algorithm to maintain the desired pres- pressure. Various types of non-ported float have been used
sure. Even if an automated system is used, the ability to op- effectively.
erate the manifold and chokes manually must be in-place.
The choke in MPD operations is used to control wellbore
Flow meters pressure, but unlike conventional drilling choke manifolds,
During MPD operations, returns flow from the wellbore is MPD choke manifolds are not used as secondary well-con-
typically diverted from the normal (or conventional) surface trol equipment.
flow path. The conventional flow line is not used while drilling
with MPD, and therefore the rig’s return flow sensor (flow
paddle or “flow show”) may not be in the fluid flow path. Of- Underbalanced drilling
ten a flowmeter is used in the return flow path to provide the
driller and rig/well management with an important sensor Introduction
that they are accustomed to using, providing them with an The world’s first commercially successful hydrocarbon
indicator of wellbore flow. Additionally, if the MPD process well was drilled underbalanced, with what today would
involves holding some surface backpressure, a flowmeter as- be considered akin to a cable tool rig. It is likely that the
sists in preventing choke operations from masking changes world’s last well will be drilled underbalanced due to the
in returns flow. grossly depleted nature of future reservoirs. In fact, the
world’s last well for hydrocarbons energy will likely not be
Auxiliary pumps for conventional oil or gas, or even shale gas or oil. That
In the CBHP variations of MPD, auxiliary pumps are often final well may well be drilled for commercial quantities of
used to maintain appropriate wellbore pressure and some- the world’s last abundant resource of hydrocarbon energy,
times fluid level during connections or other MPD opera- methane hydrates. Given that methane hydrates disasso-
tions. These pumps need to have a delivery rate of about 2-3 ciate in accordance with Boyle’s Law, it is reasonable to
bbl/min. They do not need the same pressure capability as a suspect that those drilling programs will dictate the use of
rig pump, which is typically 5,000 psi or greater. An auxilia- UBD concepts and key enabling equipment.
ry pump for MPD purposes may only need a pressure rating
of 500 psi, but this varies with application. However, for the foreseeable future, UBD’s trademark ben-
efits, which range from drilling into grossly depleted for-
Gas busters/separators mations without damaging well productivity to increasing
Since MPD projects (by IADC definition) are intended to recoverable reserves by drilling otherwise un-drillable pros-
avoid continuous influx, the use of a specialized mud-gas pects, will remain core values of the technology.
separation system is usually not warranted, unless a gasified
fluid is being used as the drilling mud. If a mud-gas separator It is important to understand the difference between MPD
(MGS) is incorporated into MPD surface equipment design, and UBD. Both may use essentially the same equipment,
it will typically be a safety precaution because the margin be- such as an RCD, drill string non-return valves (floats) and
tween mud weight and pore pressure is likely to be less than a drilling choke manifold of some type. However, MPD does
in conventional operations. not invite the well to flow, and formation influx potential is
suppressed by precise management of the wellbore pres-
The rig’s MGS is typically adequate to handle any influx sure profile, e.g., maintaining ECD above formation pressure
scenario, especially for offshore applications. Flow rates at all times. This is true whether the rig’s mud pumps are on

(circulating fluids system) or off (static fluids system) and why the majority of UBD wells are for infill drilling in
whether or not the mud in the hole at the time is hydrostati- mature, depleted reservoirs. However, one must note
cally underbalanced. The CBHP variation of MPD often uses that if mitigating such drilling hazards is the only ob-
a hydrostatically underbalanced fluid, but ECD or bottom- jective of UBD, MPD may offer a more cost-effective
hole pressure is maintained above formation pressure typi- solution in many cases and do so without producing
cally by applications of surface backpressure. Any operation hydrocarbons to the surface in the process.
with bottomhole pressure in excess of formation pressure, • Maximizing hydrocarbon recovery of the complet-
regardless of how the overbalance is arranged, is not UBD. ed well. At first this was not a primary reason for the
Nor does drilling with a hydrostatically underbalanced fluid selection of UBD techniques. Early focus on UBD was
within itself imply UBD. that of mitigating the aforementioned pressure related
drilling problems, and today such issues are predomi-
UBD techniques encourage formation flow to surface by ma- nantly addressed by MPD. However, operators began
nipulating fluid density, fluid properties, circulating rate and to notice that UBD wells indicated significant improve-
wellhead pressure. Bottomhole pressure is kept intentional- ment in reservoir productivity. The reason was traced
ly below formation pressure, allowing formation fluid influx to the fact that by avoiding invasion of solids or mud
into the wellbore. This means hydrocarbons are produced to filtrates into the formation, the productivity of the well
surface while drilling and explains in part why UBD is more increased. This combined with the ability to drill infill
commonly practiced onshore than offshore. wells in depleted fields significantly increased the life of
the field. Generally speaking, the long-term production
The official definition of UBD originates from the Alber- profiles of UBD wells show a much slower decline curve
ta (Canada) Energy Board and is also defined by the IADC than conventionally overbalanced wells, particularly in
UBO/MPD committee as: depleted fields.
• Characterizing the reservoir. The ability to identify frac-
“Drilling with the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid inten- tures and prolific reservoir zones, as well as productive
tionally designed to be lower than the pressure of the for- zones previously believed to be nonproductive and do-
mations being drilled. The hydrostatic head of the fluid may ing so while drilling, allows reservoir engineers to gain
naturally be less than the formation pressure or can be in- better understanding of the reservoir and consequently
duced. The induced state may be created by adding natural its potential for viable production. This ability in com-
gas, nitrogen, or air to the liquid phase of the drilling fluid. bination with the ability to steer wellbores in real time
Whether the underbalanced status is induced or natural, the enables targeting the more productive features of the
result may be an influx of formation fluids which must be cir- reservoir. It has been valuable to the industry and is
culated from the well and controlled at the surface.” destined to become more so as reservoirs deplete over
time.
In UBD, the fluid in the wellbore annulus no longer acts as
the primary well control barrier as it would in conventional Designing and planning an underbalanced well
overbalanced drilling. Instead, the surface equipment used The design and pre-planning of UBD wells follow a set pat-
for UBD operations, such as the RCD and the dedicated drill- tern for most wells, but there are some additional steps
ing choke manifold, has replaced the function of the prima- required. Offsetting well data collection and engaging a
ry well control barrier. The secondary well control barrier in good reservoir candidate-selection process are essential
the form of the BOP stack remains exactly the same as with elements for good planning. Timings for planning a UBD
conventional overbalanced operations. It is important that well are very much dependent on the well objectives and
the secondary well control equipment is not used for routine the complexity of the reservoir, as well as that of the drilling
UBD operations; the BOP must remain the secondary barrier, operation itself. If this is the first UBD well in the field and/
dedicated to well control. This means that both the well and or the first for the rig and its regular personnel, one should
the surface equipment must be maintained at all times when expect a longer planning and training period.
drilling underbalanced.
Fluids selection may include gasified fluids or single-phase
Why drill underbalanced? fluids if formation pressures are high enough to provide the
Common reasons for choosing UBD include: desired underbalanced conditions. Many oil reservoirs are
drilled with native crude that provides sufficient underbal-
• Minimizing pressure-related drilling problems. Most anced conditions. A gas-lift system to achieve a dual gradi-
drilling problems related to pressure such as differen- ent in the mud returns path may be applicable by injecting
tial sticking, fluid losses, and slow rate of penetration a gas (typically nitrogen) via concentric casing or parasite
can be minimized through the use of UBD. This explains string.

Depending on the fluids and gasses used, different hydraulic should be tested and rated by its provider in compliance
flow models may have to be used to verify the safe and most with API 16RCD. This does not mean it must have the API
effective operating window for UBD. A multiphase model monogram, but that its stated static, dynamic and stripping
may have to be used if two-phase fluids are used and should pressure ratings should have been established by the guide-
include the following: lines of this specification.
• Prediction of flow regime at any given depth; RCDs provide a seal at the uppermost part of the circulat-
• Liquid holdup calculations at any given point in the ing fluids system, diverting annular flow to processing and
well; measurement equipment. A section of API Recommended
• Frictional pressure loss (circulating annular friction Practice 92U Underbalanced Drilling Operations states:
pressure) calculations;
• Thermal pressure/volume/temperature (PVT) calcu- “In selection and design of UBD flow-control equipment it is
lations; necessary to accept the fact that equipment can fail during
• Hole cleaning and cuttings transport indications. the operations. Experience has shown that the RCD and
the UBD choke manifold are the components of the system
These basic pre-drill steps help determine the operating lim- most likely to fail due to operational wear and tear. There-
its and MPD equipment specifications and serve to define fore, planned monitoring, preventative maintenance and
contingency plans for the circulating system that are to be some redundancy are necessary to prevent failure.”
put in place before commencing drilling operations. An in-
herent process is that of developing a well-specific UBD well The RCD is a safety-critical item rig personnel are likely to be
control matrix, one that clearly defines safe operational lim- required to maintain. The RCD, particularly the RCD seal ele-
its for surface equipment under various pressure and flow ment, is among the most failure-prone individual component
conditions and specifically identifies when conventional well in a UBD program. RCD seal elements are “expendables” in
control procedures must be engaged. that they wear during service, somewhat akin to automobile
tires. Like automobile tire life, certain things can be done to
Impact of UBD operations on rig personnel help ensure the least wear and longest dependable service
The aforementioned planning operations typically are done life. Rig personnel are encouraged to give special attention
by engineers planning the well, with the assistance of UBD to ensure that any situations that could potentially shorten
service providers. Well-specific HazId/HazOp processes the element service life are eliminated or minimized.
should be engaged. It is at this point regular rig personnel
are likely to get involved. The working seal(s) in the RCD can be damaged by:
Specialized personnel may be on location in addition to reg- • Drill pipe roughness and identification grooves in tool
ular rig personnel during UBD operations, such as a UBD joint;
choke operator, dedicated multiphase separator personnel, • Fast tripping of the drill string;
etc. The “UBD kit” varies with the requirements of the drill- • Misalignment of the traveling block fall in respect to the
ing program and fluids used. A detailed discussion of all the rotary table;
equipment possibilities is beyond the scope of this docu- • Chemical incompatibility and elevated temperatures.
ment. In cases where rig personnel are involved in operation
and/or maintenance of such UBD-specific equipment, the The working seal(s) in the RCD can be damaged by:
service provider or someone very familiar with the equip-
ment should provide appropriate training to assure both • Review BOP stack drawings and interface with the rig;
safety and efficient operations. • Confirm drill string size(s) to be used per UBD pro-
gram;
Typically, most rig personnel interface with a UBD operation • Confirm that a suitable grade of sealing elements (such
on their rig with several key enabling tools, the RCD and drill as stripper rubbers), in the right sizes, are on site in ap-
string non-return valves. propriate quantity and stored properly;
• Confirm that the RCD is the right design specified in the
Rotating control devices drilling program and that it meets the required spec-
The main function of the RCD is to divert flow and to prevent ifications for static, dynamic and stripping pressure
any surface release from returning fluids, thus maintaining ratings;
a safe environment on the rig floor. During UBD operations, • Check other items such as RPM rating, maximum tem-
the RCD is a primary containment device. Its failure can perature tolerance of the sealing element and potential
have catastrophic consequences. For this reason the RCD for chemical incompatibility with drilling fluids used.

to avoid an excessive number in the drill string while

Drillstring non-return valves (NRVs or floats) avoiding excessively long connection bleed-off times.
There are two types of non-retrievable drill string non-re- • Screens should be used on the mud pump suction and
turn valves or ‘floats’ which are made up in the drill string – above measurement while drilling (MWD) tools to pre-
plunger and flapper types, illustrated below. These are made vent scale and solids from plugging NRVs and other
up in the drill string and cannot be relocated or retrieved bottomhole assembly components, or damaging the
without tripping out the drill string. Consequently, non-re- sealing surfaces.
trievable NRV’s are not the preferred type for UBD and some • Remove all adhesive labels from downhole tools. They
MPD applications. may dislocate in the hole and could possibly plug down-
hole components.
Wireline retrievable NRVs (WL-NRV) are typically preferred • NRVs and the possible presence of energized flu-
and commonly used on UBD and CBHP MPD applications. id below the valve are routine in UBD operations. In-
The WR-NRV is a flapper-style, drill-float valve designed to stallation, bleed-off and removal procedures in onsite
manage backpressure in the drillstring. Unlike a fixed-float practice training are important because the application
valve, the WL-NRV can be changed out or removed on wire- differs substantially from conventional operations.
line, eliminating the need to trip pipe. The high-pressure • The bleed-off hose connected to the NRV bleed-off tool
valve enhances safety by allowing pressure above the valve should be secured, or hard-lined, to ensure bleed-off is
in the drillstring to be bled off when making and breaking directed away from the rig floor and potential escape
connections. routes. Relieve pressure to the separator for high pres-
sure. Into atmosphere for low pressure is usually a good
Multiple valves are typically positioned at intervals of about practice.
500 ft (150 m) in the string to enable incremental bleed
back of any existing pressure and later incremental repres- References
surization. This procedure eliminates the time associated Further discussion on RCDs, NRVs and other UBD-specific
with bleeding pressure off the entire drillstring, as required equipment may be found in API RP Underbalanced Drilling
with fixed valves positioned in or near the bottomhole as- Operations, as well on the website for the IADC Underbal-
sembly (BHA). anced Operations & Managed Pressure (UBO/MPD) Com-
mittee. This committee comprises industry experts. When
In contrast to fixed-float valves that are made up as part of UBD is to be practiced on your rig, regular rig personnel would
the drillstring, the WR-NRV makes up to an industry stan- be wise to take advantage of the wisdom and experience
dard X-lock assembly that is latched into a drillstring pro- committee members have provided. Another resource is the
file sub. Using this common industry connection facilitates Canadian Drilling & Completion Committee’s Industry Rec-
quick recovery by wireline, which enables valve replacement ommended Practice (IRP) – Underbalanced Drilling (UBD) and
without killing the well. It also makes it possible for fishing Managed Pressure Drilling (MPD) Operations Using Jointed Pipe.
operations to reach the BHA, which is prevented with fixed-
valve configurations.
Air, gas, mist and foam drilling
Rig personnel should familiarize themselves with recom- Drilling equipment, procedures and problems discussed in
mendations for the use of non-return valves (NRV): this chapter include drilling with the compressible drilling
fluids (air, gas, and mist) and with the use of the air hammer.
• NRV bleed-off equipment should have a pressure rating
equal to or greater than that of the BOP stack. This section explains the basic concepts of air and gas drill-
• A minimum of two NRVs should be installed as close to ing. Therefore, the purpose is to:
the bit as possible, or directly above the drilling motor.
One of the devices can be a profile nipple designed to • Provide an understanding of related standard operating
accommodate a pump-down back-flow device. procedures and monitoring requirements;
• When an NRV is pulled to the floor to make jointed • Discuss the different techniques and equipment;
pipe connections, bleed-off procedures and equipment • Describe potential problems that may be encountered
should be used to remove trapped gas below the float that can be recognized and dealt with at the earliest
before being removed from the string. possible stages;
• Operational procedures should specify actions to be • Provide some, but certainly not all the information rig
taken in the event that either of the two NRVs fails to personnel may need to be aware of when drilling with
hold pressure. compressible fluids that could impact their usual tasks
• NRVs should be spaced apart in suitable intervals on the rig or drilling location;

• Encourage rig personnel to work with and communi- In addition to the contracted rig itself, the specialized equip-
cate closely with the compressible fluids drilling service ment is usually provided by service providers. These con-
provider. tractors supply the rotary drilling contractor’s rig with the
necessary surface equipment to convert the drilling rig to
Offshore applications of compressible fluids drilling systems one capable of drilling with a compressible fluid.
have been limited to date, so this discussion of the systems
and equipment is primarily concerned with land-based sys- Why drill with air/mist?
tems. Advantages include:
• Increased ROP, normally the primary consideration;
The drilling methods listed above utilize compressed air or • Reduced or eliminated risk of lost circulation;
a gas as a rotary drilling circulating fluid to carry the rock • Improved or extended bit life;
cuttings to the surface. The compressed air or other gasses • Identify often overlooked reservoirs;
such as nitrogen or natural gas can be used alone or injected • Decrease potential damage to productive formations;
into the well with incompressible fluids such as fresh water, • Eliminate the risk of differential sticking;
formation water or formation fluids (Figure MP-10). • Reduced overall well costs by reduction of time on
well;
The most common compressible fluid used for drilling is air. • Lack of conventional mud system to clean up or dispose
Natural gas from the lease or a pipeline is also common, but of at the surface.
nitrogen is gradually becoming the gas of choice. While it is
possible to drill into dry natural gas zones with an air system, The permeability of the formations being drilled has a sig-
if the zone contains a condensate, a downhole fire or explo- nificant influence on the finished well’s productivity. Sand-
sion will occur. In the case of condensate in the wellbore, stone, for example, has a relatively high permeability that
natural gas or nitrogen is the fluid of choice. can be damaged if drilled with a conventional overbalanced
mud system. Therefore, productivity of sandstone forma-
Some single-stand rotary drilling rigs have the required spe- tions benefits greatly from being drilled with air by avoiding
cialized air drilling equipment incorporated into the rig de- permeability damage.
sign. More often air, gas and mist drilling operations require
specialized surface equipment not normally used in conven-
tional mud drilling operations.
Figure MP-10: Compressible drilling systems include all systems above. Offshore applications of compressible fluids
drilling systems have been limited to dateTherefore, this section will primarily discuss land operations.

Flammability: Oxygen vs Methane

% Methane
14
Non-Flammable
Non-Flammable 12
10
8
Flammable
6
4
21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
% Oxygen
Figure MP-12: Using natural gas (methane) or nitrogen

reduces or even removes oxygen in the well, greatly
reducing the risk of downhole fire or even explosion.
Key seat and dropped pipe

A dry hole has two general tripping problems.
1. Running in the hole, the bit may hit a ledge and cause
the elevators to unlatch and drop the pipe. The solution
Figure MP-11: Mud rings occur when dust is wetted by any form is to not run in the hole by dropping the pipe; control the
of moisture, either in the drilling media or from the wellbore. running speed.
2. Coming out of the hole, a tool joint may keyseat in a
ledge. Pulling on it only jams it tighter. The best solution
Typical air drilling problems is to work or jar down.
Wet hole Downhole fire

The primary air or gas drilling problem is the presence of A downhole fire (or explosion) only occurs when drilling
water or moisture in the formation. with air and almost always occurs when a condensate-bear-
ing gas flow is encountered. The use of natural gas or nitro-
The cuttings from damp or wet formations become muddy gen removes or reduces the oxygen in the hole so fire cannot
and require additional moisture and soap from a misting occur (Figure MP-12).
pump (drilling with mist) to disperse them.
The technical explanation is that a fire or explosion down-
Moisture reduces the ability of the air or gas to lift cuttings hole requires a flammable mixture and an ignition source.
from the hole and in shale or broken formations causes hole Air contains approximately 20% oxygen, which only re-
instability. quires a small amount of condensate to become explosive.
The source of ignition can be a drill collar or tool joint that
Hole instability generally starts with washouts in the open has become red-hot by rubbing against a dry rock.
hole. The washed-out area reduces the air velocity opposite
it and causes a buildup of cuttings that can fall back on a Shale, oil shale, gilsonite, coal and other
connection and cause hole fill-up or stuck pipe. common formation problems
Air/gas drilling works best where the formations are hard
Mud rings and brittle. Some common problems with air/gas drilling
When damp formations are drilled, the cuttings build up on are related to the characteristics of the formation.
top of the drill collars where the air/gas velocity decreases • Shale: Shale can be very dry and brittle and will drill
due to a larger annulus. The damp cuttings form a mud ring with air/gas very rapidly. Thick shale formations are
in the annulus above the drill collars that reduces the ability often geopressured and contain a lot of pore space wa-
to clean the bit and around the collars and may cause a stuck ter. If mist is used or the formations become wet, they
bit on a connection (Figure MP-11). Mist (water and deter- start to become unstable in three or four days, the hole
gent) is required to cut the mud rings. caves, and it becomes difficult to continue with an air/
gas system;

• Oil Shale: Shale containing a high percentage of ker- es in air pressure. If the blooie line shows alternate slugs of
ogene or oil has a tendency to ball the bit and cause water and air, too much water and/or not enough detergent
mud rings. This is difficult to overcome with mist. The is being used.
injection of dry graphite or a powder can overcome the
sticky problem, but it is difficult to inject dry powder To avoid corrosion, the injection water must have a pH of
into the air stream; above 9.5 at the blooie line and contain a corrosion inhibitor.
• Gilsonite: Gilsonite, which is found in Utah in the Unit- The injection water may also contain shale-swelling inhib-
ed States, and similar very kerogenous coal or shales itors. Probably the most common is potassium hydroxide.
found elsewhere in the world are not suitable gas drill- Another effective inhibitor may be the synthetic shale inhib-
ing projects; itor.
• Coal: Coal is a very general term for the driller, since
it ranges from soft to hard and broken to compact. At Slugs of water and foamer (detergent) from the mist pump
this time there does not seem to be any general rule are often used to help clean the hole of cuttings. If it works, it
about air/gas coal drilling problems. Local information is a useful technique, but it is best not to use too much water
is the best source of ideas and is generally most cor- because it contributes to destabilization of the hole.
rect.
• Some coal beds are broken and pulverized and will Corrosion problems and solutions
not stay open with air/gas drilling. Washed-out Look at the top, middle and bottom of the drill pipe for pits
coal sections (coal beds) are one of the main prob- or orange or black stain. These are signs that corrosion is
lems that limit air/gas drilling. The coal bed col- starting. Look carefully at any tong die marks near the tool
lapses to a large enough washout that the cuttings joint; these are often where corrosion starts. A black stain
cannot rise past that point; on the pipe can be the sign of sulphate corrosion, and an
• In other coal, the bedding is intact enough that it orange stain indicates oxygen corrosion or rust. The color
will drill and hold a near-gauge open hole. In parts stain may not be important, or it may be the sign of the start
of the eastern United States, the hard coal (anthra- of serious corrosion.
cite coal) is compact and brittle enough that direc-
tional and horizontal holes can be drilled with air. Water or moisture and oxygen cause drill pipe and casing
corrosion. The first defense is to have a pH above 9.5. This
Air volume requirements can be obtained with caustic soda (NaOH), potassium hy-
Air volume requirements are based on hole size (annu- droxide (KOH3) or soda ash (NaHCO3). Check at the blooie
lar size) and depth. Washouts or larger-diameter casings line to be sure the pH is 9.5 or higher.
require more air than calculated for the open-hole size. A
graph for volume requirements is shown in “Underbalanced The second defense against corrosion is a corrosion inhibi-
Drilling: Limits and Extremes”, Bill Rehm, et al, p 322 (Gulf tor. There are a large number of corrosion inhibitors for air
Publishing, 2012; published under the auspices of the IADC drilling. Check at the blooie line for excess inhibitor, which
Technical Publications Committee). means that the pipe is protected.
The table is drawn up for minimum volume in a gauge hole. There are a number of corrosion inhibitors that do not work
Because most holes are washed out or overgauge, table val- well with air drilling. Among them are filming amines used
ues for long open hole or misting are about 20% low. for pipe on the rack. It is not a good choice for drilling opera-
tions; it is too soft and washes off the pipe in the hole and is
Mist drilling rules generally not compatible with drilling fluid systems.
Almost all air and gas drilling operations end up using mist
to extend drilling in damp holes or where there is a prob- Drying a wet hole
lem cleaning the hole. Mist requires an increase in air/gas It is often necessary to dry the casing or open hole when
volume of about 20% and increases the injection pressure starting to air or gas drill. This always takes more time than
requirements by 5 to 10%. seems reasonable. It is very time-consuming to dry a long
section of open hole that was drilled with a liquid.
Mist drilling requires between 5 gal/min (20 l/min) and 15
gal/min (35 l/min) of water injection into the air line de- Start with a quart or half-gallon of foamer down the drill
pending upon the air volume. Too little air only wets the cut- pipe and then blow on the hole. The foamer treatment can
tings and makes the lifting and mud ring problem worse; too be done several times.
much water forms slugs that destabilize the hole. The water
must be injected evenly and consistently despite any chang- The pipe can be rotated slowly. Rotating helps because the

pipe will bang against the side of the casing or open hole and Mist normally has these same three components with a
loosen wet cuttings and mud. Be careful with rotation of the lower concentration of both water and surfactants. In foam
drill pipe. Fast drill pipe rotation can cause the bottom joints the liquid and the gas travel together as part of a bubble
to unscrew when the pipe is stopped or drags. structure, which carries the cuttings out of the well. In mist,
gas carries both the liquids and the cuttings out of the well,
Finally, to finish drying the hole it will be necessary to drill requiring much higher annular velocities, resulting in higher
and let the cuttings adsorb the last of the water. Drill a few gas flow rates and more compression equipment. The ques-
ft and circulate, and repeat this process until the hole starts tion of how we know the system will behave as foam or as
to dust. mist then arises.
In some cases, shutting in the hole and building pressure in- Advantages of foam
side the wellbore, then releasing the pressure to the blooie Foam has the highest lifting capacity of any lightweight drill-
line will help blow the mud and water out of the hole. This ing fluid. It is, for example, an excellent milling fluid because
technique needs to be discussed to be sure that it does not it will lift steel cutting out of the hole with very little slip ve-
conflict with the contractor’s or operator’s policies. locity.
Foam exerts a pressure against the formation to help restrict

Foam drilling formation flow or hole instability.
Introduction
Drilling equipment, procedures and problems discussed
in this section are concerned with foam drilling. Foam is
quite different than air/mist systems, and the two are not
compatible for use at the same time, although a mist-drilled
hole can be converted to foam or a foam-drilled hole could
be converted to mist.
Foam is a fluid with a structure. It could be represented as a

figure as a six-sided gas bubble surrounded by a stiff coating
of water. In the three-dimensional annulus, the six-sided gas
bubble is actually 12-sided, but the effect is the same: foam
has a structure.
History of foam drilling Figure MP-13: Example of mist flow.

The history of foam drilling dates back to the 1950s and Courtesy Weatherford International.
has been a proven technology for many years. Recyclable
foams were not available until late in the 1990s, which en-
abled the utilization of foam drilling offshore due to smaller
footprints and environmental regulation. Many operations
obtain penetration increases of seven to nine times that of
overbalanced drilling (mostly in hard rock). The advantage
of no lost circulation (most cases) is a critical economic
and environment advantage. In addition, foam allows the
use of much lower velocity in large wellbore wells versus
dry gas or mist drilling, resulting in lower equipment needs.
The ability of foam to carry out produced water is extreme-
ly high. Very soft formation or unstable shale generates
problems for drilling with foam, as the wellbore integrity
is poor.
Foam, mist and in between

Figures MP-13 and MP-14 show how the returns look like in
the systems called foam and mist. Foam requires the com- Figure MP-14: Example of foam flow.
Courtesy Weatherford International.
bination of a liquid (usually water), surfactants and a gas.

The wellbore pressure exerted by foam increases with Corrosion of drill pipe can be a problem. The pH needs to be
depth because when the air or gas in the foam compresses, kept above 9.5 and corrosion inhibitors kept in the system on
there is more fluid in the foam, and pressure increases with a consistent basis.
depth.
The compressors and fluid pump need to be kept coordinat-
Foam is a good lost circulation blocker. In addition to being ed to make a consistent fluid.
lighter than a drilling mud, the foam bubbles act like a lost
circulation material to block loss of foam to the formation. Foam circulates very slowly, and it can take an hour or more
to circulate the annulus.
Foam uses very little water (or oil), because it is mostly gas.
This is an advantage in desert areas or where disposing of Gas volume fraction
drilling fluids is a problem. The gas volume fraction (GVF) is simply the volume of gas
at given conditions divided by the total volume of the mix-
Downhole fires will not normally occur with air foam. How- ture. GVF is then a volumetric relationship that has nothing
ever there have been fires drilling with foam in a conden- to do with how good the foam actually is. In any subsequent
sate-bearing formation probably because the condensate discussion in this document about this property, we will call
killed the foam. With condensate-bearing formations, it this relationship GVF instead of using the confusing term
would be prudent to use nitrogen as the gas. “foam quality”.
Well kicks from gas or water can be controlled with fluid The GVF can be confusing until you realize that the GVF
density by adding more liquid or reducing the gas. could be 500:1 (500 cu ft of gas to 1 cu ft of water) at the
surface, but only 0.25:1 at 10,000 ft (3000 m) downhole
Typical foam drilling problems due to compression of the gas. It all depends upon:
The primary problem with foam is composition. The gas and
liquid must be added at a consistent rate. Bypassing air from • Surface GVF (how much gas and water are being in-
a compressor is not good practice. jected);
• Vertical depth of the hole;
Foam chemical additions need to be added precisely to keep • Backpressure held at the surface.
the fluid consistent.
N2 Compressor
Pit level in
shaker pit at To Well
3/4
Shale shaker
Well fluid Pump from shaker
pit to pit # 2 Mist Pump &
Tank
Shaker pit Pit # 2 Mix Pit Suction Pit

Soap injection
pH 10+ mix
Do not Recycle from this
pit-discharge corrosion
pump
stir from this pit chemicals

here
Figure MP-15: Foam recycle system.

be some persistent fluff of foam on the surface. The recov-

Water volume (liquid volume) ered water can be mixed with makeup water and reused in
Foam uses a very small liquid volume because annular ve- the system.
locity is not critical. Foam lifts cuttings out of the hole by
holding the cuttings in its structure, so there is very little slip Recycle foam
or settling. Liquid volumes for foam can be as small as 20 The foam can be recycled via a de-foaming process and re-
gal/min (75 l/min) when rotary drilling a 5 ½-in. (72.6-mm) building process. As the foam comes out of the RCD, de-
hole. Water volume increases as hole size gets larger. foamer is injected with extra water (as required). This action
breaks the foam (breaking is a 95% action—it never breaks
The liquid volume is much higher when using a drilling mo- into just water and gas). To counter this fact it is a good idea
tor because the total volume of water plus compressed air to keep a low level in the first pit (no more than ¾ full. The
at the pressure at the motor must be enough to efficiently broken foam will have a fluff-like top. Most of the defoam-
operate the motor. ers contain alcohol so the top will also contain more alcohol.
That is why the first pit is not stirred (let the alcohol build
Gas volume up). This practice makes it easier to re-foam the liquid.
The injected gas volume at the surface is generally between
200 and 500 times the volume of liquid. Less than 200 When recycling, the makeup surfactant should be less than
times water volume generally does not constitute a good 0.4%, but let the foam tests dictate how much to use. It is
downhole foam, and more than 500 times water volume often necessary to dump produced water out of foam sys-
hampers efforts to prevent the foam from turning into a tems, normally the second pit. Normally it is necessary to
mist. (Remember in the English system, there are 7.48 gal/ pump the liquid from the first pit to the second pit (do not
cu ft). flow over the top). It may seem as if these precautions are
unnecessary, but they are important in keeping the foam job
Corrosion issues running smooth.
In any mixture of air and water there will be some corrosion
problems. Corrosion generally starts to show up as shallow Good practice involves using a desilter to clean the foamed
pits in the pipe. Black stain on the drill pipe can be a sign of liquid because the foam carries little pieces of dirt/rock that
sulfide corrosion or some other reaction. A red stain can potentially interfere with further cutting carrying capacity.
be the beginning of oxygen corrosion or just some rust on
a trip.
Air hammer drilling
To avoid corrosion in water/air foam systems, the pH should The air hammer is one of the best tools to use with air and
be at least 9.5 at the flow line. Corrosion inhibitors should foam drilling. It drills faster than straight rotary drilling.
be checked at the flow line to be sure that there is excess The most important part of hammer drilling is that it drills
inhibitor in the system. fast with the very light bit weight required to keep the hole
straight. With the light bit weight required with a hammer, a
Bad corrosion generally is found in areas where there is se- simple pendulum assembly is sufficient.
rious corrosion in oil or gas production. Take special care to
be aware of corrosion in those areas. The oilwell drilling air hammer blows a free-floating hammer
(piston) up and down on top of the anvil that is part of an
Operational considerations air-drilling bit (Figure MP-16). The arrangement of the ham-
The first operational consideration in using foam as a drill- mer hitting on the top of the air bit reduces the hammering
ing medium is whether to use a one-pass system or to re- effect on the drill string and collars and allows all the energy
cycle the foam. Many factors enter into this decision. Prob- from the hammer strike to go into the bit. Typical hammer
ably the major one is environmental concerns. Recycling operation is 1,800 strikes/min. The vibration rate can be
allows the minimizing of leftover fluid, especially for long measured with a simple vibration meter held against the
jobs. However, recycling is more complex than a one-pass drill pipe. This is one of the best ways to see if the hammer
system. is working properly.
One-pass system The impact force between the bit and the formation only re-
For a one-pass system, the foam is flowed out to a pit or quires enough bit weight to keep the hammer firmly on bot-
other storage system. Water can be recovered from the tom, about 500-600 lbf/in. of bit diameter (1,050 N/cm),
bottom of the storage pit after the foam has dissipated. depending on the formation. Excessive bit weight actually
Normal foams will break within about an hour, but there will slows the drilling rate.

Air/gas directional drilling

Directional and horizontal holes can be drilled with foams.
This has been done in the past with bent housings and “wag-
ging” techniques with conventional bits. The use of an air
hammer is more complex, because it must be rotated at
least 20 rpm at all times.
A major limitation to foam is the MWD survey. Mud pulse

does not work in foam. However, there are other tools and
techniques to overcome this problem.
Bits used with directional air holes should produce very

small cuttings that will blow out of the hole. Large cuttings
will just roll around until they are broken to dust and then will
blow out of the hole.
Check for local advice on hole stability and directional

equipment.
Air/gas drilling produces vibrations that are very hard on

downhole survey equipment.
Primary equipment for foam gas drilling

Figure MP-16: Air hammers use high-shock energy for air-drilling The minimum components needed for a straight air drilling
operations through vertical and lateral intervals in hard rock set up include:
formations. Air hammers drill quickly with very light bit weight
needed to keep the hole straight. Courtesy Schlumberger. • Primary compressors that develop 150-350 psi of air
pressure;
• High-pressure boosters that generally produce up to
The bit must be rotated when drilling on bottom; otherwise 1,200 to 1,500 psi of air pressure;
it will drill a triangular hole and become stuck. Rotation • Interconnected and staked-down air lines and mani-
speed needs to be between 20 rpm and 60 rpm. Unlike rota- folds;
ry drilling, higher rotation speed does not necessarily mean • Blooie line or flow line and flare;
higher drill rate. Try several speeds to see which is the most • RCD to control the annulus flow;
effective. • Non-return valves are required at the bit and in the up-
per drill string.
Air hammers need lubrication; be sure to follow the recom-
mendations of the service provider. The compressors and boosters are placed in a safe area,
i.e., not in a hazardous zone. The obvious reason for this
Limits to the air hammer is that large quantities of air are being withdrawn from the
Fluid down the drill pipe and in the hole limits hammer effi- atmosphere, and there must be very little residual risk of
ciency. Most of the modern air hammers will work with foam the air containing hydrocarbons that may be returning from
if the formation is brittle and not too much water is used. Ex- the well. The engines should be muffled, and in some areas
perience is about the only guide on the effectiveness of any spark arrestors are required.
brand of hammer with foaming operations. The local service
provider should have an idea of the limits. The diesel engines also require that they be run in a safe
• The hammer must be rotated at all times; area free of hydrocarbon gas and free from dust at the bloo-
• Undergauge hole is a very common problem as the bit ie line. The fuel supply system will be in close proximity to
wears. It may be necessary to reduce the hole diameter the diesel- or natural-gas-driven equipment for similar rea-
by 1/8 in. (3-4 mm) with each bit run; sons and to minimize lengths of fuel line running around the
• Air hammers cannot be used to ream; location.
• String reamers do not work well with foam; they restrict
the expansion of air.

Surface air lines and the blooie or flow line References

High-pressure air lines need to be staked down, and Aadnoy, Bernt, Iain Cooper, Stefan Miska, Robert F. Mitchell
quick-connects on the piping need to be chained. The pres- and Michael L. Payne. Advanced Drilling & Well Technology.
sure system should be tested before starting operations. Richardson, TX: Society of Petroleum Engineers, 2008.
Blooie or flow line IADC. “Well Planning”. Originally published in IADC Deep-
The blooie line, or flow line, should have at least as great water Well Control Guidelines. 2001.
an internal area as the top section of annulus. It should be
straight without curves or corners that would cause it to IADC UBO/MPD Committee. UBO & MPD Glossary. UBO &
move with slugs or water or cuttings. MPD Glossary. IADC, 2011. http://www.iadc.org/wp-con-
tent/uploads/UBO-MPD-Glossary-Dec11.pdf.
The longer blooie line, if used, should be staked down so that
it cannot move. Because the blooie line is light pipe, it should Lyons, William C and William C Lyons. “Air and Gas Drill-
have no obstructions or valves. Any valve at the blooie line ing Manual.” Amsterdam: Elsevier/Gulf Professional Pub.,
should be at the BOP stack. 2009.
A common addition to the blooie line is a nozzle set at 45- Rehm, Bill. Underbalanced Drilling: Limits & Extremes.
60° pointing downstream to produce a venturi effect with Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Company, 2012.
air/gas bypassed on a connection. This is typically placed
either upstream near the BOP stack or near the end of the Rehm, Bill. Managed Pressure Drilling. Houston, Texas: Gulf
blooie line. Bypassing the air/gas on a connection through Publishing Company, 2008.
the venturi pulls a slight vacuum on the blooie line that re-
duces any gas buildup near the BOP stack or on the drill Well Control School. “Guide to Blowout Prevention.” Hous-
floor. ton: 2014.
Sample catching Calderoni, Angelo, James Dennis Brugman, Rodney Elliot

In many foam recycle drilling operations, closed commer- Vogel, and James William Jenner. 2006. “The Continuous
cial sample catchers are used to collect cuttings. There are Circulation System—From Prototype To Commercial Tool.”
also a large number of home-built sample catchers for one- SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San An-
pass systems. One of the simplest is a 2-in. (50-mm) nipple tonio.
welded on the bottom near the end of the blooie line. A short
section of pipe with a valve on the end will collect the larger Calderoni, Angelo, Andrea Chiura, Pietro Valente, Farag So-
cuttings. A small ledge (often an old pipe die) can be welded liman, Enrico Squintani, Rodney Elliot Vogel, and James Wil-
inside the blooie line just below the nipple to help deflect liam Jenner. 2006. “Balanced Pressure Drilling With Contin-
cuttings into the catcher uous Circulation Using Jointed Drillpipe—Case History, Port
Fouad Marine Deep 1, Exploration Well Offshore Egypt.” SPE
Poor cutting collection can mean that there are no large cut- Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio.
tings coming to the surface. This can be caused by insuf-
ficient air volume, washouts in the hole, or mud rings and Solvang, S.A., C. Leuchtenberg, I.C. Gill, and H. Pinkstone.
dampness in the hole. 2008. “Managed-Pressure Drilling Resolves Pressure De-
pletion-Related Problems In The Development Of The
Air line manifold High-Pressure High-Temperature Kristin Field’. SPE/IADC
There needs to be a manifold on the air/gas line before the Managed Pressure Drilling and Underbalanced Operations
air/gas enters the standpipe. The manifold should allow the Conference And Exhibition, Abu Dhabi.
air/gas to go to the standpipe or be blocked from the stand-
pipe and sent to the venturi on the blooie line during connec-
tions and surveys.

PW
POWER GENERATION
AND DISTRIBUTION

Enhancing
operational
integrity by
ensuring a
competent
workforce
Accreditation
POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION PW–i
CHAPTER
PW
POWER GENERATION
AND DISTRIBUTION
AUTHORS AND REVIEWERS

Scott Gordon, Helmerich & Payne International Drilling Co.
James Cue, Caterpillar Oil & Gas
Bob Niederhauser, Louisiana CAT (formerly of MTU America)
Lance Ellington, National Oilwell Varco
David DeLaughter, National Oilwell Varco
Mark Grimes, National Oilwell Varco

PW–ii POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-8-4

POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION Contents PW-iii
CHAPTER PW
POWER GENERATION AND

DISTRIBUTION Contents
Introduction...................................................................PW-1 Troubleshooting mechanical engines............ PW-14
Engines............................................................................PW-1 Troubleshooting electronic engines.............. PW-15
Engine fuels.............................................................PW-1 Engine safety ....................................................... PW-15
Diesel fuel................................................................PW-2 Engine mounting/dismounting....................... PW-17
Maintenance............................................................PW-2 Engine starting..................................................... PW-17
Fuel heaters.............................................................PW-2 Engine stopping................................................... PW-17
Switching grades / types of fuel.......................PW-2 Engine electrical system................................... PW-18
Diesel fuel sulfur................................................... PW-3 Engine storage..................................................... PW-18
Ultra-low sulfur-diesel (ULSD)......................... PW-3 Putting engine into storage.............................. PW-18
Sulfur-free diesel fuel........................................... PW-3 Removing engine from storage....................... PW-18
Low-sulfur-diesel (LSD)...................................... PW-3 Generators.................................................................. PW-19
International Maritime Organization (IMO). PW-3 Generator stator................................................. PW-19
Diesel fuel sulfur impacts................................... PW-3 Generator rotor................................................... PW-19
Biodiesel fuel.......................................................... PW-3 Generator bearings............................................ PW-19
Additional maintenance requirements........... PW-4 Generator connection boxes........................... PW-19
United States engine emissions........................ PW-4 Generator excitation system........................... PW-19
Engine installation....................................................... PW-5 Optional generator PMG system................... PW-20
Engine operations........................................................PW-7 Other generator options................................... PW-20
Engine starting........................................................PW-7 Generator operations.............................................. PW-20
Cold weather starting...........................................PW-7 Generator startup checklist............................. PW-20
Heaters.....................................................................PW-7 Generator startup .............................................. PW-21
Air starting motor..................................................PW-7 Generator continuous operation..................... PW-21
Starting with ether................................................ PW-8 Guide to allowable phase unbalance............. PW-21
Fuel precautions.................................................... PW-8 Generator idling................................................... PW-21
Urea precautions................................................... PW-8 Generator parallel operation............................ PW-22
Intake vacuum vs load (API standard)........... PW-8 Generator maintenance.......................................... PW-22
Instructions for use.............................................. PW-8 Generator maintenance schedule.................. PW-22
Engine shutdown......................................................... PW-9 Generator safety.................................................. PW-25
Emergency stopping............................................ PW-9 Generator isolating for maintenance............. PW-25
Emergency stop button...................................... PW-9 Generator storage..................................................... PW-25
Air shutoffs............................................................. PW-9 Putting generator in storage............................ PW-25
Manual stop procedure...................................... PW-9 Removing generator from storage.................. PW-26
After stopping engine....................................... PW-10 Transmissions............................................................ PW-26
Engine maintenance ................................................ PW-10 Transmission maintenance............................... PW-26
Typical maintenance interval schedule........ PW-10 Transmission troubleshooting......................... PW-27
Lubrication............................................................ PW-10 Transmission safety............................................ PW-27
Cooling system.................................................... PW-10 Transmission storage......................................... PW-27
Air cleaners.......................................................... PW-12 Power distribution..................................................... PW-27
Fuel supply system............................................ PW-12 Introduction.......................................................... PW-27
Leaks or damage................................................. PW-12 DC/DC and SCR systems................................. PW-27
Malfunctioning or needed repair................... PW-12 DC drilling motors............................................... PW-28
Engine troubleshooting........................................... PW-14 SCR (AC/DC) power systems.............................. PW-28

PW–iv POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION
AC electrical power generation...................... PW-28 Braking................................................................... PW-35

Engines................................................................... PW-28 System protection............................................... PW-35
Generators............................................................ PW-28 Driller’s console...................................................PW-36
3-phase power..................................................... PW-28 Maintenance.............................................................. PW-35
AC switchgear...................................................... PW-28 SCR controls......................................................... PW-35
Electronic controls..............................................PW-30 Variable frequency drive (VFD)......................PW-36
Braking................................................................... PW-31 AC generator controls........................................ PW-37
AC distribution..................................................... PW-31 Motor control center (MCC) and
VFD power systems................................................. PW-32 switchgear.......................................................... PW-37
Theory of operation...........................................PW-33 Driller’s console and foot throttle..................PW-38
Basic design..........................................................PW-33 Cable and wiring.................................................PW-38
Rectifiers................................................................PW-33 Electric brake........................................................PW-39
DC link....................................................................PW-33 DC motors and generators...............................PW-39
Inverter...................................................................PW-34 AC motors and generators...............................PW-40
DC/DC power systems..........................................PW-34 Transformers........................................................PW-40
Controls.................................................................PW-34 References..................................................................PW-41

POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION PW-1
Introduction
Engines provide the primary power source for drilling rigs.
Drilling rigs are described as mechanical or electric. These
terms refer to the method in which power is supplied to the
equipment on the rig.
On mechanical rigs, power from the engine(s) drives the

rig equipment either directly or through a torque converter.
From these devices clutches control the smooth transfer of
power from the engine to the transmission. The transmis-
sion allows changes in speed and torque to be transferred
from the engines to the rig equipment, such as draw works
and mud pumps.
Electric rigs use engine power to drive one or more genera-

tors. The generated electricity is then used to operate mo-
tors for the larger equipment on the rig.
Typical rig equipment, for both mechanical and electric, in-

clude a draw works, a rotary table and mud pumps. These
equipment items are among the larger equipment on the rig
and will have the most significant and important power re-
quirements.
The basic operations, maintenance, and troubleshooting

for the following drill rig components will be covered in this
chapter for engines and generators. Content within each
section progresses from older to newer technology.
Engines
There are two types of engines classified by how they are
governed: mechanical and electronic.
Mechanical engines are controlled without the use of elec-

tronics. They rely on mechanical governing (speed control)
devices to operate the engine.
Electronic engines are similar to mechanical, except that

they use electronic governing devices to operate and mon-
itor the engine. Electronic engines control engine perfor-
mance and exhaust emissions more efficiently, and some
have some built in diagnostic capabilities.
Engine fuels
Engines can use various fuels. Number 2 Diesel is the pre-
dominant fuel used in the drilling industry; however, natural
gas engines and engines that use a diesel and natural gas
mixture are gaining popularity. Always consult your diesel
engine manufacturer for fuel usage recommendations.
Figure PW-1: Examples of engines in use on drilling rigs.
Clockwise from top: Cummins, Caterpillar and Detroit Diesel.

PW–2 POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION
Diesel fuel • Top off fixed roof fuel tanks as often as practical.
Keeping the tank full reduces the amount of
Types condensation generated water;
The two basic types of distillate diesel fuel are No. 2 diesel • Diesel fuel has a maximum shelf life of 1 year from
fuel and No. 1 diesel fuel. No. 2 diesel fuel is the most com- production.
monly available summer grade diesel fuel. No. 1 diesel fuel
is a winter-grade diesel fuel. During the winter months fuel Fuel heaters
suppliers will typically blend No. 1 and No. 2 diesel fuel in • The fuel heater heats the fuel above the cloud point
various percentages. Blending allows the fuel to meet the before the fuel enters the fuel filter, which prevents wax
historical low ambient temperature cold-flow needs for from blocking the filter. Fuel can flow through pumps
a given area or region. No. 2 diesel fuel is a heavier diesel and lines at temperatures below the cloud point
fuel than No. 1 diesel fuel. In cold weather, heavier fuels can because the pour point is often lower than the cloud
cause gelling (cloud point) problems in fuel filters, fuel lines, point. While the fuel can flow through these lines, the
fuel tanks, and fuel storage. Heavier diesel fuels such as No. wax in the fuel can still plug the fuel filter;
2 diesel fuel can be used in diesel engines that operate in • In some cases cloud point can be eliminated or reduced
cold temperatures with an appropriate amount of a prov- by adding insulation and/or changing the location of
en pour point depressant additive (typically kerosene). For fuel filters and supply lines. In extreme temperatures,
more information on fuels which include blends of No. 1 and heating of the fuel may be required to prevent the filters
No. 2 diesel fuel, consult your fuel supplier. from plugging. There are several types of fuel heaters
that are available. The heaters typically use either
There are several methods used to compensate for fuel engine coolant or exhaust gas as a heat source. These
qualities that might interfere with cold-weather operation. systems may prevent filter plugging problems without
These methods include the use of starting aids, engine cool- the use of de-watering or cold flow improvers
ant heaters, fuel heaters, and de-watering. In addition, the (kerosene);
manufacturer of the fuel can add cold flow improvers and/or • A fuel heater should be installed so that the fuel is
blend No. 1 and No. 2 diesel in various percentages. heated before flowing into the fuel filter;
• A fuel heater is not effective for black starts unless the
Not all areas of the world classify diesel fuel with the No. 1 fuel heater can be powered from an external power
and No. 2 nomenclature. But the basic principles of using source. External fuel lines may also require heaters.
additives and/or blending fuels of different densities are Long runs of fuel lines may require in-line heaters;
identical. • Only use properly sized fuel heaters that are controlled
by thermostats or use fuel heaters that are self-
Maintenance regulated. Thermostatically controlled fuel heaters
• Use fuel that meets or exceeds the manufacturers’ generally heat fuel to 15.5° C (60° F). Do not use fuel
requirements for distillate diesel fuel; heaters in warm temperatures;
• Confirm with the filter manufacturer that the fuel filter/ • If a fuel with a low viscosity is used, fuel cooling may be
filters to be used are compatible with the fuel type that required to maintain proper viscosity at the fuel
will be filtered; injection pump. Fuels with a high viscosity might require
• Fill tanks with fuels of “ISO 18/16/13” cleanliness level fuel heaters in order to lower the viscosity to the proper
or cleaner and/or as recommended by your diesel level. Consult with your engine manufacturer for proper
engine manufacturer; viscosity levels;
• It is recommended that fuel be filtered through a series • When you use fuel heaters, do not allow the fuel
of filters (fuel/water separators) when transferring temperature to reach above 52°C (125°F). Never
from one storage tank to another. This includes from exceed 75°C (165°F) with straight distillate fuel. The
shipping to storage, and from storage to consumption; high fuel temperatures affect the fuel viscosity.
• Test for microbial contamination on a regular basis and
take proper corrective action if contamination is Switching grades/types of fuel
present; • The fuel storage tanks must be cleaned thoroughly
• Drain water and sediment from the fuel storage tank before converting to Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD) (15
weekly or when refilled. After the fuel tank has been ppm or less sulfur) and/or biodiesel/biodiesel blends;
filled, allow the fuel to settle for 10 min to let the water • Conversion to ULSD and/or biodiesel/biodiesel blends
and sediment separate from the fuel; can loosen fuel system and fuel storage tank deposits.
• Drain water and sediment from the engine fuel tank Fuel filters should be changed more often initially to
daily; allow for this cleaning effect.

POWER GENERATION AND DISTRIBUTION PW–3
Diesel fuel sulfur International Maritime Organization (IMO)

• Various emissions laws, regulations and mandates • The IMO regulates the fuel sulfur level for ocean going
control the maximum allowable fuel sulfur level. Consult ships. Current marine fuels at sea that are regulated by
federal, state, and local authorities for guidance on fuel the IMO can have sulfur levels up to 3.5% (35,000
requirements for your area. ppm) prior to the year 2020. As of January 1, 2020,
ships operating in international waters are required to
Ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) use fuels with sulfur levels below 0.5% (5,000 ppm).
• U.S. EPA regulations require the use of Ultra Low Sulfur
Diesel fuel (ULSD), ≤ 0.0015% (≤ 15 ppm (mg/kg)) Diesel fuel sulfur impacts
sulfur, for nonroad and stationary Tier 4 EPA certified • Sulfur in the fuel results in the formation of sulfur
engines using fuel sensitive technologies such as SCR dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3) gases during
systems and particulate filters. Fuels other than ULSD the combustion process. When combined with water,
can cause damage in those engines and should not be this exhaust gas can form acids. These acids can impact
used (Figure PW-2). engine components and engine lubricants.
• ULSD was introduced for the US on-highway diesel • Typical after treatment systems include Diesel
engine market in October 2006. ULSD is available since particulate Filters (DPF), Diesel Oxidation Catalysts
December 2010 for nonroad diesel engines and (DOC), Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and/or
machines. Refer to the U.S. EPA for the required ULSD Lean NOx Traps (LNT). Other systems may apply.
point of sales dates for various nonroad applications. • Sulfur in the exhaust gas can interfere with the
• Engines certified to nonroad Tier 4 standards (Stage IV operation of after treatment devices causing:
in Europe) and are equipped with fuel sulfur sensitive Loss of particulate trap/regeneration performance;
exhaust after treatment systems are designed to run on Reduced catalyst efficiency;
ULSD only. Use of LSD or fuels higher than 15 ppm Increased particulate matter emissions.
(mg/kg) sulfur in these engines will reduce engine • Use of fuels with higher than recommended and/or
efficiency and engine durability and will damage maximum allowed fuel sulfur levels can and/or will:
emissions control systems and/or shorten their service Increase wear of engine components;
interval. Failures that result from the use of fuels are not Increase corrosion of engine components; Increase
manufacturer defects; therefore, the cost of repairs deposits;
would not be covered by the manufacturer’s warranty. Increase soot formation;
• Certain governments/localities and/or applications Shorten the time period between oil drain intervals
MAY require the use of ULSD fuel. (cause the need for more frequent oil drain
• The maximum allowable fuel sulfur level for most intervals);
pre-Tier 4 engines that are equipped with DOC (Diesel Shorten the time interval between after treatment
Oxidation Catalyst) is 0.05% [500 ppm (mg/kg)]. device service intervals (cause the need for more
Some DOC equipped engines require the use of fuel frequent service intervals);Negatively impact the
with a maximum of 0.005% (50 ppm (mg/kg)) fuel performance and life of after treatment devices
sulfur. Refer to your engine manufacturer’s (cause loss of performance);
recommendations. Lower fuel economy;
Increase overall operating costs.
Sulfur-free diesel fuel • Fuel sulfur levels above 0.1% [1000 ppm (mg/kg)] may
• European sulfur-free fuel, 0.0010% (10 mg/kg) sulfur, significantly shorten the oil change interval.
fuel is required by regulation for use in engines certified
to EU nonroad Stage IIIB and newer standards and that Biodiesel fuel
are equipped with exhaust after treatment systems. Biodiesel is a fuel that can be made from various renewable
This is defined in “European Standard EN 590:2004.” resources that include vegetable oils, animal fat, and waste
cooking oil. Soybean oil and rapeseed oil are the primary
Low-sulfur diesel (LSD) vegetable oil sources. Biodiesel can be blended with distil-
• Low sulfur diesel (LSD - S500) is defined by the U.S. late diesel fuel. The blends can be used as fuel. The most
EPA as a U.S. diesel fuel with sulfur content not to commonly available biodiesel blends are B5, which is 5%
exceed 500 ppm or 0.05% by weight. biodiesel and 95% distillate diesel fuel, and B20, which is
• Note: Both ULSD and LSD must meet the fuel 20% biodiesel and 80% distillate diesel fuel. Note the per-
requirements outlined in the most current revision level centages are volume-based. U.S. distillate diesel fuel speci-
of “ASTM D975.” fication “ASTM D975-09a” includes up to B5 (5%) biodies-

200Tier 4f std
Tier 4i std Tier 4i flex
Tier 2 std Tier 2 flex
Tier 1 std Tier 1 flex
2021
2006
2010
2011
2023
2014
2015
2016
2019
2009
2012
2020
2022
2002
2003
2004
2005
2007
2008
2013
2017
2018
During 2011-2012, it was possible to buy engines from three different tiers.
If you do you cannot
Tierdo
1 std
Therefore, only two tiers are possible for 2015 and beyond
TPEM program under 40 CFR Part 89 TPEM program under 40 CFR Part 1039
Figure PW-2: US EPA emissions categories. Tiers 1-4 showing
flexibility allowances for engines greater than 560 kW/750 hp.
EPA Year NOx + HC PM
el. Currently, any diesel fuel in the U.S. may contain up to
B5 biodiesel fuel. European distillate diesel fuel specification Tier 1 2000 9.2 + 1.3 0.54
“EN 590” includes up to B5 (5%) and in some regions up
to B7 (7%) biodiesel. Any diesel fuel in Europe may contain
up to B5 or in some regions up to B7 biodiesel fuel. Storage
Tier 2 2006 6.40 0.20
life is a maximum of 6 months from production. For biodies-
el and biodiesel blends that are greater than B20 it may be Tier 3 2011 3.5 + 0.4 0.10
much shorter than 6 months.Always consult your diesel en-
gine manufacturer for fuel usage recommendations.
Tier 4 2015 3.5 + 0.19 0.04
Additional maintenance requirements
Figure PW-3: New emissions regulations for land-drilling
• When biodiesel fuel is used, crank case oil and after engines exceeding 750 hp when into effect in 2001, 2006
treatment systems may be influenced. This influence is and 2011, with another changes scheduled for 2015.
due to the chemical composition and characteristics of
biodiesel fuel such as density and volatility. Chemical more frequent ash service intervals and/or cause loss
contaminants can be present in this fuel, such as of performance.
phosphorous, alkali and alkaline metals (sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium). Oil analysis is United States engine emissions
highly recommended when using any biodiesel blend; The issue of emissions regulations into the oilfield is a com-
• Crankcase oil fuel dilution can be higher when biodiesel plex one and must be approached with caution when it is
and/or biodiesel blends are used. This increased level time to repair or replace existing equipment. Consult with
of fuel dilution when using biodiesel and/or biodiesel your original engine manufacturer in making the best deci-
blends is related to the typically lower volatility of sion based on your time, budget and application.
biodiesel. In-cylinder emissions control strategies
utilized in many of the latest engine designs may lead to Note that many countries (e.g., Canada) are adopting US
a higher level of biodiesel concentration in the sump. EPA regulations for their own standard levels.
The long-term effect of biodiesel concentration in
crankcase oil is currently unknown. Oil analysis is highly Each of the changes in regulations are geared to reduce the
recommended when using any biodiesel blend; amount of NOx, HC (hydrocarbons) and PM (particulate
• Biodiesel fuel contains metal contaminants matter) in the exhaust stream from running reciprocating
(phosphorous, sodium, potassium, calcium and/or engines – whether the fuel source is gaseous or diesel. Some
magnesium) that form ash products upon combustion regulations even go so far as to prohibit the import of equip-
in the diesel engine. The ash can affect the life and ment that do not meet the current emissions requirements.
performance of after treatment emissions control
devices and can accumulate in Diesel Particulate Filters The general rule of thumb is as follows: you can repair an ex-
(DPF). The ash accumulation may cause the need for isting engine and keep it “grandfathered” or you may replace

Figure PW-4: Parallel or bore misalignment occurs Figure PW-5: Face runout is the distance that the face of
when the cdenterlines of the driven equipment and the the hub is out of perpendicular to the shaft centerline.
engine(s) are parallel but not in the same plane.
an engine with a “like for like” replacement (same model, equipment should comply with the recommendations of
HP and speed if available) – otherwise a current emissions both engine and driven equipment manufacturers.
certified product must be installed into the application. In Before aligning, both engine flywheel and flywheel
simple terms - if you increase the horsepower or kW of the housing, as well as the driven equipment, should be
engine – you may then have to use a new engine to meet the checked for run-out resulting from handling or service.
current emissions Tier level requirement. Alignment may be maintained with shear blocks or
dowel pins;
As indicated in Figure PW-3, for land-drilling engines great-
er than 750 hp, new emissions regulations went into effect Parallel (or bore) misalignment occurs when the center-
in 2001, 2006 and 2011, with another change scheduled for lines of the driven equipment and the engine(s) are par-
2015. Even this rule of thumb can get complicated as local allel but not in the same plane as shown above.
agencies may override the “grandfather” clause or region-
al laws may require “Best Available Control Technology” 4. Flexible Coupling and Drum or open-type Air Clutches:
(BACT). When a BACT is determined, factors such as energy During initial installation of driven equipment, shafts
consumption, total source emission, regional environmen- and hubs should be aligned to the flywheel before
tal impact, and economic costs are taken into account and installing coupling or clutch. Proper alignment
require any equipment used in that governing bodies area procedure considers angular, parallel and runout
of responsibility meet the most stringent current standard. (Figure PW-4). Extreme caution must be exercised to
Places within the continental US that may require BACT are prevent thrust loading of the engine crankshaft. This
the States of California and Wyoming - amongst others. and misalignment can result in severe damage to the
engine. Most flexible couplings will tolerate only a
Consult with your engine manufacturer to determine the minimum of misalignment. Refer to the manufacturer’s
laws and regulations in effect for the region of the world you specifications for maximum limits;
are working in, or wish to relocate equipment into.
Face runout refers to the distance the face of the hub is
out of perpendicular to the shaft centerline as shown in
Engine installation Figure PW-5.
1. Mounting: All engines should have solid, vibration-free,
mounting. Installation of box-base type engines with Angular or face misalignment occurs when the center-
full-length supports is desirable. Shims or other lines of driven equipment and the engine(s) are not par-
precision methods should be used to avoid uneven allel as shown Figure PW-6.
support and distortion of the engine structure;
2. Leveling: Engines should be as level as possible. Install 5. Sheaves, bearings and clutch shafts: Drive pulleys
shims when necessary (preferably stainless steel); should be mounted as close to the engine as possible.
3. Alignment: The alignment of the engine with the driven This places the load near the clutch main bearing and

Figure PW-6: Angular or face misalignment occurs when the Figure PW-7: Bore runout refers to the distance the driving
centerlines of driven equipment and the engine(s) are not parallel. bore of a hub is out of parallel with the shaft cdenterline.
tends to reduce the overhang load on the bearings. rust and deterioration of seals. The cooling system
Heavy tools should not be used to drive sheaves or should be flushed, filled, circulated and stored with a
similar equipment on the clutch shafts. Such procedure sufficient solution of clean water, antifreeze, and rust
can damage bearings and cause difficulty in the removal inhibitor;
of sheaves. Caution should be exercised in installing
excessively large diameter or heavy-drive pulleys. The 8. Engine cooling system: Only clean water, soft or
recommendations of the manufacturer for such treated, should be used in the engine cooling system.
installation should be carefully followed. Excessive force Do not use chemically-softened water. The use of
should not be used to drive sheaves or similar corrosion inhibitors should be added every 250 hours (1
equipment on the clutch shafts. Such procedure can month) of operation;
damage bearings and cause difficulty in the removal of
sheaves. Taper bushing type is best; Permanent antifreeze contains a rust inhibitor which
deteriorates in a short period of time and must be re-
Bore runout refers to the distance the driving bore of a placed at regular intervals. Some antifreeze has no rust
hub is out of parallel with the shaft centerline as shown inhibitor. Provide and mark suitable system drains. Un-
Figure PW-7. less antifreeze is to be used, drain complete system in-
cluding air intercoolers and intercooler circulating lines
6. Engine exhaust: Each engine exhaust system should be in cold weather. All water system piping should comply
of sufficient size so that back pressure at the engines with engine builder’s size recommendations. The top
does not exceed manufacturer’s recommendation. It is tank of the radiator, or the expansion tank when using
desirable to include in the exhaust piping a short heat exchangers, should always be the highest point in
section of flexible tubing or expansion bellows for the system and always higher than the cylinder heads
vibration isolation, thermal expansion, and ease of with no high point air traps.
alignment on installation. Exhaust piping should be
independently supported to prevent damage to the 9. Cooling air: Engines should be oriented to take
engine. Care should be exercised to prevent welding advantage of prevailing winds. Suction or blower fans
slag or any foreign material from entering the engine should be used as best suited to conditions. When
during installation. Do not connect exhaust from several engines are installed inside buildings, sufficient
engines to a common header. All exhaust systems openings should be provided for the intake and exhaust
should be protected against water entry and a suitable of cooling air. Any danger of recirculating the cooling air
trap and drain provided to prevent condensate from should be eliminated by the use of ducts. Where
returning to the engine; thermally actuated cooling water control valves are
used, the capillary tubing should be as short as practical
7. Protection against weather: Proper protection against in order to prevent interference from outside
weather should be provided during storage or temperature sources. Exhaust stacks, crank-case
installation. For storage longer than a few days, use the breathers and other sources of oily vapors should be
protection materials and methods recommended by the vented to prevent build-up on radiator cores and the
engine manufacturer. Engines should not be stored with contamination of dry-type air cleaners;
the cooling system in a dry condition as this promotes

10. Fuel system: When installing fuel piping, all foreign

material should be removed from lines before they are Engine operations
connected to the engine. Lines of adequate size should
be installed and adherence to safety codes should be Engine starting
observed. Adequate strainers and liquid traps should be Before starting the engine do a walk-around inspection look-
provided in the fuel system. Day tanks are ing for and correct any of these conditions:
recommended for diesel engines. It is desirable to • Any type of leaks (coolant, lube or fuel). If leaking is
include a section of flexible tubing for vibration suspected, check the fluid levels more often than
isolation. Non-restricting shut-off valves should be recommended until the leak is found or fixed, or until
provided in the fuel lines immediately adjacent to the the suspicion of a leak is proved to be unwarranted;
engine. Gas regulators, their orifices and springs should • Loose or deteriorated parts;
comply with the engine builder’s recommendations; • Drive belts;
• Guards in the proper place;
11. Battery starting systems: The battery should be • Ensure that the areas around the rotating parts are
installed in a clean, cool, ventilated, accessible, and clear;
vibration-free location, which is as close to the starting • Low fluid levels;
motor as practicable. Before installation, the battery • Air cleaner service indicator;
should be checked for correct polarity. Cable size must • Loose/damaged electrical connections.
be adequate to prevent excess voltage drop;
Cold weather starting
12. Air and gas starters: Gas starters must have sealed Starting fluid is required for temperatures below 0 °C (32
pinions so that gas cannot enter engine flywheel °F). The use of other optional cold starting aids is recom-
housing. Where gas starters are used, exhaust gas mended for temperatures below -18 °C (0 °F);
should be piped a safe distance from the engine. Air
starters should have a lubricator. The air receiver should Heaters
be drained daily to keep water from entering the starter; • Oil pan immersion heaters are not recommended for
heating the lube oil. To ensure the compatibility of the
13. Control equipment: Consideration should be given to components, only use equipment that is recommended
the use of engine temperature control equipment and to by the manufacturer;
the use of safety devices such as low oil pressure and • Startability will be improved at temperatures below 12
high water temperature cutoffs. Such devices should be °C (55 °F) with a starting aid. A jacket water heater
operable and not blocked out; may be needed and/or the crankcase oil may need to be
warmed;
14. Transporting, loading and unloading: Engines can suffer • A jacket water heater is available as an option for
twisted frames or other harm from careless handling. starting in temperatures as low as 0 °C (32 °F). The
During loading and unloading operations, adequate jacket water heater can maintain the water temperature
tools for skidding, or non-crushing slings should be at approximately 32 °C (90 °F). The heated water will
used to prevent such damage. Lifting by winch lines help to keep the oil in the engine block warm enough to
hooked around the engines is not recommended. Lifting flow when the engine is started;
eyes on engines and generators are for installation only o Note: The fluid that is heated must be continuously
and should not be used to lift a complete package. circulated. This will help to prevent localized
Jacking or pushing against the vibration damper or overheating of the fluid;
flywheel can cause severe damage. Always check • When No. 2 diesel fuel is used, a fuel heater will
runout after moving engine to new location. Do not use maintain the temperature of the fuel above the cloud
steel bands, load binding straps or chains across the point. Fuel line insulation will help to maintain the fuel
engine crankshaft or PTO shaft when hauling engines; temperature.
15. Fire and explosion hazards: Consideration should be Air starting motor
given to the elimination of all possible sources of fires The maximum air pressure for starting must not exceed
and explosions, particularly in hazardous locations. 1,030 kPa (150 psi). To start the engine at colder tempera-
tures, the following conditions may be necessary:
• Maximum air pressure for the starting motor;
• An additional volume of air.

Intake manifold vacuum (in. of mercury) Table PW-1: The manifold vacuum and
horsepower an engine will develop
decreases with altitude.
Sea Level 20 in.
2,000 ft 18 in.
4,000 ft 16 in.
6,000 ft 14 in.
8,000 ft 12 in.
10,000 ft 10 in.
• Additional injections may be necessary in order to start

the engine. Press the starting aid switch about every
two seconds until the engine begins to idle smoothly.
Percent of engine horsepower
Figure PW-8: Vacuum load curves vs percentage of power. Fuel precautions

Diesel fuel begins to gel at approximately 15°F. Consult with
Starting with ether your fuel supplier when it is appropriate to use blended fuel
WARNING: Personal injury or property damage can result for cold weather operations. Consult with your diesel fuel
from alcohol or starting fluids. Alcohol or starting fluids are supplier for storage recommendations and equipment.
highly flammable and toxic and if improperly stored could
result in injury or property damage. Ether starting aid is the Urea precautions
only system that is recommended for the injection of start- Engines using Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) to meet
ing fluid. Perform the procedures that are described in your emissions regulations will use urea solutions to reduce NOx
engine manufacturer’s Operation and Maintenance Manual. emissions. The freezing point for these solutions is also ap-
• Ensure that the driven equipment is unloaded; proximately 15°F. Urea lines need to be heated to prevent
• Move the throttle so that fuel is provided to the engine; freezing in cold weather. Consult with your urea supplier for
• NOTICE: Do not crank the engine continuously for more storage recommendations and equipment.
than 30 seconds. Allow the starting motor to cool for
two minutes before cranking the engine again. Intake vacuum vs load (API standard)
• Crank the engine. Use of the starting aid depends on (For use on four cycle engines of two or more cylinders
these conditions: equipped with carburetors for liquid or gaseous fuels.)
The engine control module controls the duration of
automatic ether injection in these circumstances: The vacuum load curves shown in Figure PW-8 are an index
The jacket water coolant temperature is between of the approximate percentage of power (within three per-
-40 to 30 °C (-40 to 86 °F); cent on new engines), that an average engine in proper ad-
The engine rpm is more than 75 rpm and less than justment will develop at a given location. These curves are
400 rpm; average of curves obtained from six representative engine
• Manual ether injection can be performed in these manufacturers covering many models of 2 1/2-in. to 9 3/8-in.
circumstances: bore. They can be used at any altitude at which any non-tur-
• The momentary contact switch for the ether injection is bocharged engine can be used. The curves shown cannot be
activated; used on turbocharged engines.
• The jacket water coolant temperature is between -40 to
30°C (-40 to 86°F); Instructions for use
• The engine rpm is more than 75 rpm and less than 400 1. Ensure that the engine being checked is in good
rpm; adjustment. Check spark, gas supply, gas pressure, and
• Excessive starting fluid can cause piston and ring carburetor adjustment before taking vacuum readings.
damage; Use a conventional vacuum gauge with dial graduated
• Use starting fluid for cold starting purposes only. Do not to read inches of mercury;
use excessive starting fluid during starting or after the
engine is running; 2. Run engine at normal operating speed NO LOAD and
• To inject ether manually, press the starting aid switch. note manifold vacuum;
Release the switch immediately;

3. Run engine at normal operating speed LOADED and stop button, see the instructions that are provided by the
note manifold vacuum; OEM of the equipment.
4. Select curve to vacuum line indicated on the LOADED NOTICE: Do not start the engine until the problem necessi-
engine (Item 3). From this point on, the curve follows tating the emergency stop has been located and corrected.
down vertically to the percentage of load indicated on
the horizontal line. It may be necessary to reset the emergency stop button be-
fore the engine can be restarted.
NOTE: The manifold vacuum and horsepower an engine will
develop decreases with an increase in altitude. Engine man- If the emergency stop button is used, both of the air shutoffs
ufacturers consider sea level barometric pressure (29.92 must be reset before the engine can be restarted. The power
in. of mercury) standard. The power developed decreases for the control system must be cycled before the engine can
about 3% with each thousand feet in altitude. Likewise, the be restarted.
no-load vacuum decreases with increasing altitude. An en-
gine that will show 20-inches no-load vacuum at sea level Air shutoffs
will show the following no-load vacuum altitudes noted at The air shutoffs are actuated by either electric current or oil
normal operating speeds. pressure when energy to a solenoid is interrupted. Each air
shutoff uses a moving plate to block inlet air to the aftercool-
EXAMPLE: Operator observes engine developing 17-in. er. The engine stops because of the restricted air supply to
vacuum at no load and normal speed. Load is applied and the combustion chamber. The air shutoffs will actuate for
engine develops 10-in. vacuum. Follow down 17-in. curve the following conditions:
until it crosses 10-in. horizontal. Drop down vertically at this • The emergency stop button is pressed;
point to base line. Engine is developing approximately 48% • The air shutoff is activated;
of full power. • An overspeed shutdown occurs;
• The electronic control module loses power.
Failure to duplicate former readings on properly adjusted
engine when running at NO-LOAD NORMAL SPEED, will in- Note: A “master kill switch” may be supplied by the custom-
dicate poor engine condition due to poor gas supply, loss of er in order to activate the air shutoffs.
compression, ignition timing, etc.
The air shutoffs must be manually reset before the engine
Failure to obtain former readings at NORMAL LOAD and is restarted. To reset the air shutoffs, turn the reset knobs
SPEED will indicate either change in engine efficiency or to the “OPEN” position. Ensure that both of the air shutoffs
change in load. are reset.
Field men should become familiar with vacuum curve read- Manual stop procedure (non-emergency)
ings on their engines properly adjusted and in good oper- NOTICE: Stopping the engine immediately after it has been
ating condition to enable them to detect variation in either working under load can result in overheating and accelerat-
load or engine condition. ed wear of engine components. Allow the engine to gradual-
ly cool before stopping the engine. Excessive temperatures
in the turbocharger center housing will cause oil coking
Engine shutdown problems.
Emergency stopping There may be several ways to stop the engine. Ensure that
NOTICE: Emergency shutoff controls are for EMERGENCY the stopping procedure is understood. Use the following
use ONLY. DO NOT use emergency shutoff devices or con- general guidelines for stopping the engine.
trols for normal stopping procedure. 1. Disengage the driven equipment. Unload the
compressor or pump;
Ensure that any components for the external system that aid • Disengage the clutch (if equipped);
the engine operation are secured after the engine is stopped. • Place the transmission and/or other attachments
for the power take-off in NEUTRAL;
Emergency stop button 2. Reduce the engine RPM to low idle. Operate the engine
Use of the emergency stop will shut off the fuel. The air shut- at low idle rpm for a cool down period before stopping
offs will also be activated. For operation of the emergency the engine;

• If the engine has been operated at a low load, • Inspect/replace/lubricate driven equipment;
operate the engine at low idle for approximately 30 • Check air cleaner differential pressure;
seconds before stopping the engine; • Clean air precleaner;
• If the engine has been operated at a high load, • Check engine oil filter differential pressure;
operate the engine at low idle for three to five • Check engine oil level;
minutes before stopping the engine; • Check fuel system fuel filter differential pressure;
3. Shut off the engine according to the instructions that • Drain fuel tank water and sediment;
are provided by the manufacturer. • Inspect instrument panel;
• Walk-around inspection.
After stopping engine
Check the engine coolant and crankcase oil levels. Perform a Lubrication
visual inspection. If necessary, perform minor adjustments. The crankcase oil level in both main and starting engine
Repair any leaks and tighten loose bolts. should be checked and oil added if needed. Be careful not
to overfill the crankcase as this can damage crankshaft seals
and cause the oil to foam. At this time the oil should be in-
Engine maintenance spected for signs of water, fuel dilution, dirty beyond nor-
mal conditions, or obviously thickened, or thinned. If any of
Typical maintenance interval schedule these exist they should be corrected immediately and the oil
See Figure PW-9 for general engine nomenclature and com- replaced at this time. The proper lubricants recommended
ponents locations. by the manufacturer must be used. Different manufactur-
ers recommend different grades of crankcase oil for their
General engine maintenance varies by engine size, manu- engines. All points recommended by the manufacturer as
facturer, and usage (load profile). Consult the engine man- requiring daily attention should be checked, e.g., fan drive
ufacturer for specific recommendations. These should be and clutch bearings.
read and used. The lubrication and oil change intervals rec-
ommended in these manuals are very important and should Cooling system
not be extended without consulting with the manufacturer Coolant water level should be checked and a proper cool-
or his representative. The following suggestions will help to ant added if necessary. Do not overfill. Coolant level should
establish a good Preventative Maintenance Program. This be above the radiator core. If not, this will cause aeration
material may or may not be covered in the manufacturer’s and result in cracked cylinder heads. When checking the
manual. coolant level, the coolant should be checked for signs of oil
(crankcase, torque converter, etc.), air bubbles (combus-
All work done, the hours of engine operation and the tion gases), rust or scum. If any of these conditions exist,
amounts of oil, antifreeze, rust inhibitor and special lubri- the cause should be repaired immediately and the coolant
cants used should be recorded daily. Also all gauge readings replaced. The entire cooling system including water lines,
should be recorded along with ambient temperature and the cylinder block and head should be checked for leaks. These
type of activity you are using the engines for, such as drilling, should be repaired immediately to prevent aeration and loss
WOC, or tripping. of coolant. Any hoses that have become hard or brittle need
to be replaced. If an overheating problem exists and cannot
Extended maintenance intervals may be achieved by devel- be corrected by yourself, call for help. Do not put a water
oping a maintenance program with stringent oil and coolant hose in the radiator and let it overflow as this will destroy
sampling procedures as well as personal experience with your radiator cores. Do not remove thermostats from your
the rig maintenance personnel. Consult the engine manu- engines as this will cause further overheating. Radiator caps
facturer for more details on how to develop a program to on pressurized cooling systems should be removed only
potentially extend maintenance intervals. when the engine is at low idle or stopped and then only with
extreme caution. Always keep the radiator cap installed on
When required: a pressurized system and be certain it is holding pressure.
• Replace batteries;
• Clean/replace air cleaner elements; On air cooled engines, the flywheel air screen and air intake
• Prime fuel system; stack should be checked, and any foreign material removed.
• Clean radiator. If flywheel air screen or intake stack is very dirty, the fins on
heads and cylinder blocks should be inspected and cleaned,
Typical daily checklist: if necessary. If cylinder block fins are rusty, they should be
• Check coolant level; thoroughly cleaned with a wire brush.

Aftercooler
Air shutoff valve
Control Panel (Intercoler) Air filer housing
Breather
(Turbo and exhaust
Fuel filter behind this)
housing
Oil filter
housing
Information plate
Serial number plate
(behind the wiring)
(behind the wiring)
Engine
control
module
SCAC pump
Oil dipstick
Left side
Right side
Air filer housing
(Turbo and exhaust
behind this)
Oil cooler
Fuel, Oil, and Water pumps
Figure PW-9: Left (top) and right sides of typical drilling engine. Courtesy Caterpillar.

fins on heads and cylinder blocks. Always dry and

Air cleaners relubricate governor and control linkage joints after
Air cleaners and breather opening should be checked and cleaning.
cleaned as required according to the design and condition of • Water pump: Water-pump seals should be inspected
the cleaner. Oil bath air cleaners should never be run with- and packing on packed-type pumps should be tightened
out oil. When cleaning dry type, care should be taken not or replaced, if necessary.
to damage the sealing surface or to knock or blow a hole • Fan belts: Fan belts should be checked for proper
in the element. In extremely dusty conditions air cleaners tension and tightened or loosened, if needed. Do not
may need to be serviced several times a shift. Stopped-up over-tighten.
air cleaners are a major cause of turbocharger failures. Pre- • Lubrication of generator and accessories: Check your
cleaners and two-stage air cleaners are available and should manufacturer’s lubrication guide for proper lubrication
be considered if extremely dusty conditions prevail. of all accessories. If you do not have one, ask for help.
Many accessories need special lubrication or have
Fuel supply system hidden or unapparent lubrication points. The oil level on
The fuel-supply system should be checked by draining the hydraulic governors should be checked and proper oil
sump traps and strainers. Water (condensation) should be added if needed.
drained from all diesel tanks. Excessive amounts of water • Power take-off clutch: The power take off clutch should
should be recorded and reported to rig manager. Buy clean be lubricated and, if required, adjusted according to the
fuel and keep it clean. instructions of the manufacturer. Do not over-lubricate.
• Gas regulators: Gas engines should be checked for gas
Leaks or damage pressure at the primary and final regulators.
A visual inspection should be made of all water, fuel, lu- • Breather Elements: All removable breather elements
bricant lines, fittings, and valves for indications of leaks or should be carefully cleaned and washed in non- toxic,
damage. Report and repair any broken or loose mounting non-explosive solvent (not gasoline). Change oil on
bolts, any indication of misalignment or physical damage. those elements requiring re-oiling. Follow instructions
carefully on dry type element service.
Malfunctioning or needed repair • Diesel fuel filters: Diesel fuel system strainers should be
Any malfunction or necessary repair should be reported. cleaned and filters replaced as scheduled, by the engine
Always furnish model, serial number and specification num- builders.
ber.
Every 500 service hours:
Initial 250 service hours: • Change engine oil and filter (without centrifuge).
• Inspect/adjust engine valve lash;
• Inspect/adjust fuel injector. Every 1,000 service hours:
• Clean engine;
Every 250 service hours: • Clean crankcase breather;
• Check battery electrolyte level; • Check engine protective devices;
• Inspect/adjust/replace belts; • Clean/inspect/replace fuel system primary filter;
• Collect coolant sample and analyze; • Replace fuel system secondary filter;
• Test/add coolant additives; • Change engine oil and filter (with centrifuge).
• Collect engine oil sample and analyze; • Daily and weekly inspection items: All of the daily and
• Inspect/replace hoses and clamps. weekly inspection items as given previously should also
be performed in the monthly inspection.
Here are some additional maintenance guidelines: • Ignition system: On spark ignition engines the following
• Daily inspection items: All of the daily inspection items ignition devices, depending upon the type used, should
as given previously should also be performed in the be checked:
weekly inspection. Magneto point condition, clearances and timing;
• Cleaning: If necessary, the engine exterior should be Impulse function;
thoroughly cleaned with a non-toxic, non-explosive Spark-plug gap and heat range;
solvent (not gasoline). Compressed air or hot water Distributor condition with respect to the automatic
should be used for flushing and drying. Care should be advance mechanism.
taken to not wash or blow dirt into inaccessible • Valves: The external appearance of the valve
locations behind filler openings or into ignition or mechanism should be checked, as well as the condition
injection equipment; or on air-cooled engine, into the of the valve rockers, push-rod ends, and valve stems.

All valve clearances should be set according to the manufacturer should be used. Soluble oil can damage
instructions of the engine manufacturer. Valve timing O-rings.
should be checked if an adjustable timing device is • Crankcase: Inspection plates should be removed, if the
provided. The compression on all cylinders should be crankcase is so equipped, and a check made for sludge
measured, if the engine lacks power or if the condition in the crankcase. The oil-pump screen should be
of valves and rings is questionable. The functioning of checked, and cleaned if necessary.
the compression-release device should be checked on • Safety devices, generator and battery: A check should
diesel engines, if it is used. Engines using hydraulic be made of safety devices. Check the actual function of
valve lifters should be checked for sounds of lifter over temperature, low oil pressure, and overspeed
malfunction and the manufacturer’s inspection shutdowns. If the engines are equipped with backfire
procedure followed. valves or crankcase explosion relief valves, these should
• Starting equipment: The starting equipment should be be checked for condition and evidence of damage.
carefully tested and inspected. Starting engines should • Vibration damper: Inspect the vibration damper for
be checked for lubrication and general condition; damage, run out, signs of deterioration or loss of
special attention being given to the mounting bolts, viscous material, or looseness.
bendix drive lubrication, engagement linkage, • Turbocharger: Inspect turbocharger compressor
pinion-gear teeth mesh and adjustment, and fuel-tank impeller for accumulations of dirt, dust and oil. Clean
strainer. Manufacturer’s recommendations for specific according to manufacturer’s recommendations. If slack
makes and types of engines should be observed. Add in the bearing or signs of the compressor impeller
the recommended lubricant to air starter lubricant touching the housing is found, this should be corrected
reservoirs and clean air traps of dirt. If electric starters immediately.
are used, the system should be checked for loose • Throttle and governor: The governor linkage and
connections, worn wires, or makeshift repairs. butterfly-shaft end should be checked for free
• Engine mounts: Engine mounts should be inspected and movement through their full range. Minor governor
tightened, if required. A check should be made for signs adjustments should be made, if needed; and throttle
of engine shifting, misalignment, loosening of coupling and governor controls should be lubricated.
or sheave, or improper loading. Any shifting should be Compounded engines should be synchronized and a
corrected and all points of alignment rechecked. careful check made for proper functioning of vacuum
• Cooling fan: The cooling fan should be examined for gauges, pyrometers, tachometers, oil pressure gauges,
evidence of physical damage or cracking in the hub or torque converter pressure and generator outputs.
spider area. If the fan-hub bearings require lubrication
by disassembly and packing or by installation of a Every 2,000 service hours:
special grease fitting, this operation should be • Inspect crankshaft vibration damper;
performed. • Check driven equipment;
• Safety shields: All fan belt and shaft safety shields • Check engine mounts;
should be repaired and reinstalled. • Inspect turbocharger.
• Rocker covers and inspection doors: New gaskets
should be used on all rocker covers and inspection Every 3,000 service hours or 3 years:
doors, if removed. • Change coolant or add coolant extender.
• Season check of cooling system: Particularly at the
changes of the season and when starting to use or Every 4,000 service hours:
remove antifreeze, the cooling system should be • Inspect/adjust valve lash;
flushed thoroughly. The thermostats should also be • Inspect/adjust fuel injector.
removed and tested for correct functioning. Evidence of
scale, sludge, or rust deposits in the cooling system Every 6,000 service hours or 3 years:
warrants further investigation, and a special cleaning of • Inspect water pump.
oil coolers and heat exchangers may be necessary. The
proper mix of antifreeze and water is very important. A Every 6,000 service hours or 6 years:
50/50 mixture is considered the best except in • Inspect alternator;
extremely cold climates. Never run pure antifreeze in a • Change coolant;
cooling system. Rust inhibitor recommended by the • Replace water temperature regulator;
manufacturer should be used at all times and the • Inspect starting motors;
required additional amounts added every month or 250 • Inspect water pump.
hours operating time. Inhibitors recommended by the

Overhauls (top end and major) tion impulse. If no fuel appears and an equate flow of fuel is
• Consult with the engine manufacturer. known to have reached the plungers, either the plungers or
delivery valves may be stuck as a result of poor fuel, improp-
er storage, or inadequate lubrication.
Engine troubleshooting
5. Poor nozzle spray pattern or gummed or corroded
Troubleshooting mechanical engines nozzles;
When an internal-combustion engine fails to function prop- 6. Faulty injection timing;
erly, the causes must be found and corrected promptly. 7. Glow plugs too cold (when equipped);
Since most internal-combustion engines react in much the 8. Battery voltage low (A fully charged 12-volt heavy-duty
same way to specific maladjustments, a check list of pos- battery at normal temperatures will show 10.5 volts
sible causes of trouble often will be helpful in locating the while cranking);
difficulty. Following are trouble shooting hints for diesel en- 9. Poor compression (Check each cylinder);
gines. 10. Liquid lock between piston crown and cylinder head due
to flushing oil from storage, leaking head
When contacting the engine manufacturer’s local dealer to 11. gasket, or leaking injector;
fully service the engine, be sure to have the engine make and 12. Low cranking speed due to weak batteries, poor starter
generator’s serial number available, as the dealer will need it condition, or thick, cold oil.
to repair the engine in a more timely fashion.
Engine stops running: If the diesel engine suddenly stops
Starting difficulty running, the following possible causes of trouble should be
If a diesel engine fails to start or does not start readily, the checked in an effort to locate the difficulty.
following possible causes of trouble should be checked in an 1. Lack of fuel;
effort to locate the difficulty. 2. Fuel lines obstructed or broken;
3. Automatic low oil-pressure or high water- temperature
Fuel failure, low-pressure side: safety control may have operated;
1. Line valves not open; tank empty; 4. Excessive overload or improper governor adjustment
2. Safety switch not being held open by operator; may cause the engine to stall;
3. Cold fuel; 5. Plugged fuel-tank vent;
4. Plugged fuel filters, or dirt in lines between filter and 6. Damaged transfer or injection pump drive.
pump;
5. Fuel tank too low in relation to transfer pump; Low power: If the diesel engine has low power and runs un-
6. Dirt under transfer-pump valves or worn valves; evenly, the following possible causes of trouble should be
7. Air lock in fuel pump or injection pump; checked in an effort to locate the difficulty.
8. Ice in lines or traps; 1. Inadequate supply of fuel to pump;
9. Fuel transfer pump from tank not operating properly. 2. Fuel-tank vent partially plugged;
3. Faulty timing;
The foregoing items may be checked by opening the bleeder 4. Delivery valves not operating properly;
valve and cranking the engine. A pressure gauge should be 5. Dirty or damaged injection plunger;
used in the bleeder-valve hole to check for primary pump 6. Leaking fuel lines or air in lines;
pressure. A hand plunger may be used on the transfer, if de- 7. Damaged or excessive clearance in blowers;
sired. A substantial flow of fuel without air bubbles should 8. Overflow valve or injector drain line feeding back into
exit from the bleeder opening. primary pump inlet;
9. Dirty or clogged nozzles;
Fuel failure, high-pressure side: 10. Air cleaner or manifold obstructed;
1. Enrichment lever not in proper position; rack partly 11. Low or uneven compression:
closed in cold weather; a. Broken valve spring;
2. Engine control switch in wrong position; b. Sticking valves;
3. Air locks in high-pressure lines; c. Badly worn rocker arms;
4. Broken or disconnected pump-drive coupling; d. Sticking cam followers;
e. Bent throttle control linkage;
Note: The foregoing items can be checked by loosening the f. Binding of injector-rack control tube or injector racks;
line-coupling nuts a few turns at each nozzle and cranking 12. Fuel oil not to specification;
engine. A substantial flow of fuel should occur at each injec- 13. Restricted exhaust line;

14. Leaking turbocharger air connections; operating in closed spaces;

15. Dirty or damaged turbocharger; c. Improper turbocharging; intercooler too hot.
16. Improper intercooler operation.
Low or fluctuating oil pressure. If the diesel engine devel-
Surging or irregular speed: If the diesel engine develops ops a low or fluctuating oil pressure, the engine should be
a surge or irregular speed, the following possible causes of stopped at once and the following possible causes of trouble
trouble should be checked in an effort to locate the difficulty: should be checked in an effort to locate the difficulty:
1. Governor needs lubrication; 1. Oil:
2. Improper grade of governor oil (hydraulic governors); a. Insufficient oil;
3. Governor improperly adjusted; b. Dirty filters, oil coolers, or sump screen;
4. Injection pump: c. Improper grade of oil;
a. Lack of lubrication; d. Foaming oil due to water leakage;
b. Insufficient fuel supply for primary system; 2. Valve:
c. Irregular operation of automatic bleeder valve; air a. Worn, sticking, or loose relief valve;
entrapment in pump and lines, valves, or nozzles; b. Vent behind relief valve plugged;
d. Inaccurate pump timing; c. Inaccurate pressure gauge.
5. Slipping clutch or belt drive; wide variation in loads of
poor regulation on electrical equipment; Troubleshooting electronic engines
6. Dirty or damaged turbocharger system. The basic principles of the troubleshooting electronic en-
gines are similar to those of mechanical engines. However,
Overheating: If the diesel engine overheats, the following electronics can add a layer of complexity as the electronics
possible causes of trouble should be checked in an effort to themselves can be a contributor to the problem. Some en-
locate the difficulty: gines have control panels which give you engine diagnos-
1. Excessive exhaust back pressure: tics. Some engines require a laptop and special software to
2. Restricted muffler or loose baffles in muffler; diagnose and fix. It is strongly recommended to contact your
3. Cooling system: engine manufacturer’s local dealer to service the engine.
a. Insufficient coolant;
b. Radiator frozen or clogged (tubes and tanks); Engine safety
c. Radiator core dirty (external); Caution should be used in working on engines. Hot parts
d. Water hose clogged; or hot components can cause burns or personal injury. Do
e. Slipping fan belt; not allow hot parts or components to contact your skin. Use
f. Thermostat stuck; protective clothing or protective equipment to protect your
g. Cooling system inadequate; skin.
h. Improper air recirculation;
i. Aeration of water from leaking gaskets or pump; Do not operate or work on this equipment unless you have
j. Defective water pump; read and understand the instructions and warnings in the
k. Excessive back pressure on external cooling system; Operation and Maintenance Manual. Failure to follow the
l. Air shroud, air stack, cylinder-head fins or cylinder- instructions or heed the warnings could result in injury or
blocked with debris; death. Refer to the equipment manufacturer’s manuals. Un-
4. Combustion: less other maintenance instructions are provided, never at-
a. Improper fuel; tempt adjustments while the engine is running. Proper care
b. Faulty injection timing, retarded or wrong cycle; is your responsibility.
c. Faulty injection nozzle;
d. Pump setting incorrect; Always utilize appropriate PPE such as a hard hat, protective
5. Lubrication: glasses, ear protection, and other protective equipment and
a. Improper or excessive time between oil changes; clothing as required.
b. Air-locked or plugged oil filter, cooler, or screen;
6. Load: Utilize lock-out tag-out before the engine is serviced or re-
a. Prolonged service at excessive load; paired. When appropriate, disconnect the starting controls.
b. Improper synchronization of two or more engines;
7. Installation: Do not allow unauthorized personnel on or around engine
a. High exhaust back pressure due to improper piping when engine is being serviced.
or muffling;
b. Insufficient air circulation when engines are

Stay clear of all rotating parts and of all moving parts. Leave hands to check for leaks. Always use a board or cardboard
the guards in place until maintenance is performed. After for checking engine components for leaks. Ensure that all
the maintenance is performed, reinstall the guards. Keep of the clamps, the guards, and the heat shields are installed
objects away from moving fan blades. correctly. Lines and hoses must have adequate support and
secure clamps.
Cautiously remove the following parts. To help prevent
spraying or splashing of pressurized fluids, hold a rag over Exhaust
the part that is being removed: Exhaust fumes can be hazardous to your health. If you oper-
• Filler caps; ate the equipment in an enclosed area, ensure for adequate
• Grease fittings; ventilation.
• Pressure taps;
• Breathers; Asbestos information
• Drain plugs. Use caution and follow guidelines when you handle any re-
placement parts that contain asbestos or when you handle
Unless other instructions are provided, perform the mainte- asbestos debris.
nance under the following conditions:
Engine coolant and oils
• The engine is stopped. Ensure that the engine cannot be When the engine is at operating temperature, the engine flu-
started; ids will be hot. Fluids may be under pressure. Allow engine
• The protective locks or the controls are in the applied system components to cool before any system is drained.
position (lock-out, tag-out); Check fluid levels after the engine has stopped and the en-
• Disconnect the batteries when maintenance is gine has been allowed to cool.
performed or when the electrical system is serviced.
Disconnect the battery ground leads. Tape the leads in Cooling system conditioner contains alkali. Alkali can cause
order to help prevent sparks; personal injury. Do not allow alkali to contact the skin, the
• When starting a new engine, make provisions to stop eyes or the mouth.
the engine if an overspeed occurs. If an engine has not
been started since service has been performed, make Hot oil and hot lubricating components can cause personal
provisions to stop the engine if an overspeed occurs. injury. Do not allow hot oil or hot components to contact
Shutting down the engine may be accomplished by the skin.
shutting off the fuel supply and/or the air supply to the
engine; If the application has a makeup tank, remove the cap for the
• Do not attempt any repairs that are not understood. makeup tank after the engine has stopped. The filler cap
Use the proper tools. Replace any equipment that is must be cool to the touch.
damaged or repair the equipment;
• Start the engine with the operator controls. Never short Engine batteries
across the starting motor terminals or the batteries. The liquid in a battery is an electrolyte. Electrolyte is an acid
This method of starting the engine could bypass the that can cause personal injury. Do not allow electrolyte to
engine neutral start system and/or the electrical contact the skin or the eyes.
system could be damaged.
Do not smoke while checking the battery electrolyte levels.
Pressurized air and water Batteries give off flammable fumes which can explode.
Pressurized air and/or water can cause debris and/or hot
fluids to be blown out which could result in personal injury. Always wear protective glasses when you work with batter-
When pressurized air and/or pressurized water are used for ies. Wash hands after touching batteries. The use of gloves
cleaning, wear protective clothing, protective shoes, and eye is recommended.
protection. Avoid direct spraying of water on electrical con-
nectors, connections, and components. Engine fire hazards
All fuels, most lubricants, and some coolant mixtures are
Lines, tubes and hoses flammable. Flammable fluids that are leaking or spilled onto
Do not bend or strike high-pressure lines. Do not install lines, hot surfaces or onto electrical components can cause a fire.
tubes, or hoses that are damaged. Inspect all lines, tubes, Do not operate a product when a fire hazard exists.
and hoses carefully. Repair any fuel lines, oil lines, tubes, or
hoses that are loose, leaking or damaged. Do not use bare

Determine whether the engine will be operated in an en- 49°C (120°F). Keep ether cylinders away from open flames
vironment that allows combustible gases to be drawn into or sparks.
the air inlet system. These gases could cause the engine to
overspeed. If the application involves the presence of com- Do not spray ether into an engine if the engine is equipped
bustible gases, consult your equipment manufacturer for with a thermal starting aid for cold weather starting.
additional information about suitable protection devices.
Engine mounting/dismounting
Pay particular attention to these cautions: Mount the engine and dismount the engine only at locations
• Store fuels and lubricants in properly marked that have steps and/or handholds. Do not climb on the en-
containers; gine, and do not jump off the engine. Face the engine in order
• Do not expose the engine to any flame; to mount the engine or dismount the engine. Do not use any
Exhaust shields (if equipped) must be installed controls as handholds. Do not stand on components which
correctly. cannot support your weight. Use an adequate ladder or use
a work platform. Do not carry tools or supplies when you
Wiring must be kept in good condition. Properly route and mount the engine or when you dismount the engine.
attach all electrical wires. Check all electrical wires daily.
Repair any wires that are loose or frayed before you oper- Engine starting
ate the engine. Clean and tighten all electrical connections. IMPORTANT: For initial start-up of a new or rebuilt engine,
Eliminate all wiring that is unattached or unnecessary. Do and for start-up of an engine that has been serviced, make
not use any wires or cables that are smaller than the rec- provision to shut the engine off should an overspeed occur.
ommended gauge. Do not bypass any fuses and/or circuit This may be accomplished by shutting off the air and/or fuel
breakers. supply to the engine.
Inspect all lines and hoses for wear or for deterioration. Before starting the engine, ensure that no one is on, under-
neath, or close to the engine. Ensure that the area is free of
Properly install all oil filters and fuel filters. The filter hous- personnel.
ings must be tightened to the proper torque.
If equipped, ensure that the lighting system for the engine is
Use caution when refueling an engine. Do not smoke or re- suitable for the conditions. Ensure that all lights work prop-
fuel an engine near open flames and always stop the engine erly, if equipped.
before proceeding.
Do not bypass or disable the automatic shutoff circuits. See
Gases from a battery can explode. Keep any open flames the Service Manual for repairs and for adjustments.
or sparks away from the top of a battery. Do not smoke in
battery charging areas. Never check the battery charge by Always start the engine according to the procedure that is
placing a metal object across the terminal posts. Use a volt- described in the Operation and Maintenance Manual, or
meter or a hydrometer. The batteries must be kept clean. your company’s procedures.
The covers (if equipped) must be kept on the cells. Use the
recommended cables, connections, and battery box covers Engine stopping
when the engine is operated. Use proper jumper cables and To avoid overheating of the engine and accelerated wear of
do not jump/charge a frozen battery. the engine components, stop the engine according to the
manufacture’s Operation and Maintenance Manual.
Make sure that a fire extinguisher is available. Be familiar
with the operation of the fire extinguisher. Inspect the fire Use the Emergency Stop Button (if equipped) ONLY in an
extinguisher and service the fire extinguisher regularly. emergency situation. DO NOT use the Emergency Stop But-
Obey the recommendations on the instruction plate. ton for normal engine stopping. If an emergency shutdown
occurs, do not restart engine until a cause is identified and
Ether the corrective actions are completed. Use caution when re-
Ether is poisonous and flammable. Do not inhale ether, and moving crank case covers to avoid flash fires.
do not allow ether to contact the skin. If using ether, do so in
a well-ventilated area. Do not smoke while you are replac- On the initial start-up of a new engine or an engine that has
ing an ether cylinder or while you are using an ether spray. been serviced, make provisions to stop the engine if an over-
Do not store ether cylinders in living areas, in the engine speed condition occurs. This may be accomplished by shut-
compartment, in direct sunlight, or in temperatures above ting off the fuel supply and/or the air supply to the engine.

Engine electrical system Putting engine into storage

Battery electrolyte is an acid. Electrolyte can cause person- 1. Clean the outsides of the engine and touch up any rusty
al injury. Do not allow electrolyte to contact the skin or the surfaces;
eyes. Always wear protective glasses for servicing batteries. 2. Drain the oil and remove the filters. Replace with new
Wash hands after touching the batteries and connectors. oil and filters;
Use of gloves is recommended. 3. Add a mixture of volatile corrosion inhibitor (VCI) and
oil into the engine at various points per your engine
Never disconnect any charging unit circuit or battery circuit manufacturer’s procedures;
cable from the battery when the charging unit is operating. 4. Drain diesel fuel, change fuel filters, and fill with
A spark can cause the combustible gases that are produced kerosene or calibration fluid;
by some batteries to ignite. 5. Drain coolant, clean the cooling system, and refill the
system with new coolant. Raw water is not recom-
The electrical systems for the generator, the engine and the mended;
control systems must be properly grounded. Proper ground- 6. Apply grease to all outside parts that move such as rod
ing is necessary for optimum performance and reliability. threads, ball joints, linkage, etc;
Improper grounding will result in uncontrolled electrical cir- 7. Install all covers over any water ingress points including
cuit paths and in unreliable electrical circuit paths. exhaust systems and ensure that weatherproof tape has
been installed over all openings;
Uncontrolled electrical circuit paths can result in damage to 8. It is best to remove the batteries. If the batteries are not
main bearings, to the surface of crankshaft journals, and to removed, wash the tops of the batteries, disconnect the
aluminum components. Uncontrolled electrical circuit paths battery terminals, and place a plastic cover over the
can also cause electrical activity that may degrade the per- batteries;
formance of the generator set’s electronics. 9. Loosen all belts;
10. Place a waterproof cover over the engine;
The alternator and the starting motor must be grounded to 11. Remove the waterproof covers in order to check for
the negative “−” battery terminal. corrosion in two to three months intervals. If the engine
has signs of corrosion at the time of the check, repeat
A ground plate with a direct path to the negative “−” battery the protection procedure.
terminal may be used as a common ground for the compo-
nents of one engine system. Removing engine from storage
1. Remove all outside protective covers;
For engines with an alternator that is grounded to an engine 2. Change the oil and filters;
component, a ground strap must connect that component 3. Check the condition of the fan and alternator belts.
to the negative “−” battery terminal. Also, that component Replace the belts, if necessary. Tighten to specification;
must be electrically isolated from the engine. 4. Replace the fuel filter elements;
5. Use a bar or a turning tool to turn the engine in the
The ground strap for the alternator must be of a size that is normal direction of rotation in case there are hydraulic
adequate for carrying the full charging current of the alter- locks or any resistance;
nator. 6. Before starting the engine, remove the valve cover or
covers. Put a large amount of engine oil on the
Engine storage camshaft, cam followers and valve mechanism in order
This section provides high-level procedures and recommen- to prevent damage to the mechanism;
dations on engine preparation for storage up to one year. 7. Pressurized lubricating of the engine is necessary to
Always consult your engine manufacturer for full details on ensure immediate lubrication. Also, pressurized
preserving the engine. If long term storage for a period of lubricating will prevent damage to the engine. The
time that exceeds one year is necessary, consult your engine damage occurs in the first seconds after start-up;
manufacturer. 8. Check the condition of all rubber parts. Replace if
necessary;
Otherwise for periods less than one year, the following rep- 9. Before start-up, test the coolant. Adjust the coolant
resents the typical procedures for preparing and removing mixture if necessary;
engines from short term storage. 10. Prime the engine with clean diesel fuel before starting;
11. Follow the engine manufacturer’s procedure for initial
operation requirements once the engine starts;

12. On the first day of operation, check the entire engine

several times for leaks and correct operation.
Generators
Generator stator
The stator consists of the supporting frame, core, and arma-
ture windings.
The stator core is made from laminations, thin sheets of

electrical steel, which are stacked and held in place by steel Figure PW-10: Cutaway of generator for
endrings and support bars. The rings and bars are weld- drilling rig. Courtesy Caterpillar.
ed to or are part of the steel frame. Base mounting plates
are welded to the bottom of the frame. The base mounting Generator bearings
plates allow the assembly to be mounted on the genset base. The generator may contain either one or two bearings. Bear-
ings are typically ball or roller type and are either:
The windings (coils) are constructed of layered and insulat-
ed copper wire. The coils are inserted in the core slots, con- • Heavy duty double shielded bearings, typically used on
nected together, and the entire assembly is vacuum-pres- smaller generators and are greased for life;
sure impregnated with resin. Stator leads terminate in • Re-greaseable bearings, which contain fill and drain
standard connection lug or strap terminals for ease of con- ports for easy lubrication. Sleeve bearings are optional
nection to the load. on some designs. A supplementary instruction will be
included in the manual package for sleeve bearings if
Generator rotor they are applicable to this generator.
The main rotor assembly is the revolving field. It consists
of windings in a core, which is in turn mounted on a steel Generator connection boxes
shaft. The exciter armature assembly and optional perma- The main lead connection box houses the load lead termi-
nent magnet generator (PMG) rotor are also mounted on nals. In addition, the generator may have auxiliary connec-
the shaft as are the fan(s) and other optional accessories. tion boxes for connecting temperature detector outputs,
The core consists of laminations, thin sheets of electrical space heater connectors and sensing outputs.
steel, which are stacked together. The core makes the sa-
lient poles (four, six, eight or 10). With six or more poles, the Generator excitation system
poles are typically attached to a center hub. The excitation system consists of the exciter stator assem-
bly and the exciter armature assembly:
The rotor windings consist of insulated magnet wire wound
around each pole. V-blocks between each pole keep the ro- The exciter stator assembly comprises windings in a core
tor windings in place. Damper windings consist of copper or constructed from steel laminations that are stacked and
aluminum rods that are inserted through each pole surface welded together. The main exciter stator coils reside in
and are brazed to copper or aluminum damper end plates at slots in the core, forming alternate north and south poles.
each end of the lamination stack. The end plates are brazed The entire assembly is either mounted to the end bracket or
to adjacent poles to form a continuous damper winding. The mounted in a frame, in turn mounted to the end bracket. The
ends of the windings are supported with bars or aluminum stator is a stationary field, powered by the voltage regulator.
pole shoes. The rotor either has resin applied during the
winding process or is vacuum-pressure impregnated with The exciter armature assembly comprises two subassem-
resin. blies: the exciter armature and the rotating rectifier. The
exciter armature assembly contains steel laminations that
The shaft is made from high-strength rolled or forged steel are stacked and keyed on the shaft or on to a sleeve, which
and machined to accommodate all the rotating generator is keyed to the generator shaft. A three-phase winding is
components. Keyways in the shaft ensure precise position- inserted into slots in the laminations. The coils are held in
ing of the rotor, exciter armature, and optional PMG rotor place by insulating wedges. The coil extensions are braced
as well as drive couplings. On the exciter side, the shaft has with tape. Output leads from the winding are connected to
a slot or hole in its centerline for running the revolving field the rotating rectifier assembly.
leads to the rectifier.

The rotating rectifier is a three-phase full wave bridge rec-

tifier, converting the AC from the exciter armature to DC, Other generator options
which is transferred to the revolving field windings. Two alu- Other options include, but are not limited to, space heaters,
minum steel plates, each containing three rotating rectifier filters, and temperature sensing devices.
diodes, are mounted on each side of an insulating hub to
form the negative and positive terminals. The plates also act
as heat sinks for the diodes. Generator operations
Excitation system functional overview: Exciter field control Generator startup checklist
is established by the strength of the exciter field current After electrical connections have been made, perform the
developed by the voltage regulator system. The DC voltage following checks:
and current levels of the exciter field signal from the voltage 1. Check all the connections to the electrical diagrams
regulator varies depending upon the generator output volt- provided;
age and the loading of the output lines (see Figure PW-12). 2. Secure all covers and guards;
3. Turn the rotor slowly with the appropriate starting
Optional generator PMG system mechanism (bar the engine or flywheel) through one
The PMG system functions as a pilot exciter, providing pow- revolution to see if the rotor turns freely;
er to the automatic voltage regulator power supply. 4. Check the bearings to see they are properly lubricated;
5. Determine the direction of the engine rotation, and
The PMG is an AC generator that uses permanent magnets make sure that it matches the rotation of the generator;
in the rotor instead of electromagnets to provide the mag- 6. Make sure the power requirements comply with the
netic field. The permanent magnet generator (PMG) system data on the generator nameplate;
consists of the PMG stator and PMG rotor: See Figure PW- 7. Make sure that the engine-generator set is protected
11. with an adequate engine governor and against
excessive overspeed;
The PMG stator is a stationary armature and is located with- 8. Make sure the output of the generator is protected with
in the stator assembly that also contains the exciter stator or an overload protection device, such as circuit breakers
is a separate stator mounted next to the exciter stator. The or fuses, sized in accordance with national/
PMG stator consists of steel laminations. The laminations international electrical code and local electrical code
are held in place by steel compression rings and are weld- standards. Fuses need to be sized using the lowest
ed to the frame bars of the exciter-PMG frame. The PMG possible current rating above the full-load current rating
windings are placed in slots in the laminations. Insulating (115% of rated current is commonly recommended);
wedges are inserted at the top of each slot to hold the coils 9. Remove tools and other items from the vicinity of the
in position. generator.
The PMG rotor consists of rectangular permanent magnets

and cast pole tips secured to a steel hub with nonmagnetic
stainless steel bolts. The PMG rotor is keyed to the shaft and
secured with a nut and lock washer.
Figure PW-11: Overview of excitation

system (with an optional PMG).

Generator startup
The following steps detail initial startup for generators with
both automatic and manual voltage control:
1. Disconnect the generator output from the load by
opening the main circuit breaker;
2. Turn the manual voltage adjust rheostat fully
counterclockwise;
3. Put the auto-manual switch in the manual position;
4. Start the prime mover, and bring the set to rated speed.
Turn the manual voltage adjust rheostat to reach rated
voltage. Close the output circuit breaker, and apply load
in steps until the rated load is reached. Adjust the
manual adjust rheostat as necessary to obtain the
desired output voltage; Figure PW-12: This graph enables determination of
5. Gradually reduce load, and adjust the rheostat whether the generator is operating in a balanced or
accordingly until no load is reached. Open the circuit unbalanced phase. See instructions in text.
breaker, and stop the prime mover;
6. Actuate the auto voltage rheostat. Then start the Rotor overheating may occur when the generator is carrying
genset, and bring it to rated speed. Adjust the voltage to excessive unbalanced loads. Negative sequence currents
the desired value; flowing in the field pole face cause the rotor heating. For a
7. Close the output circuit breaker. Then check the general guide to the allowable phase unbalance, see Figure
generator voltage and voltage regulation. Apply load in PW-12, which is based on a 10% equivalent negative se-
steps until the rated load is reached; quence current.
8. Check for vibration levels at no load and rated load. A
slight increase is normal. As the load is maintained for Guide to allowable phase unbalance
2-3 hours, the vibration levels will gradually increase Using Figure PW-12, follow these steps to determine wheth-
and reach a final level. er you are within allowable phase balance:
1. Determine the minimum and maximum currents in any
The following steps detail initial startup for generators with phase, expressed as a percent of rated current;
automatic voltage control only (generator has an automatic 2. Draw an imaginary line to the right from the minimum
voltage regulator (AVR) with no auto-manual switch): current phase on the Y axis. Then draw an imaginary
1. Disconnect the generator output from the load by line up from the maximum current phase on the X axis;
opening the main circuit breaker; 3. The point where the two lines intersect will determine
2. Turn the voltage adjust rheostat fully counterclockwise. whether you are in a balanced or unbalanced phase.
Start the prime mover, and bring the set to rated speed.
Turn the voltage adjust rheostat to obtain the desired Loss of field excitation can result in the unit operating out
voltage; of synchronization with the system when operating is paral-
3. Close the output circuit breaker, and apply load in lel. This has the effect of producing high currents in the ro-
gradual steps until the rated load is reach. Note the tor, which will cause damage very quickly. Protective relays
voltage regulation with the changes in load steps; should be considered to open the circuit breaker.
4. Check for vibration levels at no load and rated load. A
slight increase is normal. As the load is maintained for In the example shown in Figure PW-12, the minimum cur-
2-3 hours, the vibration levels will gradually increase rent in any phase is 20% of rated, and the maximum is 60%.
and reach a final level. As the figure shows, the intersection of the two lines lies in
the excessive unbalance region.
Generator continuous operation
Operate the generator within the nameplate values. (Oper- Generator idling
ating the unit beyond nameplate values may cause equip- Unless the voltage regulator has V/Hz protection built in,
ment damage or failure.) If the generator is operated below having the generator set in operating mode while idling the
the rated power factor and voltage, decrease the kVA to pre- engine can cause permanent equipment damage. If engine
vent overheating of the field and stator windings. Consult adjustments require that the engine be run at idle speed and
the factory for derating factors if the application requires the the regulator does not have V/Hz protection, make the gen-
unit to be operated beyond nameplate values. erator regulating system inoperative during idling by one of

the following methods: If cross-current compensation is used, paralleling current

• When the generator is provided with a voltage transformers must give the same secondary current.
shutdown switch, be sure the switch is set to the idle
position while the engine is running at idle speed; Current transformer secondary windings provide reactive
• Where the generator set is provided with field circuit kVA droop signal to the voltage regulator. Accidental rever-
breakers, set the circuit breaker to the off position while sal of this electrical wiring will cause the voltage to attempt
the generator is running at idle speed; to rise with load rather than droop. If this occurs during par-
• Where the generator set is provided with an automatic/ alleling, stop the unit and reverse the wires at the voltage
manual control switch that has an off position, switch it regulator terminals.
to off while the engine is running at idle speed;
• Where the generator set does not have any of the above If the set is provided with a unit/parallel switch, set the
options, remove the wires from the voltage regulator switch to the parallel position on the unit being synchro-
input power terminals when the engine is running at nized.
less than rated speed.
Synchronize the generator by adjusting the speed (fre-
Generator parallel operation quency) slightly higher than the system. Observe the syn-
For the generator to operate in parallel with a system in op- chroscope or the lamps. The lamps should fluctuate from
eration, the phase sequence of the generator must be the bright to dark at the rate of one cycle every 2 to 3 seconds.
same as that of the system. Use transformers to reduce the When the generator is in phase (the lights will be dark), close
voltage to an acceptable level, and then use a phase rotation the circuit breaker. Immediately after closing the breaker,
meter or incandescent lamp method, described in electrical measure the line current kVAR of the generator. The read-
machinery handbooks, for a phase sequence check. ings must be within the rating of the unit. A high ammeter
reading accompanied by a large kW reading indicates faulty
The output voltage at the paralleling point must be the same governor control. A high ammeter reading accompanied by
as each instant, which requires that the two voltages be of a large kVAR unbalance indicates problems with the voltage
the same frequency, same magnitude, same rotation, and in regulator. Adjusting the cross current or voltage droop rheo-
coincidence with each other. stat should improve the sharing of kVAR.
Voltmeters indicate whether the voltage magnitude is the To shut down the generator operating in parallel, gradually
same, and frequency meters indicate whether the frequen- reduce the kW load by using the governor to reduce speed.
cies are the same. Whether the voltages are in phase and ex- When kW load and line current approach 0, open the gen-
actly at the same frequency is indicated by a synchroscope erator circuit breaker. Operate the generator unloaded for
or by synchronizing lamps. several minutes to dissipate the heat in the windings. Refer
to the prime mover manual for shutdown and cool-down
A synchroscope can be used to indicate the difference in procedures.
phase angle between the incoming machine and the sys-
tem. The generator can be paralleled by using incandescent
lamps connected. The voltage rating of the series lamps Generator maintenance
must equal the voltage rating of the transformer-low voltage
winding. Generator maintenance schedule
Basic generator maintenance varies by size, manufacturer,
Each prime mover in the system must have the same speed and usage (load profile). Consult the generator manufactur-
regulating characteristics, and the governors must be ad- er for specific recommendations.
justed to give the same speed regulation as determined by
applying load that is proportional to the full load rating of Extended maintenance intervals may be achieved by de-
the generator. veloping a maintenance program with stringent inspection
procedures as well as personal experience with the rig main-
The voltage regulator must include paralleling circuitry. In tenance personnel. Consult the generator manufacturer for
addition, the voltage, droop settings and the V/Hz regu- more details on how to develop a program to potentially ex-
lation characteristics must be the same for all the voltage tend maintenance intervals.
regulators. This will allow the generators to properly share
reactive loads. Do not clean the generator with pressurized water.

Figure PW-14: Diagram

of typical generator.
Daily • Clean the inside of the outlet box, air screens, bearing
• Visually check generator bearing housings for any sign housings, and air baffles with compressed air and
of oil seepage; electrical solvent if needed;
• Check the operating temperatures of the generator • With generators that have ball or roller bearings, check
stator windings; machine vibrations and bearing condition with a
• Check the control panel voltmeter for proper stability spectrum analyzer or shock pulse;
and voltage output; • Grease the regreaseable-type bearings.
• Monitor the power factor and generator loading during
operation. Every 8,000 hours or one year of operation
• Check insulation resistance to ground on all generator
Weekly windings, including the main rotating assembly, the
• Visually inspect the bearing exterior for dirt and clean if main stator assembly, the exciter field and armature
necessary; assemblies, and the optional permanent magnet
• If equipped, inspect generator air filters for buildup of generator assembly;
contaminants and clean or replace as required • Check the space heaters for proper operation;
• Check the rotating rectifier connection tightness.
Every 2,000 hours or 6 months of operation
• Remove generator outlet box cover. Visually inspect the Every 20,000 hours or 3 years of operation
stator output leads and insulation for cracking or • With generators that have sleeve oil bearings, perform
damage. Check all exposed electrical connections for a sleeve bearing inspection to include the removal of
tightness. Check transformers, fuses, capacitors, and the upper bearing housing and bearing liner to inspect
lightning arrestors for loose mounting or physical the liner, shaft journal, and seal surfaces for wear or
damage. Check all lead wires and electrical connections scoring;
for proper clearance and spacing; • Remove the end brackets, and visually inspect the
generator end windings for oil or dirt contamination.

Excessive contamination may necessitate surface Shorted or grounded rotating rectifier: Check for
cleaning with compressed air and electrical solvent; shorts grounds. Replace or repair;
• Inspect the fan and fan hub for damage. Shorted or grounded exciter armature: Check for
shorts or grounds. Replace or repair;
Every 30,000 hours or 5 years of operation • Low voltage:
• Disassemble the generator (this includes rotor Shorted leads between the exciter armature and
removal); generator field: Test and repair;
• Clean the generator windings using either (depending Incorrect stator connections: Check the
upon the severity of contamination): connections, and reconnect;
Compressed air and electrical solvent or; Improper adjustment of voltage adjust rheostat:
Degreaser and high pressure hot water wash; Adjust rheostat;
• Dry the windings to acceptable resistance levels; Excessive load: Reduce load. With three-wire,
• Inspect the rotor shaft bearing journals for wear or single-phase and four-wire, three-phase
scoring; generators, the load on each leg must be as evenly
• With generators that have ball or roller bearings, balanced as possible and must not exceed the
replace the bearings. rated current on any leg;
Line loss: Increase the size of the line wire;
Generator troubleshooting High resistance connections (hot): Make better
Listed below are common generator troubleshooting issues connections;
and fixes: Shorted main or exciter field: Test the field coils for
• No Voltage: possible short by checking resistance with an
Open voltage regulator, circuit breaker or fuses: ohmmeter or resistance bridge. Return the rotor
Check. Reset the circuit breaker or replace fuses if assembly to the factory for repair if field coils are
open; shorted;
Overvoltage, under voltage, or overload devices Low power factor: Reduce inductive (motor) load.
tripped (when protective devices are incorporated Some AC motors draw approximately the same
into the circuit): Check for the cause of the current regardless of load. Do not use motors of
abnormal condition. Correct any deficiencies. larger horsepower rating than is necessary to carry
Reset devices. Check the generator nameplate for the mechanical load;
nominal operating values; Weak field due to operating in a warm
Open circuit in exciter field: Check continuity of temperature: Improve the ventilation of the
shunt field and leads to voltage control. (Use generator. Field current can be increased providing
ohmmeter or whetstone bridge) If open in field the generator temperature rating stamped on the
coils, remove exciter field assembly and return nameplate is not exceeded;
assembly to factory for repair; Defective rectifiers in rectifier assembly
Loss of residual magnetism in exciter field poles: (stationary): Check rectifier assembly. Replace
Restore residual magnetism or flash field. When defective fuses or rectifiers;
the voltage regulator is a model that requires Excessive load: Reduce load to rated value;
flashing, install an automatic field flashing system; Defective bearing: Replace the bearing;
Open circuit in stator windings: Check for Improper speed of engine driven generator set due
continuity in the windings. Return the generator to to defective governor, ignition system or
the factory for repair if open; carburetor: Check and correct deficiencies;
Malfunction of automatic voltage regulator: See Voltage regulator not operating properly: Check
the manufacturer’s troubleshooting guide for the the regulator. Adjust, repair or replace;
voltage regulator. Correct deficiencies; • Fluctuating voltage:
Short-circuited generator output leads: Clear lead Prime mover speed fluctuating: Check frequency
to restore voltage buildup; and voltage of incoming power when the generator
Open in rotating rectifiers: Check rotating set is motor driven. Check engine governor on
rectifiers, and replace if open; engine-driven generator sets;
Open in generator field: Check for continuity and Loose internal or load connections: Tighten all
return rotor to factory for repair if field coils are connections;
open; Generator overloaded: Reduce load to rated value;
Shorted or grounded surge protector: Check for DC excitation voltage fluctuating: Trace DC
shorts or grounds. Replace; excitation circuit. Correct any defects;

Overspeed: Correct speed of prime mover; 8. Use an audio/visual proximity tester in order to verify
Voltage regulator not operating properly: Check that the generator is de-energized. This tester must be
the regulator. Adjust, repair or replace; insulated for the proper voltage rating. Follow all
• High voltage: guidelines in order to verify that the tester is
Improper adjustment of voltage adjust rheostat or operational;
voltage regulator: Adjust rheostat and/or voltage 9. Determine that the generator is in a de-energized
regulator; condition. Add ground straps to the conductors or
Voltage regulator not operating properly: Check terminals. During the entire work period, these ground
the regulator. Adjust, repair or replace; straps must remain connected to the conductors and to
• Overheating: the terminals.
Clogged ventilating screens and air passages:
Clean all screens and air passages;
Dry or defective bearings: Replace defective Generator storage
bearings;
Coupling misaligned: Align the generator set; Putting generator into storage
Generator field coils shorted or grounded: Test When storing an enclosed generator set for short or long
field coils for shorts. Replace shorted rotor or term, the enclosed generator set must be supported under
return it to the factory for repair; each sub-base section to prevent damage. A minimum of
Unbalanced load or overload, low PF: Adjust load five support blocks that are spaced evenly along the length
to nameplate rating; of the enclosure are to be used to support the enclosure.
• Vibrations:
Defective or dry bearings: Replace defective When a generator is in storage, moisture may condense in
bearings; the winding insulation system. In order to minimize conden-
Misalignment of generator and prime mover: Align sation, always put the generator in a dry storage area.
the generator set;
Generator not properly mounted: Check mounting. Grease used in ball and roller bearing generators is subject
Correct defective mounting; to time deterioration. Before placing the unit into service af-
Transfer of vibration from another source: Isolate ter long-term storage, check the bearings for corrosion, and
the generator set from the source of vibration by replace the grease.
installing vibration dampeners between generator
set base and foundation. It is necessary to perform an insulation resistance and Po-
larization Index (PI) test on all generators at the beginning
Generator safety of storage. Record the results of the insulation test. A PI test
See the Engine Safety section for common safety practices. should be performed to provide a baseline for future refer-
ence. Note: Ensure that the baseline is established with the
Generator isolating for maintenance unit dry.
When you service an electric power generation set or when
you repair an electric power generation set, follow the pro- When in a controlled environment, the generator should be
cedure below: covered with a plastic cover or a similar type of protective
1. Stop the engine; cloth. The protective cover should extend to the ground, but
2. Utilize lockout/tagout on the engine prime mover the cover should remain loose around the generator in order
starting circuit. Disconnect the engine starting circuit; to allow proper ventilation to the generator.
3. Disconnect the generator from the distribution system;
4. Utilize lockout/tagout on the circuit breaker. Manually Maintain the temperature of the insulated parts and the air
throw the breaker. Verify that all points of possible that surrounds the parts at a temperature of at least 5°C
reverse power flow have been locked out; (9°F) above ambient temperature to prevent condensation.
5. For the following circuitry, remove the transformer’s The following methods are the normal methods for provid-
fuses: ing the required heat:
a. Power; • Space heaters;
b. Sensing; • Warm air blowers: Do not exceed 207 kPa (30 psi);
c. Control; • Light bulbs: Install a light bulb (60-watt minimum)
6. Utilize lockout/tagout on the generator excitation inside the generator in the proximity of the stator core
controls; at the lowest possible location.
7. Remove the cover of the generator’s terminal box;

Use the Polarization Index (PI) test procedure to determine

the moisture content of the insulation system. PI is greater
than or equal to two for a “dry” insulation system. PI is a ratio
of the Insulation Resistance Measured for 10 minutes to the
insulation resistance value measured after 1 minute. Polar-
ization Ratio equals Insulation Resistance after 10 minutes
divided by Insulation Resistance after 1 minute.
Insulation resistance readings with a 50 percent reduction

or more from the previous reading, or a PI reading of less
Figure PW-15: Transmission for drilling engine. than 2 may indicate that the winding has absorbed too much
Courtesy Allison Transmission. moisture. The generator needs to be dried and retested. If
the retest still comes out low the generator will have to be
Note: The light bulb method only works if there is no air sent to a rewind shop for service. If cleaning or drying is nec-
movement around the generator essary, refer to the manufacturer’s maintenance manual.
Ensure that the generator rotor shaft is rotated 10 revolu-

tions every 60 days throughout the storage period. Transmissions
Transmissions are used to increase and decrease speed
When in an uncontrolled environment where exposed to through gear ratios when directly coupled to mechanical
temperature and humidity fluctuations, prepare generator devices.
as follows:
• Install desiccant bags in the exciter cover and inside the Transmission maintenance
end bells;
• Vacuum seal the unit in a covering of plastic or other Basic maintenance interval schedule
material designed for that purpose. General transmission maintenance varies by engine size,
manufacturer, and usage (load profile). Consult the engine
Ensure that the generator rotor shaft is rotated 10 revolu- manufacturer for specific recommendations. Extended
tions every 60 days throughout the storage period. maintenance intervals may be achieved by developing a
maintenance program with stringent oil sampling proce-
Removing generator from storage dures as well as personal experience with the rig mainte-
Operate space heaters for at least 24 hours prior to remov- nance personnel. Consult the transmission manufacturer
ing covers. for more details on how to develop a program to potentially
extend maintenance intervals.
Remove all protective covers. If the unit does not have a
space heater, use an alternate means in order to raise the When required: Replace or clean breather as necessary;
temperature to at least 5°C or 9°F higher than the ambient
temperature. The following methods are the normal meth- Every 10 service hours
ods for providing the required heat: • Check oil level;
• Space heaters;
• Warm air blowers: Do not exceed 207 kPa (30 psi); Initial 100 service hours
• Light bulbs: Install a light bulb (60 Watt minimum) • Replace oil filter;
inside the generator in the proximity of the stator core
at the lowest possible location. Initial 500 service hours
• Replace oil filter;
Note: The light bulb method only works if there is no air
movement around the generator Every 500 service hours or 6 months
• Clean breather;
Before start-up of a generator, visually inspect the generator • Clean magnetic screen;
for any foreign material. Use an insulation tester to check • Replace oil filter;
insulation resistance for moisture and/or foreign material. • Obtain oil sample: change oil as necessary.
Refer to the generator operation and maintenance manual
for the procedure.

F Series Field
Armature A F
Armature
A
Shunt Field
Figure PW-16: DC Shunt Motor Schematic. Figure PW-17: DC series motor schematic.
U1-1
Transmission troubleshooting Transmission safety

Listed below are common transmission troubleshooting is- Figure
See the EngineU1-1:
Safety DC Shunt
section Motor Schematic
for common safety practices.
sues and fixes.
• Excessive clutch noise: Transmission storage
• Throwout bearing: replace/lubricate; See the Engine Storage section for basic storage practices.
• Bad clutch shaft pilot bearing: replace;
• Noise from the clutch linkage: lubricate;
• Clutch slips: Power distribution
• Worn pressure plate or clutch plate;
• Oil-soaked clutch plate; Introduction
• Insufficient pedal free-play; There are three types of electric drilling rig systems—DC/
• Bad waste or slave cylinder; DC, AC/SCR, and AC/AC (VFD). Each system consists of
• Low fluid; engine/generator sets, control systems and electric motors.
• Clutch drags or fails to release: AC/DC motors are used on mud pumps, drawworks, top
• Too light transmission lubricant or low lubricant level; drives and rotary tables; and AC motors are used to power
• Improperly adjusted clutch linkage; auxiliary functions on all types of systems.
• Bad cylinder;
• Low fluid; The electric drilling rig is similar to the mechanical rig. Pow-
• Air in line; er is produced by engines on both mechanical and electric
• Transmission shifts hard: drilling rigs. This engine power is transmitted to the rig
• Improper lubricant viscosity or lubricant level; equipment through electric cables to motors on the elec-
• Clutch linkage needs adjustment/ lubrication; tric rig. The mechanical rig uses chains, compounds, torque
• Transmission leaks lubricant: converters and vbelts to transmit the engine power to the
• Lubricant level too high; rig equipment.
• Cracks in the transmission case;
• Loose or missing bolts; DC/DC and SCR systems
• Drain or fill plug loose or missing; DC/DC systems typically include multiple engine/DC gen-
• Vent hole plugged; erator sets and control systems connected by cable to DC
• Transmission is noisy in gear: motors. Each generator is assigned to a specific motor. The
• Insufficient lubricant; DC/DC systems are generally arranged so that each motor
• Worn gears (excessive end-play); can receive power from two or more engine/generator sets
• Worn bearings; to provide backup in case any engine/generator set is not
• Damaged synchronizers; functioning (Figures PW-16 and PW-17).
• Chipped gear teeth;
• Transmission is noisy in neutral: SCR systems typically include multiple engine/AC generator
• Insufficient/ incorrect lubricant; sets, AC to DC conversion systems, and controls connected
• Worn reverse idler gear; to DC motors. All the engine/generator sets are connected
• Worn bearings or gear teeth. to a common AC bus. The SCR system converts the AC cur-

rent to DC current and transmits the DC current to the DC dent upon the power requirements of the individual drilling
motors. rig. The deeper the drilling depth rating of the rig, the more
power will be required to operate the rig. This section will
DC drilling motors attempt to provide a general understanding of power gener-
The motors used with SCR or DC/DC systems are either ation by dividing the information into three subtopics.
shunt or seriestype and are usually rated 800-1,250 hp for • Engines
drilling applications. The DC motor is used because of its • Generators
ease of control and high torque at low RPM. • AC Switchgear
The shunt motor differs from the series motor both in its Engines
connection configuration and its operational characteris- The engine converts a fuel to mechanical torque that turns
tics. The shunt motor requires a separate DC power source the AC generator. Although diesel engines are the most
to provide the field current (Figures PW-16), while the series common source of power, other types such as gasoline, nat-
motor allows the armature current to also flow through the ural gas or gas turbines are also used to a lesser degree.
field (Figures PW-17).
Generators
The shunt motor is the simplest to control since its speed The generator converts rotating motion or torque of the en-
is directly proportional to the DC volts supplied across its gine to electrical power.
armature and its torque output is directly proportional to
amperes. Load does not appreciably affect the speed of the Synchronous type AC generators or alternators are the most
motor. common units used. They provide an output of 600 volt,
Speed feedback and regulation 3-phase power

The speed of an uncontrolled series motor is greatly affected A synchronous type generator is composed of three main
by its load. With light loads, a series motor could over speed elements(see Figure PW-14).
and damage itself and the equipment it is driving. There are • Rotor
many methods in use today to protect the motor and equip- • Stator
ment from this overspeed condition. These include: • Exciter
• Electronic circuitry to make the series motor
characteristic simulate that of a shunt motor. (Load has The rotor is mounted on a shaft driven by the engine. Elec-
the appreciable effect on speed.); tromagnets called “field poles” are mounted upon the rotor.
• Speed regulation is provided via a motor mounted Each pole is wound with a wire so connected that when di-
tachometer; rect current is supplied to the coils, from the exciter, alter-
• A motor mounted overspeed device shuts off the motor if nate North and South magnetic poles are produced.
it exceeds a set speed;
• The motor is shut down any time the load (current) The rotor revolves within the stator, or armature, which has
decreases below a given volume signifying a broken insulated electrical conductors wound around a laminated
chain, belt, sprocket, etc. steel core. As the rotor revolves at rated speed its magnet-
ic fields generate alternating current of the proper voltage
Series motors have excellent speed/torque characteristics and frequency in the conductors. This generated voltage is
for accelerating loads from a standing start to full speed transmitted via power cables to the AC switchgear.
which is perfect for efficient drawworks operation. Series
motors also have excellent load sharing characteristics for The exciter is controlled by a voltage regulator which is typ-
multiple motor loads. ically installed in the AC switchgear. Two types of exciters
can be obtained. The first is the “brush” type exciter which
uses brushes and a commutator. The “brushless” type (ro-
SCR (AC/DC) power systems tating rectifier) exciter, which eliminates the brushes and
commutator, is becoming more popular as it requires less
AC electrical power generation maintenance.
Although it is sometimes feasible to use utility power, elec-
trical power for an SCR type drilling rig is typically provided AC switchgear
by alternating current (AC) generators driven by engines. The three main functions of the AC switchboard are: control,
The size and quantity of engine/generator sets is depen- protection and metering.

Control under speed operation of an engine, the voltage

• Voltage regulator: The output of the generator is regulator output is reduced by the under frequency
controlled by the voltage regulator. The voltage protection device. This protects the voltage regulator,
regulator monitors the generated voltage and varies its the exciter and generator from damage.
output to the generator exciter to control the amplitude
of the generator voltage.A second function of the • Over voltage protection deviceThe over voltage
voltage regulator occurs while two or more generators protective device will remove power from the voltage
are connected in electrical parallel. The voltage regulator during conditions of over voltage (typically
regulators will force the paralleled generator to share 125 150%).
the kVAR load equally.
• Power limiting: The power limiting circuit compares the
• Governor control: The speed or torque output of the generator power available with the power being used or
engine is controlled by an electronic governor that demanded. If the power demand exceeds the power
controls the engine fuel. On a mechanical engine, the that is available, some of the load will be reduced to
actuator increases or decreases the engine fuel rack protect the engine/generators from overload and a
setting to provide constant speed. On electronic possible complete “blackout” of the rig power system.
engines the electronic governor controls the engine • Ground fault detection: Monitors system and detects
control module controls to provide constant speed. AC and or DC grounds in cables and equipment.
With multiple engine generators in parallel, the power
output (in Kilowatts [kW]) of each generator is Metering
controlled to provide equal load sharing. The following metering is typically provided in the AC
switchgear to monitor the output of the engine generator
• Synchronization circuitry: Generators to be operated sets:
in electrical parallel must be operating at the same • AC ammeter: Measures the current output from the
frequency, voltage and phase rotation. Most AC generator and is used to check for load balance.
switchboards will have circuitry to monitor these three • AC voltmeter: Monitors the generator output potential.
conditions. If any or all of the above conditions are not • AC wattmeter: Monitors the kilowatt or real power
met, the circuit breaker of the generator to be paralleled output of the generator and is used to assure equal
will not close. division of the kilowatt load between paralleled
generators.
Protection • kVAR meter: Monitors the reactive power output of the
• Generator circuit breaker: The Generator circuit breaker generator and may be used to balance reactive power
protects the generator and cables from short circuits division between generators.
and undesirable overload condition. It also acts as a • Power factor meter: Monitors the generator power
device to connect or disconnect its generator from the factor and sometimes used in lieu of a KVAR meter to
main AC bus. The generator circuit breaker typically is balance reactive power between generators.
provided with an undervoltage release feature that • Frequency meter: Indicates the generator or main bus
prevents the circuit breaker from being closed when the frequency in Hertz (or cycles) per second.
generator is not energized. Usually a shunt trip • Synchroscope: Provides a visual indication of the
mechanism that allows the circuit breaker to be opened relationship of the frequency or speed of the generator
remotely by other protective devices is also furnished. to be paralleled to that of the energized main bus.
• Reverse power protection device: The loss or reduction AC/DC conversion

of engine torque, during parallel operation of two or This section will describe the workings of the SCR system
more engines will result in a condition of the generator itself in converting AC power to DC power. Following is the
called “motoring.” This condition occurs when current simple one line flow diagram of a SCR converter system.
flows into a generator from other generators. It can
cause engine or generator damage. The reverse power General
relay monitors the generator output and will open the The SCR system changes the constant voltage AC power to
associated generator circuit breaker during a sustained an adjustable voltage DC power to enable speed control of
reverse power condition. the DC drilling motors, which in turn power the drilling func-
tions and control rotary table speed, mud pump pressure
• Under frequency protection device: During periods of and flow, etc.

Figure PW-18: SCR

single-line diagram.
The following is a list of components found in all SCR control SCR heat sink assemblies
systems: • Since SCRs control a great deal of current, a
considerable amount of heat is generated. This heat is
• Circuit breakers; removed by mounting the SCR in a heat sink assembly
• Power fuses; consisting of an aluminum extrusion. The heat is passed
• SCR heat sink assembly into a 3phase full control from the SCR to the heat sink and then to the air by
bridge rectifier; forcing a large volume of air over the heat sinks (by a
• Electronic controls; blower assembly). When the cabinet doors of most SCR
• Driller’s console; cubicles are opened, the heat sinks are usually the most
• DC assignment contactors (Figures PW-18 and obvious components in view.
PW-19).
Electronic controls
Protection The DC control electronics have five basic functions:
Circuit Breakers • Receive a throttle signal;
• The circuit breaker connects and disconnects the • Convert this signal to a synchronized gate firing signal
3phase AC power bus to the SCR rectifier section with to turn the SCRs on at the proper time;
the added function of limiting fault current. • Measure the result (DC power output) and make any
error corrections;
Fuses • Measure the DC current being produced and compare it
• Aiding in this protective function are current limiting to the current limit setting and inhibit the current from
power fuses. All SCR systems have fuses on the AC or exceeding that setting;
line side of the bridge. All power fuses have the task of • Accept power limit signal from AC generator control
limiting damage to the SCR and other components in a section.
fault condition.

Figure PW-19: SCR

bridge 3-line diagram.
Throttle Signal consists of the following:

The throttle signal comes from the driller’s console and rep • 600 volt distribution circuit breaker;
resents a desired speed for a drilling load (mud pump strokes • 600 to 480 volt distribution transformer;
per minute or rotary table rpm). By determining when a SCR • 600 (or 480) to 120/208 volt lighting transformer;
turns on in an electrical cycle the output DC voltage can be • Motor control centers;
varied from 0 to 750 volts DC. • Lighting panel;
• Auxiliary feed for other electrical needs (e.g. camp
Braking power).
Braking (Dynamic) 600-480-volt distribution transformer

Braking is necessary to stop the freewheeling drawworks Electric rig power is produced typically at 3 phase, 50 or 60
motor. The braking action is induced by causing the motor hertz, 600 volts AC. Most AC motors of the size required
to act as a generator. To rapidly stop the armature rotation, a on a drilling rig are built to use 3phase, 60 hertz, 480 volt
load resistor is connected across the armature which slows AC. A transformer is used to convert 600 volts to 480 volts
the motor to “cat head speed” (a low speed). At that mo- AC. Other voltages and frequencies may be used in various
ment, the motor is disconnected from the resistor and re- geographical regions.
connected to the SCR.
Motor control center (MCC)
Braking (Regenerative) This 480 volts AC is used to power a motor control center
Instead of connecting the freewheeling drawworks motor to which is a self-contained collection of AC motor starters and
a resistor, it is connected through a reversing contact and breakers all connected internally to a common AC bus.
the SCR bridge to the main 600 volt bus. The armature’s ro-
tational energy is dissipated through other electrical loads The output of each starter is wired to a given AC motor on
on the rig instead of heat in the resistor. the rig. The starters all contain a disconnecting device (elec-
trically operated switch) and an overload relay to protect the
AC Distribution motor against a continuous overload.
There are many AC motors and loads on a rig which require
a means of distributing the power in a safe, efficient manner.
Every rig has some sort of AC distribution which normally

drawworks, mud pumps, top drives, rotary tables, as well as

Lighting and auxiliary panel many electric cranes, piperackers, and other equipment typ-
Most lighting circuits run on 120 volts AC or 208 volts AC ically found on a modern drilling rig.
and, therefore, most rigs have another transformer which is
connected to a lighting circuit breaker panel (just as a house One of the main reasons that VFDs have gained populari-
has) which is connected to the lights on a rig. ty in drilling applications is due to the ruggedness and low
maintenance requirements for the AC induction motor, as
well as its suitability for use in hazardous locations.
VFD power systems
Variable Frequency Drive systems (VFDs) have been utilized There a number of VFD types in use today, however the
on drilling rigs since 1996, where they were first installed on predominant VFD used in drilling applications is known as
the Troll A platform’s top drive. Since then, the number of a voltage source inverter (VSI), whose main characteristic
drilling rigs utilizing VFD systems has steadily increased on is that its DC link has a large amount of capacitance con-
both land and offshore installations. The use of VFDs and nected between the positive and negative DC buses. With
AC induction motors is now widespread, with VFD tech- only a few rare exceptions, low voltage VSIs utilize 6 pulse,
nology outpacing SCR systems, and are used to power the single level IGBT inverter bridges. This is the type of VFD
PULSE WIDTH
3 PHASE INPUT
MODULATED AC
POWER – 600V
CONSTANT DC POWER
60HZ
VOLTAGE 800V- 0V-575V; 0HZ-300HZ
935V
2.1
Inv LL( t )
g LL( t )
− 2.1
0 t 0.04
3 PHASE 3 PHASE
RECTIFIER INVERTER
Figure PW-20: 19: A VFD first converts AC voltage and current to DC, then converst DC back to AC using
a switching scheem known as pulse wideth modulation (PWM). PWM simulates 3-phase AC voltage and
current. This diagram shows the power-conversion process. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Reactors Figure PW-21: The basic

components of a modern VFD.
Rectifier DC Link Inverter
Input: Output:
Fixed voltage, Variable voltage,
fixed frequency variable frequency

commonly used on drilling rigs around the world, and is the

subject of this section.
Theory of operation
A VFD first converts AC voltage and current to DC voltage
and current, then converts DC power back to AC power us-
ing a switching scheme known as Pulse Width Modulation Figure PW-22: Schematic symbols for diode rectifier.
(PWM), which simulates 3 phase AC voltage and current.
There are many methods employed by various VFD man- for the bridge supply. Most rectifiers include line reactors, or
ufacturers to accomplish the conversions, but they all ac- chokes, which are iron core inductors. The line reactors have
complish the fundamental transformation of converting AC multiple purposes, including the reduction of line harmon-
power to DC power, and DC back to a 3 phase power of vary- ics, smoothing the current ripple on the DC link, and reduc-
ing frequency and voltage. This transformation into variable ing the fault current seen by the bridge, DC link, and inverter.
voltage and variable frequency allow, for the precise speed
and torque control of AC induction motors on drilling tools. There are various symbols used to identify the diode bridge,
which is also referred to as a converter in some manufac-
A diagram showing the power conversion process is shown turer’s technical literature. A few common symbols used for
in Figure PW-20. the rectifier bridges are shown in Figure PW-22.
A standard VFD will not typically reproduce a voltage equiv- A typical 6 pulse diode bridge schematic is shown in Figure
alent to the input voltage. Some voltage is dropped across PW-23. A diode bridge may or may not be protected with
the VFD components, input reactors, output cables, and fuses, while nearly all have some temperature monitoring
some voltage is limited by the VFD in the conversion process and protection. In Figure PW-23, the bridge is protected
itself. This is important to consider when selection an induc- with both temperature switches and resistance tempera-
tion motor or evaluating potential performance of a VFD ture detectors (RTDs). RTDs allow continuous temperature
system, as motor’s rated voltage plays an important role monitoring of the bridge and those temperatures may be
with induction motor performance above the base speed. displayed by the supervisory control system. Temperature
switches are normally used to open the circuit breaker feed-
Basic design ing the diode bridge if the heatsink temperature reaches a
The basic components of a modern VFD are shown in Figure preset critical level.
PW-21. There are 6 main components in a VFD system:
• Six-pulse rectifier bridge or converter; Some rectifier bridges also incorporate snubbers, which are
• DC Link; series connected RC circuits in parallel with the diodes. They
• Six-pulse Inverter; are designed to protect the diodes from transient voltages.
• Chopper or DC/DC converter; They have the added advantage in AC drives of suppressing
• AC induction motor; electromagnetic noise produced by the inverter switching,
• Braking resistor. which when conducted into the main voltage supply, may
disrupt rig telecommunications, fire detection, or other sen-
Rectifiers sitive instrumentation.
The rectifier bridge construction of a VFD is very similar, and
in some cases identical to an SCR bridge. However, the de- DC link
vices used to convert AC to DC are diodes rather than SCRs. The DC link of a typical drilling VFD contains a large amount
Diodes do not require control pulses to turn on and are of- of DC bus capacitance, comprised of multiple large electro-
ten referred to as “line-commutated devices.” This means lytic capacitors connected series- parallel. A few smaller
that as long as the bridge is connected to its AC supply, it VFDs may utilize an additional DC link inductor, although
will produce DC power without any external control, making these are not commonly found anymore. The DC link capac-
a diode bridge a passive device. itors are most commonly built into the inverters themselves,
although several VFD manufacturers have separate capaci-
The diode bridge provides a constant DC source of power tor banks which occupy their own cabinet.
to the inverter. Depending on the input voltage, the rectifi-
er will produce between 810VDC for a system with a 600V Whether or not the DC link of the VFD has integrated or
supply, and 932VDC for systems with 690V supplies. Most separate capacitor banks, they all contain resistors which
VFD drilling rigs operate within this range, however there balance the voltage across the capacitors while the drive is
are some offshore drilling systems which utilize up to 720V operating, and serve to discharge the bank when the drive is

shut down. A basic diagram of a common VFD’s DC link is The heart of a DC/DC control system is the voltage regu-
shown in Figure PW-24. lator. It is an electronic module that controls the output of
the generator following commands from the driller’s con-
Inverter sole. There are no other active components in the system.
The electrolytic capacitors found in most VFDs have an av- All other components (i.e., blower starters, transformers,
erage lifetime of 7 to 8 years, and must be replaced. meter, etc.) are passive.
The drilling motor speed and torque is controlled by regulat-

DC/DC power systems ing the generator output. This means each motor that is op-
DC/DC electric drilling rigs have been built in various de- erating must have one generator assigned to it. Usually each
signs for some 40 years. They range from a totally electric generator can be assigned to either of two motors. These
system to several hybrid configurations. The hybrid configu- assignments as well as the speed and torque adjustments
rations generally have a compound which is used to drive the are made from the driller’s console.
mud pumps, one or more DC generators, and sometimes the
drawworks. The drawworks and/or rotary table are electri- Because of the one-on-one assignments described in the
cally driven by a DC drilling motor. The main attractiveness foregoing, the generators are not “pooled” into a common
of such rig power arrangements is the rotary torque control. bus. This means the engines do not have to be operated at
Secondary advantages include reduced maintenance, fewer the same speed. The speed of each drive engine can be var-
chain alignment problems, speed control and improved fuel ied in accordance with the power required. There is no need
efficiency. to parallel or synchronize generators. There are no engine/
generator load sharing adjustments required.
Controls
There are four main components to a DC/DC rig: There are several choices in engine speed controls generally
• DC generators available with DC/DC systems:
• Motors
• Control cabinet • Constant full speed;
• Driller’s console • Constant full speed with automatic idle when not loaded;
• Constant or variable speed as selected by switches on the
On present day DC/DC rigs, the motors and generators are driller’s console.
usually interchangeable (the hubs may have to be changed).
This greatly reduces the required spares. The driller’s con- In the past, fuel savings were made possible with an air op-
sole is a remote command post for the control cabinet. erated governor system, but are now generally done with
Figure PW-23: Typical 6-pulse diode bridge

scematic. A diode bridge might or might not be
protected with fuese, while nearly all have some
temperatures monitoring and protection.

Optional DC link filter inducer + DC bus
Electrolytic Balancing
capacitors resistors
20,000 - 2kΩ -
30,000 μF typical
- DC bus
Figure PW-24: Basic diagram of a typical VFD’s DC link.
electronic governors. This engine speed control is an option Driller’s console

not supplied on all systems and, when supplied, generally The driller’s console is the command post for the DC/DC
can be simply bypassed for operation at a constant engine system. The following are some of the controls and indica-
speed. Variable speed is the recommended mode of oper- tors usually included:
ation, when available, for best fuel consumption and im- • Hand throttle for each function (mud pump, rotary table,
proved engine life. cat head, etc.);
• Foot throttle (drawworks speed control when tripping);
Braking • Assignment switch for each generator;
To brake the drawworks motors down from hoisting speeds • Reversing switches (rotary table and/or drawworks);
(foot throttle) to the cat head speed (hand throttle), DC/ • Ammeters and voltmeters to indicate motor speed and
DC systems brake via regeneration - not dynamic braking. torque;
No resistor grids are required. The motor, which is rotating • Lights to indicate:
due to its own inertia, acts as a generator and drives current • The motor blowers are operating;
back to the generator. The generator acts like a motor and • The ground relay has shut down the system due to a
tries to increase the engine speed. The engine acts like an air ground fault.
compressor and dissipates the energy as heat and friction.
System protection Maintenance

• Generator over-current trip: Open power contactor These maintenance procedures are guidelines to be used
when generator current exceeds the current limit due to by the drilling contractor in his maintenance programs. In
a failure of the control circuit; addition, refer to the manufacturers’ maintenance manuals.
• Ground Relay: Detects the presence of a leakage or
short circuit to ground and stops all operations. In general, electrical equipment requires a minimum amount
Operation can continue with ground relay bypassed of attention to keep it functioning properly. A carefully
until the problem is corrected. (Bypass is normally planned maintenance program by the drilling contractor will
simply done with a selector switch within the control prevent many failures that occur due to neglect and abuse.
cabinet.);
• Circuit Breakers: Used at many points in a control Each rig manager should maintain maintenance records on
system to protect wiring and devices in case of short all equipment and document failures, replacements, repairs,
circuits. The AC circuits feeding the field supply panels or inspections. Name plate information and other special
and blower starters, for example, are protected with data recorded will also aid in ordering and replacing parts.
circuit breakers;
• Enclosure: Because of the low heat generation of the
DC/DC control components, an air conditioned control
house is not usually required. The standard cabinet is
often mounted outside with no additional protection.

Care and caution should be used when inspecting, repairing, recommendations. Inspect for and replace any missing
or replacing electrical equipment. Only authorized persons hardware.
who have been trained in the operation and repair of the •. Check all contactor tips for pitting or wear; replace as
equipment should be allowed to perform these operations necessary.
since shock, death, or equipment damage can occur. • Inspect and clean air conditioning systems on the SCR
house.
It is suggested that warnings be placed on equipment to
alert personnel of the dangers that exist with electrical Repair
equipment. Typical of these signs are the following: All repairs should be performed by competent, trained elec-
tricians or technicians who are familiar with the SCR equip-
Warning ment;
The electrical equipment contains hazardous voltages.
When working on high voltage equipment, ensure that all Those items that can be easily repaired or replaced are in-
power has been removed. Use appropriate lock out tag out cluded in the following list and are considered modules or
procedures. significant components. Repair of printed circuit cards, or
other electronic components, should not be attempted ex-
Caution cept in emergencies.
Do not use sandpaper, emery paper, or other abrasive mate- • Replace fuses;
rials to clean plugs, contactor tips, relay tips, or other elec- • Replace SCR bridges, cells, or assemblies;
trical connections. Use a dry cloth, proper solvents, or pencil • Replace printed circuit cards;
eraser to perform these operations. • Replace control modules, such as AC module, DC
module, voltage regulator governor, reverse power relay
SCR controls or similar assemblies;
CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by • Repair wiring terminations;
trained personnel. Do not touch live electrical parts. • Replace damaged DC contactor tips;
• Replace defective relays;
Daily maintenance • Repair mechanical damage;
1. Inspect exterior surfaces of panels for dirt, grease, oil or • Replace any overheated component and determine
physical damage. cause of problem.
2. Visually inspect interior for dust, dirt, oil, grease, metal,
water, or corrosion. Variable frequency drive (VFD)
3. Inspect all air filters for cleanliness; clean or replace as CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by
necessary. trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical
4. With power off, check for loose hardware in the parts.
equipment, during rig moves or down time.
5. During rig operation, inspect all meters, instruments Daily maintenance
and lamps for faulty operation or damage; replace as • Inspect exterior surfaces of panels for dirt, grease, oil or
necessary. physical damage.
6. Inspect plugs and receptacles for cleanliness, damage • Visually inspect interior for dust, dirt, oil, grease, metal,
or loose connections. water, or corrosion.
7. Inspect printed circuit boards, electronic modules and • Inspect all air filters for cleanliness; clean or replace as
other electrical components for damage or overheating. necessary.
8. Check operation of all controls including assignments, • With power off, check for loose hardware in the
reversing, dynamic braking, operation of mud pumps equipment, during rig moves or down time.
and other functions. • During rig operation, inspect all meters, instruments
and lamps for faulty operation or damage; replace as
Monthly maintenance necessary.
CAUTION: Be sure all power is off before performing any • Inspect plugs and receptacles for cleanliness, damage
procedure. or loose connections.
• Clean each SCR bay monthly to remove dust and dirt by • Inspect printed circuit boards, electronic modules and
using the suction side of a vacuum cleaner. Never blow other electrical components for damage or overheating.
the equipment with forced air to clean it. • Check operation of all controls including assignments,
• Properly tighten all bolts and hardware in the reversing, dynamic braking, operation of mud pumps
equipment according to the manufacturer’s and other functions.

• Verify operation of cooling blowers on dynamic braking equipment, preferably during rig moves or downtime.
resistors. • Check all modules and equipment for overheating or
electrical damage through visual inspection.
Monthly maintenance • Verify operation of all controls, including voltage
CAUTION: Be sure all power is off before performing any regulators, governor paralleling, synchronizing, load
procedure. sharing, and circuit breakers. Check for instability of
voltage or frequency.
• Clean each VFD bay monthly to remove dust and dirt by
using the suction side of a vacuum cleaner. Never blow Monthly maintenance
the equipment with forced air to clean it. CAUTION: Be sure all power is off before performing any
• Properly tighten all bolts and hardware in the procedure.
equipment according to the manufacturer’s
recommendations. Inspect for and replace any missing • Clean each generator control bay monthly with a
hardware. vacuum to remove dirt, dust, and oil particles.
• Check all contactor tips (if equipped) for pitting or • Properly tighten all bolts and hardware in the
wear; replace as necessary. equipment according to the manufacturer’s
• Inspect and clean air conditioning systems on the VFD recommendations. Inspect for and replace any missing
house. hardware.
• Inspect dynamic braking resistors for excessive heating. • Calibrate all meters from a reference source.
Repair
All repairs should be performed by competent, trained elec- Repair
tricians or technicians who are familiar with the VFD equip- All repairs should be performed by competent, trained elec-
ment; tricians or technicians who are familiar with generator con-
trol equipment.
Those items that can be easily repaired or replaced are in-
cluded in the following list and are considered modules or Those items that can be easily repaired or replaced are in-
significant components. Repair of printed circuit cards, or cluded in the following list and are considered modules or
other electronic components, should not be attempted ex- significant components. Repair of printed circuit cards, or
cept in emergencies. other electronic components, should not be attempted ex-
cept in emergencies.
• Replace fuses; • Replace circuit breaker;
• Replace VFD inverter cells and rectifier assemblies; • Replace AC module, DC module, voltage regulator,
• Replace braking chopper assemblies; electronic governor, reverse power relay, over voltage /
• Replace printed circuit cards; under frequency module or other control modules;
• Replace VFD control modules; • Replace defective meters or instruments;
• Repair wiring terminations; • Replace defective voltage or speed control adjusts;
• Replace damaged AC contactor tips; • Repair wiring terminations;
• Replace defective relays; • Replace defective lamps;
• Repair mechanical damage; • Repair mechanical damage;
• Replace any overheated component and determine • Replace any overheated components and determine
cause of problem. cause of problem
AC generator controls
CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by Motor control center (MCC) and switchgear
trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by
parts. trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical
parts.
Daily maintenance
• Inspect exterior surfaces of panels for dirt, grease, oil or Daily maintenance
physical damage. • Inspect exterior surfaces of MCC sections and controls.
• Visually inspect interior for dust, dirt, oil, grease, metal, • Inspect interior of each section for overheating and
water, or corrosion. proper operation of components. Inspect for dust and
• Inspect meters for proper operations. Check for proper other foreign matter.
load balance between paralleled generators. • Check all circuit breakers and disconnect switches for
• With power off, check for loose hardware in the proper operation.

Monthly maintenance Monthly maintenance

CAUTION: Be sure all power is off before performing any CAUTION: Be sure all power is off before performing these
procedure. procedures.
• Clean each MCC cubicle and switchgear bay with a 1. Clean the console and foot throttle monthly with a
vacuum to remove dust and other debris; do not blow vacuum to remove dust, dirt and other debris.
the dust loose with a vacuum. 2. Tighten all loose hardware and replace any missing
• Properly tighten all bolts and hardware in the hardware.
equipment according to the manufacturer’s 3. Inspect all wiring terminators and reconnect as
recommendations. Inspect for and replace any missing required.
hardware. 4. Operate all control functions including throttles,
switches, assignments, and meters to assure proper
• Calibrate all meters and instruments from a reference operation from the driller’s console.
source. 5. Operate the foot throttle in conjunction with the driller’s
console.
• Inspect each overload relay and motor protective
device. Repair
All repairs should be performed by competent electricians
Repair or technicians who are familiar with the operation of this
The following items should be repaired or replaced if found equipment;
defective
• Circuit breakers; The following items can be repaired or replaced in the drill-
• Overload relays; er’s console or foot throttle:
• Contactors;
• Pushbuttons, lamps, controls, switches; • Throttle potentiometers or variable transformers;
• Wiring terminations, connectors, plugs. • Meters or instruments;
• Pushbuttons, switches, or other controls;
Driller’s console and foot throttle • Connectors, wiring terminations, plugs;
• Mechanical components.
Daily maintenance
CAUTION: Be sure all power is off and the area has been Cable and wiring
determined to be gas free before opening and touching any CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by
consoles, electrical terminals, or components. trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical
• Inspect exterior of console for damage to the enclosure parts.
or instrument window.
• Visually inspect exterior of console for damage to Daily maintenance
connectors, throttles, meters, switches, pushbuttons, or 1. Inspect all cable and wiring for mechanical damage.
other components. 2. Inspect all terminations to lugs, connectors, or
• Inspect exterior of foot throttle for damage to pedal or compression devices.
connector. 3. Remove any grease, oil, or chemicals from the wiring
• Inspect air pressure equipment to console and throttle insulation.
to assure positive pressure or flow. 4. Protect any uncovered cables in high traffic areas.
• Inspect interior of console for dust, dirt, or foreign 5. Replace any tie wraps or supports that appear to be
material. defective.
• Inspect interior of console for overheated components 6. Inspect junction boxes for damage and water ingress.
or loose connections. 7. Inspect for signs of arcing at points of connection or
• Check instruments and lamps for operation. where cuts or fraying are detected.
• Operate the throttles and other controls for proper 8. Inspect ground wire connections for all equipment and
operation. skids.
• Operate the foot throttle to verify proper operation.
Monthly maintenance
CAUTION: Be sure all power is off before performing these
procedures.

1. Tighten all lugs and connections to cables.

2. Replace any cut or damaged cable or wiring. Repair
3. Protect any uncovered cables in high traffic areas. • The brake should only be repaired by competent
4. Check all receptacles and plugs. mechanics and electricians who are trained for this
purpose. Only external hardware should be repaired or
Repair replaced on the brake under normal conditions;
All repairs or replacements should be performed by compe- • Replace any electrical cable that becomes damaged or
tent electricians with power turned off; oil soaked;
• Replace the throttle if damaged and assure that the
Repair or replace the following: wiring is replaced correctly;
• Defective or damaged cables • The brake control should be replaced in its entirety and
• Defective or damaged plugs, connectors, or lugs; not repaired at the rig site except in emergencies;
• Overheated connections or cable. • The transformer should be replaced in its entirety if
damaged or faulty.
Electric brake
CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by DC motors and generators
trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by
parts. trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical
parts.
Daily maintenance
1. Inspect cooling water supply to assure that proper Daily Maintenance
volume of water is being supplied to the brake. 1. Inspect the motor for excessive vibration.
2. Inspect the exhaust ports of the brake to assure that 2. Inspect the motor couplings, sprockets, hubs,
free flow of the cooling water is assured with gravity mounting, and other mechanical connections.
flow. 3. Confirm that the cooling blower motor is operating
3. Determine that brake is not overheating during properly.
operation. 4. Inspect the cables for damage or corrosion.
4. Check coupling between brake and drawworks. 5. Confirm that the motor is not overheating during
5. Check mounting bolts to brake frame for tightness. operation.
6. Properly grease and lubricate where needed 6. Inspect the field supplies and measure field current on
7. Inspect cable to junction box of brake. shunt motors.
7. Check bearings for excessive temperature after
Monthly maintenance continuous running.
1. Inspect air gap of brake through inspection ports with 8. Blow out dust and debris with clean, dry air.
feeler gauge to assure concentricity and lack of 9. Check tightness of mounting bolts.
corrosion buildup. Refer to brake manual for proper air
gap distances. Monthly maintenance
2. With power off, check the brake coil resistance to 1. Inspect brushes for proper wear and tension on the
assure continuity of each winding. Also, check for any commutator.
coil grounds by measuring each coil to ground. All 2. Inspect brush holder and mounting hardware
external connections to the brake control should be 3. Inspect commutator for proper surface conditioning.
removed at the junction box for these checks. 4. Check cooling blower for proper operation.
3. With power applied to the brake control, turn the 5. Check mounting of hub or coupling.
control to full on and determine that the full DC voltage 6. If non-sealed bearings, lubricate bearings with proper
is received by the brake. Operate the throttle over the grease per the manufacturer’s recommendation. Do not
full range and determine that the controller output over grease.
voltage is smooth and continuous over the full range of 7. Check insulation resistance of motor windings. Dry out
operation. as necessary.
4. Any controller in a cast aluminum box should be 8. Verify operation of motor space heaters (if equipped).
opened and the cooling/insulating oil replaced with
clean oil. Remove any foreign liquid or matter in the box Repair
before replacing the oil. • Replace brushes and brush springs as required;
5. Other controllers in NEMA type boxes should be kept • Clean commutator according to the motor
clean and free from dust and debris. manufacturer’s recommendations;

• Resurface commutator if evidence of uneven wear or • Remove defective motors from service and replace.
pitting is observed; • Clean and dry out motors and generators if exposed to
• Replace blower if found defective; high humidity or moisture.
• Remove motor/generator from service if bearings or
Transformers
windings are found defective and replace motor/
CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by
generator on rig.
trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical
parts.
AC motors and generators
CAUTION: These procedures should only be performed by Before performing any service on transformers, be sure all
trained maintenance personnel. Do not touch live electrical power is off.
parts.
Transformers usually do not have any moving parts, except
Daily maintenance for occasional cooling fans, and require minimal attention
• Inspect for excessive vibration when running. except for keeping them clean and dry.
• For single bearing generators, assure proper mating
between the diesel engines and AC generators. For Daily maintenance
double bearing generators inspect coupling. 1. Inspect for evidence of overheating.
• Inspect motor couplings and mounting connections. 2. Inspect for external damage to transformer case.
• Inspect wiring to motor and generator. 3. Inspect wiring and cabling to transformer.
• Using dry air only, blow out dust and debris on motor
and generator. Monthly maintenance
• Inspect and verify integrity of all grounding 1. Clean with vacuum or dry compressed air to remove
connections. any moisture or dirt from the transformer.
2. Inspect for any hot spots and insulation damage on the
Monthly maintenance transformer coils.
1. Inspect motors and wiring for evidence of overheating 3. Inspect transformer connections and lugs for tightness
or damage. and signs of overheating.
2. Inspect all mounting and coupling hardware. 4. Check insulation resistance with all external leads
3. Inspect all wiring connections. disconnected.
5. Check all winding continuity with leads disconnected.
Repair Repair:
Caution: All repairs should be performed by competent me- • Replace any lugs or connections to transformer that
chanics and electricians who are trained for this purpose. become defective.
• Replace diodes on rotary exciter with exact • Replace the transformer if found defective.
replacements if required for generator.

REFERENCES
1. The Electric Drilling Rig Handbook, by Will L. McNair; 5. Electrical Design Considerations for Drilling Rigs, Frank
PennWell Publishing Company, Tulsa, OK. 1980. A. Woodbury and Paul J. Thomas, a paper presented to
IEEE Industry Applications Society, 1975 Milwaukee,
2. Economic Operation of Electric Drilling Rigs, paper WI.
presented by Will L. McNair at the 1980 IADC Drilling
Technology Conference in Dallas, Texas. Reproduced in 6. Self-Study Technical Series for Rig Electricians, Electric
World Oil Magazine in June 1980 and in Oil & Gas Drilling Systems, Houston, Texas.
Journal on April 7, 1980.
7. A Comparison of Mechanical and Electrical Drives for
3. Fuel Economy - A Ten Year Projection for The Drilling Land Drilling Rigs, by Glen Webb, presented at the 1977
Industry, by Will L. McNair and Roger D. Morefield, IADC Drilling Technology Conference, March 1977.
Drilling -- DCW Magazine, August 1980.
4. A Systems Approach to Electric Land Rigs, by William

M. Stone, presented at 1979 IADC Technology
Conference, March 1979, Denver, Colorado.

PM
PUMPS

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
PUMPS PM–i
CHAPTER
PM
PUMPS
PRINCIPAL AUTHOR
Robert Urbanowski, Precision Drilling Oilfield Services Corp.
REVIEWERS
Gary Henderson, National Oilwell Varco
Ken Kondo, National Oilwell Varco
Andrew Roskey, American Block

PM–ii PUMPS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-3-1

PUMPS Contents PM-iii
CHAPTER PM
PUMPS
Contents
Introduction.................................................................... PM-1 Mud pumps....................................................PM-9
Description/basic theory........................................... PM-1 Centrifugal pumps.......................................PM-10
Purpose...................................................................... PM-1 Environmental considerations: temperatures,
Mud pumps.................................................... PM-1 pressures, rock type, drilling fluid...................PM-11
Centrifugal pumps........................................ PM-1 Mud pumps...........................................PM-11
Physical operating principles.............................. PM-1 Centrifugal pumps..............................PM-11
Mud pumps.................................................... PM-1 Specialized situations..........................................PM-12
Centrifugal pumps........................................PM-2 Mud pumps...........................................PM-12
Important for what and to whom?................... PM-2 Centrifugal pumps..............................PM-12
Mud pumps....................................................PM-2 Evaluation, testing, and inspection
Centrifugal pumps........................................PM-2 Procedures..............................................................PM-12
Common dimensions, weight and Mud pumps...........................................PM-12
Capacity....................................................................PM-3 Centrifugal pumps..............................PM-12
Mud pumps....................................................PM-3 Troubleshooting or failures................................PM-12
Standard location on a rig site Centrifugal pumps..............................PM-14
(for stationary equipment).................................PM-3 General maintenance.................................................PM-15
Mud pumps....................................................PM-3 Repairs.....................................................................PM-15
Installation................................................................PM-4 Centrifugal pumps..............................PM-15
Mud pumps....................................................PM-4 Lubrication..............................................................PM-15
Safety and handling......................................................PM-6 Centrifugal pumps..............................PM-16
Mud pumps....................................................PM-6 Proper storage considerations.........................PM-17
Centrifugal pumps........................................ PM-7 Mud pumps...........................................PM-17
Operational risks (failure mode/operational risks/ Centrifugal pumps..............................PM-17
mitigation)................................................................PM-8 Advanced theory & important calculations........PM-18
Mud pumps....................................................pm-8 Mud pumps............................................................PM-18
Centrifugal pumps........................................PM-8 Centrifugal pumps................................................PM-19
Uses and operations/application.............................PM-9 Glossary........................................................................ PM-20
Operating procedures and best practices/ References: evaluation, testing, inspection.......... PM-21
process/handling for operations.......................PM-9 Additional references................................................. PM-21

IADC Technical
Resources

contracts and more.
position on a rig.
newsletter.
PUMPS Contents PM-1
Introduction that fluid entering the casing in a central inlet is accelerat-

ed by the spinning impeller to a much higher velocity. The
This section covers high-pressure mud pumps and centrif-
circular shape of the casing causes the high-velocity fluid to
ugal pumps. Pumps consist of a power end and a fluid end.
flow in a circular path toward an outlet. The rotational ener-
The mud pump is the heart of a rig’s circulating system (Fig- gy fed into the impeller is converted to hydrodynamic ener-
ure PM-1). Normally, a mud pump is a large reciprocating gy of the fluid flow. A centrifugal pump’s purpose, as part of
pump used to circulate drilling fluid through the high-pres- a system, is to provide sufficient flow rate and pressure to
sure mud system while drilling. However, mud pumps may move fluid through a piping system.
also be used as riser booster pumps, where additional clean
drilling mud is pumped into the riser annulus of an offshore Physical operating principles
rig to assist in bringing cuttings to the surface. Mud pumps
are available in a number of sizes, with a variety of prime mov- Mud pumps
er configurations. Additional mud pumps may be installed Mud pumps have a power input end (gear end) and a flu-
on a well-servicing or drilling rig for redundancy. Although id output end. Power is fed in the gear end of a mud pump
triplex pumps, featuring three cylinders, have become more from engines, electrical motors or hydraulic motors to turn
common than the two-cylinder du-
plex pumps, some mud pumps have
four or more cylinders.
Rotary Hose
Centrifugal pumps can be used for Standpipe
a variety of purposes for moving a Top Drive
number of fluids. Selection of the best
centrifugal pump depends on the ser-
vice requirements (erosion, corrosion,
etc.), application, piping size, pipe
Mud Pump
length, fittings, valves, lift required,
fluid properties and pressure require-
ments. Not including the drive and
control systems, options for centrifu- Kelly (or Drill Pipe
gal pumps include pump size, impeller if Top Drive used)
Pump Discharge Line
diameter, impeller material, impeller
shape, pump speed, prime mover
speed and prime mover power. Proper
installation and maintenance are key
Mud Cleaning
to suitable pump life.
Equipment /
Shale Shaker
Drill Pipe
Description/basic theory
Purpose Annulus
Mud pumps Mud Return

Mud pumps are devices that use me- Line
chanical energy to move fluid from Mud Tank/Pit
one location to another. Mud pumps
can be driven by engines, electrical Borehole
motors (DC or AC), through transmis-
sions or by hydraulic motors. Drill Bit
Centrifugal pumps
A centrifugal pump is a machine with
an impeller in a casing arranged so
Figure PM-1: The mud pump is the heart of a rig’s circulating
system. © IADC. All rights reserved

PM–2 PUMPS
does not. This is the main reason pump curves

use total head in ft. If pressure were used, the
curves would constantly have to change every
time the density changed.
Important for what and to whom?

Mud pumps
Some examples of mud pump uses are as fol-
lows:
• Circulate completion fluid down a well
during completion;
Figure PM-2: Two 1,600-hp triplex pumps, land rig. Courtesy of Precision Drilling • Circulate drilling fluids down and up a
well during drilling;
• Pump cement down a well when setting
the pump crankshaft. The pinion shaft may be directly con- a steel pipe (casing) string or a drilling liner;
nected to the prime mover through chains, belts, gear boxes • Provide a controlled and precise level of pressure
or transmissions. and flow rate during well control operations
The power end of a mud pump is essentially a speed reducer Mud pumps on a drilling rig provide hydraulic horsepower
coupled to a slider crank mechanism used to translate the and/or impact force to the drill bit to improve drilling effi-
rotating motion of the power source to the reciprocating pis- ciency. Some examples of drilling fluid functions provided by
ton action required for pumping fluids. the mud pumps are as follows:
Fluid enters the mud pump through suction piping into the • Remove rock cuttings from the wellbore;
fluid end of the pump through suction valves. As the piston • Exert hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore to control
compresses against the lower-pressure inlet fluid, it exits a fluid influxes from the formations;
discharge valve at a higher pressure. • Cool and lubricate the drillstring and bit;
• Keep the wellbore open until steel pipe (casing)
Mud pumps can lose efficiency both mechanically (for ex- string can be cemented in the wellbore;
ample, lost power to turn the pump’s power end) or volu- • Prevent damage to the formation that might hinder
metrically (for example, discharge valve not functioning production of reservoir fluids
perfectly).
Mud pumps can consume a large amount of the horsepower
Centrifugal pumps available to power a drilling rig. It is important to keep mud
When the inlet fluid into a centrifugal pump leaves the im- pumps well maintained in order to minimize rig downtime.
peller at a higher velocity, the circular casing causes the fluid A failed mud pump can also cause an unplanned release of
to flow in a circular path. The fluid pushes against the wall pumped fluids that might create an environmental concern.
of the pumps casing, which creates a pressure head. This
pressure head allows the fluid to exit the tangential outlet Centrifugal pumps
of the centrifugal pump. The faster the impeller spins or the Some examples of centrifugal pumps uses are as follows:
bigger the impeller is, the higher the fluid velocity leaving • Move water through a rig’s water piping system;
the impeller. • Provide cooling water for a water cooled drawworks
brake (drum brake cooling, plate-style disc brake
Centrifugal pumps are “constant head” machines. If the dis- cooling, eddy-current auxiliary brake cooling);
charge of a centrifugal pump were pointed vertically into the • Deliver working fluid for a water auxiliary brake;
air, the fluid would pump to a certain height or head. Head is • Transport pressurized (supercharged) mud to the
a measurement of the kinetic energy the pump adds to the inlet of a mud pump for positive suction to improve
fluid being pumped. It is important to note centrifugal pumps pump performance;
pump different density fluids to the same height if the pump • Move mud through mud lines to transfer mud;
shaft is turning the same impeller at the same speed (RPM). • Run pit nozzles and/or mud guns for stirring drilling
Pressure (resistance to flow) changes with different density fluid;
(specific gravity) fluids, but head from the centrifugal pump

PUMPS PM–3
• Move mud through the jet to draw the

mud out of a vacuum degasser;
• Feed drilling mud into hydrocyclones to
clean the mud in the cones of a
desander, desilter or mud cleaner;
• Move mud through the mixing nozzle of
a hopper to mix dry or wet materials in a
fluid;
• Pump mud from a trip tank into a
wellbore to provide an accurate
measurement of fluid being swabbed or
lost into a well during a trip.
Centrifugal pump efficiency can vary great-

ly depending on selection of pump size, pump
speed, impeller diameter and size of pump driv-
er. Whenever possible, the lowest pump speed Figure PM-3: Electric in-line centrifugal pumps on trip tank.
should be selected to minimize wear on rotating Courtesy of Precision Drilling
components. If the application requirements
vary, a belt-driven pump can be used to vary pump speed mud pump can weigh 35,000 lb for the bare pump with di-
through the use of different-sized pulleys (or sheaves). mensions 15-ft long x 5-½-ft high x 8-½-ft wide. A 2,200-hp
triplex mud pump can weigh 85,000 lb for the bare pump
Some centrifugal pumps have specialized impellers and cas- with dimensions 19-ft long x 7-½-ft high x 10-½-ft wide. A
ings to shear either drilling mud additive products for better 3,000-hp triplex mud pump can weigh 105,000 lb for the
mixing or drilled solids for cuttings injection downhole (for bare pump with dimensions 20-½-ft long x 6-½-ft high x 10-
example, behind an intermediate steel pipe [casing] string). ½-ft wide. At the 3,000-hp size, a mud pump becomes an
offshore pump, since it is too large to easily move on land
rigs. The output pressure rating of a mud pump can also in-
Common dimensions, weight and capacity crease the weight.
Mud pumps Centrifugal pumps

Mud pump sizes can vary greatly depending on the unitized Centrifugal pump sizes and weights vary greatly. A 3x3 cen-
installation of the equipment and application needs. Using trifugal pump weighs 500 lb without any motor/drive includ-
larger pumps on a land drilling rig might minimize the num- ed and is 3-ft long x 2-ft high x 2-ft wide. An 8x6 centrifugal
ber of loads but create transportation permitting issues and pump weighs 700 lb without any motor/drive included and
regulations compliance issues as a result of weight and over- is 3-ft long x 2-½-ft high x 2-½-ft wide. A 10x8x14 centrif-
all physical dimensions. ugal pump weighs 750 lb without any motor/drive included
and is 3-ft long x 2-½-ft high x 2-½-ft wide. The weight and
Well servicing pumps might vary from 2-½-hp simplex dimensions of the driver can vary greatly depending on the
plunger pump with just the pump weighing approximately application.
220 lb. A slightly larger 300-hp quintuplex plunger pump
can weigh 7,000 lb for just the bare pump (pump less driv- Standard location on a rig site (for
er). An intermittent-duty 2,500-hp triplex plunger pump
can weigh 12,500 lb for just the bare pump at 8-ft long x 4-ft stationary equipment)
high x 6-ft wide. Well-servicing pumps are built as highly
portable. A unitized pump used for hydraulic fracturing can Mud pumps
fit on a single truck trailer with a 2,500-brake hp diesel en- Mud pumps on well servicing rigs can vary widely depending
gine, multiple-speed transmission and 2,500-hp quintuplex on the requirements of the workover or completion applica-
plunger pump at 45-ft long x 12-½-ft high x 8-½-ft wide. tion. In general, like drilling rigs, the pumps are generally lo-
cated either unitized or in close proximity to steel tanks that
Mud pump sizes for drilling rigs vary greatly. A 425-hp hold the fluids being pumped. Mud pumps operate more ef-
triplex pump including multiple-speed transmission, 5x4 ficiently with a shorter suction. Barge rigs and offshore rigs
centrifugal super-charging pump and 425-brake hp diesel also tend to position pumps close to mud tanks.
engine can fit on a single oilfield skid. A 1,000-hp triplex

PM–4 PUMPS
Figure PM-4 : Suction piping to triplex pumps on land rig. In placing mud pumps, consider the need to change out pump modules, discharge
dampeners, engines and electrical motors. A removable roof section might be added if a mud pump is enclosed. Distances to install
high-pressure piping as well as minimizing electrical cable length runs are also considerations, as above. Courtesy Precision Drilling.
On land rigs, considerations for changing out pump mod- lows the piston on the suction stroke without any voids or
ules, discharge dampeners, engines and electrical motors airspace forming between the slug of fluid and the piston.
should be considered. One might have a removable roof sec- If airspace forms in this area, a knock occurs when the fluid
tion added if a mud pump is enclosed. Distances to install contacts the piston at the end of the piston stroke. Besides
high-pressure piping as well as minimizing electrical cable reducing the efficiency of the pump, knocking reduces the
length runs can be considerations for where to locate mud service life of expendable pump parts and could be detri-
pumps on a rig layout. Vibrator hoses are usually installed in mental to the power end of the mud pump. When designing
the discharge piping from a mud pump to allow for misalign- suction piping, it is best to have an upward slope toward the
ment and vibrations. centrifugal pump suction inlet to prevent trapping of air or
gas.
Centrifugal pumps
In general, centrifugal pumps are installed close to the Mud pumps require a boost in suction pressure to meet their
source fluid to be pumped for a shorter suction. Centrifu- net-positive suction head requirements. This pressure boost
gal pumps are normally installed below the fluid level to be is normally supplied by a centrifugal pump placed in the
pumped to eliminate the need for priming the pump. With suction line. The primary purpose of the pre-charging cen-
the need to move fluids from various positions throughout trifugal pump is to keep the mud pump from being starved
a drilling rig, standard locations vary. Centrifugal pump in- by maintaining a positive pressure in the suction line. Many
stallations can include mud systems, water systems, fuel benefits may result from the addition of a centrifugal super-
systems, fire pumps and cooling systems charging pump:
• Higher pump output;

Installation • Increased volumetric efficiency;
• Less expensive hydraulic horsepower;
Mud pumps • Smoother operation;
Particular attention should be paid to the construction of the • Longer pump parts life.
suction line (and the pit or tank fluid level) in relation to that
of the mud pump. Proper installation and operation of the It is good practice to use suction strainers, but they are a
mud pump requires the minimum net-positive suction head potential source of trouble and should be kept clean at all
requirements at the pump suction flange be met. Sufficient times. A restriction in the suction strainer can cause knock-
net-positive suction head ensures that the drilling fluid fol- ing in the pump.

PUMPS PM–5
Pulsation dampeners in mud pump suction and discharge

lines serve to absorb the pressure-flow variations normally
produced by the reciprocating motion of the pump pistons.
If dampeners are not properly maintained and operated, the
pressure-flow variations can produce damaging effects to
piping and mud pump components.
A high-pressure relief valve must be installed in the dis-

charge line as close to the mud pump as possible. Its pur-
pose is primarily to protect the pump and discharge line
against extreme pressures such as might occur when a bit
becomes plugged or a mud pump starts against a closed
discharge line valve. The relief valve should be used to limit
the pressure in accordance with the pump manufacturer’s
rating for a given liner size. Usually, relief valves are set to
exceed rated liner pressure by some given amount (i.e., no
more than 10%). Ensure the high-pressure discharge relief
valve is installed ahead of any valves so that accidentally
starting a pump against a closed valve does not damage the
mud pump. Any high-pressure relief valve must be installed
before the discharge strainer in the discharge line. A plugged
discharge strainer might keep the relief valve from actual
discharge pressure levels at the outlet of the mud pump.
Centrifugal pumps Figure PM-5: Electric vertical centrifugal pump on mud tank.
Centrifugal pumps should be installed below the fluid level Pipe fittings for centrifugal pumps should not be installed less
to be pumped. A flooded suction helps to prevent cavitation. than two pipe diameters from the suction inlet to the pump. The
Installation of suction lines should avoid allowing air to enter diameter of the suction piping should be small enough to allow a
linear flow rate of at least 4 ft/sec. Courtesy Precision Drilling.
the suction. Such air can also be introduced by a return line
dumping close to the suction line to the centrifugal pump.
Multiple centrifugal pumps should not share the same suc-
tion if they are to be run at the same time. A vortex breaker
can help avoid air flowing into the suction. A concentric re-
ducer should not be used in the suction line. An eccentric
reducer with a flat side on top helps avoid air entering the
centrifugal pump.
Pipe fittings should not be installed within a distance that is

equal to or shorter than two pipe diameters from the suction
inlet to the pump. The diameter of the suction piping should
be small enough to allow a minimum of 4 ft/sec linear flow
rate. Suction piping for water might be larger if the suction
line is installed over a long distance. At slower speeds, solids
can settle out and clog the suction piping.
Discharge piping can be sized for a minimum of ten ft/sec

linear flow rate. Too small a discharge piping can limit the
flow rate delivered. Too large a discharge piping can overload
Figure PM-6:In-line centrifugal pump. Centrifugal pumps
the motor.
should be installed below the level of the fluid to be pumped.
Flooded suction helps to prevent cavitation. Installation
A flexible coupling should be installed between electric mo- of suction lines should avoid allowing air to enter the
tors and inline centrifugal pumps. The flexible coupling be- suction. Air can also be introduced by a return line dumping
close to the suction line. Courtesy Precision Drilling.
tween the motor and centrifugal pump should not be used

PM–6 PUMPS
to correct misalignment of the motor shaft and pump shaft. Table PM-1: Cross-reference to part numbers
A flexible coupling should also be installed in the discharge in Figures PM-8 & PM-9
piping of a centrifugal pump. These couplings can absorb vi- 1: Cylinder Head 17: Packing
brations that can damage the centrifugal pump. Discharge 2: Cylinder Head cover 18: Gland
and suction piping should be supported by pipe support 3: Liner Packing Adjustment 19: Gland Nut
rather than the centrifugal pump.
4: Cylinder Head Packing 20: Piston Rod
5: Liner Cage 21: Valve Cover
Valves in the suction piping and discharge piping may be re-
6: Liner 22: Valve Cover Plate
quired to allow removal of the centrifugal pump for servicing
and replacement. 7: Tell-tale Hole 23: Valve Cover Packing
8: Liner Packing Cage 24: Valve Pot
9: Liner Packing 25: Valve Seat Deck
Safety and handling 10: Lantern Ring 26: Valve Guide
11: Liner Pulling Threads 27: Valve Spring
Mud pumps 12: Piston 28: Valve
Any time maintenance work is performed on a bladder-style 13: Fluid Cylinder 29: Valve Seat
pulsation dampener of a mud pump, the precharge on the 14: Rear Liner Cage 30: Liner Retention Arrangement
dampener must be completely bled off. Component damage 15: Stuffing Box 31: Liner Seal Plate
and personal injury could result if a dampener is disassem-
16: Junk Ring 32: Cylinder Head Adjustment
bled while still pressurized.
possible severe damage to the pump. It is important, there-
Valve seats on mud pumps should be pulled with appropri- fore, that replacement parts be installed properly. Most
ate pullers rather than torch cutting. Torch cutting can dam- manufacturers of pumps or pump parts publish recom-
age discharge modules. mended procedures for installing parts, and these instruc-
tions should be followed closely.
Mud pumps, despite their extreme size, are actually very
precisely engineered pieces of equipment, manufactured The moving parts of the fluid end of a mud pump should
to very close tolerances and fits. If good procedures are not have a cover or guard installed to protect personnel from
followed and replacement parts are installed carelessly, you moving parts.
will most likely have shortened service life of these parts and
Never hammer on mud pump parts that are under pres-
sure. Never tighten liner packing while the pump is under
pressure. Always bleed off the pressure first. Shut down
and disengage the power source before working on a mud
pump.
Liners should never be struck directly with a hammer,

since dents can damage the sleeve and/or plating materi-
al. Always use a piece of wood to absorb some shock from
the hammer.
Mud pump components can be extremely heavy. Always

ensure personnel stay a safe distance from parts being
lifted.
Hydraulic (fast-change) systems can simplify and expe-

dite removal and installation of piston rods, liner retain-
ers, valve covers and discharge strainer covers. Hydraulic
and pneumatic wrenches can also be used to loosen and
tighten bolted connections. These systems can be faster
and safer than swinging a sledgehammer.
Figure PM-7: Fluid end triplex pump in winterized building. The moving
parts of the fluid end should have a cover or guard installed to protect High-pressure mud pumps must never be operated at
personnel from moving parts. Courtesy Precision Drilling. speeds, pressures or hp exceeding the limitations speci-

PUMPS PM–7
23 26 26
25 24 26
21
28 27 22
25 24 23
9 30
30
4 6 4
4
12
2
26 1
9
1 20
1
6
28 27
28
15
J1-6
Figure PM-8: Two types of single-acting mud pumps with over and Figure J1-6: Single-Acting Mud Pump with Over & Under Valves – Front Loading
under valves, front loading. Part numbers are listed in Table PM-1.
fied by the manufacturer on the rating plate (i.e., data plate). Ensure centrifugal pumps have been locked out (isolated
Do not paint over the rating plate—it contains critically im- from energy sources) and tagged out (marked “Danger/Do
portant information. Not Operate”) before any maintenance or repairs are per-
formed. Adjustments should not be made when a centrifu-
Use caution when tightening or loosening hammer lug con- gal pump is running.
nections and valve covers. Always wear proper personal
protective equipment (safety shoes, safety goggles, impact Competent personnel and/or qualified electricians should
resistant gloves, etc.). be the only ones working on electrical systems.
Bladder-style discharge dampeners and suction dampeners A pump that is hot should never be worked on until it has
should only be pre-charged with nitrogen. Never pre-charge cooled off.
these systems with air.
Centrifugal pumps should have all guards and hardware
Ensure that any manual pump rotating devices have been installed when starting up. Water in a centrifugal pump
removed before starting running against a closed
the mud pump. discharge valve can boil
quickly.
Centrifugal pumps
The moving parts of a cen- Ensure any suction valves
trifugal pump should be are open and a discharge
covered or guards installed valve is at least partial-
to protect personnel from ly open before starting a
moving parts. Do not at- centrifugal pump. Do not
tempt to remove guards operate a centrifugal pump
or covers when a pump is with the suction valve or
running. discharge valve closed.
Inadequate lubrication or
excessive lubrication can
damage bearings.
Figure PM-9: A typical single-acting mud pumps with “I” head
back loading. Part numbers are listed in Table PM-1.

PM–8 PUMPS
26 21
27 22
23
28
29 24
25
19
18
20
24
19
12 6 13 24 24
5 7 9
4 1 10
Figure PM-10: Fluid end of typical duplex double-acting mud pump. See Table PM-1 for part numbers.
Operational risks (failure mode/mitigation) Double-acting (i.e., duplex) mud pump piston rods must
Mud pumps be replaced periodically because they wear on the outer
When oil is used in drilling fluid, proper valve and piston ma- diameter (OD) as the rod strokes through the rod packing.
terials should be selected that are oil-tolerant to provide an The pump rods are designed to be wear-resistant in this
acceptable length of operating life. Contact the manufactur- area, and manufacturers generally offer both a standard
er for their recommendations based on fluids in use. grade and premium grade of rod. Most of the high-pres-
sure rods on high-hp duplex pumps require both corro-
As the piston fails in a mud pump, there is high-velocity fluid J1-7
sion- and abrasion-resistant coatings for heavy-duty appli-
slipping between the piston flange and liner bore. When a cations. A premium-grade rod should be used, which may
failed piston is allowed to run, this jetting fluid causes wash- have a chrome-plated coating over case-hardened steel
out damage to the piston flange and liner bore. The cost of or a sprayed and fused layer of hard metal such as nick-
a piston is small compared to the cost of a liner, so every ef- el-chrome-boron. The nickel-chrome-boron coating is more
fort should be made for early detection and replacement of abrasion- and corrosion-resistant than chrome plating and
piston failures to prevent extensive damage to the liner bore. generally should last longer. As the rod wears, the high pol-
ish and absence of corrosion pitting tends to reduce pack-
Piston rubbers tend to wear rapidly in single action pumps ing wear. The standard metal pump rods are not coated but
if the piston and liner are not flushed adequately with cool- are heat-treated to be as hard as the costlier premium rods.
ant. The amount normally ranges from 5 to 10 gal/min per Although the standard rods lack the corrosion and wear
liner, but it is best to refer to the manufacturer’s recommen- resistance that premium rods exhibit, they should provide
dations in order to keep the liner cool and flush any piston satisfactory service in lower-pressure non-corrosive envi-
leakage from the liner. A method of cooling is to direct a ronments.
spray into each pump liner. Care must be taken to get com-
plete coverage with this technique or liner walls may not be Centrifugal pumps
completely flushed. Dirty coolant increases piston and liner Packing life in centrifugal pumps is reduced at higher shaft
wear. Several different arrangements are in use to accom- speeds. One more important point in pump selection is
plish proper flushing and cooling. The arrangement should to pick the pump that does the required job at the lowest
allow complete flushing of the entire stroked area in the speed. Belt-driven centrifugal pumps with multiple sheaves
liner and should increase the service life of both the piston can allow speed changes for changing operations as well as
assembly and the liner. Proper cooling becomes more criti- selection of a less costly electrical motor—based on motor
cal as pump speed and drilling fluid temperatures increase. speed—to drive the pump.
Effective coolant lubricants fluids include cool, clean, fresh
water; a mixture of soluble oil and water; and a mixture of Misalignment between electric motor (driver) and pump
water plus detergent. can cause premature bearing failure. Pumps should always

PUMPS PM–9
107 115 114
101 106
Figure PM-11: Section through power end of mud pump. See Table PM-2 for part numbers.
be aligned properly before starting during initial instal-

Table PM-2: Power End Parts Numbers for Mud Pumps
lation, when changing out pump and when changing out
electric motor. 101: Frame 108: Crosshead Pin*
102: Crankshaft 109: Connecting Rod Bearing*
An electric motor driving a centrifugal pump should be 103: Main Gear 110: Crankshaft Bearing (Main)*
selected to handle the maximum amount of flow rate that 104: Pinion 111: Crankshaft Bearing Housing*
the impeller can handle. Such an electrical motor is large 105: Pinion Shaft 112: Pinion Shaft Bearing*
enough to use the pump at any flow rate without overload. 106: Connecting Rod* 113: Crosshead Pin Bearing*
107: Crosshead* 114: Crosshead Extension Rod (Pony)*
115: Crosshead Extension Rod Wiper*
Uses and operations/application * For triplex pump, the exact location of these
Operating procedures and best practices/ parts is designated as right, left, or center.
FIGURE J1-9. Sectional through power end. See Table J1-1.
process/handling for operations
J1-9
Mud pumps
In an effort to reduce mud pump downtime, some drilling
contractors keep an extra piston and rod assembly ready for
immediate installation. Care should be taken never to store
a piston and rod assembly with the piston lying on the floor.
This could cause a flat spot on the piston rubber, resulting in
premature failure. Purpose-built fixtures for tightening pis-
tons on rods can improve maintenance efficiency.
Mud pump parts can be heavy and difficult to handle. Instal-
lation of trolleys and hoists can facilitate safe and efficient
maintenance of mud pumps.
Consideration of rig equipment layout should include how
to access and change out mud pump modules. This might
include:
• Forklift access path to the front end of a mud pump Figure PM-12: Section through crankshaft.
on a land rig; See Table PM-2 for part numbers.

PM–10 PUMPS
Figure PM-13: Triplex pump module. Courtesy of Precision Drilling.
• Hatch on top of a building over modules for crane

access on a land rig;
• Trolley and hoist of sufficient capacity on an
offshore rig installation.
Never install old valves in a new seat or new valves in a worn

seat (Figure PM-14). Remember, when installing new valves
in the pump; always use new springs to ensure long trou-
ble-free service from valves and seats. Otherwise, check
springs for signs of corrosion, loss of tension, physical abuse
or wear. Do not use worn pistons in new liners or new pis-
tons in worn-out liners. Proper lift with adequate guiding
and correct springs are necessary for optimum valve life and
performance.
On recirculating type liner coolant systems, a piston fail-

ure can contaminate the coolant with drilling fluid. The rod
chambers and coolant pump should be thoroughly cleaned Figure PM-14: Worn valve in new seat, and new valve
after each piston failure, and the sump filled with fresh cool- in worn seat. Courtesy of Precision Drilling.
ant.
wrong size or the wrong design for its service can very like-
At every routine oil change for a mud pump, the adjustment ly fail prematurely. Requesting assistance in selecting the
of troughs and wiper arms on splash-gravity flow system proper centrifugal pump from a knowledgeable centrifugal
lubrication systems should be checked and the fasteners pump expert early in a design or project can save operation-
which retain these members in position should be checked al downtime.
for the correct tightness.
Packing problems are usually caused by difficulty in main-
Self-aligning rods can help with some misalignment, but will taining proper lubrication between the shaft and packing.
not correct severe misalignment The shaft and packing must be lubricated to prevent shaft
scoring and wear as well as packing wear. The most common
Centrifugal pumps method for lubricating packing is to allow leakage. The most
A centrifugal pump that has been carefully selected for its common cause of packing difficulties comes from prevent-
application shows less wear and that wear is uniform, thus ing this kind of lubrication by over-tightening. Tight packing
affecting performance less adversely. A pump that is the causes excessive heat that wears the shaft and packing. As

PUMPS PM–11
a result, the shaft is scored, and packing must

be replaced frequently. Therefore, it is virtual-
ly impossible to maintain reasonable packing
life or seal against a rough or damaged shaft.
When repacking the stuffing box on a centrif-

ugal, first make sure the box is clean and all
old packing is removed. It is important to use a
good quality, clean packing.
Mechanical imbalance and misalignment pro-

duces excessive loads on the centrifugal pump
because of improper (poor) piping foundation
and improper installation. Solids that ball up
and plug the impeller cause a mechanical im-
balance and corresponding vibration loads
that are damaging. Such imbalances can re-
duce or affect bearing life. Always check align-
ment when installing a new centrifugal pump
with a dial indicator or straight edge. Align-
ment can be adjusted with spacer shims un-
der equipment feet. Use shims large enough
Figure PM-15: Triplex pump with modules removed. Courtesy of Precision Drilling.
for the entire footing of the equipment. Do not
rely on the flexible coupling as a remedy for
misalignment. Urethane pistons that have failed due to excessive heat have
the appearance of a melted candle. Urethane pistons that
Always check the rotation of a newly installed centrifugal have failed due to abrasion have a rough surface with longi-
pump to ensure the electrical motor has been wired prop- tudinal streaks and loss of material.
erly.
Cold-weather operations may require less viscous extreme
If a motor driving a centrifugal pump does not start and the pressure, non-corrosive, anti-foaming gear lubricant.
pump can rotate freely by hand, it is an electrical problem
with the motor. Centrifugal pumps
Piping systems and centrifugal pumps can freeze in cold
Environmental considerations: weather, especially if fluids are not moving. It may be neces-
sary to drain or blow piping down with air before it freezes in
temperatures, pressures, rock type, drilling extreme cold. Drain locations should be installed in the low-
fluid est piping positions, with piping slanting to such locations.
Pumping systems can also be installed in heated areas.
Mud pumps
Drilling in areas with sour gas (hydrogen sulfide) can lead The pump manufacturer should be contacted when select-
to sulfide stress cracking of mud pump components unless ing a pump for pumping high-abrasive fluids, corrosive fluids
drilling fluid in use includes oil in the continuous phase, pH and different types of fluids.
of drilling fluid is 10 or higher, and/or chemical sulfide scav-
engers are used in the drilling fluid system. Specialized situations
Options for valve types, valve materials and piston materials Mud pumps
may exist for applications with higher temperature, abrasive Make sure a mud pump is completely primed before start-
fluids, corrosive fluids, different fluid types (oil, synthetic ing against pressure. Always start a mud pump slowly when
oil, high pH, low pH, etc.) and higher pressures. Contact the bringing up to operating speed.
pump manufacturer or parts manufacturer for guidance in
proper selections for your application.

PM–12 PUMPS
Low-speed operation of mud pumps might jeopardize prop- phragm of dampeners can also fail and should periodically
er lubrication, unless the pump has a separate lubrication be visually inspected. Fluid pressure pulsations in the dis-
system (such as an external electric motor-driven gear charge line can shorten the life of the discharge piping and
pump-type system). the rotary hose (Figure PM-16).
Centrifugal pumps Streaking in liner bore or piston rubbers is generally caused

Make sure a centrifugal pump is completely primed and has by excessive sand or other abrasive or foreign materials in
and has adequate positive suction provided before starting. the drilling fluid. Keep drilling fluids as clean as possible, and
inspect the liners frequently when the pump is shut down.
Evaluation, testing, and inspection procedures

Mud pumps
Mud pumps should be inspected when in operation for ex-
cessive knocking or leaks.
Check the power end of mud pumps daily to ensure proper

oil level exists. The oil in the crank case of a chain-driven
pump should also be checked daily.
Any pump that has been in storage or was shipped from

the manufacturer needs an inspection to ensure all parts
are properly in place. This inspection should also ensure no
damage occurred during transportation
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps should be inspected when in operation
for abnormal noise or leaks and to ensure electrical instal-
Figure PM-16: Nitrogen-charged discharge dampener
lation is proper. on triplex pump. Courtesy Precision Drilling.
Pitting of liners indicates corrosive conditions. The pH of

Troubleshooting or failures mud should be checked and increased if too low (less than
7.2 pH). Corrosion inhibitors may be considered. If corro-
Mud pumps sion is severe, the use of corrosion-resistant liners may be
Mud pumps do not function well if the suction line does not indicated. A fully salt-saturated drilling fluid with chlorides
provide sufficient fluid flowing into the pump. Solids may 200,000 ppm or higher can tie up the oxygen and become
settle out in a suction line when not in use if the velocity of less corrosive than a drilling fluid with chlorides in the
the fluid in the line is too slow. These solids can reduce the 30,000 ppm to 70,000 ppm range.
effective size of the suction line. When the rig is moved from
one location to another, the suction line (and strainer if so Normally, a piston body wears more on the lower side than
equipped) should always be thoroughly washed out. Other the upper, due to gravity. Wear on one side of piston or liner
times, suction velocity is not great enough to keep mud from (other than the lower side) may be caused by pump mis-
settling out of the line. If a hose is used in the suction line, alignment. Check for worn crosshead slides, worn pump
the inner lining should be visually inspected to ensure the bores, worn stuffing boxes and junk rings, and unequal tight-
hose lining has not collapsed or separated due to the use of ening of liner rod packing.
low-aniline point oils, wear or from other causes.
The use of regular (natural rubber) piston rubbers in oil-
To ensure smooth and efficient pump performance, nitro- based or oil-contaminated mud results in swelling and
gen-charged pulsation dampeners on mud pumps should be deterioration of the rubber. The use of oil-resisting piston
checked to ensure proper operation and correct pre-charge rubbers in oil-emulsion muds with low-aniline point oils can
level. If there is any doubt as to the correct charge for a given also result in similar swelling and deterioration. In the latter
pumping pressure, contact the manufacturer for assistance. case, failure of other parts such as pipe protectors, blowout
An incorrect charge renders the device ineffective. The dia- preventer rubbers, etc., will probably also occur.

PUMPS PM–13
A starved suction or starting the mud pump without priming so that the new seat will not seal properly. If a deck needs
can result in “burning” the piston rubbers in dry lines. Rapid reworking, it should be done by a qualified person before a
failure results after burning has occurred, and it is some- new seat is installed.
times difficult to trace or identify the failure. A “squealing”
in the cylinders when starting the pump or trying to pick up Crosshead extension rod wipers are the vital barrier be-
a prime indicates probable damage. Piston rubbers on sin- tween the power end of a mud pump and piston rod cham-
gle-acting mud pumps can be burned or can rapidly deterio- bers, confining gear oil to the power end and the splashing
rate due to improper functioning of the pump’s liner coolant or spraying coolant and drilling mud to the rod chamber. At
spray system. The spray mechanism at the rear of the liner least two and as many as four wipers or seals are used on
should be checked frequently to ensure that a full, continu- each crosshead extension rod, and in some designs, grease
ous stream of coolant is sprayed into the liner. is pumped between the seals to form an additional barrier
against mud entering the power end. Neglect of these wip-
Rod breakage in the body of a rod on a mud pump can be ers is probably the most frequently seen power end mainte-
due to cracks started by hammer blows or other external rod nance problem on mud pumps. Failure to maintain the rod
damage. Do not hammer on the body of the rod to remove wipers inevitably leads to water, sand and mud entering the
the piston. power end and contaminating the gear oil, subsequently re-
sulting in rapid wear of the gears, cross-heads and bearings.
Fluid cutting of the liner in the packing area is generally due Gear oil seepage into the rod chambers can also occur, ne-
to failure to tighten packing sufficiently, keep it tight or re- cessitating the addition of expensive gear oil to the power
place it when worn. Over-tightening will “bottleneck” the end.
liner and possibly cause damage to other mud pump parts.
Excess contamination of mud pump gear end oil can be due
Rods broken through taper (double-acting mud pumps) can to:
be caused by pump misalignment. Check for unequal wear • Failure to thoroughly flush out the oil reservoir at
on piston rod, piston body or liner for evidence of misalign- each oil change;
ment. Break can also be caused by a notch or a stress con- • Damaged or worn cross-head extension rods, wiper
centration point or improper torque on the API High Pres- rings and diaphragm stuffing box seals;
sure (HP) taper make-up so that the joint is not pre-stressed. • Failing to frequently drain contaminants out of the
Rods pulled apart in taper-end thread (double-acting mud settling compartment below the cross-heads;
pumps) breaks are found exclusively in the smaller tapers • Dirty oil buckets, hoses, etc. contaminating the oil
and are generally the result of over-tightening the piston and when installing new oil
nut when making the piston up on a rod.
On single-acting mud pumps, over-torquing of the piston

rod nut can cause rod breakage, thread galling and other in-
stallation and removal problems.
Short packing life (double-acting mud pumps) can be a re-

sult of over-tightening of packing, insufficient lubrication,
high sand content, use of worn-out rods with new packing,
washouts on worn stuffing boxes, worn junk rings, misalign-
ment or unequal tightening of the gland.
Fluid-cut sealing members or parts failures on valves and

seats are generally due to foreign material or lost circulation
materials in the mud, or continued use of new sealing mem-
bers on worn metal parts. Check all parts for wear, including
upper valve guides, and replace if worn out.
Fluid-cut taper between the valve seat and pump deck is due
to failure to realize the importance of proper installation and
Figure PM-17: Failed piston inside liner.
replacement of valve seats. Careless use of a cutting torch
Courtesy of Precision Drilling.
in removing valve seats can also result in damaging the deck

PM–14 PUMPS
Table PM-3: Centrifugal pump troubleshooting guide.
Noise Not Not Delivering Not Enough Uses Too Starts Then Bearing
Causes
Vibration Pumping Enough Liquid Pressure Much Power Loses Suction Wear
Pump Not Primed X X
Speed Too Low X X X
Discharge Head Too High X X
Suction Lift Higher Than

X X X X X
Design
Impeller Completely Plugged X X X
Wrong Direction of Rotation X X X X
Plugged Suction or Discharge

X X
Line
Insufficient Suction Head for
X X X
Hot Liquid
Foot Valve or Suction Line not
X X X X
Immersed Deeply Enough
Impeller Damaged X X
Casing Packing Defective X X

Impeller Diameter Too Small X X
Excessive amount of air or gas
X X X X
in liquid
Speed Too High X
Total Head Lower Than Design X
Specific Gravity or Viscosity
X X
Too High
Bent Shaft X X X X
Check Electric Motor Wiring
X X X
and Voltage
Rotating Elements Bind X X X
Leaky Suction Line or Shaft
X X X X
Seal
Misalignment X X X
Bearing Worn X X
Rotor Out of Balance X X
Excessive Internal Thrust X X
Lack of Lubrication / Dirt or
X X X
Excessive Cooling
Suction or Discharge
X
Piping not Anchored
Improper Foundation X
Centrifugal pumps The most important bearing problems come from contam-
The majority of centrifugal pump failures are due to bearing ination. Dirt and grit in the bearing race cause rapid failure.
failures and mechanical (packing) seal failures. Over time, Moisture within a bearing enclosure (usually entering from
corrosive and abrasive fluid passing through a centrifugal contaminated lubricant) causes rust and corrosion with sub-
pump can cause wear of the impeller and casing. A new im- sequent bearing failure.
peller or new casing can be installed to return the centrifugal
pump to its original efficiency. The Centrifugal Pump Trou- An increase in bearing temperatures (above 200°F [93°C])
bleshooting Guide (Table PM-3) should be used to diagnose or noise indicates possible bearing failure. Complete bearing
symptoms of poor performance. failure usually damages other pump parts. The objective is

PUMPS PM–15
to prevent complete bearing failure by changing the bearing the same time has the same level of operating hours and is
when the above conditions are detected. also worn out. By changing parts of the pump in a group, you
eliminate continually going into the pump. Time for mainte-
nance and pre-job planning time is minimized. Since you can
General maintenance program a part and know when it is time to be replaced, you
can then plan all your events or activities so that the pump is
Repairs less likely to be down while drilling is in progress. To predict
when parts will fail, a history of operating hours on both pis-
Mud pumps
tons and liners should be closely tracked. This history should
Repairs to mud pumps should strictly follow manufacturer’s
be updated at the end of each tour. Such planned mainte-
instructions. Routine maintenance performed in the field
nance includes: (a) changing valves and seats at the same
includes (but is not limited to) replacing/servicing liners,
time, (b) changing liner and liner packing at the same time,
pistons, rods, rod packing and liner packing (double-acting
and (c) changing pistons and rods at the same time.
pumps), liner flush and coolant assembly, piston clamp (sin-
gle-acting pumps), fluid end modules, suction valves and
seats, discharge valve and seats, suction modules, discharge
Centrifugal pumps
The impeller should be replaced if it shows excessive ero-
modules, and liner gaskets. There are many close tolerance
sion, wear or vane breakage.
parts that are critical to the proper operation and service
life of a mud pump. Manufacturer’s tolerances and make-up
Bearings should be replaced if they appear to run rough
torques should be followed closely when performing repairs.
when rotating the pump—indicating they may be loose or
The primary goal of a preventative maintenance program is worn. A rise in operating temperature may also indicate a
to help the drilling contractor realize and control fluid circu- failing bearing. A bearing failure can cause the entire centrif-
lating equipment costs. It is possible to control mud pump ugal pump to be damaged. Bearing failure can be caused by:
costs, if the life of fluid-end parts can be reasonably pre- • Misalignment of the pump and driver;
dicted so that they can be pulled before failure. This saves • Bent pump shaft;
money because when a part is run to failure, the pump goes • Improper lubrication;
down—likely when it is needed most—and the odds are that • Improper installation
another part is damaged or is due to fail soon. At this time,
money is being lost; money is coming out of the contractor’s Basic maintenance should follow OEM procedures.
pocket. Some of this lost money is:
Lubrication
• Lost footage: That all-important portion of the hole
before the drilling contractor and operator reach Mud pumps
total depth, each hour of not drilling represents NPT; Gears, bearings, crossheads and crosshead liners are all uti-
• Damage to other parts: A piston run to complete lized in most conventional mud pump power end designs.
failure almost invariably takes the liner with it. A Reliable, long-life service from these items is primarily de-
liner costs four to eight times more than a piston; pendent upon proper lubrication. Therefore, routine power
• Man hours on the pump: In addition to the cost of end maintenance must focus upon the mud pump’s lubrica-
the liner, how often does the crew complain about tion system and the care and periodic inspection of compo-
always going into the pump? How many times has nents associated with it.
someone been hurt working on the pump?
Lubrication systems for the power end of mud pumps are
How does a preventative maintenance program operate? If normally equipped with the following items: 1) various fil-
a part is replaced before it fails, the change out can be made ter and/or magnet assemblies to capture contamination, 2)
at a time most convenient to the drilling contractor and op- dipsticks or sight glasses to check oil levels, 3) a pressurized
erator, not when it is unexpected or costly to be down. Parts flow or splash-gravity flow lubrication system for distrib-
that are left in will not be damaged and can be expected to uting the lubricant to various components, and 4) various
run their full life. Those few cents per hour wasted by the sealing wiper arrangements on the crosshead extension rod
item pulling a part with few hours of life left on it are more to prevent drilling fluids from entering the power end.
than saved. How much do you save by running the risk of
shutdown attempting to get another 50-100 hours use out All mud pumps are equipped with bearings, crossheads and
of a part? Schedule pump downtime, and reduce pump gears (chains and sprockets in some instances) that must
downtime and rig downtime, by changing parts in groups. If
a part is worn out, its companion part that was installed at

PM–16 PUMPS
be continually supplied with the correct type and quantity of the gear oil be changed every six months, or as frequently
lubricant. Usually a high grade, extreme-pressure (EP) gear as required to maintain a relatively clean, sludge-free oil. It
oil is recommended by most manufacturers. These gear is important to clean any debris from the oil sump during
oils must be capable of maintaining sufficient lubricant on an oil change. Magnet assemblies for capturing metallic de-
all bearing surfaces and gear teeth under varying operating bris should also be cleaned during an oil change. Oil filters
speeds and loading conditions. Failure to do so can lead to should be replaced (or cleaned if applicable) during an oil
rapid wear and ultimate destruction of bearings, gears and change. Filter cartridges, strainers and magnets should be
crossheads. cleaned or changed at every routine power end oil change.
Pump manufacturers have thoroughly analyzed the opera- Many high-pressure pumps include a settling chamber
tional speeds, loads and temperatures of their pumps and under the crosshead area of the pump, on each side of the
have specified lubricant viscosity grades and additive rec- pump frame. This settling area can allow mud, water, dirt
ommendations that should adequately protect against com- and other oil contaminants to be removed before returning
ponent wear and corrosion. Lubricant recommendations to the main oil reservoir in the gear end of the pump. It is
are usually based upon temperature of the lubricant itself a good practice to check for accumulation of contaminants
within the pump. Rather than recommend particular brands weekly by removing the pipe plug. If it is necessary to clean
of lubricant for the pump, many pump manufacturers prefer out the settling chamber(s), the covers on each side can be
to simply state the viscosity grade requirements for various removed and the entire settling chamber drained.
temperature ranges. (Refer to pump manufacturer’s spe-
cific lubricant recommendations.) The drilling contractor is Maintaining a clean, quality lubricant in the power end of the
then at liberty to contact his local or preferred bulk lubricant mud pump is the best insurance available for reliable, long-
distributor and arrange for them to furnish a lubricant that life service from slush pump power ends. Oil samples can
complies with the pump manufacturer’s recommendations. also be pulled and sent to a laboratory for analysis to ensure
There has also been an increase in the use of synthetic oil, lubricant is suitable for continued use. Oil samples can also
synthetic oil blends and biodegradable lubricants. Such lu- assist in identifying sources of contamination.
bricants should be selected cautiously with input from the
mud pump manufacturer. The gear oil dipstick or sight-glass is a very simple instru-
ment attached to the power end reservoir, yet it is probably
Contamination of the gear oil in the power end of a mud the most important maintenance tool provided to the slush
pump is an inevitable by-product of mud pump operation. pump mechanic. The dipstick or sight-glass not only permits
Metallic particles may be worn off the working surfaces of checking of the lubricant level in the pump, but frequently
the gears, bearings and crossheads. Dust and other debris assists the mechanic in monitoring contamination buildup in
may enter the power end through the air breather or through the gear oil. Failure to maintain the proper oil level within the
worn crosshead extension rod wipers or during mainte- power end can result in marginal lubrication of moving com-
nance. Water may also enter the power end through dam- ponents, pump overheating and rapid wear of components.
aged or worn crosshead extension rod wipers, or it may con-
dense as a result of temperature changes within the power The lubricant level in the power end reservoir should be
end. Oil may be oxidized due to high operating temperatures checked at least once a day with the pump shut down. It is
and chemical reactions of the oil with oxygen in the air. usually best to wait several minutes after shutting a pump
down before checking the lubricant level. This allows the lu-
Dust, dirt and metallic particles in the gear oil can attach bricant level to stabilize in the reservoir and permit accurate
to moving components with an abrasive, lapping action readings.
that can quickly lead to excessive clearance in bearings and
scoring of the gears and crossheads. Water in the power end Centrifugal pumps
quickly mixes with the gear oil as the mud pump operates Lubrication of the coupling should follow OEM recommen-
and imparts a cloudy or milky appearance to the oil. This dations. The electric motor should be lubricated per OEM
condition frequently causes rusting and corrosion of bearing recommendations. Avoid over-lubricating the motor.
surfaces and accelerated wear on load-carrying members
due to thinning and breakdown of the lubricant’s film thick- Oil levels in oil-lubricated pumps that are too high or too
ness. Oxidation causes darkening of the gear oil color and low can cause bearing overheating. The oil level should be
leads to sludge formation in the sump and oil troughs. checked periodically to maintain the proper level. The oil
reservoir should be drained each quarter and refilled with
To protect against the detrimental effects of gear oil con- the OEM-recommended type and grade of oil. Designs for
tamination, most mud pump manufacturers recommend checking oil level include dipsticks and oil-level gauges.

PUMPS PM–17
Most packing failures are a result of over-tightening or im- On pumps equipped with pressurized, forced-flow lubri-
proper installation. The packing on a centrifugal pump must cation systems, clean gear oil should be induced into the
leak slowly to keep the packing lubricated. Too tight a pack- oil-circulating pump, filter housing, heat exchanger, etc. If
ing, and the packing burns up due to lack of lubrication and the exterior paint on the pump has begun to deteriorate or
cooling. is extensively chipped, a quality paint (coating) should be
applied. For maximum frame protection against rusting, all
At first startup, the nuts on the packing gland should be loos- painting operations should be preceded by the necessary
ened to allow a steady flow of liquid. Then, the gland nuts sanding and surface preparations.
should be tightened to establish a steady dripping. Packing
requires readjustment when liquid leakage increases. To provide corrosion protection for the fluid end of the
pump, the valves, valve seats, piston rods and liners should
Some stuffing boxes are grease-lubricated and should be be removed from the fluid cylinders and all components
lubricated at least once per day. Installation of an automat- thoroughly cleaned and dried. Coat the cylinder bores, all
ed lubricating system can help keep the packing lubricated valve cover and cylinder-head components, and the reus-
automatically. able expendable parts with a rust preventative or grease.
Corrosion problems can occur over long periods of time if
Mechanical seals require lubrication from the fluid being piston rods, liners and modules are not removed from the
pumped. Centrifugal pumps with mechanical seals should pump before storage.
not be operated dry.
The triplex pump’s liner spray system must also be protect-
Grease-lubricated pumps should be greased at the ed against corrosion while in storage. All water, sand and
OEM-recommended frequency and amounts using the debris should be flushed from the liner spray pump; cool-
OEM-recommended types of grease. ant reservoir; and associated hose spray nozzles and tubes.
Spray all components with a rust-inhibiting oil and fill the
Proper storage considerations liner spray pump housing with oil.
Mud pumps While in storage, the pump should be thoroughly inspect-

When mud pumps are put into storage or rigs are idle during ed at least once each month and re coated, where neces-
long periods of time, certain precautions must be taken to sary, with a rust-inhibiting oil. Always rotate the pump gears
prevent corrosive deterioration of mud pump components. during each inspection. This procedure permits redistribu-
The cost of the precautionary measures is usually small tion of the rust-inhibiting oil over the surfaces of the bear-
compared to the loss of drilling time and expenses involved ings.
in reconditioning and replacing corrosion-damaged bear-
ings, seals, piston rods and fluid cylinder components. Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pumps should be stored in a clean and dry envi-
The power end sump and settling chamber should first be ronment. If stored outdoors, the openings should be sealed
drained and thoroughly cleaned. A rust-inhibiting oil should to prevent water intrusion, which can cause corrosion and
be sprayed on all bearings, finished surfaces and the entire rust. The pump and motor should be turned periodically.
inside surface of the power end. To provide air circulation
and prevent condensation buildup, the drain plug may be When returning the pump to service after long-term stor-
removed and a wire mesh screen (for rodent exclusion) se- age, the grease in the pump bearings and motor should be
cured over the opening. removed and replenished with new grease.

PM–18 PUMPS
ADVANCED THEORY & IMPORTANT CALCULATIONS

Mud Pumps AP = area of piston (sq in.)
1) HHP = GPM X P / 1,714 Ar = area of rod cross-section (sq in.)
S = stroke length of each piston (in.)
Where:
HHP = hydraulic (output) horsepower (hp) 7) GPM = SPM X VPS
GPM = flow rate (U.S. gal/min)
P = pressure (psi) Where:
GPM = flow rate (U.S. gal/min)
2) HHP (for triplex pump) = AP X S X SPM X P / 132,000 SPM = strokes (or revolutions) per min
VPS = volume per stroke from all available pistons
Where: (gal/stroke)
HHP (for triplex pump) = hydraulic (output)
horsepower (hp) 8) GPM (for triplex pump) = AP X S X SPM / 77
AP = area of piston (sq in.)
S = stroke length (in.) Where:
PM = strokes (or revolutions) per min GPM (for triplex pump) = flow rate (U.S. gal/min)
P = pressure (psi) AP = area of piston (sq in.)
S = stroke length (in.)
3) HHP (for duplex pump) = [( 2 X AP ) - Ar ] X S X SPM SPM = strokes (or revolutions) per min
X P / 198,000
9) GPM (for duplex pump) =
Where: [( 2 X AP ) - Ar ] X S X SPM / 115.5
HHP (for duplex pump) = hydraulic (output)
horsepower (hp) Where:
AP = area of piston (sq in.) GPM (for duplex pump) = flow rate (U.S. gal/min)
Ar = area of rod cross-section (sq in.) AP = area of piston (sq in.)
S = stroke length (in.) Ar = area of rod cross-section (sq in.)
SPM = strokes (or revolutions) per min S = stroke length (in.)
P = pressure (psi) SPM = strokes (or revolutions) per min
4) IHP * = HHP / 0.90 10) AP = pi X Dp X Dp / 4
Where: Where:
IHP = input horsepower (hp) AP = area of piston (sq in.)
HHP = hydraulic (output) horsepower (hp) Pi = Mathematical constant that is the ratio of a
circle’s circumference to its diameter
* Based on 90% mechanical efficiency and 100% (approx. = 3.14159265)
volumetric efficiency Dp = diameter of fluid piston (in.)
5) VPS (for triplex pump) = AP X S / 77 11) Ar (For Duplex Pump) = pi X Dr X Dr / 4
Where: Where:
VPS (for triplex pump) = volume per stroke (gal) Ar = area of rod cross-section (sq in.)
AP = area of piston (sq in.) Pi = Mathematical constant that is the ratio of a
S = stroke length of each piston (in.) circle’s circumference to its diameter
(approx. = 3.14159265)
Dr = diameter of piston rod (in.)
6) VPS (for duplex pump) = [( 2 X AP ) - Ar ] X S / 115.5

Centrifugal pumps
Where:
VPS (for duplex pump) = volume per stroke (gal) 1) Head = P X 2.31 / Sp. Gr.

PUMPS PM–19
Where: 3) F=PXA
Head = head in ft
P = pressure at discharge point (psi) Where:
Sp. Gr. = specific gravity F = force (lb)
P = pressure (psi)
2) Sp. Gr. = PPG / 8.34 A = area (sq in.)
Where:
Sp. Gr. = specific gravity
Note: Specific gravity of water = 1.0
PPG = weight of fluid (lb/gal)

PM–20 PUMPS
GLOSSARY
Casing: See the preferred term “Housing.” Lift (in pumping): The vertical height the fluid is raised
from the free height of suction fluid going to the pump to
Cavitation: The localized formation of cavities (or bubbles) free height of outlet fluid or open end discharge
in a liquid that induce vibration and noise in a pump. Cavita-
tion can cause centrifugal pump damage or failure. Multiplex: A pump with four or more cylinders.
Centrifugal pump: A device for moving fluid by spinning Net-positive suction head (NPSH): What a centrifugal
the fluid with a revolving device (rotating impeller) in a cas- pump needs from the suction piping at a minimum to pre-
ing with a central inlet and tangential outlet. vent cavitation.
Double-acting: A pump that has pistons accomplishing Quadraplex: A pump with four cylinders.
work in both directions.
Quintuplex: A pump with five cylinders.
Duplex pump: A pump with two cylinders. Normally a dou-
ble-acting pump. Reciprocating pump: A pump that uses a piston and/or
plunger in a cylinder.
Flow rate: The amount of volume that is displaced per unit
of time. Simplex: A pump with one cylinder.
Head: The height in ft of a column of water measured above Slush pump: A mud pump (slang).
a point in a pipe or at a pump.
Triplex pump: A pump with three cylinders.
Housing (as applies to centrifugal pump): The outer hous-
ing that surrounds the impeller on a centrifugal pump.

PUMPS PM–21
REFERENCES: EVALUATION, TESTING, INPSECTION
Mud pumps ISO 9905, Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps -

American Petroleum Institute (API) Specification 7K, Drill- Class I, current edition.
ing and Well Servicing Equipment, current edition, covers
piston mud pump components. ISO 9908, Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps —
Class III, current edition.
Note: API 7K does not currently cover high-pressure mud
pump assemblies. ISO 13709, Centrifugal pumps for petroleum, petrochemical
and natural gas industries, current edition.
ISO 14693, Petroleum and natural gas industries - Drilling
and well-servicing equipment, current edition, covers piston ISO 21049, Pumps - Shaft sealing systems for centrifugal
mud-pump components. and rotary pumps, current edition.
Centrifugal pumps American Institute of Chemical Engineering (AIChE) E-31,

American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 610, Centrif- Centrifugal Pumps (Newtonian Liquids): A Guide to Perfor-
ugal Pumps for Petroleum, Petrochemical and Natural Gas mance Evaluation - Third Edition, current edition.
Industries, current edition, covers centrifugal pumps.
ASME International (ASME) PTC 8.2, Centrifugal Pumps,
ISO 5198, Centrifugal, mixed flow and axial pumps - Code current edition.
for hydraulic performance tests - Precision class, current
edition. Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) IS 15657, Centrifugal
pumps for petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas indus-
ISO 5199, Technical specifications for centrifugal pumps - tries, current edition
Class II, current edition.
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES
Drilling Fluids Processing Handbook, ASME Shale Shaker
Mud pumps Committee, Nov 2004
Drilling Fluids Mud Pumps and Conditioning, Unit 1, Lesson
7 (Rotary Drilling Series), Kate Van Dyke, Petroleum Exten- Know and Understand Centrifugal Pumps, L. Bachus and A.
sion Service (Petex), March 1998 Custodio, Elsevier Science, August 2003
Mud Pump Handbook, S. L. Collier, Gulf Publishing Co, Feb- Shale Shaker and Drilling Fluids Systems: Techniques and
ruary 1983 Technology for Improving Solids Control Management,
American Assoc. of Drilling Engineers (Author), Gulf Pro-
Centrifugal pumps fessional Publishing, July 1999
Centrifugal Pumps: Design and Application, Second Edition,
Val S. Lobanoff and Robert R. Ross, Gulf Professional Pub-
lishing, June 1992

RP
ROTATING AND
PIPEHANDLING
EQUIPMENT

Born in the U.S.A. TM
Since 1928, well servicing and drilling often improperly treated materials?
operations have been counting on quality American Count on Cavins for tools that are safer and
made Cavins tools and replacement parts to keep built better so they always work dependably from the
them up and running safely and dependably. start, last longer in the field and require less
Cavins tools and replacement parts are made maintenance.
in accordance with our original manufacturer Call or visit our website today for our
designs, to original tolerances from materials comprehensive catalog and your nearest Cavins
selected and treated for optimum performance in distributor.
each application. The result is longer life,
trouble-free operation and minimal maintenance. Or Email us at sales@cavins.com
Today, downtime is more costly than ever, so
why take chances with counterfeit imitations (562) 424.8564 Fax (562) 595.6174
manufactured to looser tolerances from inferior, www.cavins.com email: sales@cavins.com
TM
® ®
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Spiders Slips Sand Pumps Bailers Cement Dumps Blowout Preventers Hose Connections Bent Orienting Subs Depthometers
Oil Savers Junk Snatchers Safety Clamps Sucker Rods Tubing Elevators Power Tongs Cement Dumps
Blowout Preventers and Rod Strippers Rod and Crane Hooks Elevator Links and Hooks
Baash-Ross, Foster, Hillman-Kelly, KelCo and Web Wilson are licensed trademarks
of National Oilwell Varco, LLC.
ROTATING & PIPEHANDLING EQUIPMENT RP-i
CHAPTER
RP
ROTATING AND
PIPEHANDLING
EQUIPMENT
nance and repair.
by the reader.
CONTRIBUTORS
Faisal Yousef, Canrig Drilling Technology Ltd. Anthony Mannering, TM Engineering, PLLC
Richard Ackerman, Schramm Inc. Nick Mawford, Tesco Corporation
Steven Ancelet, Loadmaster Derrick & Equipment, Inc. Drew McPhail, Tesco Corporation
Troy Baronet, Canrig Drilling Technology Ltd. Paul Meade-Clift, PMC Technical Services Ltd.
Travis Burns, American Block Company Randy Pyrch, Canrig Drilling Technology Ltd.
Eric Deutsch, Canrig Drilling Technology Ltd. Andrew Roskey, American Block Company
Robert Dugal, Forum Energy Technologies Sumit Shah, American Block Company
Norman Dyer, D Cubed Services, Consultant for DNV Casimir Sulima, Canrig Drilling Technology Ltd.
Robert Goodwin, National Oilwell Varco Kurt Vandervort, Stress Engineering Services
Joel Heinen, National Oilwell Varco Leandro Oviedo, Weatherford
Kenneth Kondo, National Oilwell Varco
REVIEWERS
Peter Cui, Schramm Inc. Larry Foley, Foley Engineering

Beat Kuttel, Canrig Drilling Technology Ltd. Tommy Scarborough, Canrig Drilling Technology Ltd.
Miles Gilbert-Morgan, Parker Hannifin Corporation
RP–ii WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-9-1

ROTATING & PIPEHANDLING EQUIPMENT Contents RP-iii
CHAPTER RP
ROTATING & PIPEHANDLING

EQUIPMENT Contents
Introduction...................................................................... RP-1 Top drive................................................................. RP-23

Hoisting and running in......................................RP-1 Rotary table...........................................................RP-28
Pipehandling.............................................................RP-2 Pipehandling equipment............................................ RP-33
Make up/break out................................................RP-2 Casing running tools (CRTs)............................. RP-33
Racking......................................................................RP-2 Power catwalk.......................................................RP-36
Auto-handling..........................................................RP-2 In-derrick handling systems..............................RP-38
Tubulars.......................................................................RP-3 Manual tong......................................................... RP-40
Hoisting Equipment....................................................... RP-3 Pipe arm................................................................. RP-41
Drawworks.................................................................RP-3 Power tongs...........................................................RP-42
Hydraulic cylinders................................................ RP-6 Instrumentation........................................................... RP-44
Slips........................................................................... RP-9 Weight indicator................................................. RP-44
Elevators..................................................................RP-13 Pressure gauge.....................................................RP-45
Elevator links (bails).............................................RP-16 Torque (top drive)................................................RP-45
Crown block, hook and sheaves........................RP-17 Other common instrumentation.................... RP-46
Drill line...................................................................RP-18 Maintenance and inspection....................................RP-47
Structures...............................................................RP-18 API standards and recommended practices.RP-47
Rotary swivel.........................................................RP-20 Inspection frequency............................................RP-48
Deadline anchor....................................................RP-21 Maintenance...........................................................RP-48
Rotary Equipment........................................................ RP-23 Reference...................................................................... RP-49

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
ROTATING & PIPEHANDLING EQUIPMENT RP-1
Introduction can prevent task completion and potentially cause damage

or injury. Conversely, attaching the cars with steel couplers
The ability to move tools into the borehole and selectively
to an engine with insufficient horsepower will not cause a
withdraw them is central to the drilling process. Whether
failure, but the train will not move.
a particular depth objective can be reached or the required
casing can be installed depends on hole conditions and the In the case of a drilling rig, the system may be thought of as a
equipment being used. chain, as there are many elements working together to hold
the load. Further, if any one link lacks sufficient strength, the
Hoisting and running in entire system will fail. In a conventional drilling rig, the sys-
The ability to move tubulars and tools in and out of the hole tem comprises:
requires equipment with sufficient capacity to overcome •• Drawworks structure;
the loads imposed by the work being done. Generally the •• Drilling line;
highest loads will be experienced when pulling the drilling •• Crown block;
assembly out at total depth or when running casing. •• Travelling block;
••Hook;
Significant hoisting loads include the mass of the travel- •• Swivel or top drive;
ing equipment and anything suspended from the traveling ••Tubulars;
equipment. Some examples include: ••Mast;
•• Traveling blocks and line; ••Substructure.
•• Swivel or top drive;
•• Casing running tools (CRT); Each element has a strength limitation, the load at which
••Drillstring; failure will occur. Under certain circumstances, the draw-
•• Casing string; works capacity and loads imposed by the drilling or casing
•• Riser string. operation may exceed the strength of a system compo-
nent. The well planning process should include an exam-
Significant braking loads include the mass of traveling ination of the expected loads, and provide for appropriate
equipment and anything suspended from the traveling components to withstand expected loads. In addition, it is
equipment, as well as rotating inertia. Some examples of ro- good practice for the drilling contractor (owner/operator of
tating Inertia include: the equipment) to provide an easy reference chart detail-
••Drum; ing the maximum loads (pull) allowed for each component.
••Flanges;
The maximum pull should represent the physical limit of
•• Gear train;
the component, reduced by some safety factor. The safety
•• Motors, etc.
factor provides a margin for unknowns such as equipment
In addition, when considering total loads, one must include wear, instrumentation inaccuracy, or sudden loads etc. The
system friction: initial planning process should account for the known loads,
•• Gear or chain losses; such as planned tubulars at the expected total depth, but
•• Bearing loss; also estimate hole drag.
•• Drilling line reeving efficiency;
•• Resistance caused by friction between the drilling Once drilling has begun, the driller, who is operating the
assembly and the wall of the hole. equipment, must be aware of the lowest capacity element in
the chain, and ensure that loads do not exceed that capacity.
System capacity can be addressed through three elements: The driller primarily relies on the weight indicator to show
hoisting power, braking capacity (stopping) and compo- the load on the system and must continually compare the
nent strength. Hoisting power is the ability to move a load actual load with the maximum allowed.
at a particular speed. Braking capacity is the ability to stop
a moving load, while component strength is the ability to Power available to the system determines whether the load
withstand a load without failure. can be moved and how fast. In a conventional drawworks
rig, the drum rotates and reels in the drilling line to move the
To differentiate between power and component strength, blocks. The power at the drum can be supplied by an electric
consider the example of a train pulling a line of cars. If an motor, an internal combustion engine or hydraulics. Howev-
‘engine’ with several thousand horsepower is attached to er, in all cases internal friction in the drawworks and drive
the cars with the steel couplers, the cars will move forward reduces available power. The available power at the hook is
with the train. However, if the cars are attached to the same further reduced by losses in the cable reeving through the
engine with soft line (fiber rope), it is quite likely that the soft crown and traveling block. The load or weight on the blocks
line will part and the load will not move. So, even with suffi- is a function of the single line pull (drawworks capability)
cient power and traction, failure of an element in the system

RP-2 ROTATING & PIPEHANDLING EQUIPMENT
multiplied by the friction-adjusted mechanical advantage imum joint diameter in the fingers are usually calculated at
provided by the block and tackle system. the outset.
Pipehandling Rig design limits pipe racking in the derrick in two ways.
The majority of drilling is performed with jointed pipe; that Space limitations on the rig floor are one consideration. The
is, the pipe is provided in fixed lengths that must be connect- load (weight) limitation of the rig floor, which is supported
ed together to allow drilling to proceed. Pipehandling is the by the substructure, is the second consideration. The load
process whereby the tubulars are moved from the storage limitation for the racking area may be affected by loads car-
racks to the drilling floor and then in and out of the hole. ried in the rotary table, depending on the design. This in-
Handling pipe is one of the main causes of personnel injury formation is available from the manufacturer’s rating. When
at the rig site. the load rating of the rig floor is known, the number of joints
or length of pipe that are safe to rack on the floor can be cal-
Pipehandling includes moving and connecting tubulars for culated by dividing the load rating by the linear mass of the
drilling; moving, disconnecting and reconnecting for bit tubulars or the weight per joint. The number of joints cannot
trips; and moving, disconnecting and returning the tubulars exceed the physical space available for the pipe to stand or
to the storage racks. the manufacturer’s load rating.
Make up and break out This calculation should be performed as part of the rig se-
Jointed pipe typically used for drilling has male (“pin”) and lection process to ensure that total depth can be reached
female (“box”) threads that are screwed together to provide safely with the planned tubulars. Pipe is often racked on the
a mechanical connection to transmit the drilling torque and floor while casing is being run, so the combined load must be
tension. This connection also provides a pressure tight path compared to the manufacturer’s allowable loads.
for the flow of drilling fluid. In order to make up or break out
pipe, tools are required that have the appropriate size and Auto-handling
strength to spin the threads together and achieve the torque Pipehandling is one of the most hazardous operations per-
required to create the connection. When connecting or dis- formed while drilling and completing a well. Even though the
connecting the pipe, the string must be suspended above drawworks, assisted by other power devices, performs the
and below the connection. hoisting, pipehandling is a physically demanding activity.
Consequently, manufacturers offer devices to automate or
The rotary table or bowl, which is supported by the sub- mechanize some or all pipe-handling functions.
structure, suspends the lower part of the drillstring with
slips gripping the pipe. Each of these components has load When moving from well to well, the pipe is commonly trans-
rating, and size that must be appropriate for the load and ported on flatbed trucks, then loaded onto simple storage
size of tool to be handled. The swivel, top drive or eleva- racks (pipe racks). Alternatively, pipe may be stored for
tors will support the upper part of the connection to make transportation in ‘tubs’, or steel frame boxes, which con-
up or break out. The final requirement to make and break a strain the pipe and make lifting and transportation easier.
connection is a tool, or tools, which can apply torque to the The tubs may be simple boxes which require some external
joint and rotate the connection free. They must be chosen to method to lift the pipe out of the box, or it might have a built-
match the size of tubular being handled, and have sufficient in hydraulic system which moves one row of pipe up to the
strength to withstand the torque required to complete the level of the catwalk on command. The pipe is then rolled to
connection. the catwalk where traditionally, a worker will attach a sling
and cable winch to the joint to pull it up the catwalk and onto
Racking the floor.
When it is necessary to replace the bit or modify drilling
Presently, two mechanized systems exist to move the
components, the drillstring must be pulled from the hole
pipe from the catwalk to the floor. The pipe arm system is
and stored, allowing the bit or bottomhole assembly to be
equipped with grippers that clamp onto the pipe so that as
changed. The pipe may be laid down or stood back in the
the pipe arm pivots up to the floor, the joint of pipe is carried
mast (racked). Racking can be conducted by vertically rais-
with it. To allow drilling in the conventional ‘pin-down’ ori-
ing one joint (singles), or multiple joints connected togeth-
entation, the pipe must be rolled onto the pipe-arm grippers
er (doubles or triples), reducing the number of connections
with the pin pointing to the V-door. (The V-door is an open-
required. The racked joints are stored between “fingers”
ing at floor level in a side of a derrick or mast. It is typically
that hold the pipe in place. The number of joints to be stood
opposite the drawworks and is used as an entry to bring in
together (whether singles, doubles or triples) and the max-
tubulars onto the rig floor).

Pipe arm systems currently work in ‘single’ mode; that is, top-drive system is used. The rotating table engages a kelly
only one joint is moved to the floor at one time. As well, bushing through which a hexagonal or square Kelly bar is fit-
pipe-arm equipped rigs generally do not rack pipe on the ted. The Kelly bar makes up to the drillstring. When the table
floor, but lay the pipe down during each trip. The second is rotated, the string rotates with it. The primary rotary table
and most common mechanized method for moving pipe to capacity is the weight of the string that can be supported in
the floor is the powered catwalk. These systems employ a the slips while rotating or static. However, as torque is being
moving carriage, which pushes the pipe up the V-door and transmitted through the table to the pipe while drilling, avail-
delivers the box end to the floor, where it can be picked up able horsepower and drive capacity limit rotating power.
with the elevators.
The rotary table has a significant limitation: it is not possi-
Rotating the connections together and making up to recom- ble to rotate (forward or backwards) and also hoist the pipe.
mended torque has been mechanized in some form from This limitation becomes particularly problematic in difficult
the development of rotary drilling. Originally the pipe would hole conditions, and led to the development of top-drive
be rotated together with the aid of a spinning chain, then systems, which can drive the string from the top. Top-drive
made up with the cathead-powered tongs (“manual tongs”). capacity comprises (maximum string load, rotating torque,
The addition of a permanently mounted “kelly spinner” and and internal pressure capacity. Because the top drive is ca-
the use of cable-suspended pipe spinners improved safety pable of rotating the string in both directions while hoisting,
statistics dramatically. Manufacturers moved the process it is necessary to evaluate the combined stress capacity of
forward by combining the pipe-spinning function with a the tubulars (simultaneous tension and torsion), as well as
mechanized wrench capable of making up connections to limit activities to some fraction of the connection make-up
required torque specification. With this method, the spin- torque to ensure the pipe does not unintentionally separate
ning chain and the heavy and awkward manual tongs were downhole.
replaced.
Racking pipe involves:

Hoisting Equipment
•• Disconnecting pipe to be racked from the pipe in the
hole by floor hands; Drawworks
•• Drawworks operated by the driller; The drawworks is the primary hoisting machine on the drill-
•• Manually moving pipe to the racking position by the ing rig used to lower and raise the drill or casing strings. The
derrickman and floor hands in concert. drawworks converts the power source into a hoisting oper-
ation and provides braking capacity to stop and sustain the
Although this process has been refined over time, and with weights imposed when raising or lowering the drillstring.
experienced crews has become extraordinarily efficient and The drawworks is a machine with a power source, power
rapid, it is physically demanding and prone to incident. The transfer and speed reduction, large diameter drum, brakes
development of fully automated pipe racking for land rigs and associated auxiliary devices.
has been delayed by space and budget limitations. These
limitations are generally overcome on larger floating rigs. The drawworks is typically driven by DC or AC motors or
diesel/gas engines that are coupled to the power transfer
Two available systems can replace the derrickman function. and speed reduction system.
The first is a complete system capable of picking up a stand
after it is disconnected and placing it in the racking position
without human effort. The second requires the stand’s pin
end placed into the racking position conventionally, i.e., with
floor hands and drawworks, but pivots the stand into the
racking system.
Tubulars
Current drilling technology utilizes various types of rotary
bits. (See separate chapter in the 12th edition of the IADC
Drilling Manual on Bits.) The bit can be rotated by a sur-
face device, a subsurface device (downhole motor or rotary
seerable system), or a combination. (Downhole motors and
RSS are discussed in the chapters on Downhole Tools and
Directional Drilling.)
Figure RP-1: Typical drawworks. Courtesy Canrig.
To rotate the bit from the surface, either a rotating table or a

Figure RP-2: The drum shown here is smooth. However,

Video RP-1: Animation shows various drawworks
drums can be grooved to allow the reeling of the drilling line. It
components. Courtesy Canrig.
converts the motor torque into the line pull required for hoisting,
lowering and stopping the drilling tools. Courtesy Canrig.
Major components
»» Drum
The drum is grooved to allow the reeling of the drilling line.
It converts the motor torque into the single-line pull re-
quired for hoisting, lowering and stopping the drilling load.
For drawworks with band brakes, the drum will have brake
rims on each side where the brake bands are mounted. For
drawworks with disk brakes, the drum is equipped with a
brake disc on one or both sides of the drum where the brake
calipers are mounted or by a group of discs at the end of
the drum shaft. The drum shaft is supported by pedestals
on each side, by a gear box and a pedestal, or by a support
Figure RP-3: Power transmission is accomplished by frame. Regardless of design, the drum shaft must be sup-
roller chain or gear drives. Courtesy Canrig. ported on both sides.
»» Power transmission
Power transmission is accomplished by roller chain or gear
drives. All drives are arranged (enclosed) in oil tight hous-
ings. Roller chain drives consist of various shafts, sprockets,
roller chain and clutches arranged for 2 to 8 output speeds.
Gear drives consist of shafts, input, idler and output gears
and in some cases a planetary gear assembly. Different de-
signs provide one output speed or include clutches and pro-
vide two or three output speeds. The power transmission
mounts to the drum shaft on one end and the other end is
coupled to the power source such as an AC motor. Depend-
ing on the design, the power transmission may have several
input shafts. Each coupled to a motor or engine.
»» Power source
The drawworks is typically driven by electric motors or die-
sel engines. Electric motors are directly coupled to the input
shaft or shafts of the power transmission. A fluid coupling,
such as a torque converter, is usually placed between an en-
gine and the power transmission input shaft. The capacity of
the power source determines performance, hoisting speed
for any particular load, and in some cases the maximum load
Figure RP-4: The drawworks is typically driven by electric motors
or diesel engines. Electric motors are directly coupled to the input capability of the drawworks.
shaft or shafts in the power transmission. Courtesy Canrig.

as the fast line. The drawworks reels the fast line in and out
in a controlled fashion. The drilling line extends to the crown
block and traveling assembly, creating a block and tackle
arrangement. The fast line is reeled over the crown block
and traveling block to gain mechanical advantage in the
block and tackle. Reeling in the drilling line, or load raising,
is powered by the power source, while reeling out, or load
lowering, by gravity. The drilling line exits the last sheave on
the crown block and extends downward toward the rig floor.
This portion of the drilling line is called the dead line. The
dead line is fastened to a mast/derrick leg or to the rig floor
by the deadline anchor. In many cases the line leads from
the deadline anchor to a storage spool for extra drilling line.
Capacity & Limitation

Drawworks capacity is one of the factors used to determine
the rig’s depth rating, the depth of well that can be econom-
ically drilled and serviced. Drawworks are used on most
onshore & offshore drilling and workover/service rigs. Off-
shore drilling rigs mounted on a floating vessel may include
an active heave compensating feature. Drawworks in float-
ing offshore operations require significant powerto accom-
plish the application.
Figure RP-5: The drawworks is designed with a Drawworks can be rated by any of three metrics: by installed
primary brake, an emergency brake and, in some horsepower, fastline pull or traveling-block pull for a given
cases, an auxiliary brake. Courtesy Canrig. number of lines to the block. The capacity of onshore mo-
bile workover/service rigs ranges from 250-1,000 hp. For
»» Brakes onshore drilling, capacities range from 750-4,000 hp. For
The drawworks is designed with a primary brake, an emer-
offshore drilling, capacities range from 3,000-13,000 hp,
gency brake and, in some cases, an auxiliary brake. The
with active heave drawworks occupying the upper portions
primary brake is used to retard or stop motion or maintain
of the range. (Discussion of capacities in terms of fastline
the main drum in a fixed position during normal operating
or traveling-block pull is beyond the scope of this chapter.)
conditions. Disc or band brakes are used as primary brakes
on drawworks with DC motors or diesel engines. The AC
Inspection & Maintenance
motors on AC drawworks may be used as the primary brake
The user/owner of the equipment and the manufacturer
s in the regenerative state. The emergency brake is used to
should jointly develop inspection, maintenance, repair and
stop and maintain the drum in a fixed position in the event
remanufacture procedures consistent with equipment ap-
that the primary brake is not capable. The emergency brake
plication, loading, work environment, usage and operational
may be used as a parking brake when no motion is required.
conditions and update the procedures as changes are indi-
Disk or band brakes may be used as emergency and parking
cated due to new technology, product improvements and
brakes. The auxiliary brake is an ancillary brake used to as-
changes in original conditions. If the original manufacturer
sist the primary brake in absorbing the energy released as
is not available, the owner/user should develop procedures
heavy loads are lowered. The auxiliary brake may use discs
consistent with accepted industry practices.
or eddy-current rotors to convert to heat the kinetic energy
of a downward-moving load being stopped. Disk brakes are Inspection criteria should be based on safety, time inter-
always power operated. Band brakes may have a power as- vals, wear limits, relative load size and cycle count, external
sist. Power may be supplied as hydraulic or air power. and/or internal damage, experience and regulatory require-
ments. Operating personnel should be trained to assess the
Function & Operation condition of equipment prior to use and during usage. Qual-
The primary function of a drawworks is to transform rotary ified personnel should be used for more detailed inspection
power into hoisting ability and to provide braking capacity at extended intervals and to perform maintenance and re-
to stop and sustain the weights imposed when lowering and pair as required.
raising the drillstring. The portion of the drill line that ex-
tends from the drawworks to the crown block is referred to

Out stroke
Sealing Piston-bearing
Pushes washer rings
Piston seals
Rod
Rod seal Rod bearing
Barrel Piston seal
Rod seals
O ring
Wiper ring
In stroke
Pulls
Figure RP-6: Cylinder stroke. Top: Fluid (in red) flows into
the bottom end of the cylinder, extending the rod at the
opposite end. Bottom: During in stroke, fluid enters the rod
end, causing the rod to retract. Courtesy Schramm Inc.
Figure RP-7: Cylinder components. Courtesy Schramm Inc.
Hydraulic cylinders used as hoisting equipment chamber (rod end/head end). When fluid enters from cap
A hydraulic cylinder converts hydrostatic oil/fluid flow and end during extension stroke, and if the oil pressure in the
pressure into linear force and motion. As shown in the top rod end/head end is approximately zero, the force F on the
view ("out stroke") of Figure RP-6, fluid (shown red) flows piston rod equals the pressure P in the cylinder times the
into the bottom, butt or cap end of the cylinder, extending piston area A:
the rod at the opposite end of the cylinder. Upon in stroke
(bottom) fluid flows into the rod end of the cylinder, causing Force = Fluid Pressure x Piston Area
the rod to retract. If both ends of the cylinder are connected
During the retraction stroke, oil is pumped into the head (or
to the hydraulic power source the cylinder is double acting
gland) at the rod end. The oil from the cap end flows back to
(produces force in both directions). If only one end is con-
the reservoir. Since the rod occupies a part of the piston area
nected to the power source the cylinder is single acting. The
the extend force produced by any pressure will be greater
speed of rod movement is dependent on the flow rate of the
than the retract force for that pressure. The fluid pressure in
fluid and the active piston face area. The force exerted by
the rod end is (pull force) / (piston area - piston rod area):
the rod is dependent on the pressure of the fluid and the ac-
tive piston face area.
The cylinder cap and gland are attached to opposite ends Fp

of the cylinder barrel. One or both parts are removable. The P=
cap and gland each contain a connection into the chamber Ap – Ar
on that end of the cylinder. The piston is attached to the rod
and slides inside the cylinder barrel as the rod extends or
Where P is the fluid pressure, Fp is the pulling force, Ap is
retracts. Seals are provided at each joint to prevent fluid
the piston face area and Ar is the rod cross-section area.
leakage. Bearing rings are provided on the sliding surfaces
to reduce friction and provide a replaceable wearing surface. The cylinder just described is a single-stage cylinder. A mul-
A wiper ring in the gland removes most of the dirt on the rod tiple-stage cylinder may be used when the operating condi-
as it enters the cylinder. tions dictate. The multiple stage cylinder adds one or more
additional cylinder barrels of greater diameter outside the
The piston divides the inside of the cylinder into two cham-
first cylinder barrel creating a telescopic effect. This creates
bers, the bottom chamber (cap end) and the piston rod side

Hoist
cylinder
Figure RP-8: Cylinders on a land rig. Courtesy Schramm Inc.
Figure RP-10: Cylinders on a land rig. Courtesy Schramm Inc.
readily variable pressure and volume control, which the cyl-

inder converts to force and position. Cylinders have many
applications on mobile heavy equipment. It is common to
see hydraulic cylinders on oil/gas drilling rigs as shown in
Figures RP-8 and RP-9.
Hydraulic cylinders may also be used for drillstring hoisting

on both land and offshore rigs, as shown in Figures RP-10
Figure RP-9: Outrigger cylinders on a land and RP-11.
rig. Courtesy Schramm Inc.
Operation and safety
a cylinder with greater extended length for a specified re-
Hydraulic pressure in a cylinder should not be allowed to
tracted length. (provide picture of telescopic cylinder here)
exceed the cylinder pressure rating. Lifting a load greater
than the cylinder rating will cause excessive pressure. The
Capacities cylinder hydraulic system may contain counterbalance vales
Hydraulic cylinders are designed for a particular application.
on or very near the cylinder. These valves lock the hydraulic
The design ratings, qualification testing, and other param-
fluid in the cylinder and prevent movement when the system
eters are determined by the manufacturer. The National
pressure is removed. Applying an overload to a cylinder with
Fluid Power Association and API provide industry standards
counterbalance valves will cause excessive pressure unless
which may be used to judge or compare hydraulic cylinders.
the counterbalance valve includes a pressure control sec-
Operators should take care to ensure they are familiar with
tion.
the rated working load limits and do not exceed those limits.
The potential for pressure intensification exists during
Purpose/Use system operation. For example, on the rod end of a cylin-
Hydraulic cylinders are a compact means providing variable der when the cylinder is extended with the rod end port
straight line force and movement. Hydraulic valves provide blocked. Quick, intense over-pressure situations may

Figure RP-11: Drillstring hoist cylinders on an

offshore rig. Courtesy Schramm Inc.

occur if a telescopic cylinder raising a gravity load mis- Hydraulic fluid cleanliness is a major factor in the life of the
stages during operation. The hydraulic control system usu- cylinder and all parts of the hydraulic system. Regular re-
ally contains pressure protective devices, but improper op- placement and/or cleaning of hydraulic filters are very im-
eration or adjustment can cause an over pressure situation. portant. The fluid reservoir should be checked regularly for
If an over-pressure situation occurs the cylinder and all pip- water content. Time span between water content checks
ing connections should be inspected for damage before pro- should be based on experience. A sample of the fluid should
ceeding with normal operation. be checked for contamination on a monthly basis.
Maintenance Slips
Cylinder maintenance is necessary since the rod and rod A pipe slip is a general term applied to specialty equipment
seals are exposed to environmental factors, such as mois- in the oilfield. Their chief purpose is to hold pipe stationary
ture, dirt, or salt and the internal (piston) seals are exposed while it is in the vertical orientation. Slip assemblies range
to any contamination in the hydraulic fluid. The cylinder in size to accommodate very small diameters of pipe to very
supplier should provide recommended inspection activities large casing diameters.
and inspection frequency. Industry standards also provide
inspection information. Due to the importance of rig oper- Slips are used to hold the pipe steady at the rig floor while
ation (and to prevent costly downtime), cylinders in regular the hook, top drive, elevator, casing running tool or other
use should be visually inspected daily. Cylinders used occa- implement assembles or disassembles the string. Once the
sionally should be inspected before each use. At a minimum, lowering of the pipe has stopped, the slips are set or seated
cylinder maintenance should occur every 10,000 hours. into a bowl. The traveling equipment is then lowered caus-
ing the slips to hold the weight of the pipe string as the die
Daily inspection should include: teeth engage with the pipe. Then the pipe is released from
1.• Inspect the rod seal and all cylinder piping for evidence the hook or elevator and the hook moves up to pick up the
of leakage. Replace the seal and gland bushings and next stand of pipe to assemble into the string or vise-versa,
stop the piping leaks; if tripping out of the hole.
2.• Inspect the cylinder rod for scratches or nicks. Smooth
any sharp edge that will catch on another sharp edge Slips typically conform to a “cone in cone” design where
such as the side of a wooden pencil; there is an internal cone and an external conic bowl. In the
3.• Check the cylinder rod for evidence of uneven wear
most commonly used, the split cone configuration, the drill
around the diameter or along the length. Determine the
pipe is centered in a segmented cone of wedges. Those
cause of uneven wear and make the necessary repairs.
A bent rod or binding due to installation problems are conically shaped wedges are supported inside a conically
probable causes; shaped bowl, such that downward force “wedges” the cone
4.• Inspect the cylinder barrel for dents or damage. Further segments between supporting bowl and the outside of the
investigation is required when dents or damage are pipe. Once “wedged” into place, the segments transfer the
found; load of the pipe into the supporting bowl and into the sub-
5.• If the cylinder includes longitudinal tension rods, the structure. In the split bowl design, the conical bowl is seg-
rods should be inspected for damage, bending or signs mented and the inner cone remains solid. The inner cone
of uneven tension. Major repair is necessary when a now pushes the segmented bowl sections outward against
tension rod problem is found; the inside of a pipe.
6.• Review the cylinder installation area for problems:
kinked or damaged hose or piping, litter or misplaced Slips are intended to hold the pipe at the rig floor. The size
equipment that will prevent proper cylinder movement and capacity of the slips must match the pipe being used
during operation. Replace damaged parts and remove
but as the depth of the hole increases the weight to be held
obstructions;
increases. Slips have not historically required a rating. They-
7.• Check couplings, particularly quick-connect couplings,
for proper connection. Clean, repair or replace as have been and continue to be used very successfully on land
necessary to assure a proper connection. rigs and in some shallow water applications. However, the
load capacity of slips continues to increase as the depth of
Major inspection includes the daily inspection plus com- wells or the depth of the water for offshore drilling opera-
plete disassembly, magnetic particle inspection of suspect- tions continues to increase. To enable the current ultra-deep
ed cracks, inspection of all threaded joints and review for water drilling and continued drilling as the wells get deeper
excessive wear. Replace all seals and wear bushings, repair and deeper, slips and related spider systems are now avail-
or replace damaged or worn parts, and pressure test in ac- able at 1,000 tons and beyond, to 1,250 ton and even 1,500
cordance with the original manufacturer’s test procedure. ton.

or ”teeth” that actually bite into the surface of the pipe to

Split Cone Split Bowl hold it in place. The die inserts can be easily removed and
replaced as necessary due to wear or if the teeth break. The
dies stack up on a shelf at the bottom or toe of the slip sec-
tions.
The dies are an integral component of the slips performing

the function of holding the pipe in place as an assembly. The
dies typically conform to one of three shapes:
••Narrow;
••Square;
••V-shape.
The narrow dies are probably the most common, about 1 1/8
in. by 2 ¾ in. long. The outside face is flat and smooth. The
inside face is cylindrical to match the OD of the pipe. The
slips with these particular dies contain columns of teeth that
actually bite the surface of the pipe. Looking down on the
top of the die the sides are dovetailed, fitting into dovetailed
grooves in the front face of the slips. Usually these dies are
placed in multiple columns with narrow sections of the slip
body between them. An increasing number of columns are
used as the OD of the pipe increases. The length of the col-
umns increases with anticipated load.
Near square dies are common and often wider by compari-

son to the narrow die configuration. They fit into a pocket in
the face of the slip body. Along the center of the front face of
the slips is a deeper dovetailed groove. Toward the sides of
the slip, the edge of the slip body has been cut back to form
Figure RP-12: Split-cone and split-bowl slips. Slips are intended to the pocket. The side of the pocket is tapered similar to one
hold the pipe at the rig floor. The size and capacity of the slips must
match the pipe being used but as the depth of the hole increases
side of a dovetailed groove. These dies are then laid in pairs,
the weight to be held increases. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco. one die on each side of the central dovetail groove. There
are typically four or five pairs of these dies per section of
Slip components slips. A rod with cross section like a bow tie is pushed down
Slips generally consist of large wedge-shaped pieces, re- between the two stacks of dies to hold them in place. These
placeable wear inserts (dies), along with some method of dies are cut from a tubular section. Teeth are milled into the
connecting the slips together so that they work as an as- inside face forming columns and are sized to match the OD
sembly. Many slip assemblies are manually operated using of the pipe to be held. The outside face of the die is smooth
handles for lifting the slips in and out of engagement at the and seats against the face of the pocket in the slip.
conical bowl. Some slips are designed to operate hydrauli-
“V” shaped dies have columns of teeth on the two inside
cally when lifting the slips in and out of engagement, and so
faces that form the “V”. The outside face is typically either
will have fittings and linkages to facilitate attachment to the
a male or female dovetail or may be any other similar lock-
hydraulic cylinders and support assembly. Control of the hy-
ing method. These dies work by creating two wide lines of
draulic systems is often integrated into the driller’s control
contact where the teeth imbed deeply at the point of con-
system so that the driller can seamlessly control the slips
tact between the OD of the pipe and the flats of the various
and the elevator to most efficiently coordinate the setting
“V”s of the slip system. “V” shaped dies are often used in
and releasing of the slips as the pipe is stopped from running
slip systems that have a higher number of slip sections than
in the hole or being pulled out of the hole.
three man slips.
The number of wedge sections in the slip assembly is pro-
Along with the common slips intended for handling drill
portional to the diameter of the pipe and the length of the
pipe, there are also slips designed for handling casing. These
slip segments is often proportional to the expected load.
slips are typically a higher number of narrow sections. Usu-
The replaceable die inserts are machined with sharp ridges
ally each section is only as wide as a single column of dies

and the gripping device may be traditional dies or it may be

a form of “button” die. Sections are added/removed as the
OD of the casing to be handled changes. The assembly is ar-
ranged so the length comes as close as possible to reaching
all the way around the casing without any attempt to over-
lap. The taper on casing slips has traditionally been 2in. per
foot per side or 4 in. of diametrical taper per foot (approxi-
mately 9.47° of taper from the centerline of the tubular). For
casing slips a large number of die sizes and bowl diameters A 5-in. slips with
5-in. inserts has
are necessary to enable the proper and safe handling of all proper contour
the casing sizes from 36 in. down to 7 in. In the modern era,
especially offshore where the casing strings are very heavy
and rig time is extremely expensive, casing slips have been
replaced by automated spiders or mock rotary devices to al-
low the casing strings to be assembled more efficiently and
safely.
Slip damage
Damage from inappropriate use or overload subjects slips to
a variety of failures.. The most common of these is to “blow B 5-in. slip used on Excessive stress
out the toes”; where the stack of dies is damaged in the vi- larger drill pipe, placed on slip
collars or tool segments
cinity of the support shelf for the dies. This damage ranges joints
from shearing through to breaking the entire toe off. In either
case, the event can lead to “fish” in the hole (die fragments),
along with damage to the slips and the potential of dropping
the pipe string. Both maintenance and proper use are critical
to the long life and safe use of slips.
The right size slips must always be used for the size pipe
being handled. Figure RP-13 shows the effects of using the
wrong size of rotary slips on the drill pipe. Slips that are
smaller than the pipe will damage the pipe and the corners C 5-in. slips on 5-in. pipe –
of slips as well as risk dropping a string of pipe. Slips that are after slip has been
Ribs
used on larger pipe,
too large will not contact the pipe all the way around. This slip will bend back and
Cracked
risks dropping the pipe and destroys the center part of the could possilby break
slip’s gripping surface. and fall into the hole.
In order to carry the load evenly over the entire length of Figure RP-13: "B" and "C" show effects of using rotary slips
engagement the inserts must all be the same thickness. Be- on wrong size pipe, compared to "A". IADC drawing.
low is a depiction of what happens when this is not followed.
New or “like-new” inserts carry a concentrated load and Do not let the slips “ride” on the pipe while the pipe is being
deeply penetrate the pipe. Re-sharpened inserts carry no pulled out of the hole. This practice accelerates the wear on
load. Inserts that carry a concentrated load are forced into the dies. It also risks having the slip ejected from the master
slip bodies resulting in permanent damage to slips. bushing bowl when a tool joint comes through and causing
possible injury to personnel.
The downward motion of the drill pipe must be stopped
with the drawworks brakes, not with the slips. The drawing Be careful not to catch the tool joint box in the slips when
shows the effects of stopping the motion of the pipe with the driller slacks off. This often happens when coming out of
slips. This can occur when the floor hands are not careful to the hole and the driller does not pick up high enough for the
set the slips at the proper time when the driller has stopped slips to fall around the pipe properly. This can ruin the slips,
the pipe or if the person at the drillers console sets the au- damage the tool joint box and damage the body of the pipe.
tomated slips too soon. In both cases the slips “catch” the
pipe, bringing it to a very sudden stop creating very high Slip care and maintenance
forces on the toes of the slips and on the pipe. There are a number of documents that demonstrate various
conditions of wear that lead to damage to the slips, the bowl,

New or like-new gripping

elements carry concentrated load
and deeply penetrate the pipe.
Dull or resharpened
gripping elements carry
no load.
Gripping elements which

carry concentrated load are
forced into slip bodies
resulting in permanent Permanent
damage to slips. deformation
Figure RP-14: Never use re-sharpened Figure RP-15: Stop the downward motion of drillpipe with
gripping elements. IADC drawing. the drawworks brakes, not with the slips. Using slips for this
purpose can permanently deform the pipe. IADC drawing.
or the tubular being handled. Today, slips can reliably handle •• Place a straight edge on the backs of the slips and on
the very high string loads necessary for modern ultra-deep the face of the slips. If the slips are bent or worn the
wells and wells drilled in ultra-deep water offshore. Despite straight edge will not make full surface contact with the
Results from Stopping Pipe with Slips
the advancements that have
FIGURE E2-7; Newer been made
use resharpened to enable
gripping the slips,
elements. slips. The backs of the slips should be straight and
it is still necessary to sustain good operating and mainte- smooth. Excessively worn slips should be replaced;
•• Magnetic particle inspection or inspection by similar
nance practices. To ensure safe sustained operations with
method should be made to detect fatigue cracking in
slips it is essential to inspect the slips on a regular basis. Any
the slip bodies, webs and toes of the slips. If cracks are
cracks that may be present are possible locations of cata- detected, the slips should be removed from service and
strophic failures while the slips are in use. destroyed to prevent future use;
•• Check the insert slots for damage or excessive wear. If
Operationally these include but are not limited to: there is 1/8 in. to 3/16 in. clearance between the back of
•• Visual inspection; the inserts and the insert slot, the slips should be
•• Complete disassembly of the slips; replaced. With worn insert slots there is danger of
•• Cleaning of the slips and bowl; losing the inserts down the hole.
•• Dimensional checks of the slips and bowls;
•• Die penetrant or magnetic particle inspection; Slip tests should be performed every three months. This test
•• Regular inspection and replacement of the dies as they is important to determine slip wear and/or master bushing
wear or as teeth break off;
wear.
•• Lubrication of the slips in the bowl;
•• Inspection of the toes and other critically loaded Spare parts are readily available to repair all slips of recent
surfaces.
manufacture. Normally the inserts, dies or liners are the
parts most frequently requiring replacement. Never inter-
Inspection of drill pipe slips mix new inserts with worn or resharpened inserts. Section
The slips should be physically inspected before every trip.
B4 of this manual provides additional information concern-
If the inserts are not secure, remove the slips from service
ing re-sharpened inserts.
until they can be repaired. If cracks are detected in the slip
bodies, they should be removed from service and destroyed To maintain fully functional slips, they must be kept clean,
to prevent future use. they must not be abused, the hinge pins must be well lubri-
cated and the backs, before use, are fully coated with good
The slips should be more thoroughly checked every three
quality anti-seize compound.
months:

Routine care and maintenance will extend the

service life of the drill pipe slips, protect the
drill pipe and reduce the danger of sticking
slip; Figure RP-16 indicates points of mainte-
nance and lubrication.
API slip standards

Historically, slips and rotary spiders have had
very limited specification control on them.
Over several years leading up to 2013, a task
group within API Subcommittee 8 has been
updating the specifications for slips and spi- Slip backs
will bend
ders. This update is set to become a part of
the standard in 2014. There are several note-
worthy changes to API Specification 7K as a
result of this update. In brief these are the fol-
lowing:
•• The first piece/assembly for equipment
designed for over 500 ton must have a
Design Verification Test (DVT) to be Figure RP-16: Setting slips on tool joint. IADC drawing.
eligible for an API monogram.
•• Each future piece/assembly must have a
Production Proof Test (PPT) to
demonstrate ongoing integrity of the
manufactured parts/assembly.
Setting Slips on Tool Joint
•• Once tested for rating above 500 ton, a
group of pieces assembled into a slip or
Slips
spider must stay together as a group. If
alternates are inserted or sections taken
out then the new group must have a new Clean and
lubricate
PPT done. (This does not include the lock assembly
replacement of dies as they wear.)
•• The taper of the slips and bowls is no Retaining
pin
longer specified by the standard. Instead
the specification states that the taper of
the slips and the bowl must be marked on Lock
the top surface so the users can read it Eccentric

and verify that the tapers match. pin
•• The DVT is now a two part test, first,

strength verification similar to that Keep these
surfaces clean
To replace the drive pin
bushing: Torch cut 2
required in API 8C. This is followed by a and lubricated places 180° apart
and drive out from
“fitness for purpose test” on a tubular to the drain hole
demonstrate how the slips impart

stresses on the tubular being handled.
Bowl Dress surfaces of
slips and bowls
Elevators
Elevators attach to pipe for movement about
the rig floor and pipe storage areas. Single Figure RP-17: Points of lubrication and maintenance for slips. IADC drawing.
joint elevators are designed to transfer a sin-
gle joint or single stand of drill pipe or casing. secure the tubular within the elevator, and to transfer the
Higher capacity elevators usually work in an area on or ad- load to the elevator body. Most elevators have the ability to
jacent to the well center line. Elevators are attached to the open and close around the pipe allowing the pipe to enter
tubular by tool joint or collar interface, or by slip assemblies the elevator from the side (side door, center latch elevators,
which grip the tubular. Elevators that interface with the tool split or gated). Solid body elevators do not open and must
joint or collar utilize a load shoulder to transfer the load to be installed over the end of the tubular. Elevator Spiders are
the elevator. Slip type elevators utilize a wedge concept to also installed over the end of the tubular, but incorporate a

split arrangement, which allow them to be occasionally

removed from the tubular being run without the
requirement to lift and remove over the uppermost
section of the tubular. Setting the slips can be
performed manually or via pneumatic or hydraulic
  controls actuated either locally or remotely. They are
attached to the main hoisting system via elevator links.
•• Slip Type Elevators utilize a wedge concept to secure
the tubular within the elevator body. They typically
include a slip setting ring which contacts either the
upset or the collar, manually setting the slips. They are
also available in mechanized versions allowing the
  operator to actuate the slips locally or remotely. These
are typically limited to use on smaller casing sizes,
tubing and limited string weights.
•• Solid Body Elevators consist of a single piece body
design and may or may not incorporate slips. They are
designed, and primarily intended, for single function
applications. These elevators must be installed over the
  tubular. Because of their simple design, they can
accommodate higher load ratings and usually facilitate
horizontal applications such as riser running.
Operation
Elevators may be operated manually or by power. Manual
 operation requires the assistance of personnel to latch and
unlatch the elevators via latch handles on the elevator. Pow-
Figure RP-18:  Single Joint Elevator,  Bottleneck Elevator,
er operation allows, remote or local elevator operation by
 Square Shoulder Elevator,  Elevator/ Spider as Elevator,
the driller or other assigned personnel via pneumatic or hy-
 Elevator/Spider as Spider,  Slip Type Elevator,
draulic power. Power operated elevators may be integrated
 Solid Body Elevator. All courtesy Forum Energy Technologies.
into the rig control system.
split or gated design facilitating intermittent opening to in-
stall or remove pipe from the side. Elevators with hinged doors (center latch and side door) al-
low the pipe to be easily removed at each connection point.
There are several types of elevators. Refer to Figure RP-18: Slip type or gated type elevators are intended for occasional
•• Single Joint Elevators are designed to transport single opening and are usually used for handling casing. Today’s
joints of tubulars. They are usually attached to a elevators all contain at least one redundant safety system
winches or racking systems, while some are attached preventing the elevator from opening via a single command
beneath the main elevator and hoisted by the
or when loaded. Bottleneck, square shoulder, single joint,
drawworks.
and slip type elevators facilitate rapid removal and installa-
•• Bottleneck Elevators provide a tapered load shoulder
that interfaces with the taper of the tool joint and tion from each connection as they incorporate a hinged door
transfers the load to the elevators. The load shoulder design.
may be bored directly into the elevator body.
Alternatively, some elevators include interchangeable Capacities/Limitations
bushings incorporating the load shoulder and facilitate Each elevator carries a specific maximum load rating as pre-
extended capability. Bottleneck elevators are attached scribed by the manufacturer. Examples of load ratings on
to the main hoisting system via elevator links. drill pipe include load ratings up to 1,500 short ton. Howev-
•• Square Shoulder Elevators provide a flat surface that er, drilling environment is rapidly becoming more demand-
interfaces with a collar or square shouldered tool joint. ing and we will likely see higher applicable load ratings as
While some single joint elevators contain a square
a result. In certain circumstances, available contact area at
shoulder, the term typically applies to elevators that are
the interface point, may limit the elevator’s rating. For an
designed to carry the full weight of the string. They are
attached to the main hoisting system via elevator links. idea of how bore and tool-joint diameters affect the load rat-
•• Elevator/ Spiders are designed to run casing and tubing. ing, see Figure RP-19.
They incorporate a slip assembly device inside the
frame, using a wedge concept to set the slips, thus Special caution must be used when the tool joint or collar
transferring the load. They typically include a gate or O.D. is minimally larger than the bore of the elevator. If there

is any doubt regarding the ratio of the O.D. to the elevator

bore, contact the manufacturer for clarification on load rat- Min. req’d tool joint diameter (in.)
ings.
8
Inspection and Maintenance
7
Maintenance
Practice safety at all times when servicing the equipment
and use approved safety methods, material and tools. Al- 6
ways wear protective gear for eyes, head and hands.
An example of scope and frequency follows. 5

s
ton tons
Lubricants: Lubricate the elevator regularly during the usage 500 35
0
ns
and storage to prevent corrosion. Use an extreme pressure, 4 0 to
multi-purpose, lithium base grease of no. 1 or no. 2 consis- s 15
0 ton
tency and multi-weight motor oil. When the elevator is in 25
n s
use, lubricate the elevator according to the following sched- 3 to
0
ule: 10
»» Daily: 2
•• Grease hinge pin(s);
•• Lubricate latch pin and latch lock pin; 2 3 4 5 6
•• Grease underside of lifting ears; Actual center bore (in.)
•• Grease bore and seating surface;
•• Check link block bolt f/nut and cotter pin.
»» Weekly: Figure RP-19: Effect of bore and tool-joint diameter on load rating.
•• Brush grease on springs;
•• Grease link retainer fasteners; ed for loads at rated load capacity. Manufacturers provide
•• Check link block bolts for nuts and cotter pins. additional safety features as a standard part of the product.
Optional safety and operating features may be available at
Inspection the discretion of the manufacturer and the buyer.
To ensure optimum performance from elevators, the follow-
ing checks should be performed once a week: When using elevators, please be aware of the following:
•• Inspect hinge pins, latch pins, and latch lock pins and •• Elevators are manufactured to operate at rated capacity
mating components to insure that they remain in in a vertical direction. When used to pick or lay down a
accordance with the manufacturer’s maximum wear SINGLE JOINT of pipe in a non-vertical position, the
tolerance. These may hinder proper opening and operator MUST ensure that the latch, safety latch &
closing of the door and latch and latch lock latch springs are in good working order;
engagement; •• Prior to hoisting with the elevator from any position, it is
•• Check for proper latch and latch lock spring necessary to ensure that the elevator is completely
performance; installed around the pipe and that the latches are
•• Check for proper operation of latch stop mechanism; properly engaged. Failure to do this could result in
Latch should not stop against the body when engaged; serious injury;
•• Check springs for damage, deformation and lack of •• If there is any question as to the safe operation
tension; condition of an elevator, it must be removed from
•• Check link block bolts, nuts and cotter pins. service until a review can be completed;
•• Be sure to use the handles provided (when applicable)
API RP 8B provides a procedure for developing an inspec- for operating the elevator. Keep hands and fingers clear
tion and maintenance procedure covering both extent and of the elevator bore when installing the elevator on the
frequency requirements. tool joint;
•• Oversized pipe could cause difficulties in latching or
Safety possibly result in the elevator latching partially or not at
all;
The design safety factor mandated for API monogramed
•• Undersized pipe could cause uneven stress distribution,
elevators or elevators produced to a recognized standard,
inadequate load bearing area, or possibly allow the tool
assures the user that the elevator was designed and test- joint to slip through the elevator;

•• Inspect the bore, latch, latch pin and hinge pin regularly should immediately be taken out of service and sent to the
for wear to be sure the tool joint does not slip down into original equipment manufacturer for further inspection
the bore of the elevator under pressure, placing strain and/ or evaluation for potential repair. Likewise, if indica-
on the latch in an improper manner. Proper bore codes tions or cracks are found in ANY inspection, the links should
and dimensions are provided in current operations and immediately be taken out of service and sent to the origi-
maintenance manuals;
nal equipment manufacturer for further inspection and/ or
•• Make sure link block bolts are retained w/ nuts and
evaluation for potential repair.
cotter pins.
Using elevator links unsafely consititues a serious danger to
Elevator links (bails) the entire rig and crew. When installing links and/or attach-
Elevator links are used to connect the top drive or hook on a ing elevators, all retention methods supplied by the OEM
drilling rig, to the elevators and are used in pairs. In addition must be fully engaged and secure. Failure to do so could re-
to serving as a direct connection providing hoisting capabil- sult in serious injury or death.
ity to the elevators, they also provide the flexibility required
to access tubular in various positions on the rig floor. Crown block, hook and sheaves
The hoisting system on a drilling rig comprises several com-
Elevator links are typically made of forged material. Some
ponents that work together to lift heavy lengths of drilling
elevator link components are welded together in a loop ar-
pipe and casing. Combined, these components create a
rangement. These links are intended for lighter loads such
block-and-tackle system that can lift loads as heavy as 2 mil-
as well servicing. Links intended for heavier loads and criti-
lion lb. The crown block is the piece of equipment at the very
cal applications are typically forged from a single piece. The
top of the mast or derrick. It consists of a system of sheaves
single piece forging consists of upper and lower eyes con-
that distribute the wireline, and its configuration varies from
nected by a shaft or rod. The upper and lower eyes are usu-
rig to rig depending on the placement of the equipment be-
ally having different size openings to facilitate connection to
low the crown.
the top drive or drilling hook and the elevator.
Crown blocks are systems of sheave assemblies, so the con-
Elevator links are installed first onto either the top drive (sol-
cept of operation is very similar to that of traveling blocks.
id body elevator) or hook which is connected directly to the
Sheaves are stacked between pedestals, and end caps are
travelling block. Once connected and secured, they can be
bolted against the shaft ends in order to squeeze the pedes-
hoisted to facilitate installation of the elevator onto the low-
tals against each other and preload the sheave bearings. The
er eye (or section).
pedestals are usually bolted to the crown, and the place-
Elevator links are available in various sizes and lengths. They ment of them depends on where the deadline anchor and
are available in short ton ratings from 50 ton to 1,380 ton drawworks are located.
and , in lengths from 30 ft to 55 ft (longer links are available
Crown blocks vary considerably in layout; however, there
upon request). API has established standardized dimen-
are three components which are found in every crown block:
sions and ratings for elevator links (API Specification 8C,
a fastline, a cluster, and a deadline assembly. The wireline
Drilling and Production Hoisting Equipment).
wraps around the deadline assembly at a very slow speed
Although not always the case, the rated capacity is typical- coming from the anchor, it then goes down to the traveling
ly determined by the remaining cross sectional dimension block and up to the cluster several times. The bigger the size
of the lower eye at the interface point of the elevator. Spe- of the rig the more sheaves are on the cluster assembly, as
cial attention should be given to this area. The American more lines give more lifting capacity/hookload capacity.
Petroleum Institute recommends regular inspection and The last line from the traveling block finally comes up to
has established inspection categories (API Recommend- the fastline assembly and down to the drawworks at a high
ed Practice 8B, Recommended Practice for Procedures speed. The drawworks feeds or takes in the wireline as the
for Inspections, Maintenance, Repair and Remanufacture traveling block moves up and down the mast.
of Hoisting Equipment). Daily category I inspections, as
prescribed in API Recommended Practice 8B, are there- Capacities and limitations
fore recommended. When in use, Category II inspections The crown block must hold a similar or equal load to the trav-
should occur weekly, Category III inspections should occur eling block, which means crown blocks are typically rated
semi-annually and Category IV inspections to be conducted anywhere between 100-1,000 tons. It is important to note
annually. In the event sufficient wear has occurred, reduc- that these load ratings are for static loading. Any additional
ing the cross sectional dimension of any section, to below forces due to dynamic loading or impact must be taken into
that of the minimum value in API Specification 8C, the links account when specifying a safe hoisting load for the rig.

Figure RP-20: Example system of sheaves that distribute Figure RP-21: Crown with fastline sheaves and cluster
the wireline, part of the crown/block/hook/sheave sheaves. Courtesy TM Engineering PLLC.
combination that act like a block and tackle to hoist loads
as heavy as 2 million lb. Courtesy American Block.
and crown cluster sheaves multiple times (Figures RP-22
Inspection and maintenance and RP-23). Once the drill line has left the last cluster sheave
Like all hoisting equipment, periodic inspection of the prima- located on the crown, the drill line goes back to the travel-
ry-load carrying components for cracks, damage or wear is ing block, then returns to the crown and over the deadline
vital for safety and the proper operation of the equipment. sheave. From the deadline sheave the drill line travels to
Scheduled maintenance should also be performed accord- the deadline anchor and is fastened at the deadline anchor,
ing to the OEM maintenance schedule and API 8B. Some of which is either attached to the mast or the drill floor. From
the commonly replaced or inspected items include: Bear- the deadline anchor, the remainder of the drill line comes
ings, seals, and sheaves. from the supply reel, typically stored off to the side of the rig.
For further details on wire rope, see the Wire Rope chapter
Safety of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.
All crown blocks used in the oil industry are designed and
tested to stringent specifications such as API Spec 4F. It is Structures
important to not exceed the OEM-rated load during opera- To provide context regarding placement and use of rotary
tion of the equipment. and pipehandling equipment, this chapter contains a sum-
mary of drilling structures distilled from the separate Struc-
Control of dropped objects is vital to a safe working environ-
tures Chapter in the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition For
ment. Proper retention on all fasteners is critical.
a complete discussion of drilling structures, please refer to
that complete chapter.
Drill line
The drill line is a key part of the operating system. Drill line Drilling structures are divided into several different cat-
is made from steel wire rope (Independent Wire Rope Core egories. The primary purpose of the drill floor structure is
or IWRC), typically from 7/8 in. to 2 in. diameter. The size of to support the mast or derrick, rotary table, pipe setback,
the drill line in the reaving system, along with the number drawworks, driller’s cabin or console, and other important
of parts of drill line, determines allowable hookload (Figure drilling related equipment. Major load carrying elements of
RP-21). The drill line is used to lift the traveling block. On the drill floor are the rotary beams, drawworks frame and
a mast or derrick, the drill line travels from the drawworks setback frame. Other frames and supports are located on
(with several dead wraps around the drum), directly to the the drill floor as required to support various drilling equip-
fastline sheave. It’s common for the drill line then to travel ment. The main purpose of the substructure is to support
from the fastline sheave to the traveling block. The path of the drill floor and mast during operations or support a mast
the drill line then goes between the traveling block sheaves during mast raising. The primary loads applied to the sub-

Figure RP-22: Traveling block. Courtesy TM Engineering PLLC. Figure RP-23: Traveling block reeved to cluster
sheaves. Courtesy TM Engineering PLLC.
structure are through the hookload located in the crown of various equipment. They also support lights to illuminate
the derrick or mast, rotary table, environmental, pipe set- the drill floor, illuminate the pipe rack, and provide aircraft
back, and drilling equipment. The substructure also com- warning and navigation markers. The main structural steel
monly provides a means for the drill floor to skid or move in of a derrick can range from 147 ft-215 ft tall. The base dimen-
order to accommodate various well locations. sions typically range from 30 ft x 30 ft for a single derrick on
a jackup to 40 ft x 80 ft for a dual derrick on a drillship. Der-
Derricks and Masts ricks are typically used offshore, although there are a few
Derricks are four-sided structures used to support the onshore. A derrick is not very mobile; therefore few are used
downhole drilling loads from tools, drill pipe, and casing. onshore today.
Masts are three-sided structures used to support the down-
hole drilling loads from tools, drill pipe, and casing. Der- The wellbore drilling loads are applied to the derrick through
ricks are typically offshore structures, uses on drillships, the crown. At the crown, several sheaves are engaged with
semisubmersibles, and jackups. Masts are found on both wire rope that reeve to a traveling block. The ends of the wire
onshore and offshore rigs. Masts and derricks are typically rope terminate at the drawworks at one end and usually a
connected to a drill floor structure, although common older deadline anchor at the other end. It is possible to have each
mast designs connect to the basebox, directly supported by end of the wire rope terminate at a drawworks. As the draw-
the ground. works spools and unspools, load is applied to the crown and
through the derrick to the drill floor and substructure. The
»» Derricks origin of this load is what is suspended from the traveling
Derricks are four-sided tower like structures that support equipment. This load could be several thousand ft of drill
loads during oilfield drilling (Figure RP-24). The typical pipe or casing. Also, downhole tools for measuring well for-
drilling loads are from the hookload (the support of loads in mations, removing foreign objects, or cutting casing or drill
the wellbore comprising drill pipe, casing, traveling equip- pipe apply loads to the derrick.
ment or tools), pipe setback in the derrick, environmental
loads (wind and vessel motion) and accessory equipment Another major function of the derrick is to support drill pipe
loads (pipehandling machines, casing-tabbing boards, etc.) and/or casing that is not in the wellbore. During the process
Derricks allow access for personnel to inspect or operate of drilling, drill pipe will be inserted into and out of the well-

Figure RP-25: Derrick racking board with drill

pipe. Courtesy TM Engineering PLLC.
bore several times. As a time saver, stands of drill pipe are

racked back in the derrick in a racking board (Figure RP-25).
The pipe applies horizontal load to the derrick from pipe
lean, wind on the pipe, and rig motion. Some derricks have a
casing-setback area, which speeds casing running. The cas-
ing inputs similar loads into the derrick as drill pipe.
Several other pieces of equipment are located in the derrick.

This includes, but is not limited to pipehandling equipment,
navigation equipment, traveling equipment controls, mud
standpipes, cement standpipes, casing running equipment,
maintenance platforms, maintenance access baskets, dead
line anchors, degasser ventlines, and weather sensing de-
vices.
»» Masts
Masts are three-sided tower-like structures that support
loads during oilfield drilling, as shown in Figure RP-26. The
typical drilling loads are from the hookload (the support of
loads in the wellbore that consist of drill pipe, casing, trav-
eling equipment, or tools), pipe setback in the mas environ-
mental loads (wind and vessel motion, if applicable), and
accessory equipment loads such as casing stabbing boards,
etc. Masts have access for personnel to inspect or operate
various drilling equipment. They also support lights to illu-
minate the drill floor, illuminate the pipe rack, provide air-
craft warning, and navigation markers. The main structural
steel of a mast can range from 105 ft tall to 185 ft tall. The
base dimensions have a variety of range from 12 ft x 8 ft to
30 ft x 35 ft. Masts are primarily used onshore, although a
number are used offshore, primarily on fixed platform rigs. A
mast is typically very mobile; therefore, masts dominate the
onshore drilling industry.
As with the derrick, wellbore drilling loads are applied to the

mast through the crown. At the crown, several sheaves are
engaged with wire rope that reeve to a traveling block. The
Figure RP-24: Drilling derrick. Courtesy ends of the wire rope terminate at a drawworks on one end
Loadmaster Derrick & Equipment Inc.

and usually a deadline anchor on the other end. It is possi-

ble to have each end of the wire rope terminate at a sep-
arate drawworks, but not typical on a mast. As the draw-
works spools and unspools, load is applied to the crown and
through the mast to the drill floor and substructure. The
origin of this load is what is suspended from the traveling
equipment. This load could be several thousand feet of drill
pipe or casing. Also, downhole tools for measuring well for-
mations, removing foreign objects, or cutting casing or drill
pipe apply loads to the mast.
Another major function of the mast is to support drill pipe

and/or casing that is not in the wellbore. During drilling, drill
pipe will be run into and out of the wellbore several times.
As a time saver, stands of drill pipe are racked externally to
the mast in a racking board (Figure RP-27). The pipe applies
horizontal load to the mast from pipe lean, wind on the pipe,
and rig motion. In some cases, masts have a casing setback
area which speeds up the process of running casing into the
wellbore. Casing loads on the mast are similar to drill pipe.
Several other pieces of equipment are located in the mast.

These include, but are not limited to, pipehandling equip-
ment, navigation equipment, traveling equipment controls,
mud standpipes, cement standpipes, casing-running equip-
ment, maintenance platforms, maintenance access baskets,
dead line anchors, degasser ventlines, and weather sensing
devices. The mast caps off the mobile drilling rig package.
Rotary swivel
The hoisting system on a drilling rig comprises several com-
ponents that work together to lift heavy lengths of drill pipe
and casing. Combined, all of these components create a
Figure RP-26: Drilling mast. Courtesy
Loadmaster Derrick & Equipment Inc. block-and-tackle system that can lift loads as heavy as 2 mil-
lion lb. The swivel is a piece that hangs directly beneath the
traveling block and directly above the Kelly drive (Figure RP-
28). It constitutes the connection point between the rotating
drillstring and the stationary traveling block. The swivel is
also the point where mud is pumped into the drillstring. The
swivel must hold the hoisting load and the pressure from the
drilling fluid while the drillstring rotates in operation.
Key components of the rotary swivel include:

•• Gooseneck: This is the connection for the drilling fluid.
It is rated to hold 5,000-7,500 psi of pressure and the
typical hose connection provided is 3 in.-4 in. female
line pipe thread;
•• Thrust bearing: This bearing provides the point that the
drillstring rotates about. API defines a swivel bearing
load rating to quantify the dynamic load rating of the
thrust bearing;
•• Stem: This piece rotates along with the drillstring. It
Figure RP-27: Mast racking board with drill pipe. must be strong enough to support the hoisting load and
Courtesy Loadmaster Derrick & Equipment Inc. the drilling fluid pressure. The connecting threads are
API threads, which are tapered threads made with high
precision to seal the drilling fluid from leaking;

•• Saver sub: This is an optional piece of manageable levels. This allows the line to
equipment connected to the bottom be clamped with a bronze insert in a clamp
of the swivel stem. It acts as a spare assembly secured with bolts that can be
part between the stem and the Kelly hand torqued.
drive. When the API threads wear out,
the sub can be replaced without To measure loads using the load cell, the
having to disassemble the stem from drum of the deadline anchor must be able
the swivel. to slightly rotate around a shaft due to the
torque of the drilling line wrapped around
Capacities and limitations it. The reaction to the wireline tension is
Rotary swivels are typically rated any- counter-reacted by a compression-type
where from 100-1,000 ton. It is import- hydraulic load cell mounted between base
ant to note that these load ratings are for frame and the drum. The pressure de-
static loading. Any additional forces due to veloped in the load cell is measured and
dynamic loading or impact must be taken transmitted to driller’s control panel.
into account when specifying a safe hoist-
ing load for the rig. Load Cell
The load cell is a simple hydraulic piston.
Inspection and maintenance It is filled with oil, and the force reacting
Like all hoisting equipment, periodic in- against the rotation of the drum pressuriz-
spection of the primary-load carrying es the system. The standard compression
components for cracks, damage or wear and tension load cells have known surface
is vital for safety and proper operation. areas of 50 sq in. and 36.7 sq in., respec-
Scheduled maintenance should also be tively. By knowing the reaction force and
performed according to the OEM mainte- surface area of the piston within the load
nance schedule and API 8B. Some of the cell, a pressure can be calculated for a giv-
commonly replaced or inspected items Figure RP-28: The swivel hangs en line tension. This is then converted to
include: Main thrust bearing, washpipe directly beneath the traveling
block and directly above the Kelly
hookload, depending on how many lines
assembly, and sealing O-rings. are strung.
drive. Courtesy American Block.
Safety Unlike traveling blocks, deadline an-

All swivels used in the oil industry are designed and tested chors vary widely in configuration. This is due to the huge
to stringent specifications such as API 8C. It is important to variety of rig layouts. Some of the configurations include:
not exceed the OEM-rated load during operation. floor-mounted tension; floor-mounted compression; mast-
or leg-mounted tension; mast- or leg-mounted compression
Control of dropped objects is vital to a safe working environ- (Figure RP-29, RP-30 and RP-31); rotating or non-rotating.
ment. Proper retention on all fasteners is critical. Although many different types of load cells are used to mea-
sure the load, only two are commonly used: the compres-
Deadline anchor sion (E551 style) and the tension (E-80 style).
The hoisting system on a drilling rig consists of several com-
ponents that work together to lift heavy lengths of drilling
pipe and casing. Combined, these components create a
block-and-tackle system, which traditionally includes a
drawworks, traveling block, crown block, swivel, hook and
the deadline anchor. Because the hoisting load for some of
the biggest rigs can exceed 2 million lb, it is important to
have an accurate measurement of the hookload.
The deadline anchor is designed to provide a practical meth-

od of securing the deadline and measuring line tension.
The deadline anchor must hold the deadline and not let it
slip during operation. This is accomplished by wrapping sev-
eral (usually 3-4) wraps of wireline around the drum. This
Figure RP-29: Standard floor-mounted tension-
creates significant friction and reduces the line tension to type anchor. Courtesy American Block.

Next Page
Figure RP-30: Leg-mounted compression- Figure RP-31: Rotating deadline anchor. Designed to
type anchor. Courtesy American Block. decrease slip and cut times. Courtesy American Block.
Traditionally, the conversion from pressure to hookload is ly rotate to pay drilling line in and out can drastically improve
done within the weight indicator. The weight indicator is a these times. This reduces the need for a worker to constant-
calibrated pressure gauge that reads hookload instead of ly handle the rope to ensure proper alignment. Because of
pressure. It does this by using a specially made Bourdon this, the line can be pulled through much more quickly. Fur-
tube that is tailored to the application. Any change in con- ther, eliminating manual efforts reduces the risk of injury.
figuration, number of lines strung or different type of an-
chor must result in a recalibration of the weight indicator. Capacities and limitations
As technology advances, the weight indicator is becoming a Typical deadline anchor installations depend on orientation,
redundant backup of a sophisticated electronic drilling con- hookload and number of lines strung. The combination of
trol system. All of these calculations can then be performed these factors determines the anchor’s rating, which is usu-
and calibrated to a much higher precision through electrical ally defined in kilo-pounds, or kip. The load ratings can vary
pressure transducers. from 20 kip-200 kip. It is important to note that these rated
loads are static values. It is essential that the rig designer
Operation and function take into account any dynamic loadings and ensure that they
Deadline anchors not only measure line tension and hold the do not exceed the rated load of the equipment.
deadline in place. They are also an integral component used
during routine rig maintenance. Slipping and cutting the The measured reading is very sensitive to external factors.
drilling line is a common occurrence on a rig. When the wire Fleet angles can impact the accuracy of the load-cell read-
rope reaches a certain ‘age,’ often measured in ton-miles, ing. Friction caused by deflector sheaves, improperly main-
that entire strung-up section needs to be replaced. The an- tained bearings, or any rubbing of the wireline can introduce
chor makes this possible by unclamping the deadline, pulling error into the system. Drillstring movement can produce
the required line through the system off of the supply spool, strange readings due to the friction of the sheaves. This
cutting the line at the drawworks and re-spooling. Ease of friction produces different tension values on each line in the
use and equipment familiarity is paramount for quick slip system while it is in motion. Only when the traveling equip-
and cut times. ment is stationary is the line tension in equilibrium.
To enhance efficiency, a key driver in today’s drilling oper- Inspection and maintenance
ations, technical advances have decreased time spent on As with all hoisting equipment, periodic inspection of the
routine tasks, such as slipping and cutting line. Rotating primary load-carrying components for cracks, damage, or
deadline anchors featuring an unlockable drum able to free- wear is vital for safety and proper operation. Scheduled

Previous Page
checks of mounting bolts and their torque should be em-

phasized. Scheduled maintenance should also be performed
according to the OEM maintenance schedule and API 8B.
Some of the commonly replaced or inspected items include
bearings, seals, load cells and bronze inserts.
Safety
All deadline anchors used in the oil industry are designed
and tested to stringent specifications, such as API 8C. All
deadline anchors are provided with the express understand-
ing that the end user is thoroughly familiar with the safe and
proper use and application of the product. It is recommend-
ed to follow the OEM’S deadline anchor manual for mainte-
nance and periodic inspections and frequency. Video RP-2: Video demonstrates components and operations of
a new-generation top drive. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
Control of dropped objects is vital to a safe working envi-
ronment. Proper retention on all fasteners and the proper
Other benefits include:
operation of all locks, latches, and guards is critical. •• A greater control of directional drilling tools;
•• Connections can be made-up or broken-out at any
Rotary equipment point the derrick/mast;
•• Ability to circulate mud and rotate while tripping, thus
Top drives reducing the risks of stuck drill pipe;
A top drive is a mechanical device on a drilling rig powered •• Forward & backreaming stands when tripping in & out
of hole;
by one or more electric or hydraulic motors that provide
•• Full rotation and circulation when tripping out of the
clockwise rotational force to the drillstring. The motors are
hole;
connected to the drillstring via a short section of pipe known •• Ability to pull drillstring through tight hole conditions.
as the “quill”. (The quill is sometimes called the main shaft.) •• Well control, instant stabbing and well shut-in ability at
The top drive usually has self-contained pipehandling, such any position in the derrick/mast when tripping or
as elevators, links and a backup wrench/clamp to assist drilling;
in making and breaking connections. The top drive is sus- •• Can be integrated with automatic driller, stick-slip
pended from a hook or the traveling block and moves up mitigation and toolface orientation automation.
and down in the derrick/mast. In some cases top drives can
be automated by using electronic and programmed drilling Types of top drives
parameters/algorithms offering rotational control and max- There are three basic types of top drives: DC electric, AC
imum torque, as well as the weight on the bit. electric, and hydraulically powered. They can be perma-
nently installed in the derrick/mast structure or mounted on
Top drives can be used in all environments and on all types a portable track (Figures RP-32 and RP-33).
of rigs, from truck-mounted units to the largest offshore
rig. Although top drives can be used on both onshore and Typical features of the fixed installation system include a top
offshore rigs, there are some differences between the two drive that runs on fixed guide rails within the derrick, perma-
in the way they are installed and run on a derrick or mast, nent services installations and integrated control systems.
the torque the provide and the load/torque they can handle. These installations are designed for a one-time install and
Overall the functionality of these units is almost identical in remain in the rig for years.
the role they play while drilling a wellbore.
Typical features of a portable top drive system include quick
Using a top drive eliminates the need for the traditional kelly rig-up and rig-down guide track, torque beams, service
and rotary table. It mechanizes the drilling process by reduc- loops, self-contained control systems and a stand-alone top
ing manual labor and associated hazards. drive control station.
A key benefit of the top drive is that it enables drilling with Ratings
stands comprising two, three or even four joints of pipe, Top drives usually are rated with two metrics: horsepow-
rather than a single joint of pipe. This reduces connections er and load rating. Horsepower determines what levels of
when drilling, cutting flat time and the risk of stuck pipe. torque and speed the top drive can achieve. The load rating
is determined by design requirements of API 8C and is usu-

Figure RP-32: Fixed-installation top drive.

ally expressed in tons with typical ranges of 150, 250, 350, Figure RP-33: Portable top drive. Courtesy Tesco Corporation.
500, 750, 1,000, and 1,250. The load rating can even be bro-
ken into 2 separate ratings, as explained below.
•• Quill/main shaft;
The static hoisting load path describes the critical load path •• Spindle (in some designs);
through which the load is suspended when held in the eleva- •• Rotating link adapter;
tors, such as when tripping pipe or running riser. •• Load collar/ split ring elevator;
•• Elevator links;
This rotary hoisting load path comprises from bottom to top: •• Internal BOP (IBOP)/Lower well control valve (LWCV);
elevators, links, link hanger, load collar, quill, main bearing, •• Saver sub.
bearing housing, bail, and traveling block. This load path
(governed by API Spec 8C and subject to safety factors be- Torque
tween 2.25 and 3.00, depending on load rating) is normally •• Drilling Torque is the rating of maximum torque
quite robust, because these components can be designed available under drilling load at a set RPM. This torque
freely. can range from 10,000 ft-lb to over 120,000 ft-lb,
depending on speed and drilling load;
The design constraint impacting the drilling requires use of •• Make-up torque rating is the maximum torque available
threaded joints. Threaded joints are required for two rea- to make-up a tool joint connection;
sons. First, the top drive must connect and disconnect with •• Break-out torque rating is the maximum torque
drill pipe. Second, removable components are aligned with available to break out a tool joint connection;
the main shaft, such as IBOP valves and saver subs. This •• Spinning torque is the maximum torque available to spin
in a tool joint connection prior to final make-up and is
drilling load path is nearly identical to the hoisting path, ex-
usually set low to avoid slamming connections together
cept near the bottom end. Instead of passing through the
and overtorquing.
elevators, links, link hanger, and load collar, the load pass-
es through the threaded connection. Typically this is an API Top drive components and accessories
connection with tapered threads designed to quickly mate
to the drillstring. »» Yoke/bail and counterbalance
Yoke is the load path component that transfers the drillstring
Load bearing components include: weight to the rig’s hoisting system: traveling block, hook or
•• Bail and bail pins/yoke & counterbalance; block hook combo.
•• Bearing housing (can include gear box);

Bail
Upper links
Mud line
Bonnet and Washpipe
Motor
Guard
Gearcase
Quill
Back-up Wrench
Elevator links
Elevator
Figure RP-34: Top drive load path. Courtesy Canrig. Figure RP-35: Major components of a top drive. Courtesy Canrig.
The counterbalance system supports the weight of the top

drive while making up or breaking out a pipe/tubular con- »» Main body/transmission (gearbox housing)
nection providing a mechanism to prevent the weight of the The transmission, bearing housing and swivel assembly
top drive from damaging the threads. This can be integrated transfer power produced by the drilling motor to the drill-
or external to the top drive. Integrated counterbalance al- string. Inside the transmission and bearing housing is a gear
lows the quill to float inside a hollow spindle. An external system that transfers power from the motor to the quill.The
counterbalance is typically connected between the top drive main body and transmission housing provide a sealed oil lu-
yoke and top drive bail. brication reservoir for the gears and bearings. An oil pump,
provides lube oil to the bearings and gears. The filtered lu-
»» Integrated swivel brication oil constantly circulates through the main thrust
Most top drives have the features of a swivel integrated into bearing, upper taper bearing, lower radial and compound
the top drive. The swivel has three main features: gear bearing and over the gear meshes.
•• It supports the weight of the drill stem;
•• It allows the drill stem to rotate; »» Drilling Motor
•• It provides a pressure-tight passageway for the mud to Top-drive classification depends on the main drive method:
be pumped down inside the drill stem. electric or hydraulic. Electric top drives may be powered
»» Washpipe by a DC or AC motors, depending on the top-drive model.
The washpipe assembly provides the path for mud to enter AC-motor technology is most common and can be induction
the string through a rotational connection in the top drive. It or permanent-magnet type.
is a short length of surface-hardened pipe that fits inside the
Hydraulic top drives are powered by a hydraulic motor that
swivel and serves as a conduit for drilling fluid through the
is part of a closed-loop circuit with the hydraulic power unit
swivel. The washpipe assembly also provides an interface
(HPU). Prime movers on the HPU drive displacement pumps
seal between the rotating portion of the integral swivel and
provide flow of hydraulic fluid through the service loop to the
the stationary portion of the integral swivel.
drilling motor. See separate discussion on HPU in the acces-
»» Mudflow system sories and auxiliary equipment section that follows.
The mudflow system, or S-pipe, is designed to attach the
»» Quill/main shaft
integrated swivel to the rotary hose. It supplies drilling fluid
The quill/main shaft runs through the top drive and aligns
to the top drive and can be positioned to provide the most
with well center during drilling operations. A load path com-
direct route to the standpipe. The most common connec-
ponent, the quill transfers drillstring weight onto a bearing
tions are 4-in. LPT or 4-in. Fig 1002 for land rig top drives.
assembly within the bearing housing for integrated quills
Typically, 5-in. Fig 1002 or 5-in. Fig 1502 are used for off-
and bearing assemblies in the swivel for non-integrated ver-
shore top drives.

The wrench acts like a back-up tong. It closes onto a tool

joint to arrest the reactive torque when making or breaking
a tubular connection. The wrench is not a load path compo-
nent; therefore, it is not designed to take hoisting loads.
The pipehandler and wrench are both powered by the top

drive’s auxiliary hydraulics system. They are operated by the
controls on the driller’s control console.
»» Top-drive guard
Located on the front side of the top drive, the guard provides
protection from falling objects that may occur during rig
operations. Secondly, the guard provides protection during
transport and installation.
»» IBOP/LWCV
The IBOP/LWCV is a valve system used to contain or pre-
vent a downhole kick through the drillstring. It is a backpres-
sure valve used in the drillstring to prevent the well from
flowing uncontrollably up the drillstring. Included on the
IBOP/LWCV are a remotely operated upper IBOP/LWCV
and a manually operated lower IBOP/LWCV. The remote
IBOP connects directly below the quill/main shaft and also
functions in preventing the mud column in the top drive from
spilling onto the rig floor when making or breaking connec-
tions. The top-drive auxiliary hydraulics power the valve,
and the driller’s panel console controls the functionality,
open & close.
The lower portion of the IBOP contains the saver sub. Saver
subs are used to preserve the threads on the lower IBOP and
provide a pin for the box end of the drillstring. (The saver sub
is not part of the IBOP.)
Figure RP-36: Quill and spindle locations
on top drive. Courtesy Canrig. For more on IBOPs and saver subs, please refer to the Drill-
sions. Regardless, the gearbox provides rotation and torque string Chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, 12th edition.
to the quill for drilling operations. The ID of the quill provides »» Service loops
a conduit for drilling mud through the top drive (Figure RP- The service loop consists of electrical cabling, hydraulic,
36). air, control cables and possibly water hoses. At times these
»» Spindle items are encased in a rubber, or similar construction hose,
The spindle is a load path component that houses the quill. wrapped in a custom tarp or secured to a drag chain to
It transmits torque and load for the split ring to the main provide mechanical protection and extend service life. For
bearing. portable applications, the service loop may be installed on
a steel reel or wound within a rig up basket for ease in rig up
»» Load collar/split ring and rig down.
The load collar/split ring transmits the weight of the eleva-
tors, elevator links, and the hoisting load on the elevator. The The length of the service loop is determined by the height
load collar/split ring transfers this weight into the top drive of the derrick and the distance of the service loop junction
main load path through the quill or spindle. box in the derrick to the top drive. Service loops transfer the
»» Pipe handler & grabber leg required electric power, control signals and fluid services
The pipehandler delivers tubulars to and from the well cen- between the derrick service standpipes and junction boxes,
ter and provides 0°-360° rotation for the elevators to posi- and the corresponding junction boxes and fluid connections
tion for multiple operations. located on the top-drive unit.

»» Hydraulic power unit Direct communications with the motor controls enables
A hydraulic power unit (HPU) is used to power the drilling precise control of the top drive’s motor speed, direction,
motor for hydraulic top drives and auxiliary functions of the torque limit, and various other parameters. The system al-
electric and hydraulic top drive. Auxiliary functions can in- lows constant monitoring of drive condition, alarming, and
clude, but are not limited to, the pipehandler, grabber leg/ corrective actions needed. The top drive motor may be pow-
backup wrench, counter balance and various cylinders, ered by several direct methods (e.g. AC via variable frequen-
IBOP remote shutoff (mudsaver valve), hydraulic elevators, cy drives, DC via SCR or DC generators, hydraulic, etc.).
brakes, link tilts and casing-running tools.
Top drive general inspection
An auxiliary HPU can be mounted on the top drive unit itself Inspection plans and inspection frequency of the top drive
or the top drive auxiliary can be powered or supplied by the can be developed by the user/owner using OEM recommen-
rig’s HPU. Hydraulic top drives have a stand-alone HPU to dations and API Recommended Practice 8B, Procedures for
meet power requirements, as well as a stand-alone auxiliary Inspections, Maintenance, Repair and Remanufacture of
HPU to run the auxiliary functions. Hoisting Equipment.
»» Variable-frequency drive The following factors can affect the frequency and type of
The variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a basic control com- inspection and should be taken into account when develop-
ponent in a top-drive drilling system. VFDs maintain the ro- ing an inspection schedule:
tational speed of the AC drilling motors by controlling the ••Environment;
frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motors. The •• Load cycles;
VFD accepts speed command and torque limit signals from •• Regulatory requirements;
the drilling operator’s control system and controls the firing •• Operating time;
circuits of the power modules. The VFD controls torque and •• Drilling conditions;
speed for drilling, spinning, make-up, and break-out. The ••Maintenance;
top-drive VFD can be integrated into the drive house with ••Testing;
other rig VFDs or can be provided as a standalone version, ••Repairs.
housing only the required VFD components to power and
Inspections should always be performed by a person knowl-
control the top drive.
edgeable of the equipment and its function. If there are any
»» Driller’s control console indications of damage during a Category I or II inspection,
The driller’s control console provides control circuitry, op- further inspection as per Category III or IV may be required.
erator switches, indicator lights, meters, and gauges to op-
erate all top drive functions: drilling, auxiliary pipehandling, Category I Inspection - Daily
as well as to provide for emergency shutdown. Stainless Category I involves observing the equipment during opera-
steel control consoles are typical. Some top-drive installation for indications of inadequate performance.
tions also include a human-machine interface system (HMI)
When in use, equipment should be visually inspected on a
to enhance the control scheme. These systems enable the
daily basis for cracks, loose fits or connections, elongation
driller to monitor equipment operation or safety concerns
of parts or other signs of wear, corrosion, overloading and
that occur. The driller’s control console may be combined
proper operation.
with the rig control system or driller’s chair. Installation of
the console should provide an unobstructed view of the Category II Inspection - Weekly
rig floor/top drive and allow ergonomic access to other rig This is a Category I inspection plus further inspection to in-
controls (e.g., drawworks) allowing necessary simultaneous clude:
operations. 1.• Visually inspecting the following for wear, deformation,
cracks or corrosion:
Control commands from the console are usually processed • Bail (if applicable);
by a programmable logic controller (PLC). The PLC controls • Block interface;
the actions of the top drive and its subsystems, such as • Upper links;
equipment cooling functions, solenoid valves, brakes, safety • Bearing housing;
interlocks, switches, and sensors. The system also moni- • Rotating link adapter.
tors top drive interaction with peripheral equipment such as 2.• Visually checking the welds on the guide dolly, guard,
drawworks and mud pumps to prevent unsafe conditions. mounts and supports for cracks or damage. Inspect for
paint flaking or cracking which may indicate potential
The controller communicates with the driller’s console, top failure. Examine for dents, bends, abrasion and
drive, and motor control system via a data link (e.g., Ether- corrosion;
net, Profibus etc.).

3.• Visually checking the top drive unit for loose bolts, nuts, rotating table with vertical hole through which the drillstring
broken wires on bolts or damaged safety wire; is run into the wellbore (tripped). The horizontal shaft (pin-
4.• Visually inspecting the electrical cables for wear, ion shaft) is connected to the rotating table by a right angle
damage or loose connections; gear set which also provides a speed reduction.
5.• Checking for worn, cracked or distorted parts such as
pins, shafts, gears and guards. Tapered bushings may be placed in the vertical bore of the
rotating table to support the slips used to support pipe be-
Category II Supplemental – at 3 Months or at Rig Move
ing tripped into or out of the hole. The rotating table also
This inspection includes all elements of the Category II contains means for driving a bushing (Kelly bushing) with
weekly inspection plus: square or hexagonal shaped vertical hole which engages a
•• Visually checking the complete torque arrest system for special pipe (Kelly) with a mating shape. This scheme allows
any damage (i.e., bending or cracking); the rotary table to provide rotary torque and rotation to the
•• Visually inspect the track guide for any damage prior to drillstring while allowing the drillstring to move vertically as
rigging down; the hole drilling progresses.
•• Check for loose bolts and mountings for the blower,
electrical junction boxes, cable trays and hydraulic In some operations it is desirable to fix (hold) rotation of the
tubes; rotating table. The outer diameter of the table is slotted for
•• Visually check the service loop and service supports/ engagement of table locks. The locks may be manually or
mounts. power engaged. Locks may be unidirectional or bidirection-
al. Usually, unidirectional locks may be unlocked by rotation
Category III Inspection – Every 6 Months
opposite to the lock direction.
This is a Category II inspection plus further inspection,
which includes NDT of critical exposed areas and may in- The pinion shaft may be powered by from the drawworks by
volve some disassembly to access specific components. means of a roller chain and sprockets or directly connected
OEM recommendations should be referred to when doing to a power source such as an electric motor, hydraulic motor
this inspection. or, in the early days by a steam engine. In some arrange-
ments a multiple speed transmission is connected between
This inspection may include NDT of:
the motor and the rotary table pinion shaft.
•• Bail/yoke and pins;
•• Bearing housing pin holes; In the 1980s, power swivels and top drives were developed
•• Rotating link adapter ears;
to engage directly with the drillstring. The primary function
•• Load collar/split ring;
of a rotary table became drill pipe support during drilling
•• Rotary connections.
or tripping. The pipe rotating function became an auxiliary
Category IV Inspection – 5 Years or 1,000 Working Days feature used only when problems occurred with the power
This is a Category III inspection plus further inspection in swivel or top drive. This revised design was named rotary
which the equipment is disassembled to the extent neces- support tables (RST) to differentiate from the original de-
sary to conduct an NDT inspection of all primary load carry- sign.
ing components as defined by the manufacturer.
1.• Disassemble equipment in a facility suitably equipped Rotary table and rotary support table models are differen-
to permit full inspection of all primary load carrying tiated by the size of the vertical bore through the table. The
components and other components critical to the top bore size ranges from 11.5 to 75.5 in. Standardized dimen-
drive; sions of the vertical bore are offered by API Specification 7K.
2.• Prior to inspection, remove all foreign materials such as Output torque capability is an important specification, gen-
dirt, grease, paint, oil, scale, etc. by a suitable method erally increasing with bore size up to a maximum equal to
such as steam cleaning, paint stripping, blasting, etc; the drillstring torque capability. The body of the rotary table
3.• Inspect the equipment for excessive wear, cracks, flaws or RST is usually relatively flat with a rectangular shape to
and deformations; facilitate enclosure in the deck of the drilling floor.
4.• Make corrections in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations. The dimensions of the vertical bore of a rotary support ta-
ble generally agree with the accepted dimensions of a rotary
Rotary Table table. The pinion shaft, when used, is vertical and arranged
The rotary table was introduced early in the last century. for direct drive from a built-in motor. Hydraulic power is the
It provides rotating power to the drillstring (drillpipe) and predominant power source. Chain drive is not used.
supports the drillstring when adding or removing joints or
stands of drillpipe. This original rotary design contains a hor-
izontal shaft perpendicular to the drillstring axis and a large

Y (See Requirements
on Rotary Tables)
B
3/8 R
C
2-5/6 in. Min

. Break Edge
Spockets
Figure RP-37: Rotary table pinion-shaft extensions. (See Table RP-1 for dimensions.) IADC drawing.
Components Table RP-1: Rotary table pinion-shaft extensions (all

»» Rotary table base dimensions in inches)
The rotary table base provides support for the main bear- 1 2 3 4
ings and the pinion shaft bearings and transfers the load to Diameter of
Width
Size Extension,
the substructure. It is also contains the lubricating oil reser- Number +0.000
± 0.000 Depth
- 0.001
voir. The gear, pinion, table bearings and shaft bearings are -0.001
cascade lubricated from a central oil reservoir. Oil is add- A B C
ed and the oil level is checked at one location through the 1 3.250 0.750 1/4
oil dipstick at the top of the table cover. In some cases the 2 3.938 1.000 3/8
seal between the rotating table and the base is enhanced by 3 4.250 1.000 3/8
grease injection.
4 4.500 1.000 3/8
»» Bearings 5 4.938 1.250 7/16
The main bearing supports the turntable
Figure E1-1:and its drillstring
Rotary Table Pinion Shaft Extensions
load. It is usually a double ball bearing.See
The angular
Tablecontact
E1 -1 for dimensions.
of the main bearing centers the rotating table in the base.
The pinion shaft is mounted on and supported by two bear- Table RP-2: Demountable rotary sprocket data (all
ing assemblies, one at each end of the shaft. dimensions in inches)
1 2 3 4
»» Ring gear Sprocket
Teeth on Sprocket Groove
The ring gear, tightly shrunk on the turntable, engages the Sprocket Thickness
Sprocket, Diameter
teeth of the pinion and the rotation of the pinion causes the Type At Groove
Minimum Maximum
Minimum
table to turn.
A B
»» Cover 1-3/4 SINGLE 23 --- ---
The rectangular turntable cover becomes one component of 2P SINGLE 21 --- ---
the uninterrupted contour of the drill floor.
2-1/2 P SINGLE 17 --- ---
»» Lock(s) API 3P SINGLE 14 --- ---
Rotary tables have one or two independently operated lock API 3-1/18 SINGLE 14 --- ---
pawls which are arranged to engage equally spaced lock 1 3/4 P DOUBLE 25 12-1/16 12/32
slots in the rim of the gear or table. The locking devices (or 2P DOUBLE 22 11-7/8 5/16
lock pawls) are designed to prevent table rotation in only a
2 1/2 P DOUBLE 19 12-7/16 19/32
clockwise direction, only a counter-clockwise direction or

1-1/53 Drill
8 Holes
EO SP ON 6
9” BC
1/16 x 45°
A
7/8
10-3/4* Max
Dia. 11-1/4**
7.252
Max 6-3/4 Dia.
7.250
Dia. 1-3/6 Max.
Dia.
Max
Hub Single Double

Sprocket Sprocket
* 10-3/4 in. is maximum hub diameter to allow for chain clearance.
** 11-1/4 in. counterbore dimension applies to sprockets with minimum number of teeth.
This can be increased for sprockets with more than the minimum number of teeth.
Figure RP-38: Demountable rotary sprocket. IADC drawing.
rotation in either direction when engaged. The locks are lo-

cated directly below the cover and accessible through slots
8 in the cover.
D Each pawl is operated by a handle which latches it in the

disengaged position. Since the gear or table is locked direct-
ly to the housing, torque loads are not applied to the gear
or pinion teeth or to the pinion shaft bearings. The rotary
Figure E1-2: drive should
Demountable never be
Rotary engaged when the locking pawls are
Sprocket
in this position. Unless there is reason to engage the locks
they should be in OFF (disengaged) position. This permits
the table to rotate freely.
Optional Rotary table locks are grease lubricated. The grease fittings
Relief
are easily accessible through the handle slots in the covers
1/4 in. 45 when the locks are in the disengaged position.
Min deg.
»» Rotary table pinion-shaft extension
C Rotary table pinion-shaft extensions are available in stan-
dardized dimensions in accordance with API Spec 7K. The
appropriate size number should be specified on the pur-
1/64 in. chase order (Figure RP-37).
Max
Eccentricity
»» Sprockets
Demountable rotary table sprockets
The dimensions of demountable rotary table sprockets for
A chain drive are standardized by API Spec 7K. Sprockets are
mounted on the rotary table shaft as shown in Table RP-2
Figure RP-39: Rotary table opening.IADC drawing. and Figure RP-38. Single strand and double strand sprock-
ets have one common hub with identical bolt circle, number
of bolts, and size of bolts.

stresses causing equipment failure;

Table RP-3: Rotary table opening
•• The skid or foundation must be of sufficient strength to
1 2 3 4 5 prevent flexing of the equipment.
•• The skid or foundation must be of sufficient size and
Table +0.015 +0.030
Size -0.000 -0.000
design to maintain the equipment free of strain;
•• The equipment must be adequately secured to the skid
17-1/2 17-1/2 18-3/16 5-1/4 1-3/4 or foundation;
20-1/2 20-1/2 21-3/16 5-1/4 1-3/4 •• The location of rotary base supports shall conform to
27-1/2 27-1/2 28-3/16 5-1/4 1-3/4
the manufacturer’s design specification.
37-1/2 37-1/2 __ __ __
General maintenance
49-1/2 49 ½ __ __ __
Refer to separate chapter on Drillstring of the IADC Drill-
60-1/2 60-1/2 __ __ __
ing Manual, 12th edition, for a discussion on pipe damage
caused by worn rotary tables, bushings and slips, and by im-
Drive sprocket proper use of slips.
The distance between the center of the rotary table and the
center of the first row of sprocket teeth is standardized by The requirement for a maintenance program cannot be
API 7K. The standard is 53 1/4 in. for machines that will pass a overemphasized. The equipment represents a considerable
20 in. bit or larger and 44 in. for machines that will not pass investment and its function is necessary to proper opera-
a 20 in. bit, except that the manufacturer and the purchaser tions. Neglect is costly and will result in premature failures,
may agree on a distance of 53 1/4 in. The distance shall be 65 early retirement of worn equipment and the junking of unus-
in. for the 49 1/2 in. rotary table opening. able machinery.
»» Rotary table opening: Iinstallation of a maintenance operation program with posi-
Rotary table openings for square drive master bushings and tive execution will reward your operations economically by:
for pin drive master bushings are standardized by API Spec
7K as shown in Table RP-3 and Figure RP-39. 1.• Reducing down-time;
2.• Reducing the quantity of required repair and
Rotary table installation replacement parts;
The following are considered basic installation require- 3.• Providing for longer periods of service-free operations;
ments: 4.• Extending the life of your equipment.
•• The skid or foundation must be level. Angular
The maintenance program outlined in Table RP-4 rep-
installation and operation may be detrimental to the
lubrication of the equipment and may impose high resents only a suggested minimum requirement for the
Table RP-4: Maintenance checklist

Daily Checked Recorded
1 Check oil level while table is stationary
2 Check oil sump for contamination
3 Check for oil leaks
4 Check oil seal for leakage
5 Lubricate locking pawls
6 Check unit for cleanliness
7 Check work area for cleanliness
Weekly Checked Recorded
1 Visually inspect for wear, damage and loose items
2 If Hydraulic Drive - Check Hydraulic lines for leaking
Monthly Checked Recorded
1 Check torque on bolts
2 Lift cover and remove excessive mud build-up around table rim and lock pawls
3 Inspect bore and master bushing for damage or excessive wear affecting fit
Six Months Checked Recorded
1 Change oil. Refer to manufacturer’s maintenance manual

Table RP-5: Lubrication guidance

Oilbath Reservoir
Service Period Capacity U.S. Gal Type AGMA ISO NO.
Consult manufacturer’s Heavy Duty, High Temperature

Every 6 Months †5 EP †220
maintenance manual Extreme Pressure Gear Oil
†A lower number of AGMA Extreme Pressure Gear Lubricant is acceptable for low anticipated ambient temperature, providing the pour point is no more
than 15oF. lower than the ambient temperature.
Grease Fittings and Surface Lubrication

Point of Contact Frequency of Application Quantity Type NLGI Grade
2 – pumps grease gun (approx
Lock pawls Daily EP Lithium Base 2
½ cu in.)
Master,bushings Daily * EP Lithium Base **
*The quantity for proper lubrication is dictated by the environment, operational speeds, loading, etc.
**Tool joint compound.
Table RP-6: Rotary table trouble symptoms

Observation Probable Source Remedy
Excessive Oil Consumption Damaged pinion seal Replace seal
Damaged O-ring on turntable Replace O-ring
Loose slinger Tighten and lock capscrews
Contaminated Oil Mud caked on underside by sweeps or on rotary base Clean mud off area
Improper gear and pinion setting Adjust as specified
Damaged pinion or ring gear Replace gear set
Locking Or Binding Worn pinion shaft bearings Replace bearings
Damaged thrust bearing(s) Replace complete bearing(s)
Damaged locking device Replace damaged parts
Improper gear and pinion setting Adjust as specified
Damaged pinion or ring gear Replace gear set
Worn pinion shaft bearings Replace bearings
Noisy Operation Damaged thrust bearing(s) Replace complete bearing(s)
Loose J-bolts/not torqued Tighten bolts and capscrews*
Echoed drive noise Check coupling, etc.
Insufficient lubrication Check alignment of notches In middle race with ram tubes
maintenance of your rotary. It is designed for periodic in- at all points of moving contact to prevent accelerated wear
spection and adjustment. It does not preclude the necessity of the moving parts. (For a detailed discussion of lubrication,
of immediate attention to items or elements which become see the separate chapter on Lubrication of the IADC Drilling
maladjusted or worn. It is not intended to remove the "com- Manual, 12th edition.)
mon sense" factor which is so necessary in the operation
of any mechanical equipment. Other maintenance may be High temperature, extreme pressure gear oil
desirable and required to satisfy your safety program, to To provide for proper lubrication of the gear train and
comply with established policies, etc. turntable bearings, a heavy-duty, high-temperature, ex-
treme-pressure gear oil is introduced into the oilbath res-
Lubrication ervoir and distributed to the moving parts. The loading and
operating conditions of these units dictates that this lubri-
»» Lubricant selection cant must qualify under AGMA Specification 250.04 (Sept.
Proper lubrication is essential to trouble-free performance 1981) and have a Timken Load Arm Test of not less than 60-
of all machinery. A film of lubricant must be provided with lb.
sufficient strength to withstand localized contact pressures

The pour point of the selected lubricant should be 15° F be-

low the starting ambient temperature.
Pipehandling Equipment
Lock pawl and general purpose grease Casing running tools (CRT)
For this lubrication use NLGI Grade 2 lithium base extreme
pressure high temperature grease with a dropping point of Conventional casing-running tools
not less than 350° F when subjected to ASTM Test Method For over 50 years, casing has been run the same way and
D-566. using the same principles, only slightly influenced by a few
changes in tool shapes and the sporadic implementation
General instructions of additional features. These tools are commonly known
Ensure that the equipment is properly lubricated at all times as conventional tools. Some years ago it became evident
and observe the following: that the industry needed a new way to run casing and the
technology was amended to make its appearance in one of
1.• Use only the quantity and grades of lubricant; the most critical activities within drilling in the oil & gas in-
2.• Maintain the lubricant free of all contamination (fluids dustry. Taking advantage of the increasing popularity of top
and solids);
drive technology, a number of semi-automated casing-run-
3.• Change lubricant at the end of the service periods listed
ning tools have been developed, providing higher safety and
previously;
4.• If contaminated, change lubricant immediately! quality standards while also adding new capabilities that
lead to more efficient and cost saving performances. At the
Consult the manufacturer if additional information regard- same time, the conventional tools have evolved into mecha-
ing lubrication of this equipment is required. nized tools that also provide a safer and more efficient envi-
ronment. These tools are called conventional tools because
Oilbath circulating system they have been used for many years as the most common
This portion of the lubrication system is designed to supply way (and for many years the only way) to run casing.
lubricant to the main bearing(s), pinion shaft bearings and
the gear train. Conventional equipment includes several different tools.
The hydraulic power tong (powered by a diesel or electric
The reservoir in the rotary base provides a bath which, when power unit) is used to make up or break out the joints of
properly filled with oil, has a level above the lower section casing. The size and torque capacity of the tong depends
of the pinion. When the pinion rotates in this bath, the oil is on the size and torque requirements of the casing. The tong
lifted by the teeth and the surface of the pinion to its mesh- is usually controlled manually by an operator who activates
ing point with the ring gear. This lubricates the gear set and the levers located to one side of the tool, allowing him to
the excess is directed, in part, to the main bearing(s) and control the speed of rotation and the application of torque.
pinion bearings. The oil that was lifted by this action gravi- The tong operator works with the stabber who is positioned
tates back to the reservoir. Pinion bearings may be oil lubri- at the casing board (about 40 ft above the rig floor) and
cated based on separate oil chamber in pinion housing or by is in charge of aligning the casing joints to be made up, as
grease fittings located in the rotary base. otherwise it would be difficult to engage the pipe threads.
»» Trouble symptoms An elevator and spider are also needed to run the casing.
Without a very careful examination, it is not possible to The elevator is installed in the bails of the top drive while the
diagnose the cause of difficulties which may arise in any spider is located on the rotary table. Both are pneumatically
rotary table. The more common symptoms of trouble are or hydraulically activated. This can also be done manually,
listed below. If the remedy outlined here does not alleviate depending on the rig conditions and the requirements of the
the difficulty, please refer the matter to the manufacturer's job. Other tools that are part of this equipment are the single
technical services department. joint elevator (SJE); used to manipulate each joint from the
catwalk and V-door to the well center, the stabbing guide;
used to easily insert the pin into the box of the joint prior
to make up, and the torque-turn monitoring system, which
is usually an ex-proof computer which is used to track and
record, in real-time, the makeup process to ensure that the
criteria provided by the pipe manufacturer is followed, en-
suring an integral connection.
Casing running tools (CRTs)

Top drive applications on both offshore and land rigs created
an opportunity for an enhancement to the top drive to be

Antirotation Brackets
Location of Torque
and Load Sensor
Remote Control Panel
Rotary Manifold
Actuator
Links Video RP-3: Animation of casing running tool. Courtesy Canrig.
•• Load compensation system;

Gripper
•• Gripper (a.k.a. clamping or grapple systems);
•• Anti-rotation bracket (a.k.a. torque reaction bracket);
•• Links (a.k.a. hydraulic bails);
•• Remote control panel.
These semi-automated casing running and sometimes drill-

SJE ing tools come in different sizes and complexity levels to fit
into every application required. From powerful triple rigs
in offshore environments to super single rigs onshore, and
covering a wide spectrum of scenarios, CRTs enhance safety
and increase performance by automating features included
Figure RP-40: External gripper CRT. Courtesy Canrig. into the casing running operations.
Functions & operation

developed. This enhancement is commonly called Casing
The most common CRT functions are:
Running Tool or CRT. Features that CRTs usually offer are:
•• Casing gripping;
•• Casing alignment;
•• Casing makeup;
•• Casing makeup;
•• Casing string rotation & reciprocation while circulating;
•• Casing string rotating and reciprocating while
•• Casing string mud fill up and circulating;
circulating.
•• Casing string pushing;
•• Casing while drilling.
Very labor intensive and accident-prone manual work can
be seriously reduced or eliminated by work performed in an Conventional equipment has allowed running casing for
automated or semi-automated fashion that is controlled by several years with overall good success. However, it has
the CRT PLC (programmable logic controller). certain limitations, specifically when there are difficult hole
conditions due to formation restrictions, tight spots, trou-
There are two major types of CRT tools:
•• External casing running tools (Figures RP-40 and ble zones, or when there is a deviated well where the casing
RP-41); string needs to make its way through a curved path. When
•• Internal casing running tools (Figure RP-42). these conditions arise, it is particularly helpful to have a tool
with the capabilities to rotate, reciprocate (move the pipe up
Depending on the manufacturer and the degree of design and down) and push down the casing string while circulat-
sophistication, most of the tools from these two types might ing. The combination of these capabilities highly increases
have the following major components: the chances to land the casing at the desired total depth.
•• Rotary manifold (a.k.a. hydraulic swivel or rotary union); Most casing running tools that are available incorporate
••Actuator; these features which are limited or not possible with con-
•• Fill-up tool; ventional tools.
•• Torque and load sensor (a.k.a. torque measurement
system);

1: Main mandrel connected

to top drive
2: Torque reaction bracket
3: Torque measurement
system
4: Hydraulic bails
5: Compensation system
6: Hydraulic components
(actuator)
7: Clamping system
8: Hydraulic spider
Figure RP-41: External gripper CRT. Courtesy Weatherford.
1: Connection to top drive

2: Hydraulic bails
3: Single joint elevator (SJE)
4: Service loop
(hydraulic hoses)
5: Internal clamping system
6: Packer cup
7: Centralizer
8: Mud saver valve (MSV)
9: Remote control panel
Figure RP-42: Internal gripper CRT. Courtesy Weatherford.

Figure RP-43: Power catwalk.

Courtesy Canrig.
Catwalk Kicker
Indexer
Skate
Pipe rack
Safety pin
Carrier
Lift arm
V-door slide
Most casing running tool functions are executed through Power Catwalk
hydraulically powered assemblies. Within each casing run- The power catwalk is a machine designed to convey tubulars
ning tool design, certain features might be available or not, from the horizontal position near the pipe storage area to a
depending on manufacturer or model. position near well center and vice versa with little to no di-
»» Capacity & limitations rect assistance from crew members. The term “catwalk” is
Capacity of the CRT is usually governed by the size and derived from the raised platform or deck across which tubu-
weight of the casing string. For land rig operations, 350T lars are rolled to and from the pipe racks to the center. From
and 500T with 5,000psi circulating pressure and 5,0000 the center section or trough of the deck, tubulars are pushed
ft-lbs of makeup torque might be sufficient but for offshore up the V-door slide or transported via a carrier to the rig
rig operations higher capacities might be required. floor. Catwalk specifications are typically defined by maxi-
mum tubular length, maximum tubular diameter, maximum
»» Inspection & maintenance tubular weight, cycle time, drill floor height, deck height, cat-
CRT inspections and maintenance should follow manufac- walk size, and catwalk weight. Catwalks are available in a va-
turers' instructions that are either part of the Operations riety of layouts, sizes, capacities, and methods of operation
and Maintenance Manual provided with the equipment or and are used for both offshore and onshore drilling rigs and
developed by the equipment manufacturer and user if de- mobile workover rigs. Catwalks offer significant advantag-
sired. In all cases adopted or developed procedures should es in cycle times, reliability and crew safety over traditional
conform to industry standards and practices. conveying methods. The catwalk is typically powered by hy-
»» Safety draulic power from an integral or external hydraulic power
Statistics have widely shown that the activity of tubular unit. AC electric motors or diesel engines drive the main hy-
handling has one of the highest incident ratings in the oil draulic pump and hydraulic or AC electric motors may drive
industry. The casing running tools greatly reduce risks, for winches or other ancillary components. For the purposes
they usually combine several conventional tools into ones of simplification, the information below applies primarily to
that can be automated or remotely operated, thus removing catwalks designed for land-based drilling rigs.
personnel from hazardous areas and increasing the activi-
ty's safety.

Major components »» Kickers

Kickers are located within the central section, trough, or car-
»» Pipe racks rier of the catwalk eject tubulars during lay down operations
Most catwalk models are equipped with a set of pipe racks.
toward the pipe racks.
The pipe racks can be located on the driller’s side (DS),
off-driller’s side (ODS), or both. The pipe racks are attached »» Safety pins
to the side of the catwalk and folded out perpendicular to the Safety pins are installed on the deck, in the carrier, or on the
direction of the catwalk when deployed. The pipe racks pro- ramp to prevent tubulars from rolling off the side. Safety pins
vide temporary storage for tubulars. Tubulars are typically installed in the deck or carrier can also be used to prevent
loaded onto the catwalks pipe racks from the storage racks tubulars from overshooting the center section, trough, or
using a forklift or crane. The outboard end of the pipe racks carrier while indexing.
can be raised or lowered slightly to roll the tubulars on or off
»» Controls
the catwalk and to account for minor variations in height be-
Catwalk functions can either be controlled with manual le-
tween the catwalks pipe racks and the storage rack. In lieu
vers attached to the hydraulic valves or from an integral or
of pipe racks, some catwalks may be equipped with rotary
remote control console. The remote control console is the
lift arms to lift tubulars from the ground level or lower level
preferred means of operation since it allows the operator to
storage rack on to or off of the catwalk.
function the catwalk from a safe area.
»» Indexers »» Optional features
Indexers embedded in the catwalk deck are used to trans-
Optional features commonly available for the catwalk in-
fer single tubulars from the outside edge of the catwalk into
clude pad walking systems, hydraulic ramp pivots, and hold-
the center section, trough or carrier, or vice versa. A set of
back winch stands, among others.
indexing pins placed near the outside edge of the catwalk
allow access to only one tubular at a time. When actuated,
Function & operation
hydraulic cylinders raise or lower one end of the indexers to
There are numerous ways in which catwalks can convey
facilitate the loading or unloading of single joints of tubulars
tubulars. The three most common styles are the push-up
over the indexing pins to or from the catwalk, depending on
style, carrier style, or hybrid. The push-up style, usually as-
whether tubulars are being raised to or lowered from the
sociated with smaller catwalks, utilizes a skate to push or
drill floor.
pull tubulars up or down a stationary ramp attached to the
»» Ramp rig floor. The carrier style, usually associated with larger cat-
Ramps on power catwalks are intended to replace tradition- walks, features a mobile tubular carrier which is raised from
al V-door slides in order to transfer items not sized or rated the deck level to the drill floor level using hydraulic cylinders
for the catwalk to the rig floor. The ramp can also be used as or cables attached to a winch. On carrier style catwalks, the
a traditional V-door slide when the catwalk is not operation- skate is simply used to position the tubular on the carrier
al. On units equipped with an integral ramp, the ramp may forward or backward. Carrier style catwalks may or may not
be used to direct the path of the tubular or carrier (depend- include an integral ramp. The hybrid style utilizes a carrier,
ing of the style of catwalk), upwards at an angle towards the but the carrier rises only at the front or ramp end and serves
V-door. The ramp may be hinged to the catwalk for rotation as a mobile ramp. Similar to a push-up style catwalk, the
to the drill floor, or may be attached by other means. Integral skate is used to push or pull tubulars up to or down from the
ramps may be deployed manually or may be powered. drill floor.
»» Carrier Capacity & limitation

The carrier is used to carry tubulars to and from the drilling
Power catwalks are typically capable of handling tubulars up
floor. It is normally stored retracted flush inside the catwalk.
to 10,000 lb. and up to 24-in. in diameter and can reach floor
When loaded with a tubular, the carrier may be actuated by
heights up to 40’. Multiple tubulars can be stowed on the
various means including winches or cylinders. The carrier in-
pipe racks on either side. While most units are designed to
cludes kickers and may include safety pins on either side. The
run only one tubular at a time, some designs accommodate
carrier also includes an integral skate.
running multiple joints in a single cycle. Never exceed the
»» Skate catwalk’s prescribed limitations.
The skate supports the back end of the tubular and travels
horizontally along the length of the deck or carrier to position Inspection & maintenance
the tubular forward or rearward. The skate is conveyed by a Regular inspections and maintenance are critical to cat-
winch and sheave system, track, or other conveying method. walk operations. Bearings and sliding metal-on-metal con-
tact points should be greased regularly. Critical weld joints

Figure RP-46: Vertical column racker.
should be inspected regularly using non-destructive exam-

ination to verify weld integrity.
Figure RP-44: Racking board-mounted manipulator Safety

arm. Courtesy of National Oilwell Varco. Safety systems on catwalks might include various features,
depending on the manufactures. These might include safety
interlocks in the catwalk control system, for example. Such
interlocks prevent certain functions from operating when it
is unsafe to do so. Similarly, if installed, position sensors for
the carrier or skate serve as inputs for the safety interlocks
and can be used to trigger such functions as the raising or
lowering of the safety pins as well as to limit the speed of
the carrier or skate when nearing the limits of travel. Light
beam emitting safety curtains detect the presence of per-
sonnel on the deck. Pressure, temperature, and level sen-
sors in the hydraulic system protect the hydraulic system
from over-pressurization, cavitation, and breakdown of the
hydraulic fluid. Hydraulic filters on the pressure, return, and
case drain line ensure the hydraulic fluid is kept free from
contaminants. Cooling units and heaters keep the hydraulic
oil at the recommended viscosity levels. Again, these sys-
tems are manufacturer dependent.
In-derrick handling systems

Drilling operations have made enormous strides in HSE over
the years, implementing safety procedures and equipment
to reduce the risk of injury on the drill floor and in the mast/
derrick. One of these advances has been the development of
equipment that handles pipe and other tubulars. This sum-
mary focuses on in-derrick pipehandling equipment. As of
2014, there are three main tubular handling solutions:
•• Racking board-mounted manipulator arm;
Figure RP-45: Racking board mounted pipe •• Racking board-mounted pipe racker;
racker. Courtesy Weatherford. •• Vertical column-type pipe racker.

These three pieces of equipment will be described in broad nipulator arm allows for the manipulation of tubulars, it still
terms. requires rig personnel to tail the tubulars on the rig floor to
ensure proper positions of stands in the setback. A racking
Racking board mounted manipulator arm board mounted pipe racker, while an improvement over the
This type of pipe-racking assist machine is depicted in Fig- former by eliminating rig personnel from the rig floor during
ure RP-44. It comprises an articulated arm that reaches out racking operations, still requires rig personnel assistance for
and guides the upper end of a drilling tubular. It also has certain operations.
travel capability along the undercarriage of the diving board
section of the racking board which allows for traditional These in-derrick pipehandling systems generally consist of
manual racking if necessary. If the machine goes down or the following major components:
needs maintenance it can be positioned back in the trans- »» Rig interface
port skid clearing the racking board for manual pipe racking. In-derrick tubular handlers are mounted in the mast or der-
This travel along the well center to the V-door axis allows rick, tying into the racking board or other supporting board
the arm to access the various slots in the fingerboard. Arm structure. Weight of the unit and hoisted tubular (if applica-
extension to deposit or retrieve tubulars from the finger- ble) are transferred to the surrounding structure. Hydraulic,
board is generally done hydraulically. The arm can slew to electric, and pneumatic services are provided through this
swing around to the well center position and back. Impor- interface.
tantly, this type of arm is not capable of lifting tubulars off
the rig floor, so a rig hand is required to tail the bottoms of »» Slewing
tubulars into racking position on the setback. However, it The racker or arm needs slewing (rotational) capability in
removes the derrickman from his position high in the mast. order to access the racking boards and well center. This is
normally accomplished by means of a geared slewing bear-
Racking board mounted pipe racker ing and drive pinion. The drive motor may be hydraulic or
This type of pipe-racking assist machine is depicted in Fig- electric. A shaft encoder might be included to monitor ro-
ure RP-45. It comprises an arm and yoke that reach out tational position.
and pick up a drilling tubular. Arm extension to deposit or »» Power source
retrieve tubulars from the fingerboard is generally done hy- The source of motive power for the racker may be hydraulic,
draulically. The arm can slew to swing around to the well electric or some combination of these. For example, lateral
center position and back to access the fingerboard slots. travel, slewing, and arm extension may be hydraulic, while
This type of arm is capable of lifting tubulars off the rig floor, hoisting may be electric.
and therefore has potential safety benefits in removing per-
sonnel from the mast and floor during the safety-critical »» Gripper
pipe racking operation. In the case of the racker, there is a gripper to grab the tubu-
lar. The gripper normally consists of arms that open or close
Vertical column-type pipe racker on the outer diameter of a tubular by means of hydraulic cyl-
This type of pipe racking assist machine is depicted in Figure inder to exert a holding force. The gripper must be safely
RP-46 and is more common in the offshore environment. designed so that tubulars are never unintentionally dropped.
It comprises a set of arms mounted vertically on a column »» Retainer or capture head
(usually two arms: one for hoisting and another for tailing) Most designs feature a separate retaining device capable of
that reach out and pick up a drilling tubular. Arm extension guiding one end of the tubular. This retainer consists of met-
to deposit or retrieve tubulars from the fingerboard is gen- al fingers that flip into position surrounding the outside of
erally done hydraulically. Hoisting can be electrically or hy- the tubular, thereby capturing it in position.
draulically driven and involves a winch raising or lowering
the arm that grips the tubular. The arm can slew to swing »» Hoist
around to the well center position and back as well as to ac- Most pipe rackers employ a hoist, which might take the form
cess the fingerboard slots. Since this type of pipe racker is of winches or telescoping members.
capable of lifting tubulars off the rig floor, it has the safety »» Fingerboard modification
benefit of removing personnel from the derrick and floor Use of an in-derrick handling system involves modifications
during the safety-critical pipe racking operation. to the standard manual fingerboard. These vary by design,
but typically a retaining finger or gate is added to prevent
Function & operation pipe from moving past the ends of the fingers. The racking
The primary function of a racker is to shuttle tubulars such as board structure is also strengthened to support the weight
drillpipe, collars and casing between well center and racking of the unit plus any hoisted loads. Finger arrangement may
boards or V-door. Although a racking board mounted ma- be altered to allow operating clearance.

of the control system must be in good operating order. Final-

ly, the operator of the system must be adequately trained in
safe utilization of the unit’s features.
Hangar
Manual tongs
Rig Tongs
The manual tong is a large pipe wrench that is used to make
Long jaw
Lever up and break out drillpipe, casing, and tubing connections
on the rig floor. The manual tongs are latched and unlatched
Short jaw by the floor hands. The driller operates the cat-head to pull
on the appropriate tong as a connection is made up or bro-
ken out.
Latch
Lug jaw The tongs are typically suspended by a cable from the mast
and hang near the rotary table. A cable connects the end of
Figure RP-47: Example of a 65,000 ft-lb manual tong, the lever of each manual tong to either apply torque to one
also known as rig tongs. Courtesy Foley Engineering.
pipe of the connection or to prevent the other pipe of the
connection from turning. The handle length of the tong is
Capacity & limitations used to calculate the torque being applied.
The capacity of a racker or manipulator arm is measured in
the size range of tubulars it can accommodate. If the unit
Description and general operation
has the capability to lift tubulars, then this lifting capacity
The tongs are used in pairs, where one tong (referred to as
is also relevant. This lifting capacity may vary with the dis-
the makeup tong) grips in the clockwise direction and the
tance of the tubular from the racker’s rotational centerline.
other (referred to as the breakout tong) grips in the count-
Lifting capacity generally decreases the farther the arm is
er-clockwise direction.
reaching out. Other parameters that may be of interest for
an in-derrick handling system include extension/retraction Each tong is suspended from a cable in the mast of the rig.
force and speed, slewing moment and speed, trolley linear These cables pass over a sheave and are connected to a
speed and travel distance. counter-weight. This allows the tongs to be manually raised
and lowered by the operator as necessary.
Inspection & maintenance
An in-derrick tubular handling system must be maintained Each tong has two cables attached to the end of its lever.
at regular intervals in accordance with manufacturer or op- One of these cables is attached to a winch (referred to as the
erator specifications. Particular attention should be paid to cat-head). The second cable is anchored to the rig.
gripping/retaining elements as well as to the sensors and
control system. Pivot points and other grease locations To tighten (make up) or loosen (breakout) the connection,
should be serviced on schedule. Structural components the pipe string is positioned such that the connection is a
should be inspected per manufacturer recommendations. few feet above the rig floor.
Hydraulic lines should be monitored for leaks and for dam-
To tighten a connection, the makeup tong is latched onto the
aged or worn hoses/piping. The electrical system should
upper pipe while the breakout tong is latched onto the low-
also be maintained per manufacturer or operator standards.
er pipe. The cat-head cable pulls on the end of the makeup
tong causing it to rotate. The anchor cable of the break-out
Safety tong becomes taut and prevents the lower pipe from rotat-
In-derrick tubular handling systems are often installed with
ing. The anchor cable of the makeup tong remains attached
the primary purpose of increasing levels for safety for rig
to the rig, but it is slack during this operation, allowing the
workers. Studies have demonstrated that many safety inci-
makeup tong to rotate.
dents on drilling rigs are related to manual tubular handling.
The proximity of man and heavy tubulars is a dangerous sit- To loosen a connection, the break-out tong is latched onto
uation. Most tubular handling systems seek to remove hu- the upper pipe while the makeup tong is latched onto the
mans from dangerous positions in the operation. lower pipe. The cat-head cable pulls on the end of the break-
out tong causing it to rotate while the anchor cable of the
In order to operate safely, an in-derrick handling system
makeup tong becomes taut and prevents that tong from ro-
must be maintained properly as discussed in the Inspection
tating.
& maintenance section above. Sensors and safety features

Typical dimensions Pipe arm capacity

Tongs are rated by torque, which is the twisting force ap- The pipe arm is not currently covered by API standards in
plied to the pipe to tighten or loosen the connection. Torque an explicit form. It is therefore necessary to obtain tubular
is the force applied to the end of the tong lever multiplied by diameter limitations and lifting capacity from the manufac-
the length of the lever, so torque is measured in foot-pounds. turer.
The most popular manual tongs are rated at 35,000,
55,000, 65,000, and 100,000 ft-lbs. and weight from about Pipe arm components
300 lbs. to 500 lbs. Some tongs are rated at up to 200,000
»» Arm
ft-lbs, but these are so large and heavy that they are only
The main component of the pipe arm system is the beam
used for special connections.
or box structure that forms the main structural member of
»» Installation the system. The beam has a bearing assembly mounted at
It is important that manual tongs be level when placed in the base, through which the main shaft runs. The ‘arm’ is
position to latch onto the pipe. The hanger has a levelling typically powered by a hydraulic cylinder, which may act in
screw at the top and an adjusting set screw at the bottom. compression or tension, that is; some designs pull the arm
up from the catwalk, while others ‘push’. Consequently, the
The weight of the counter-weight should be adjusted so the arm has reinforcement and a pivot lug built into the beam to
tong may be raised and lowered with the least amount of allow the cylinder to be attached. Some older designs utilize
effort. a cable system to hoist the arm from horizontal to vertical.
»» Dangers The arm also has mounted on it, clamping devices or ‘grip-
Manual tongs historically have caused more injuries and pers’ that hold the tubulars being transferred to the floor.
even fatalities than any other tool on the rig floor. It is im- »» Grippers
portant to follow the manufacturer’s operation and installa- A clamping system or grippers are necessary to secure the
tion instructions. tubular to the arm as it rotates upward. Typically the grip-
pers will fold flat into recesses in the catwalk while the arm
The most common injuries are smashed hands. When the
is horizontal, to facilitate the ‘rolling’ of the pipe into position
tong is moved into position around the pipe, the operator’s
such that the grippers can be closed on either side of the
hand may be smashed between the tong and the pipe. As the
pipe. Many pipe arm systems include the ability to slide the
tongs are raised or lowered into position on the connection,
grippers along the axis of the pipe arm, to facilitate align-
the operator’s thumb can be smashed by the other tong.
ment with the pipe in the hole (stump).
The most serious accidents involve failure of tong jaws. As »» Pipe arm hoist cylinder
the tong line is pulled by the cathead, the tongs store a great The pipe arm motion is controlled and powered by a hydrau-
amount of energy, like a large spring. If a part fails suddenly, lic system which provides high pressure fluid to one or more
this energy is released and the broken tong part, weighing cylinders. The cylinder may extend or retract, depending on
several pounds, can fly across the rig floor. The tong will re- the design of the arm, but in either case it causes the arm to
coil violently and can seriously injure anyone in its path. move from horizontal to vertical.
Common related equipment to the operation of the tong po- »» Pivot shaft and bearings
sitioner are: A critical assembly of the pipe arm is the pivot shaft and
•• Power tongs; bearing assemblies. The pivot shaft is mounted on the “cat-
•• Hydraulic power units. walk base” or the sub base, and supported by pillow blocks
or bearing assemblies on each end. The shaft runs through
Pipe arm the pipe arm and allows the arm to rotate as driven by the
The ‘pipe arm’ is a mechanized system to move pipe from hydraulic cylinders. The pivot area of the arm is very highly
the catwalk to the floor. This device is a pivoting beam that stressed, and contains multiple moving parts. As a conse-
is equipped with grippers that clamp onto the pipe so that as quence it is imperative that a rigorous maintenance process
the pipe arm pivots up to the floor, the joint of pipe is carried be followed, and regular inspection made for cracks and dis-
with it. In order for this to allow drilling in the conventional tortion.
‘pin-down’ orientation, the pipe must be rolled onto the pipe
arm grippers ‘backwards’, that is, with the pin pointing to the Auxiliary systems
‘V-door’. Pipe arm systems currently work in ‘single’ mode,
»» Hydraulic power pack
that is, only one joint is moved to the floor at one time. As
The pipe arm is generally powered by a hydraulic fluid pow-
well, pipe arm equipped rigs generally do not rack pipe on
the floor, but lay down the pipe for each trip.

er system. It therefore requires the regular maintenance

and fluid management of all hydraulic systems. As well, the
safety concerns incumbent with high pressure, high tem-
perature, potentially toxic fluids require specific safeguards
to ensure the safety of personnel.
»» Gripper dies
Similar to tong dies, the pipe arm has replaceable inserts
(dies) which allow the grippers to securely manipulate the
tubulars being hoisted. As the dies wear, they lose the ability
Spinner
to grip the pipe, which could allow it to fall out of the arm. assembly
Therefore, the die can be removed and replaced as neces- Delivery
system
sary. This replacement function is also a critical mainte-
nance item that should be part of a routine and frequent
inspection.
Pipe arm operations

The function of the pipe arm is to move the tubulars from the
catwalk to the drilling floor. The device replaces the physical
actions of crew members who would otherwise roll the pipe
to the catwalk, attach a winch line and pull the joint to the Torque assembly
floor.
The process for running in begins with the pipe being rolled,
either manually, or with hydraulic assist onto the catwalk. Figure RP-48: Power Tongs. Courtesy Canrig.
The catwalk is constructed to cause the pipe to roll into the
center, directly onto the arm. At this point the ‘operator’ system failures. All failures must be identified on the
closes the grippers securely onto the pipe, and engages the control, reported, and replaced or fixed immediately;
hydraulic cylinder. The arm will rotate up vertically, present- 4.• Visually inspect all hydraulic lines, cylinders, and
ing the pipe to the floor. If the pipe arm is so designed, the fittings for signs of wear or damage. Damaged hoses
operator will extend, or slide the pipe up or down as required and fittings must be identified on the component,
reported, and replaced immediately;
to position for makeup. The operator then moves the top
5.• Perform a visual inspection of the pipe arm for cracks,
drive into position and rotates into the joint. The grippers
distortion, corrosion, and abnormal wear. This
may then be disengaged, and the pipe arm pivoted away inspection must include all exterior surfaces,
from the floor, to allow the completion of the connection particularly pin areas, linkage bushings, or any other
makeup. applicable moving parts;
6.• Visually inspect all the jaw dies to ensure that they are
The running-in procedure is reversed to pull pipe from the secured properly and not worn;
hole. 7.• Check all bolts and nuts for tightness using the correct
tools (e.g., wrench or Allen keys);
Inspection and maintenance 8.• Ensure that any bolts requiring cotter pins have properly
1.• At least once a week, check the hydraulic oil level in the installed cotter pins;
hydraulic power unit and put an oil sample in a clean 9.• At the discretion of the inspector, after the inspection,
container. Send the oil sample to the laboratory (as the pipe arm may be sent to Operations for a complete
directed by the drilling manager) for evaluation rebuild and recertification. Cracks found on the body or
(regardless of condition). If water or other obvious previous field welding will require shop repair;
contamination is found, completely drain the oil and 10.•Before returning the pipe arm to service, recheck oil
refill with the required quantity of recommended levels and grease all fittings according to the pipe arm
hydraulic oil. Re-sample after one week; manufacturer’s recommendations.
2.• With the pipe arm in the storage position, extend the
pipe arm toward the hole center. Listen for abnormal Power tongs
sounds and watch for rough extend operation or Power tongs (often referred to as an Iron Roughneck, auto-
hydraulic leaks, which would indicate an impending
mated floor wrench, or hydraulic power tongs) combine the
structural, mechanical, or hydraulic failure;
functions of the traditional pipe spinner and manual tongs
3.• Ensure that all pipe arm functions operate properly and
are not affected by mechanical, electric, or hydraulic into a single hydraulically powered integrated unit. Control
of power tongs can be performed by a single crew member

hydraulic motors. Once clamped onto the upper tubular, the

spinner rollers or chains are actuated to spin in or spin out
the upper tubular to either shoulder the connection in prepa-
ration for make up or to disengage the threads to complete
the break out cycle. The spinner assembly will typically rest
on springs mounted to the spinner support frame to allow
limited horizontal and vertical travel and tilting to account
for thread compensation, tilt of tubulars in the mouse hole,
and general misalignments between the orientation of the
spinner assembly and upper tubular.
»» Torque wrench assembly
The torque wrench assembly is the workhorse of the pow-
er tongs. The torque wrench assembly consists of a set of
lower and upper tong assemblies with hydraulic jaws which
clamp onto the lower and upper tubulars. A single or set of
additional hydraulic cylinders or motors in the upper tong
Video RP-4: Operation of power tongs. Courtesy Canrig. rotate the upper tong in relation to the lower tong to make
up or break out connections.
with locally or remotely mounted hand controls or automat-
»» Hydraulic power unit (optional)
ed touch screen controls. Their primary purpose is to make
The hydraulic power unit or HPU supplies hydraulic power
up or break out threaded connections of tubulars (drillpipe,
to the power tongs. The HPU consists primarily of a diesel
drill collars, casing, etc.) but can also be used to make up
or electric motor, hydraulic pump and oil reservoir. The HPU
or break out threaded connections for BHAs and drill bits.
supplies hydraulic power to the power tongs at a fixed or
Power tongs are typically defined by size, weight, minimum
variable pressure and flow rate. Hydraulic power may also
and maximum tubular diameters, maximum make up and
be supplied by the rig’s hydraulic system.
break out torques, spinner speed, spinner torque, connec-
tion height range, horizontal travel, and cycle time. They »» Other optional features
are available in a variety of mounting configurations, sizes, Some versions of the power tongs can be supplied with addi-
capacities, and methods of operation and are used for both tional options such as a bit breaker, mud saver or pipe doper.
offshore and onshore drilling rigs. Power tongs can be op- The trend in the design of power tongs is to include features
erated either semi-automatically or fully automatically and which minimize or completely eliminate human interaction
their capabilities offer significant advantages in speed, reli- when making up or breaking out connections.
ability, and safety over traditional methods.
Function & operation
Major Components »» Makeup operations
»» Delivery system The power tongs are first positioned with the torque wrench
The delivery system allows the torque wrench and spinner and spinner assemblies over hole center or mouse hole with
assemblies to be positioned rotationally and horizontally in the gap between the upper and lower tongs at approximate-
alignment with vertical axis of the tubulars and vertically in ly the same height as the seam of the tubular connection. At
alignment with the seam of the tubular connection at hole this position, the lower tong jaws are extended and clamp
center or mouse hole to perform a make up or break out onto the lower tubular. Clamping onto the lower tubular with
operation. Upon completion of either operation, the torque the lower tong jaws serves to stabilize the torque wrench
wrench and spinner assemblies can be repositioned out of and spinner assemblies, to keep the lower tubular section
the way in either a temporary trip position for faster repo- stationary while the upper tubular section is rotating, and
sitioning or a fully retracted position for storage until later to provide resistive torque to the torque applied by the up-
use. Delivery systems are available in a variety of configu- per tong assembly. After a short delay, the spinner assembly
rations, including pedestal-mounted with articulating arm, clamps onto the upper tubular and the spinners rotate at
rail-mounted with travelling carriage or hanging by wire ca- a speed of 50 to 100 rpm to shoulder the tubulars togeth-
bles. er to a torque value of approximately 2,000 to 3,500 lb-ft
(for 5-in. drillpipe). After the desired spin in time or torque
»» Spinner assembly is achieved, the spinner assembly clamps retract from the
The spinner assembly consists primarily of a clamping
upper tubular. As this is happening, the upper tong rotates
mechanism and a set of spinner rollers or chains driven by
into the makeup torque starting position. Once the spinner

clamps have retracted, the upper tong jaws extend to clamp perature, and level sensors in the hydraulic system protect
onto the upper tubular. With both the upper and lower tong the hydraulic system from over-pressurization, cavitation,
jaws now clamped on to the upper and lower tubulars, the and breakdown of the hydraulic fluid. Hydraulic filters on the
upper clamp is rotated until the desired torque is achieved. pressure, return, and case drain line ensure the hydraulic flu-
Since the upper tong typically has a limited range of rotation, id is kept free from contaminants. Cooling units and heaters
multiple cycles may be required. The tong jaws from both keep the hydraulic oil at the recommended viscosity levels.
the upper and lower tong assemblies are then retracted and
the power tongs are positioned out of the way so that the Instrumentation
drilling or tripping operation can commence. In order to drill efficiently and safely, the rig operator needs
»» Breakout operations to have a means of objectively measuring the function of the
The breakout operation is the same makeup operation up rig components. Instruments are therefore provided with-
to the point immediately after the lower tong jaws have in view of the driller which allow monitoring of the drilling
clamped onto the lower tubular. Once this happens, the equipment, and comparison with targets. For example, set-
upper tong jaws extend to clamp the upper tubular and the ting a rotary speed which is ideal for the formation being
upper tong rotates in the opposite direction of a makeup op- drilled and the type of bit in the hole improves efficiency, or
eration to break out the connection. Multiple cycles may be to ensure safety, an accurate pump pressure gauge warns
required. The spinner assembly then operates through the the operator not to exceed the maximum allowable for the
same sequence as a makeup operation except that the spin- connecting pipe.
ners spin in the opposite direction to complete the breakout
Three of the most common and valuable measurements are
and stop spinning once the spin out time has been reached.
weight, pressure and torque.
Capacity & limitation
Power tongs are capable of making up connections up to
Weight indicator
The weight indicator is a ‘scale’ which displays the total load
150,000 lb-ft and breaking out connections up to 200,000
on the drilling line in pounds, deca-Newtons, or kilograms.
lb-ft. Typically the breakout rating is 33% higher than the
This load includes some component of the hung drilling
makeup rating to account for any over-torqueing that hap-
line, the travelling blocks, hook, top drive or swivel, and the
pens in the drilling process or to account for damaged or
suspended tubulars. The weight indicator actually compris-
contaminated threads. The higher breakout torque is typi-
es three sub-systems, the ‘dial or display’, the ‘sensor’ or
cally achieved by using the cap end of the cylinder(s) apply-
transducer and connecting tube or electronics. The sensor
ing the force to generate torque for the breakout function
creates a signal from the ‘dead line’ tension which travels
and the rod end of the cylinder(s) for the make-up function.
along the connecting system, where the dial or digital dis-
For positioning, rotational limits can range from 0-360°,
play presents a value representing the mass of the suspend-
horizontal travel can range from 70 in. to 115 in., and vertical
ed load. The sensor is generally either mounted on the dead
travel can range from 36 in. to 76 in. Cycle times can range
line itself, or consists of a sensor incorporated into the dead
from 10 to 30 seconds. Tubular diameters typically range
line anchor. Alternatively, the sensor can also be in form of
from 3 1/4 in. to 10 in. On some models, different dies may be
a load pin, inserted in the load path of the TB, TD or swiv-
used for different diameters of tubulars.
el. Where a sensor is mounted directly on the drilling line it
functions by applying a slight displacement at right angles
Inspection & maintenance
to the drilling line under low load. As the load increases,
Regular inspections and maintenance are critical to wrench
the force tends to straighten the line, reducing the displace-
operations. Metal-on-metal bearings and bushings should
ment. The change in displacement is proportional to load,
be greased regularly. Critical weld joints should be inspected
which the indicator displays.
regularly using non-destructive examination to verify weld
integrity. The sensors mounted on the deadline anchor sense load
through rotation of the anchor, which is constructed to allow
Refer to operator’s manual for detailed maintenance in-
small rotary displacement. As the anchor rotates, it applies
structions.
force to the sensor through a lever. The sensor generates a
signal which is proportional to load. The signal is then sent
Safety
to the display. In either type of arrangement the sensor may
Pinch and crush points are inherent to tong systems. Haz-
be hydraulic or electrical. In some designs, the sensor, con-
ardous areas should be clearly marked with safety labeling.
necting lines and display, is constructed as a single unit and
Safety interlocks in the power tongs’ control system can
hung on the drilling line.
signal warnings or alarms and prevent certain functions
from operating when it is unsafe to do so. Pressure, tem-

As weight is lowered onto the bit, the load indicated on Under pressure is generally an operational issue in that the
the weight indicator decreases in direct proportion to the equipment being served will not function properly or may
increase on the bit. Therefore most weight indicators have be damaged by insufficient pressure. Low engine oil pres-
some method, either electronic or mechanical, of showing sure often indicates low oil flow or distribution disturbance,
‘weight on bit’. Weight on bit is one of the critical factors which can result in bearing damage. Low air or hydraulic
affecting drilling penetration rate, and bit life. pressure will cause slow or erratic machinery operation. In
the case of BOP actuating systems, low system pressure can
The weight indicator is the most important gauge on the rig result in a critical situation, where the BOPs will not close to
floor. It not only allows the driller to control the drilling rate, control a flowing well.
but allows the driller to avoid catastrophic failures due to
overloading the rig and hoisting components. As a conse- Mud pressure is a very important indicator of the perfor-
quence, it is typical policy to have more than one ‘weight mance of directional drilling tools, such as downhole mud
indicator’ or method of measuring load. These indicators motors. Since the drill bit in directional drilling is predomi-
should have a defined maintenance plan which includes on- nately rotated by the downhole motor, Torque displayed by
site calibration and setup according to the manufacturer’s the top drive is no longer a true indicator of torque on bit.
directions, and scheduled professional calibration. As well, Hence, mud pressure, or more important “delta pressure” is
good policy dictates that the driller should, on a regular ba- a more direct indicator of torque on bit and is critical to the
sis, compare the indicator reading to the calculated string performance and functionality of the downhole motor.
load. Should the reading of the indicator disagree with the
calculated load, a replacement should be fitted. Under no To ensure that pressure gauges provide accurate informa-
circumstances should hoisting proceed without a function- tion which is understood by the operators; maintenance and
ing weight indicator. calibration of pressure gauges should be part of the drilling
rig maintenance plan and the use, installation and interpre-
Pressure gauge tation of pressure gauges should be included in operator
Many pressure gauges are fitted to the drilling rig; mud, air, training.
hydraulics and engine lubricant pressures are all monitored.
As with the weight indicator, the device consists of a sensor, Torque (top drive)
connecting lines and a display. The sensor must be fitted Torque, displayed in lb ft or Newton Meters is a measure of
with a port to the fluid being measured, and the signal trans- ‘twisting’ or torsional force. All rigs will have some method
mitted over lines to a display showing pounds per square of measuring and controlling the ‘makeup’ torque for drilling
inch (psi), Kilopascals, or bar. Pressure gauges that combine tool connections such as drillpipe and drill collars. However,
the sensor, connections and display are very common, but not all rigs will have a means of displaying drilling torque.
for important systems, placing the indicator immediately in Drilling torque is the torque being applied to the drillstring
front of the driller can result in faster response to changes in order to turn the bit. While relatively rare on traditional
in the system. Pressure gauges can be mechanical, hydrau- mechanical rigs, most electric drive rigs, and all top drive
lic or electronic devices but all require periodic calibration equipped rigs will have a means of indicating ‘drilling torque’.
to ensure accurate readings. Ideally, the gauge should be
Makeup torque can be measured two ways; when manual
chosen such that the ‘normal’ values fall within the 60-85%
tongs are being used to tighten string connections, a sensor
range of the gauge.
(transducer) is installed in the pull back line or back up line,
Systems which have a pressure gauge installed will show a and the force applied by the drawworks is then displayed as
real time value and sometimes have a normal range, bound- “torque”. Similar to the weight indicator, the torque gauge
ed by an under pressure and an over pressure region. The has a sensor or transducer, connecting lines, and a display.
over pressure region is usually the most safety critical area. Also similar to a weight indicator, the device may be com-
For example, the drilling mud system on most rigs can gen- bined in one unit. The second method of measuring make-
erate sufficient pressure to cause explosive failure of the up torque applies when a mechanical makeup unit is em-
piping system and fittings. To mitigate this risk, the system ployed (iron roughneck). These devices will have an internal
is generally fitted with over pressure relief devices (pop method for regulating and reporting applied torque and will
valves). However, the pressure relief valve is a last resort de- display externally on the unit or transmit to the driller’s con-
vice, and should not be relied on to ensure safety of the sys- sole.
tem. Over pressure failures can occur on any of the systems,
Drilling torque can be measured on mechanical driven ro-
air, hydraulic and BOP. Monitoring the pressure with the use
tary tables by measuring the tension in the drive chain, or
of a gauge can prevent failures by warning of pressures ap-
force applied to the drive shaft. Electric drive rotary tables
proaching critical values.
will generally have an ‘amperage’ reading, which can be con-

verted into a torque reading. All top drive systems will have but it can also predict upcoming equipment failure or hole
an internal method of measuring torque, and will provide an problems, if ROP is pushed too hard.
output to display on the drillers console.
Rate of mud pump: strokes per minute
Makeup torque is critical to the performance of drilling tu- The speed or rate of the mud pump is typically expressed by
bulars. As described in the manual section dealing with drill- “strokes per minute” or SPM. SPM is derived by measuring
pipe and collars, the torsion applied to ‘make up’ the con- how many times (per minute) the piston of a mud pump is
nection provides the preload in the sealing faces to ensure making a full stroke. By knowing the rate of the pump, the
a leak tight seal. Conversely, too much torque will destroy driller will be able to control the flow rate of mud into the
the seal faces and may deform the threads. Drilling torque is wellbore. This can be an important function, since too much
important where the top drive, or rotary table has sufficient flow can “wash out” the hole and not enough flow can inhibit
power to exceed the make-up limit, or the torsional strength the return of “cuttings” from the drill bit and therefore plug
of the tubulars. In the case of highly deviated holes, the drag the well or the bit can get stuck. The SPM is typically mea-
can exceed the torsional limits on the pipe, and excessive sured by a proximity switch or with a “limit switch”.
drive torque may cause failure. Drilling deviated holes with
top drives is now sometimes done in ‘reverse’ direction, Accumulated strokes (volume)
which requires very precise torque measurement to ensure Sometimes, it is important for the driller to know exactly
the connections are not loosened and separated downhole. how much liquid is pumped into the wellbore. This is es-
pecially important when casing is cemented, but can also
Other common instrumentation be beneficial when drilling mud is replaced with heavier or
There are other factors the driller needs to successfully com- lighter mud or when a survey tool is pumped to bottom of
plete a drilling operation, such as total mud volume pumped the wellbore.
into the wellbore, gain/loss of mud, block position, rate of
penetration and mud tank volume (pit totalizer). Some of The volume of liquids pumped is calculated by the size of
this data is not directly derived from a sensor and may be the liner (piston) and the length of the rod (stroke). Once a
the results of computation using multiple variables from a volume per stroke is established, the driller will determine
number of sensors. how many strokes of the mud pump is required to pump a
desired volume into the wellbore and he or she will reset the
Block position total stroke counter and accumulate pump strokes until the
The “traveling block” is the interface between the draw- desired number has been reached.
works (hoist), the crown (top of mast) and the top drive or
“Kelly” that has the drillpipe attached to it. Pit totalizer (mud pit volume)
The drilling mud serves many purposes, including well con-
The block position is a feedback from the rig instrumenta- trol, by acting as a “plug” against a potential blow out. For
tion system that helps the driller to avoid running equipment this purpose, a rig typically mixes different mud weights in
into the crown or rig floor. It also feeds information to the different mud tanks. The specific weight of the mud is care-
auto driller, the drilling recorder and is used to calculate rate fully selected to create a balance of sufficient “counter pres-
of penetration (ROP). sure” against a potential gas bubble (kick) and killing the for-
mation (too much weight will seal the potential oil producing
The position of the block is typically derived from an encod-
formation against oil flow). To be best prepared for changing
er attached to the drawworks shaft, often the drum shaft.
downhole situations, the driller must know how much mud
It can also be measured with a proximity switch and one or
volume is available in all of the mud tanks. Tank volume is
multiple “target” attached to the fast line sheave. In the old
measure in many ways, but in earlier times, the “floating”
days, a “fish line” attached to the travelling block was con-
ball was the most popular sensor and is still used today on
nected to the drilling recorder and had to be clutched in or
many rigs.
disengaged, to calculate rate of penetration, pending on op-
eration of the drawworks. Sonar and radar sensors are the more popular choices today,
as they provide more accurate measurement.
Rate of penetration
This information is used to tell the driller how fast the drill Because the drilling mud may be “contaminated” with hy-
bit is cutting through the formation and how much “hole” drocarbon gas, it is considered potentially explosive and
is made over a period of time. Sophisticated drilling instru- electrical equipment near and in the mud tanks have to be
mentation systems can now detect automatically when the rated for hazardous explosive atmosphere.
rig is “drilling ahead” and when it is “tripping in or out of the
hole”. Rate of penetration (ROP), is a performance indicator,

Gain/loss of mud volume valuable clues as to system failures and improve operational
As explained above, monitoring the mud volume in the tanks efficiency.
and in the wellbore is critical to avoid a “blowout”. A blowout
occurs when high pressure gas enters the wellbore from a Maintenance and inspection
subterranean “gas pocket” that is under high pressure. Once The primary goal of maintenance and inspection is to ensure
the gas enters the wellbore, it tends to travel upwards (by that the machines operate as intended. When a machine or
law of gravity, since gas is lighter than mud). As it moves structure operates as intended, it will not only perform the
higher and higher in the mud column, it expands due to less- function as designed, it will be available when required, pro-
er counter pressure from the mud weight. As soon as the vide economic return and be ‘safe’ to use.
gas expands, it displaces more mud (the mud is pushed out
of the wellbore). This situation is called “gaining mud” and API exploration and production standards &
is mostly an indication that the well is “kicking”. If this early
recommended practices
warning sign is ignored, it can lead to serious problems, in-
The American Petroleum Institute (API) is the standards
cluding a loss of control and a disastrous blowout. Hence,
development organization (SDO) generally accepted as the
monitoring gain of mud is critical.
source of standards within the oil and gas industry in the
On most rigs, the return mud flow is measured with a pad- usa. The documents can be accessed through the API web-
dle sensor (as shown below), but some advanced instru- site or by contacting them directly.
mentations systems have employed coriolis or magnetic The following six series of API documents are the primary
flow meters for higher accuracy. Another option is to use guidelines applicable to the drilling industry:
a “clamp-on” style acoustic (ultrasound) flow meter. How- •• Series 4: Derricks and Masts;
ever, all these advanced flow measuring devices have some •• Series 5: Tubular Goods;
drawbacks. The coriolis meter is susceptible to abrasion, a •• Series 7: Drilling Equipment;
common problem with any probe that is in the mud flow, •• Series 8: Hoisting Tools;
while the magnetic device is relying on conductivity of elec- •• Series 9: Wire Rope;
trical current in the liquid to be measured, hence, it does not •• Series 11: Production Equipment.
work for oil based mud. The ultrasound sensor, while very
convenient for installation, has lacked accuracy. Each series provides a variety of Recommended Practices
(RP), Specifications (Spec), Bulletins (Bul), or reports re-
Display unit lated to the type of equipment in the series. Generally the
When drilling for oil started and instrumentation became series include a manufacturing standard which assists in
a necessity, the most common display instrument was the two ways. First, a product that meets the standard will have
pen recorder, fondly known as “the geolograph”. With all predictable dimensional and performance specifications
the technological advances however, mechanical recording that ensure it will fit and operate with other standard com-
of results is a thing of the past and all data is now stored in ponents. Second, service limits are often included that will
computer databanks and displayed on video displays, such guide the user on when to remove a product from service for
as the one shown in Figure RP-51, and can be translated into replacement or repair.
any language (as is evident in the samples, where the lan-
Most series also include a ‘Maintenance and Use’ recom-
guage is Russian).
mended practice. These documents provide direction on
when and how to inspect and certify.
Conclusion
Instrumentation is provided in dozens of systems around The following Recommended Practice documents are pro-
the rig. In all cases the instrumentation is only effective if vided by API and relate specifically to inspection, mainte-
the operator is trained in the proper interpretation of the nance and repair of drilling equipment:
values being displayed. This means that values such as the •• Spec 4F Drilling and Well Servicing Structures;
capacity of the mast, substructure, and hoisting equipment, •• RP 4G Maintenance and Use of Drilling and Well
and limitations on pressure and torque must be provided to Servicing Structures;
the operator. Formal training must include the use of instru- •• RP 7G Drill Stem Design and Operating Limits;
mentation and how to manage the system to stay within the •• RP 7L Inspection Maintenance, Repair and
equipment limitations. remanufacture of Drilling Equipment;
•• RP 8B Inspection, Maintenance, Repair and
Recording of instrumentation values can be performed with Remanufacture of Hoisting Equipment;
‘paper chart recorders’ or digitally, in the case of electronic •• RP 9B Application, Care and Use of Wire Rope for Oil
Field Service;
instruments. The information stored in this way can provide

•• RP 7C-11F Installation, Maintenance, and Operation of calendar days. It is important to note that in all cases, some
Internal Combustion Engines. method must be employed to ‘observe’ the equipment and
its use. Evidence based inspections imply that operators or
All recommended practices follow the same basic API Rec- qualified individuals observe the equipment in use, and look
ommended Practice structure: for signs (evidence) that further inspection or action is re-
•• Scope: Equipment included in the specification;
quired. Usage and calendar day triggers require a system to
•• Category: Complexity of Inspection;
monitor and record usage and time to compare to the in-
•• Frequency: When to Inspect;
•• Authorized Individual: Who is qualified; spection requirements. The RP may provide guidelines on
•• Required Documentation: ‘Certification’. what maintenance activities are recommended.
Scope Qualified individual

The RP scope specifically identifies the particular equip- The recommended practice may specify what type of repair
ment guided by the practice. is allowed, and who may make the repair. In addition, the RP
will specify who is qualified to do an inspection and certifi-
Category cation.
The standard API structure includes four inspection catego-
ries, plus damage inspection: Documentation
•• Category I is the visual inspection or observation under The recommended practice will specify who, how and what
normal use and is generally the responsibility of the records are necessary.
operating crews. Although the drilling crews are not
trained ‘inspectors’, the Category I inspection can be Maintenance
considered to be the most important inspection as it is
the most timely, and if performed diligently and Maintenance categories
regularly, will uncover deterioration in its earliest form. Generally there are three categories of maintenance:
•• Category II inspection is a more thorough evaluation •• Reactive maintenance: Performing activities as a result
than Category I, and is performed prior to major events of observed failure, or loss of performance;
such as raising or lowering the derrick. •• Proactive or preventive maintenance:
•• Category III is a detailed visual inspection of all load •• Planned maintenance / Inspection schedules;
bearing members, welds and pickup points. The •• Investigation and elimination of root causes.
individual supervising the Level III inspection must •• Predictive maintenance:
possess adequate knowledge and experience. Typical •• Use statistical evidence to select repair or replacement
persons qualified would be an engineer, an NDT timing and activities;
technician, or a senior drilling operations person. The •• Observe operation or inspect the machine to identify
inspection personnel must document this inspection in potential failure symptoms such as:
the API Equipment file. •• Visible damage;
•• Category IV – Formal Certification: A professional ••Noise;
engineer, an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) or ••Heat;
its agent must inspect the entire structure. The ••Vibration;
inspection should, at the inspector’s discretion, include •• Electronic ‘failure codes’;
non destructive testing (NDT) of all critical load bearing •• Lubricant and coolant anomalies.
areas.
•• Damage Inspection (defined for mast and
substructure):
Maintenance activities
♦♦ Major Damage: Geometrical distortion to A-legs, In all three types of maintenance approaches above, there
raising assembly, main legs, crown or other load are only four responses to the findings:
bearing member; •• Do nothing;
♦♦ Secondary Damage: Damage or distortion to ••Repair;
non-primary load carrying components; •• Discard and replace;
♦♦ Minor Damage: Distortion to secondary equipment •• Discard and don't replace.
such as ladders, monkey board, walk around, etc., or
cosmetic damage to girts or fan braces. The response chosen should first be evaluated from a safe-
ty perspective, and then be based an economic evaluation
Inspection frequency which takes into account the cost of materials, labor and
The recommended practice will specify when the inspec- non-productive time.
tions should be performed. In general, they may be triggered
Where available, the manufacturers’ documentation will
by “evidence” (evidence based), usage (days, hours, etc.) or
provide proactive/preventative maintenance schedules to

follow. In the case where specific information is not avail- maintenance activities required;
able, it is advisable to work with a maintenance professional •• Identify the frequency of inspections and maintenance
or engineer to establish appropriate maintenance routines activities;
and schedules. •• Identify and train the responsible individuals for
maintenance and repair;
In addition to the manufacturer's guidelines for mainte- •• Define the reporting requirements;
nance, there may be regulatory requirements and industry •• Have a records management system.
standards for inspection and ‘certification’ of certain pieces
It is the rig owner’s responsibility to ensure that a mainte-
of equipment. Typically, pressure vessels (air, steam etc.),
nance program is established. Further, all requirements,
lifting devices, lifting hardware, structures, vehicles, and
manufacturer, regulatory, standards and safety must be in-
hazardous materials will be regulated in some way and the
corporated in the maintenance program.
‘maintenance program’ for the rig must incorporate these
requirements (OSHA, DOT, National Board)
Reference
Maintenance and inspection plan:
AGMA Manual for Assembly Bevel and Hypoid Gears
A formal maintenance and inspection plan should have the
(AGMA 331.01), the American Gear Manufacturers Associ-
following minimum elements:
ation, 1330 Massachusetts Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C.
•• Have a formal system to monitor and record ‘usage
units’; 20005.
•• Provide a description of the type of inspections and

SO
SPECIAL OPERATIONS

Enhancing
expertise for rig
crews of today and
tomorrow
IADC
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SPECIAL OPERATIONS SO-i
CHAPTER
SO
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
nance and repair.
the reader.
Contributors
Dennis Moore, Marathon Oil Corp. (Chapter Lead and Faults) Moji Karimi, Weatherford (Solid Expandables)
Chip Alvord, ConocoPhillips (Permafrost) John Murphy, M-I SWACO, a Schlumberger company
Charles Bellinger, Smart Chemical Services (Geothermal) (Permafrost)
Jerry Fisher, Schlumberger (Fishing) Nathan Smith, Energen Resources (Coalbed Methane)
John Jones, Marathon Oil Corp. (Depleted sands) Mike Winfree, ConocoPhillips contractor (Permafrost)
Louis Godoy, Weatherford (Solid Expandables)
Reviewers
Michael Davis, Drill Science Corp., (Faults) Allen Pere, BP (Depleted sands)
Mohamed Elshabrawy, Shell (Fishing) Ron Sweatman, Baker Hughes (Geothermal)
Buster Hamley, Weatherford (Fishing) Monte Johnson, Weatherford (Fishing)
Eric Moellendick, Schlumberger (Solid Expandables) Bobby Jarrett, Weatherford (Fishing)
SO–ii SPECIAL OPERATIONS


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-1-5

SPECIAL OPERATIONS Contents SO-iii
CHAPTER SO
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
Contents
Drilling highly depleted sands...................................SO-1 Free-point indicator............................................ SO-8
Drilling coalbed methane formations.....................SO-1 Separating or backing off pipe in the
History.....................................................................SO-1 wellbore.............................................................. SO-8
Drilling CBM wells................................................SO-1 String-shot back off.................................... SO-8
Summary.................................................................SO-2 Chemical cutters......................................... SO-8
Drilling permafrost based on North Slope Alaska Radial cutting torch..................................... SO-9
experiences.................................................................SO-2 Jet cutters...................................................... SO-9
Well design considerations...............................SO-2 Severing tools............................................... SO-9
Common fluid systems used for Arctic Washover operations......................................... SO-9
drilling...................................................................SO-2 Rotary-shoe selection................................ SO-9
Spud mud........................................................SO-2 Pipe-size selection...................................... SO-9
Surface casing and cements.....................SO-3 Mud properties for fishing and
Geothermal wells..........................................................SO-3 washover.................................................... SO-9
Drilling faults................................................................. SO-4 Freeing stuck pipe with acid............................. SO-9
Solid expandable liner technology...........................SO-5 Jarring operations................................................ SO-9
Improve well architecture..................................SO-5 Fisher bumper sub...................................... SO-9
Mitigate hazards...................................................SO-5 Hydraulic fishing jars................................ SO-10
Components of solid expandable liners.........SO-5 Fishing accelerator/intensifier/slinger
Running sequence....................................... SO-6 jar................................................................ SO-10
Open-hole fishing operations................................... SO-6 Surface jar................................................... SO-10
Job planning.......................................................... SO-6 Attachment tools for fishing parted pipe... SO-10
Stuck-pipe mechanisms......................................SO-7 Screw-in sub............................................... SO-11
Differential sticking......................................SO-7 Full-strength series 150 overshot......... SO-11
Sloughing shale.............................................SO-7 Casing/tubing spear................................. SO-11
Key seating.....................................................SO-7 Box and taper taps.................................... SO-12
Blowout sticking............................................SO-7 Fishing for junk................................................... SO-12
Undergauged hole sticking....................... SO-8 Fishing magnets................................................. SO-12
Lost-circulation sticking............................. SO-8 Junk mills..................................................... SO-12
Mechanical sticking.................................... SO-8 Globe-type junk baskets.......................... SO-13
Estimated stuck point......................................... SO-8 Reverse-circulating junk baskets.......... SO-13
String stretch formula......................................... SO-8 Open-hole logging tools.......................... SO-13
Electric-wireline pipe recovery........................ SO-8

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SPECIAL OPERATIONS SO-1
Drilling highly depleted sands Drilling coalbed methane formations

Drilling through highly depleted sands may pose significant Coalbed methane, or CBM, formations are comprised of a
challenges, depending on the pore pressures and fracture series of coal stringers that range anywhere from 1 ft thick
gradients of other exposed formations, and the minimum al- to as much as 30 ft thick. Depending on the environment in
lowable mud weight to avoid an influx and maintain wellbore which the coal was deposited, the interval can contain from
stability (prevent hole collapse). one or two to as many as five to seven stringers. Coalbeds
are normally bound by sandstone and shale stringers with-
In most instances, fracture gradients in sands are reduced as in the formation that contains the coal. Coal formations are
a function of depletion. However, this is not a one to one rela- considered to be a porous and “friable” (easily crumbled)
tionship, as the reductions in minimum horizontal stress and formation. Although fracture gradients can be as high as 23
fracture extension pressures are typically 30 to 60% of the ppg, lost circulation situations can still occur when drilling
reduction in pore pressure. Even so, in situations where initial through this formation because of the nature of its porosity.
drilling margins are low, such as in highly inclined wellbores Depending on the area, coalbeds can be either overpres-
in over-pressured environments, any reduction in the drilling sured or underpressured and different grades are encoun-
margin may prove difficult to manage. tered ranging in appearance anywhere from a bright luster
to a dull gray. CBM wells are considered a non-conventional
Since the minimum allowable mud weight for any wellbore formation and typically produce higher volumes of water
is generally fixed by the maximum pore pressure of any ex- initially.
posed permeable formations or the minimum mud weight
to prevent hole collapse, strategies for successfully drilling History
through highly depleted sands generally focus on maintain- In the past, as other deeper formations were being sought,
ing a quality filter cake, reducing equivalent circulating densi- the coal was seen as just a formation to get through. Early on
ty (ECD) and maintaining pipe movement to avoid differential many saw extremely high pressures while going through the
sticking. In some cases it may also be necessary to alter the coal requiring very high mud weights. Some early coal wells
wellbore trajectory in order to increase the drilling margin. produced as much as 20 mmscf/day.
In normally faulted environments, hoop stresses and frac- The first coal wells drilled were completed using a slotted or
ture initiation pressures are reduced at high inclination an- perforated liner across the coal section and were allowed to
gles, and industry wide wellbore strengthening efforts (e.g., free flow. The wells were typically vertical and later on the
stress caging) have often had mixed or negligible results. wells were either hydraulically fracture stimulated or com-
Maintaining a thin but tough filter cake, while establishing an pleted by cavitation – pressuring up the formation with air
optimal lost circulation material (LCM) concentration, is an and allowing it to surge back into a flow-back pit or tank
important first step for ensuring that breakdown pressures causing the formation to crumble.
in depleted sands are as high as possible, and that differen-
tial sticking is minimized. Too small a concentration of LCM Drilling CBM wells
will provide inadequate wellbore to formation isolation, while Today, CBM wells are drilled either vertically or horizontally
excessive LCM concentrations unnecessarily increase ECDs. and can be drilled with either roller cone or PDC type bits.
Vertical drilling coal is in a practical sense no different than
Furthermore, for many formations drilled at high inclination drilling any other vertical well. The main difference is that a
angles, the mud weight required to ensure wellbore stability drilling break will occur when the coal is encountered. The
is often greater than for a vertical wellbore. Since high in- ROP will suddenly increase as the bit enters the coal with the
clination angles are often unavoidable, particularly for cen- same WOB as was applied through the shale and sandstone
tralized offshore platform development drilling, a number of above it. Depending on the coal environment, it is possible
ECD reducing techniques have been developed. Managed to see minor gas kicks when drilling into the coal. Typically
pressure drilling (MPD) techniques, including “constant bot- a standard low solids non-dispersed, or LSND, mud system
tomhole pressure” drilling, allow for lower mud weights to can be used for drilling vertical wells.
be utilized in a closed system, with a portion of the total re-
quired mud column equivalent pressure held by the surface The other form of drilling CBM wells that has been most re-
equipment. When drilling fluid circulation is established, the cently adopted, especially in the US, is by directional and hor-
surface pressure can be reduced to account for all or most izontal drilling. When drilling these wells, the operating pa-
of the annulus friction pressure, which generates ECD above rameters are much the same as any other vertical well when
the static mud weight. drilling to the kick off point and when drilling and landing the
curve section. In a situation where the coal is over-pressured,
a natural (unstimulated) completion is used. A clear drilling

SO-2 SPECIAL OPERATIONS
fluid is best used to drill the lateral in the coal when the well Drilling permafrost based on North Slope
is to be completed naturally. It has proven to be a best prac-
tice to use weighted brine water using KCL, NaCl, or CaCl2
Alaska experience
to achieve the required densities and simple starches to Well design considerations
gain the viscosities needed for solids carrying. Mud weights Well conductors are generally pre-set prior to the drilling
range, while drilling over-pressured laterals in the coal, from rig’s arrival to a depth of 80 ft. Development drilling appli-
9.5 ppg to as high as 11.0 ppg. cations use a 16-in. or 20-in. conductor depending on the
actual well & casing design. Long term development sce-
Even though fracture gradients can be high, as mentioned narios where close well spacing and thaw bulb development
earlier, when drilling the coal it is as though it is “hydrauli- could result in possible melting permafrost should consider
cally mined” more than drilled. The jetting action caused by insulated conductors (30 in. x 16 in. or 34 in. x 20 in.) and
the bit and circulating rates that are too high can create ex- thermosyphon to mitigate subsidence issues. The conduc-
cessively high ECDs and can wash out the wellbore causing tor hole is augured to a depth of 80 ft and the conductor is
larger than normal hole diameters. When the hole becomes lowered in by crane. Cement is the pumped into the con-
enlarged, cuttings are often not properly carried to surface ductor x conductor hole annulus from the bottom up. This
and it may require periodic clean outs by pulling the bit off cement should be pumped in two stages after tacking the
bottom a predetermined distance, rotating the drillstring at a bottom to prevent u-tubing the conductor off depth.
higher rpm while slightly increasing pump rates to clean out
the additional cuttings. Well designs for development wells should consider the ef-
fects of permafrost melting over the life cycle of the well and
Drilling horizontal laterals in coal stringers is time sensitive. the resultant subsidence effects developing severe compres-
The typical allowable timeframe ranges from 5-7 days of be- sion loads when selecting surface casing weights, grades and
ing in the lateral including drilling, making bit trips, etc. So, if connections.
for any reason the lateral is not finished in that time, the well-
bore may begin to exhibit signs of instability and sloughing Permafrost intervals can range from sand to course gravel
that will eventually cause a stuck pipe problem, regardless of entrained within an ice matrix. The intervals are relative-
whether TD is reached. The longer the lateral, the more likely ly soft and drill fast with standard 3-cone rock bit on mud
this event is to occur. Many times it is very beneficial to use motors. Directional drilling practices have advanced over the
PWD (pressure-while-drilling), equipment within the BHA, years where directional wells can routinely kick off at depths
to help identify any problems that may be occurring. up to 250 ft TVD. Mud motors with bent housings using AKO
setting from 0.5-2° depending on the required doglegs are
The completion method used after the lateral is drilled is to standard for drilling surface hole intervals. Excessive circula-
run a pre-perfed/slotted liner or a conventional liner and pin- tion through mud motors can impart high heat losses to the
point perforated with coil tubing. wellbore and mud system accelerating melting of the perma-
frost and causing gravels entrained in the ice matrix to run.
Summary Efforts should be made to drill the interval as quickly as prac-
Coalbed Methane wells have proven to be a very good tical to minimize heat loss to the wellbore.
source of gas. It is considered to be a non-conventional for-
mation, which means that some special considerations need Common fluids systems used for Arctic drilling
to be addressed when drilling it. These are:
• The structure of the coal itself can allow lost circulation Spud mud
to occur; A freshwater, high-viscosity bentonite spud mud is typical-
• High pressures may cause minor gas kicks when ly used to drill the surface hole. This provides the needed
entering the coalbed itself; viscosity for carrying capacity and solids suspension while
• A drilling fluid should be used that will not damage the drilling gravels and sands through the permafrost sections.
natural fractures of the coal for a natural completion; The fluid consists of approximately 25-lb/bbl bentonite hy-
• There is an increasing risk of wellbore instability the drated in cold fresh water. Just prior to drilling, the funnel
longer the hole stays open. The maximum exposure viscosity is increased to 200-300 sec/qt by adding a small
time before serious instability occurs varies somewhat amount of polymeric bentonite extender. (For reference,
with location but is usually in the range of 5-7 days; fresh water has a funnel viscosity of 26 sec/qt).
• Hydraulics can be very important since the friable
nature of coal can result in an enlarged borehole making Problems encountered in the surface interval are usually
hole cleaning difficult. poor hole cleaning due to running gravels / sands or sticky,
balled up clay cuttings. Keeping the mud as cold as possible

with additions of cold water helps minimize thawing of the produce water at temperatures less than boiling and without
permafrost, which holds the gravel in place. Surfactants are artesian flow at the surface; however, some will be hotter or
used successfully to eliminate clay balling. will flow.
Hydrates are sometimes drilled and can cause problems Blowout preventers and other safety equipment are not usu-
when they break out as methane gas at the surface. Once the ally required by governing bodies; however, this does not
drilled hydrates have been circulated out the problem usually mean that there are not significant safety considerations that
stops. Additional mud weight, lecithin, and slow ROP have all should be addressed. Many of the wells have water above
been tried with varying degrees of success. 140°F, and this will scald. Public and drilling crew safety must
be ensured; therefore, normal well control equipment should
Recently, mixed metal oxide (MMO) and mixed metal silicate be utilized during all drilling operations.
(MMS) drilling fluid systems have been used successfully to
drill troublesome surface holes where thawing permafrost Lost circulation is the loss of drilling fluid from the borehole
has caused increased instability in the gravel and sand sec- through cracks, crevices, or porous formations. It can be par-
tions. The unique rheological properties of these systems tial or complete, depending on the conditions. When circula-
provides a highly shear thinning fluid with exceptional hole tion is lost, the drilling fluid is not performing one of its major
cleaning and cuttings suspension properties and also seems functions, that of transporting the cuttings up the hole where
to reduce fluid loss in unconsolidated surface gravel. they can be released in the mud tank or pit. If the cuttings are
not removed from the hole, they will pack around the drill-
Surface casing and cements string above the bit, resulting in stuck pipe and possible loss
Arctic cementing presents some unique challenges. The first of the bit, collars, part of the string and perhaps, the hole.
being the low temperatures of the permafrost, and the sec-
ond being the unconsolidated nature of the permafrost. The If the formation has large cracks or crevices, the fluid may
fracture gradient across permafrost intervals on Alaska’s carry the cuttings into the formation and away where they
North Slope is generally taken to be 12.5 ppg. A lightweight cannot pack around the drillstring, but there is no way of be-
lead cement is used in conjunction with a 15.8 ppg class G ing assured that this is the case. Drilling without circulation is
tail to keep ECDs down and lower the density of the fluid also known as drilling blind. Complete loss of circulation usu-
column. The lead slurry is generally mixed to approximately ally results in the fluid level dropping to considerably below
11 ppg. For freeze protection, both lead and tail have salt in the surface with the resultant complete or partial loss of fluid
them. The fluid column is generally 500 ft of tail cement at pressure stabilizing the hole walls.
the shoe with the rest of the fluid in the annulus being lead
slurry. A proper spacer is pumped ahead of the lead slurry to This can result in cave-ins, another cause of stuck pipe.
help remove the mud filter cake.
Lost circulation is probably the most important problem en-
The permafrost has a tendency to melt very easily while drill- countered in drilling. It results in: (1) loss of expensive fluid
ing, and because it is unconsolidated, enormous washouts components, (2) loss of drilling time, (3) use of potentially
are common. Common practice on Alaska’s North Slope is to expensive lost circulation materials to keep the losses from
use 250% excess cement in the permafrost section (usually plugging possible production zones, and (4) leads to ce-
about 0-1,500 ft TVD) and 50% excess cement below the menting problems, in addition to possible loss of equipment
permafrost. This excess can increase even more if excessive in the hole, as noted above.
circulation or other unforeseen circumstances occur.
Despite the severity of the problems, most experts agree
Conductors set and cemented in permafrost require a blend that probably half the lost circulation problems can be avoid-
that is able to hydrate quickly at the low permafrost tem- ed and that many are driller induced. Proper planning and rig
peratures and can gain approximately 1,000 psi compressive operation are important. Some of the techniques involved in
strength in 5-8 hours. The blend may contain salt, which low- proper planning and operation are:
ers the freezing point of water to below permafrost tempera- • Insofar as possible, use nearby well logs and geologic
tures, ensuring that the water in the cement slurry will not information, and carefully plan the hole and the casing
freeze before the cement has a chance to hydrate. program;
• Treat the wellbore gently. Raise and lower drillstrings
and casing slowly. Do not spud or swab. Start fluid
Geothermal wells pumps at slow rates and increase slowly; Maintain fluid
Most geothermal wells can be drilled using conventional velocity in the annulus at the lowest rate to assure
water well technology and equipment. Most of the wells will

σ1
Normal Faulting
σ1 = Vertical Stress
σSO-4
2
= Maximum Horizontal SPECIAL
Stress OPERATIONS σ1
σ = Minimum
Normal
3
Horizontal Stress
Faulting σ3
σ11 =≥Vertical
σ σ2 ≥ σ Stress
3
σ2 = Maximum Horizontal Stress σ1 Corrosion is a major concern when drilling in

σ3 =Normal
Minimum Horizontal Stress
Faulting σ3
σ2
a geothermal environment, especially when
σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ 3
σ1 = Vertical Stress using compressed air. The combination of ex-
σ2 = Maximum Horizontal Stress treme temperatures, pressures, acid gases,
σ3 = Minimum Horizontal Stress σ3
σ2 and high oxygen content (from compressed
σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ 3
air) can lead to severe corrosion and poten-
tial tubing/drillpipe failure without a proper
σ2 corrosion management program.
In the Gulf of Mexico it is often assumed that σ 2=σ3

The typical geothermal environment can
Where σ 2=σ3 stability is not affected by wellbore azimuth
Where σ 2=σ3 breakouts do not occur in vertical wellbores have a BHT = 475°F with approximately
10 ppm H2S , 500 ppm CO2, and a produc-
Figure SO-1: Normal faulting occursσwhen
3 a block of rock ing water consists of 10,000 chlorides with
moves down, relative to its surroundings. about 26 ppm sulfate and 13 ppm bicarbon-
Reverse (Thrust) Faulting
ate. Laboratory simulations conducted at a
σ3
σ1 = Maximum Horizontal Stress chemical research and development centre
σ2 = Minimum Horizontal Stress
Reverse
σ (Thrust)
= Vertical Faulting
Stress
indicate that drilling without the proper cor-
3
σ1
rosion management program will result in ex-
σ
σ11 =≥Maximum
σ2 ≥ σ3 Horizontal Stress σ3
cessive corrosion (> 11 lb/sq ft/yr) and severe
σ3 = Vertical Stress
Reverse (Thrust) Faulting
pitting.
σ1
σ2
σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ 3
σ1 = Maximum Horizontal Stress By ensuring and implementing the proper
σ3 = Vertical Stress corrosion chemistry, field results indicate
σ1
σ2 lower corrosion rates, less metal loss, and no
σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ 3
Overburden represents the minimum principal stress damage to downhole tubulars may be real-
ized. Not only does this program lower drill-
Figure SO-2: When aσ2block of rock has been forced up relative to its ing cost by protecting the downhole tubulars,
surroundings, it is referred to as “reverse” or “thrust” faulting. but also more importantly, it provides a safer
drilling environment for field personnel.
σ2
Strike-Slip Faulting
Drilling faults
σ1 = Maximum Horizontal Stress σ2 Faults are breaks in the earth where a block
σ2 = Vertical Stress σ3 of rock has moved relative to surrounding
σ = Minimum
Strike-Slip Horizontal Stress
Faulting
formations. If the block has moved down rel-
3
σ3
σ
σ11 =≥Maximum
σ2 ≥ σ3 Horizontal Stress σ1 σ2 ative to its surroundings, it is called a “nor-
σ2 = Vertical Stress σ3
Overburden represents the immediate principal stress
σ3 = Minimum Horizontal Stress mal” fault. If it has been forced up relative
Strike-Slip Faulting
σ3 to its surroundings, it is called a “reverse” or
σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ 3 σ1
σ1 = Maximum Horizontal Stress “thrust” fault. If it moved laterally relative to
σ2 = Vertical Stress the adjacent rocks it is called a “strike-slip”
Figure SO-3: In “strike-slip” faulting, a block of rock will
σ3
move laterally relative to the adjacent rocks. fault. See Figures SO-1, -2 and -3.
σ3
σ1 ≥ σ 2 ≥ σ 3 σ1
Since faults are a result of the presence of
cuttings removal. Do not drill so fast as to overload the stress in the rock, borehole stability is sometimes an issue
annulus with cuttings. in areas where faults are present. If the fault does not form a
• Make frequent measurements of mud properties to seal, loss of circulation can result, especially if a rubble zone
maintain minimum weight, viscosity, and filtration. results from the rocks moving against each other. If a seal is
formed by a fault, the displacement of the rocks can result in
Air drilling (aerated fluid) is a technique often used in drilling formations that were originally deeper and containing higher
geothermal wells. This technique uses a compressible flu- pressure being lifted and encountered at a shallower depth.
id to lighten the equivalent circulating density (ECD) of the If encountered unexpectedly, crossing a fault can result in
drilling mud and allow fluid and cuttings to be transported a well control issue. Crossing a sealing fault can also result
to surface. in crossing into a zone of lower formation pressure, which
may cause differential sticking or mud losses. Bed dips of-

ten change dramatically as a fault is approached, and devi-

ation from a planned trajectory can increase with proximity
to the fault. The fault interface can also act as a whipstock
and create a sudden change in wellbore orientation as a drill 3 1
bit penetrates it.
Crossing a fault might not cause any problems or give any 1 2

indication that any has occurred. However, it can also have
serious consequences. Therefore, it is very important to ex-
ercise caution when approaching a known fault and to alert
the company man when it is suspected that a fault has been
encountered, whether anticipated or not. Indications of en- 2
countering a fault can include:
1: Unexpanded pipe
• Sudden erratic torque;
• Sudden difficulty in maintaining tool face if directional
2: Expansion cone
3: Expanded pipe
3
drilling;
• Changes in drilling parameters indicating change in
formation type;
• Mud losses; Figure SO-4: A solid expansion cone is the most widely used
means to swage and expand pipe. Usually the cone is deployed in
• Kicks.
a launcher or cone housing at the bottom of the expandable liner.
Once the expandable liner reaches the desired setting depth, the
Drilling faults may have any result from absolutely no effect cone is pumped from the bottom up, expanding pipe as it travels.
to serious wellbore stability or well control issues. The ap-
propriate response may range from continuing to drill ahead casing to wellbore clearances, it is possible to increase
with no action, to picking up off bottom, making sure the pipe hole size in the target reservoir and upsize the
is free, checking for flow, and circulating bottoms up to check completion.
samples and mud log shows. It is advisable to discuss with
the company man ahead of time what the desired response Mitigate hazards
will be if a fault is encountered. Adding additional casing strings to overcome lost circulation
zones can make it impossible to reach TD with a completion
that is large enough to realize the well’s full potential. Ex-
Solid expandable liner technology pandable liners allows setting casing across the loss zone,
Expandable technology is used to maximize the pass- but still allows the operator to reach TD with a larger casing
through ID of the final casing string by minimizing or elim- size.
inating the reduction in hole size that results from having a
large number of casing strings in the well design. The pro- Wellbore Instability is a common drilling problem that can
cess of swaging expands the casing used into a larger size. result in significant non-productive time (NPT) or even loss
Solid expandable liners are enlarged using cone expansion. of hole section. Expandable liners isolate the problem zone
This is a cold working process in which a swage-like ex- behind a solid steel barrier, keeping the formation from
pansion cone is pumped and/or pulled through the casing, sloughing in.
stretching it beyond its elastic limit, or yield point, but with-
out exeeding the ultimate, or failure, limit. The process per- Over-pressured formations might require setting an extra
manently deforms the pipe without breaking it, increases its casing string. The use of expandables sometimes makes it
yield strength, and decreases the ductility of the metal. possible to do this and still preserve hole size.
Solid expandable liners allow the operator to run more strings Components of solid expandable liners
of casing without losing as much hole size making it possible • Tubulars for solid expandable system are made from
to run larger production casing at TD. malleable grades of pipe made to tighter tolerances
than normal casing with thicknesses allowing for
Improve well architecture expansion at reasonable forces;
• Downsize the hole: Solid expandable systems can be • Elastomers are primarily used to seal into host casing
used to downsize parts of the well, saving time and and provide zonal isolation in cased hole situations;
money; • Lubrication is a critical part of expanding pipe. Without
• Maximize production string size: By using smaller reducing friction, the cone could become stuck during

Running sequence
1. Drill hole section and underream, if necessary;
2. Make up expandable liner, and hang in rotary;
3. Stab in work string and run to depth;
4. Drop dart (if required) and pump cement;
5. Drop second dart and pressure up to expand liner;
6. Pull out work string as expansion cone moves up the
hole;
7. Cone exits top of liner using rig overpull; finish pulling
work string out of the hole;
8. Drill out shoe if required and continue rig operations.
Open-hole fishing operations

In fishing operations, an assessment of the problem and a
plan for resolving the problem are paramount. A response
is required as quickly and as efficiently as possible so that
productive operations can resume. Precise planning, coordi-
nation, and execution of the fishing operations are the key to
a successful operation.
Job planning
Prior to commencement of fishing operations, gather infor-
mation:
• Casing details:
»»Casing sizes and weights: Note any mixed casing
weights;
»»Depth of the casing shoe: Back-off of a stuck
Figure SO-5: Key steps in running expandable casing. bottomhole assembly (BHA) close to the casing
 Drill and underream hole section. shoe could have disastrous results.
 Make up expandable liner, and hang in rotary. • Hole details:
 Stab in work string and run to depth. »»Hole size;
 (Pump cement if required) Drop dart »»Angle;
and pressure up to expand liner. »»Depths:
 Cone exits top of liner using rig overpull. • Total depth;
 Drill out shoe if required and continue rig operations. • Measured depth;
• Doglegs;
»»Washed-out sections;
expansion or gall the inside of the liner. Expandable »»Low-pressure formations.
liners are coated with a lubricating material to reduce • BHA and drilling/work string details:
friction during the expansion process; »»All tools should be calipered precisely;
• Connections are another critical component of solid »»Outer diameter (OD);
expandable systems. They normally are the limiting »»Inner diameter (ID);
factor of expanding tubulars. Expandable connections »»Fishing neck OD;
are required to hold pressure before and during the »»•Length of fishing neck;
expansion process. After expansion, the threads are »»All tensile and torsional strengths.
distorted, but the expandable must still hold pressure; • Drilling jar details:
• A solid Expansion Cone is the most accepted, utilized, »»Are there jars in the hole and are they working;
and reliable method of swaging and expanding pipe. »»Where are the jars placed in the string;
Typically the cone is deployed in a launcher or cone »»Do the jars operate mechanically or hydraulically;
housing at the bottom of the expandable liner. Once the »»What is the maximum jarring load.
expandable liner reaches the desired setting depth, the • Mud details.Mud properties help determine why the
cone is pumped from the bottom up, expanding pipe as pipe is stuck:
it travels. »»Additives can reduce friction in the string;

»»Additives can help carry the cuttings to surface. »»Drillstem test-tool technique (setting the packer,
• Operations in process at time of incident: the hydrostatic pressure is lowered below the
»»Pipe motion prior to sticking will provide a good packer);
clue as to why the pipe is stuck; »»Spot pipe-free solutions around stuck BHA;
»»Tripping in-hole; »»Run free-point and back-off from stuck pipe;
»»Tripping out of hole; »»Jar on stuck BHA;
»»Reaming in-hole; »»Washover BHA.
»»Reaming out of hole;
»»Circulation rates before and after incident; Sloughing shale
»»Jar on stuck pipe in the opposite direction from • Circulation is either greatly reduced or impossible;
how the pipe was moving prior to sticking. • Unable to engage the Kelly-drive bushing after picking
• Fish details: up a new joint due to hole fill;
»»OD, ID, length, and condition of fish; • Cannot slack the bit off without the rotary and the
»»Make use of the composite catalogs, technical pump;
manuals, and manufacturers’ drawings; • Shale shaker shows that shale is being produced from
»»Have an exact replica of the fish on location, if the hole;
possible; • Pump-pressure increase or packing off;
»»Always know where the top of the fish is; • Freeing pipe from being stuck by sloughing shale:
»»Never rotate the fish out of the hole. »»Run free-point and back off from stuck pipe;
»»Stabilize hole conditions;
Stuck-pipe mechanisms »»Trip bit to clean and stabilize hole conditionJar on
The openhole environment presents a degree of uncertainty stuck BHA;
that carries a high risk of stuck pipe. Even with a large se- »»Washover BHA.
lection of tools, openhole fishing offers the challenge of an
infinite number of formation variables. Because of the wide Key seating
range of formations, local experience becomes very valu- • Pipe tube wears a groove in the hole wall at a dogleg;
able in openhole fishing. • BHA is larger so will not pass through when POOH;
• Can go down and pipe will rotate freely but cannot pull
In open-hole fishing, the primary problems encountered are up;
related to the mud or the formation. The key to freeing stuck • Have full circulation;
pipe successfully and with a minimum amount of time is to • Freeing pipe from keyseat:
first ascertain where and how the pipe became stuck, and »»Pull into the keyseat to hold the pipe;
secondly, attempt to free it in a systematic and economical »»Run a free point and backoff above the keyseat;
manner. In every situation, the cause of the sticking must be »»TIH with keyseat wiper one joint above screw in
identified before taking any action, enabling the best fishing sub, jarring BHA, and screw into fish;
method to be determined and avoiding additional tools get- »»Jar down to free fish and wipe out key seat with
ting stuck in the hole. keyseat wiper;
»»Consider running keyseat wiper on future trips
Differential sticking above BHA to prevent a repeat of the problem.
• Hydrostatic mud pressure in the wellbore is greater
than the formation opposite the stuck pipe interval; Blowout sticking
• Formation opposite the stuck-point interval is usually • In a blowout sticking situation, there is typically bridging
porous and a permeable sand, limestone, or dolomite; and more than one stuck interval. Sand and shale that
• A thick, poor filter cake has built up across the has blown up the hole will settle out around the tool
formation; joints, stabilizers, and other large-OD tools;
• Pipe is left stationary, creating a large contact area • A stuck-pipe log is usually run to determine the best
against the formation; fishing procedures:
• Pipe cannot be reciprocated or rotated, circulation at • Freeing pipe from being stuck as a result of blowout:
normal standpipe pressure is possible; »»Run free-point and back off from stuck pipe;
• Possible mud loss prior to becoming stuck; »»Stabilize hole conditions (trip bit to clean and
• Freeing pipe from being differentially stuck: stabilize hole conditions);
»»“U” tube technique; »»Jar on stuck BHA;
»»Spot diesel oil to reduce the hydrostatic pressure; »»Washover BHA.

Undergauged hole sticking The example shown in Table SO-1 illustrates the stretch for-
• Running in-hole with a new bit at high speeds is the mula. A drilling string at a depth of 10,000 ft is stuck. The
usual cause of being stuck in an under-gauged hole: drillpipe that is stuck is 4 1/2-in. and 16.60 lb/ft, and the
• Freeing pipe stuck in an under-gauged hole: string weight is 166,000 lb. The maximum pull on the drill-
»»Run free-point and back off from stuck pipe; string is 246,000 lb (80,000 lb of which is overpull). The
»»Jar on stuck BHA (If the stuck point is at the bit, stretch length is 49 in.
initiate UP jarring operations only);
»»Washover BHA. Table SO-1: Example calculation
using stretch formula
Lost-circulation sticking
• Lost-circulation sticking occurs when the string sticks Step Action Example
after losing returns, causing the hole to fall in;
1 Determine the value of the variable K K = 1.5/16.6 = 0.0904
• Freeing stuck pipe from lost circulation:
»»Run free-point and back off from stuck pipe; 2
Multiply the inches of stretch by 49 in. × 1,000,000 =
1,000,000 49,000,000
»»Stabilize hole conditions (trip bit to clean and
Multiple the value of K by the num- 0.0904 x 80,000 =
stabilize hole conditions); 3
ber of pounds of overpull 7,232
»»Jar on stuck BHA;
Divide the result of step 2 by the
»»Washover BHA, 4 result of step 3. The result is the
49,000,000/7,232 =
6,775 ft of free pipe
amount of free pipe
Mechanical sticking
Mechanical sticking occurs when there are: Electric-wireline pipe recovery
• Foreign objects in hole: Electric-wireline pipe-recovery work has become a techni-
»»Junk, such as bolts, slip dies, tong parts, hammers, cal, scientific service that requires specialized, competent,
chains, etc; and highly trained personnel.
• Crooked/corkscrewed drillpipe:
»»If the drillstring is not able to be pulled, serious A free point and back off or cut is used to recover the portion
fishing problems can develop; of pipe that is free to allow fishing operations to proceed on
• Freeing mechanically stuck pipe: the stuck portion of the pipe.
»»Run free-point and back off from stuck pipe;
»»Stabilize hole conditions (trip bit to clean and Free-point indicator
stabilize hole conditions); • Readings provide a measure of pipe movement due to
»»Jar on stuck BHA; surface-applied stretch and/or torque;
»»Washover BHA. • The readings provide a pipe-movement profile that can
be interpreted to indicate the depth at which pipe can
Estimated stuck point be effectively recovered;
The estimated stuck point (ESP) is the point at which all pipe • A free-point tool will indicate only the uppermost
below is stuck and all pipe above is free. The stuck point is free-point in a pipe string.
also referred to as the estimated free point (EFP).
Separating or backing off pipe in the wellbore
The formulas used to determine the stuck point will only give
an approximation of the depth at which the pipe is stuck and String-shot back off
only in a vertical hole, but a wireline free-point indicator will • The connection to be backed off is selected with a collar
give you an exact depth of the stuck point. location (CCL), left hand torque applied, and backing off
is accomplished with the aid of a string-shot charge;
String stretch formula • The string-shot charge consists of a job-specific
Feet of free pipe = 1,000,000 × inches of stretch quantity of detonating cord strung on a shot rod that is
electrically detonated when positioned at the desired
K × pounds of overpull connection.
For collared pipe: K = 1.4 ÷ weight of the pipe per foot Chemical cutters
• The chemical cut is accomplished with controlled
For integral-joint tubing or drillpipe: high-pressure radial dispersion of bromine trifluoride;
K = 1.5 ÷ weight of the pipe per foot • A chemical cutter is the preferred method for parting
tubing, because it does not flare the top of the fish;

• Chemical cutters leave no debris in the wellbore and the rotary shoe must not be larger than the maximum
will not damage adjacent casing strings; catch of overshot to be run for recovery.
• Parting the pipe with a chemical cutter is successful in
approximately 85% of uses; Pipe-size selection
• It will not cut coated or chrome pipe. • Minimum size to cover fish with adequate room for
circulation:
Radial cutting torch • Preferred ID clearance is 1/4 in. larger than fish OD;
• A plasma cutting device that overcomes many of the • Preferred OD clearance is 1/2 in. smaller than the hole
disadvantage of other cutting tools: size;
• A nonexplosive, flammable solid; • Length of washpipe to be used is determined by:
• Can be transported without special requirements, • Hole conditions;
including on passenger flights; • Clearances;
• Does not flare the top of the fish; • OD of fish;
• Leaves no debris in the wellbore and will not damage • Length of the fish.
adjacent casing strings;
• Cuts alloy, plastic-lined, and scaled pipe; Mud properties for fishing and washover
• Passes through restrictions cutting larger pipe below • Weight:
the restriction; • Maintain well control;
• operable in high pressures and temperatures to 500°F . • Stop shale sloughing.
• Viscosity: 4 times mud weight ;
Jet cutters • Yield point (YP) equal to mud weight if drilling;
• Used when a back-off or chemical cutter is not an • Must be 20 to wash over;
option or has been tried unsuccessfully; • Must be 30+ to mill.
• Always a risk of adjacent string damage; • Water loss
• Available in sizes between 1.156- and 12-in. OD; • Hard formation = 10;
• Able to cut tubulars in sizes between 1.660 in. and • Unconsolidated sand = 5 or below.
13.375 in.
Freeing stuck pipe with acid
Severing tools • If pipe gets stuck in a carbonate, HCL can be spotted
• The severing tool is used for drillpipe, Hevi-Wate around the stuck point and allowed to soak, dissolving
drillpipe, and drill collars, and is only used in open holes the formation;
to abandon the wellbore; • HCL should not be used in the presence of
• The severing tool will cut wall thicknesses that hydrocarbons to prevent the formation of flammable
conventional cutters cannot sever and is able to go gas.
through small restrictions;
• Sizes available range from 1 3/8-in. to 2 5/8-in. OD; Jarring operations
• A 2 5/8-in. tool will sever up to 11-in. OD drill collars. Jarring is the process of transforming energy stored as
stretch in a fishing string into kinetic energy. A correctly
Washover operations placed jarring assembly using a jarring program can free
Washover operations are done in open holes to cut the for- most stuck tool strings. Fishing jars are available in a wide
mation or to mill a fishing neck, junk or any obstruction away range of sizes, and most are full opening to allow for fluid cir-
from the outside of a fish to free the fish for recovery. culation and for wireline tools to pass through them without
reducing fishing options.
Rotary-shoe selection
• Tooth-type or scallop-bottom rotary shoes are best for Fishing bumper sub
all formations; • Mechanical or lubricated;
• Flat-bottom or scallop-bottom rotary shoes are used to • Used for jarring down:
mill stabilizers, reamers, and tool joints; • Aids in the release of attachment tools (overshot or
• Rotary shoe rough OD is normally 1/8 in. under bit size: spears);
• Rough OD for openhole, smooth OD for cased-hole; • Jars down on a fish to free it;
• Rotary shoe ID – dressed rough to cut clearance: • Provides a means to move the work string with 18–in. of
• When milling over fish to create a fishing neck, the ID of free movement:
• Helps to get over the top of a fish;
• Compensates for rig movement on floating rigs.

Hydraulic fishing jars

• A straight pull-up jarring tool with no setting or
adjustment required before going in the hole or after
the fish is engaged:
• Straight push/pull operation;
• Hydraulic time delay with a mechanical triggering
device;
• Variable tripping loads;
• Consistent time delay.
• Controlling the jarring intensity: Varying the applied pull
load controls the intensity of the jarring impact;
• Frequency of blows: The operator can deliver a rapid
series of blows when desired. The operator fully
controls the frequency of successive blow.
Fishing accelerator/intensifier/slinger jar

• Provides the means to store the required energy
Figure SO-6: Screw-in sub. immediately above the hydraulic fishing jar and drill
collars;
• Offsets the loss of stretch or drag on the fishing string,
especially at shallow depths;
• Prevents shock from being applied to the running string
and surface equipment as the string rebounds after
each jar stroke.
Surface jar
• Designed to be installed in the drillstring at surface;
• Delivers sharp, downward impact or jarring blows
against the fish at its stuck point;
• Surface jars can be adjusted to deliver light blows or
very-high-impact blows;
• Used to initiate abrupt jarring blows down the string to
actuate bumper subs more efficiently;
• Surface jarring operations are limited to depth and
should not be used on a stuck work string deeper than
Figure SO-7: Full-strength 150 overshot. 3,500 ft;
• Severe damage may occur to stuck work string with
prolonged downward jarring operations.
Attachment tools for fishing parted pipe

There are many opinions of how to fish parted pipe from a
wellbore. The condition of the fish needs to be accurately
assessed to determine the best attachment tool to use for
the fishing of the parted pipe.
The following fishing tools are listed in order from the most
efficient to the least efficient to run for fishing parted pipe.
Screw-in sub
If there is a usable tool-joint connection looking up, the pre-
ferred method for engaging a fish is to screw into the fish
with a screw-in sub, joint of drillpipe, or drill collar below the
fishing jar assembly. This is the most reliable method of solid
Figure SO-8: Casing/tubing spear.
engagement (Figure SO-6).

Advantages of screwing into the fish include:

• The screw-in point has the sa me or higher mechanical
strength th an the fish;
• The ID is full-opening for full circulating capabilities and
for wireline operations;
• Full torque capabilities;
• Full jarring capabilities.
Full-strength series 150 overshot

Whenever a fish needs to be externally engaged, the full-
strength series 150 overshot is the best tool for externally
engaging the fish. At times it may be necessary to use vari-
ations such as a Short Catch, Extra Full strength, Semi Full
Strength, Slim Hole or Extra Slim hole overshot (Figure SO-
6).
Figure SO-9: Box tap.

Advantages and disadvantages of running an overshot to
engage a fish:
• ID large enough for wireline operations and circulation
capabilities, with the circulation capabilities limited to
the pressure rating of the overshot packoff;
• Limited torque capabilities;
• Full jarring capabilities;
• Releasable with right-hand rotation;
• Dressing off the top and engaging the fish in one run if a
mill control is used.
Casing/tubing spear
The preferred tool to fish inside drillpipe, tubing, or casing
is the releasing spear. The casing/tubing spear is designed
to ensure positive internal engagement with a fish. Built to
withstand severe jarring and pulling strains, the casing/tub-
ing spear engages the fish over a large area without damage
to or distortion of the fish (Figure SO-8).
Figure SO-10: Taper tap.
Advantages and disadvantages of running a casing/tubing

spear to engage a fish:
• Limited wireline operations – dependent on ID of spear;
• Limited circulation capabilities;
• Limited torque capabilities;
• Full jarring capabilities (may need a spear stop to allow
cocking the jars);
• Most spears are releasable with right-hand rotation.
Box and taper taps

Box taps are attachment tools that screw onto the OD of a
fish and the taper tap is an attachment tool that screws into
the ID of a fish, Box taps have threads on the ID, which cut
threads into the OD of the fish, externally engaging the pipe.
Box taps are used to retrieve an irregularly sized fish or a fish
with an unknown OD (Figure SO-9).
Figure SO-11: Fishing magnet.

Taper taps have threads on the OD, which cut threads into

the ID of the fish. They internally engage the fish, inhibiting

circulation through the fish (Figure SO-10).
Box and taper taps are not typically recommended because

they are not releasable. For that reason, a safety joint should
always be run immediately above a box or taper tap;
Advantages and disadvantages of running a box or a taper

tap to engage a fish include:
• Box taps:
»»ID large enough for wireline operations;
»»Limited torque capabilities;
»»Limited jarring capabilities;
»»Limited circulation capabilities;
»»Not releasable.
• Taper taps:
Figure SO-12: Junk mill.
»»ID does not allow wireline tools to pass through;
»»Brittle and may break in jarring operations;
»»Not releasable;
»»Limited torque capabilities;
»»Limited jarring capabilities;
»»Limited circulation capabilities.
Fishing for junk

Any undesirable object that is stuck, accidentally dropped or
left in a well bore is referred to as “junk.” Junk may include
bit cones, tong dies, broken slips, reamer parts or debris
created by a previous drilling, fishing or milling operation,
or any other small debris that could impede normal drilling
operations. A boot basket is often run in conjunction with a
magnet, or other junk recovery tool.
Fishing magnets
Fishing magnets are primarily used to pick up bit cones, but
Figure SO-13: Globe-type junk baskets. they can pick up all types of small objects with magnetic
properties (Figure SO-11).
Junk mills
Junk mills mill up and break up large pieces of junk into
smaller pieces that can be recovered in a boot basket. They
provide the surest method for eliminating junk in the well-
bore (Figure SO-12).
Globe-type junk baskets

Globe-type junk baskets are used to recover any small piece
of junk that in the wellbore. The successful operation of the
tool requires that a core be cut from the formation. Any junk
will be recovered above the core. The globe-type junk basket
is recommended when performing fishing operations in soft
to medium formations (Figure SO-13).
Reverse-circulating junk baskets

Figure SO-14: : Reverse-circulating junk baskets. A reverse-circulating junk basket uses the force of a vacu-
um created inside the tool to pull the junk up into the basket

(Figure SO-14). A ball is dropped into the drillstring, thereby 1. Secure and cut the cable;
initiating the reverse-circulation process. The ball needs to 2. Strip over it with an Overshot attached to the drillpipe
be measured to make sure it will pass through the string to while holding the wireline that is being stripped in
the basket. maximum tension;
3. When the logging tool is reached, the overshot is
Pumping mud through the jets produces a vacuum inside the lowered over the logging tool until the grapple is
barrel, sucking mud up into the basket. Mud deficiency in the engaged;
barrel will be replenished by mud entering from below, car- 4. Once this is completed and the tools pulled free with
rying any junk with it, which will be trapped above the finger the drillpipe, the wireline is pulled out of the Logging
catchers. Because cutting a core is not required to recover Tool’s Rope Socket;
the junk when using the reverse-circulating junk basket, this 5. The cable is spooled onto the truck and the drillstring
type of basket is commonly used in hard formations. POOH with the logging tools.
Open-hole logging tools

The surest method of recovering stuck wireline tools is to
strip over the line with an overshot:

ST
STRUCTURES
AND LAND RIG
MOBILIZATION

IADC Technical
Resources

contracts and more.
position on a rig.
newsletter.
STRUCTURES AND LAND RIG MOBILIZATION ST–i
CHAPTER
ST
STRUCTURES
AND LAND RIG
MOBILIZATION
PRINCIPAL AUTHORS PRINCIPAL AUTHORS (APPENDIX: Land Rig Mobilization)

Steven Ancelet, Loadmaster Derrick & Equipment, Inc. Anthony Zacniewski, Bandera Drilling Co. Inc.
Elsa Atarod, National Oilwell Varco Daniella Kramer, Columbia Enterprises LLC
Marcus McCoo, National Oilwell Varco Rhett Winter, IADC
Christopher Haist, Integrated Drilling Equipment, Inc.
Clint Harris, Comal Design Group REVIEWERS (APPENDIX: Land Rig Mobilization)
Gilberto Gallo, Drillmec Drilling Technologies Jared Blong, Octane Energy
Josh Sprague, Drillmec Drilling Technologies Thad Dunham, Flat Time Reduction, LLC
REVIEWERS
Steve Ellis, Lee C. Moore
Tom Wingarter, Lee C. Moore
Charles Vora, Veristic
Dave Brooks, 5J Oilfield Services, LLC
Rhett Winter, IADC

ST–ii STRUCTURES AND LAND RIG MOBILIZATION


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9906220-7-9

STRUCTURES AND LAND RIG MOBILIZATION Contents ST-iii
CHAPTER ST
STRUCTURES AND
LAND RIG MOBILIZATION Contents
Introduction..................................................................ST-1 Pre-inspection data review............................... ST-15
Rig nomenclature.......................................................ST-2 Inspection categories and limitations........... ST-15
Drilling structures................................................ST-5 Documentation requirements......................... ST-16
Substructures........................................................ST-6 Position of masts and derricks during
Derricks and masts..............................................ST-8 inspections............................................... ST-18
Common characteristics.................................ST-9 Weld inspection performance and acceptance
Personnel.............................................................. ST-10 criteria........................................................... ST-18
Maintenance.............................................................. ST-10 Inspection of repairs and modifications...... ST-20
Objective.............................................................. ST-10 Inspections and nondestructive
Maintenance instructions................................. ST-11 examinations.................................................. ST-21
Safety summary.................................................. ST-11 Inspection of pad eyes, lifting eyes
Routine inspections for maintenance............ ST-11 and pin connections..................................... ST-21
Periodic maintenance schedule...................... ST-11 Inspection of raising lines, guy lines
Monthly maintenance................................ ST-12 and wire rope................................................. ST-21
Yearly maintenance.................................... ST-12 Inspection of racking platforms.....................ST-22
5-Yearly maintenance................................ ST-12 Inspection of substructures............................ST-22
Periodic maintenance................................. ST-12 Report documentation and record
Drilling structures................................ ST-12 requirements.................................................ST-22
Guide track system.............................. ST-12 Calibration requirements.................................ST-23
Drilling rig accessories....................... ST-12 Useful tools and equipment........................... ST-24
Bolts, bolted connections, and Ethics and the inspector.................................. ST-25
pins...................................................... ST-13 Safety...........................................................................ST-25
Hoisting equipment............................. ST-13 Areas of concern............................................... ST-25
High-pressure and other pipes......... ST-13 Common work areas................................ ST-26
Personnel support devices................. ST-13 Safety tie-off points................................. ST-26
Electrical equipment........................... ST-14 Dropped objects....................................... ST-26
Wire rope/wireline, mast raising slings, Storage of drilling structures................................ ST-26
hang-off lines................................... ST-14 Sheave assemblies............................................ST-27
Wind walls, other rig and drill floor Short-term storage............................................ST-27
equipment............................................. ST-14 Offshore masts and derricks..........................ST-27
Corrections and minor repairs.......... ST-14 Long-term storage.............................................ST-27
Major repairs and modifications.................... ST-14 Racking boards and service platforms.........ST-27
Maintenance not normally Telescoping masts.............................................ST-27
performed by user......................................... ST-14 Cantilever masts............................................... ST-28
Inspections................................................................. ST-14 References................................................................. ST-29
Qualification of personnel performing Appendix: Land Rig Mobilization.........................ST-A1
inspections..................................................... ST-15

THE IADC LEXICON

www.iadclexicon.org
STRUCTURES AND LAND RIG MOBILIZATION ST-1
Introduction It is very important that these structures be well maintained.

Drilling structures are a very important part of the drilling Any damage due to wear, corrosion, incidental impact or
rig; however, these structures are often overlooked because other means can have detrimental effects on the operation
of their static nature. Many activities take place on the drill- of the drilling rig. This can be as simple as a short shutdown
ing rig, with most of the activity being on the drill floor. The time for repair or a catastrophic failure resulting in equip-
supports for all of this activity and working drilling load are ment damage and personal injury. Regular inspection inter-
the structures. The derricks and masts are the tower struc- vals with a pre-planned procedure are essential for keeping
tures that are the characteristic images of drilling rigs. the structure in good working condition. Oftentimes drilling
Figure ST-1: Key areas on a typical drilling rig. See associated descriptions and definitions, pp ST-2 to ST-5. Copyright IADC..

ST-2 STRUCTURES AND LAND RIG MOBILIZATION
rigs are stored for long periods. This does not exclude them great mechanical advantage to the action of the wire rope
from regular inspection and maintenance, or they may not drilling line, enabling heavy loads (drill string, casing and lin-
be in working condition when needed. The manufacturer of ers) to be lifted out of or lowered into the wellbore.
the structures will also provide guidance on maintenance
and inspections. However, the industry-standard guidance 7. Hook: The high-capacity J-shaped equipment used to
provided in this chapter will ensure that the structures re- hang various other equipment, particularly the swivel and
main in working order. kelly, the elevator bails or top-drive units. The hook is at-
tached to the bottom of the traveling block and provides
Safety on the drilling rig is of utmost importance. The drill a way to pick up heavy loads with the traveling block. The
floor is a dangerous place when the rig is operating. One hook is either locked (the normal condition) or free to rotate,
must always be aware of the surroundings, activities, po- so that it may be mated or decoupled with items positioned
tential overhead risks and escape paths from their location. around the rig floor, not limited to a single direction.
Awareness and proper personal protective equipment (PPE)
for the situation are essential to preventing injuries. 8. Swivel: A mechanical device that suspends the weight
of the drill string. It is designed to allow rotation of the drill
The intent of this chapter is to provide a broad working string beneath it, conveying high volumes of high-pressure
knowledge of drilling structures and their function. Opera- drilling mud between the rig’s circulation system and the
tion, inspection, maintenance and storage are all critical and drill string.
discussed in this chapter. This chapter is intended to be used
as a ready reference to assist the drilling rig operator with 9. Rotary Hose: A large-diameter (3- to 5-in. inside diame-
the structures that are critical to the drilling operation. ter), high-pressure flexible line used to connect the stand-
pipe to the swivel. This flexible piping arrangement permits
Rig nomenclature the kelly (and, in turn, the drill string and bit) to be raised or
1. Crown or Crown Block: The fixed set of pulleys (called lowered while drilling fluid is pumped through the drill string.
sheaves) located at the top of the derrick or mast, over The simultaneous lowering of the drill string while pumping
which the drilling line is threaded fluid is critical to the drilling operation.
2. Mast: The structure used to support the crown block and 10. Standpipe: A rigid metal conduit that provides the
the drill string. Masts are usually rectangular or trapezoidal high-pressure pathway for drilling mud to travel approx-
in shape and offer a very good stiffness, important to land imately one-third of the way up the derrick, where it con-
rigs whose mast is laid down when the rig is moved. How- nects to a flexible high-pressure hose (kelly hose). Many
ever, masts are often heavier than conventional derricks. large rigs are fitted with dual standpipes so that downtime is
Consequently they are rarely found on offshore rigs, where kept to a minimum if one standpipe requires repair.
weight is a greater concern than on land.
11. Drawworks: The machine on the rig consisting of a
3. Catline Boom or Catline: A relatively thin cable used with large-diameter steel spool, brakes, a power source and as-
other equipment to move small rig and drill string compo- sorted auxiliary devices. The primary function of the draw-
nents and to provide tension on the tongs for tightening or works is to reel out and reel in the drilling line, a large di-
loosening threaded connections. ameter wire rope, in a controlled fashion. The drilling line
is reeled over the crown block and traveling block to gain
4. Racking Board or Monkey Board or Racking Platform: mechanical advantage in a “block and tackle” or “pulley”
The small platform that the derrickman stands on when fashion. This reeling out and in of the drilling line causes the
tripping pipe. traveling block, and whatever may be hanging underneath it,
to be lowered into or raised out of the wellbore. The reeling
5. Drill Line or drilling line: A wire rope hoisting line, reeved out of the drilling line is powered by gravity and reeling in by
on sheaves of the crown block and traveling block (in effect, an electric motor or diesel engine.
a block and tackle). Its primary purpose is to hoist or lower
drill pipe or casing from or into a well. Also a wire rope used 12. Driller’s Console: The control panel, located on the plat-
to support the drilling tools. form, where the driller controls drilling operations.
6. Traveling Block: The set of sheaves that move up and 13. Pipe Setback: A location to place stands of drill pipe and
down in the derrick. The wire rope threaded through them is drill collars in a vertical position to one side of the rotary ta-
threaded (or “reeved”) back to the stationary crown blocks ble in the derrick or mast of a drilling or workover rig.
located on the top of the derrick. This pulley system gives

14. Drill Floor: This is the heart of any drilling rig. It is the 19. Choke Manifold: A set of high-pressure valves and as-
area where the drill string is drilled into the eary. Tradition- sociated piping that usually includes at least two adjustable
ally where joints of pipe are assembled, as well as the bot- chokes, arranged such that one adjustable choke may be
tomhole assembly (BHA), drill bit and other tools. This is the isolated and taken out of service for repair and refurbish-
primary work location for roughnecks and the driller. The ment while well flow is directed through the other one.
drill floor is located directly beneath the derrick or mast.
20. Gas Flare or Flare Stack: A gas combustion device used
15. Rotary Table: The revolving or spinning section of the in industrial plants such as petroleum refineries, chemical
drill floor that provides power to turn the drill string in a plants, natural gas processing plants as well as at oil or gas
clockwise direction (as viewed from above). The rotary mo- production sites having oil wells, gas wells, offshore oil and
tion and power are transmitted through the kelly bushing gas rigs, and landfills.
and the kelly to the drill string. When the drill string is rotat-
ing, the drilling crew commonly describes the operation as 21. Mud Gas Separator or Gas Buster or Poor Boy Degas-
simply, “rotating to the right,” “turning to the right” or “rotat- ser: A device that captures and separates a large volume
ing on bottom.” Almost all rigs today have a rotary table, ei- of free gas within the drilling fluid. If there is a “kick” situa-
ther as primary or backup system for rotating the drill string. tion, this vessel separates the mud and the gas by allowing
Top-drive technology, which allows continuous rotation of it to flow over baffle plates. The gas then is forced to flow
the drill string, has replaced the rotary table in certain oper- through a line and vent it to a flare. A “KICK” situation hap-
ations. A few rigs are being built today with top-wash-drive pens when the annular hydrostatic pressure in a drilling well
systems only, and lack the traditional kelly system. temporarily (and usually relatively suddenly) falls below that
of the formation, or pore, pressure in a permeable section
16. Substructure: The foundation structure on which the downhole and before control of the situation is lost.
derrick, rotary table, draw-works and other drilling equip-
ment are supported. 22. Shale Shaker: The primary and probably most important
device on the rig for removing drilled solids from the mud.
17. Blowout Preventer Stack: A set of two or more BOPs This vibrating sieve is simple in concept, but a bit more com-
used to ensure pressure control of a well. A typical stack plicated to use efficiently. A wire-cloth screen vibrates while
might consist of one to six ram-type preventers and, op- the drilling fluid flows on top of it. The liquid phase of the
tionally, one or two annular-type preventers. A typical stack mud and solids smaller than the wire mesh pass through the
configuration has the ram preventers on the bottom and the screen, while larger solids are retained on the screen and
annular preventers at the top. The configuration of the stack eventually fall off the back of the device and are discarded.
preventers is optimized to provide maximum pressure integ- Obviously, smaller openings in the screen clean more solids
rity, safety and flexibility in the event of a well-control inci- from the whole mud, but there is a corresponding decrease
dent. For example, in a multiple ram configuration, one set in flow rate per unit area of wire cloth. Hence, the drill-
of rams might be fitted to close on 5-in. diameter drill pipe, ing crew should seek to run the screens (as the wire cloth
another set configured for 4 ½-in. drill pipe, a third fitted is called) as fine as possible without dumping whole mud
with blind rams to close on the open hole and a fourth fitted off the back of the shaker. Where it was once common for
with a shear ram that can cut and hang-off the drill pipe as a drilling rigs to have only one or two shale shakers, modern
last resort. It is common to have an annular preventer or two high-efficiency rigs are often fitted with four or more shak-
on the top of the stack since annulars can be closed over a ers, thus giving more area of wire cloth to use and giving the
wide range of tubular sizes and the open hole, but are typi- crew the flexibility to run increasingly fine screens.
cally not rated for pressures as high as ram preventers. The
BOP stack also includes various spools, adapters and pip- 23. Degasser: A device that removes air or gases (methane,
ing outlets to permit the circulation of wellbore fluids under H2S, CO2 and others) from drilling liquids. There are two
pressure in the event of a well-control incident. generic types that work by both expanding the size of the
gas bubbles entrained in the mud (by pulling a vacuum on
18. Dog House or Driller’s Cabin: The steel-sided room ad- the mud) and by increasing the surface area available to the
jacent to the rig floor, usually having an access door close to mud so that bubbles escape (through the use of various cas-
the driller’s controls. This general-purpose shelter is a com- cading baffle plates). If the gas content in the mud is high, a
bination tool shed, office, communications center, coffee mud gas separator or “poor boy degasser” is used, because
room, lunchroom and general meeting place for the driller it has a higher capacity than standard degassers and routes
and his crew. It is at the same elevation as the rig floor, usu- the evolved gases away from the rig to a flaring area com-
ally cantilevered out from the main substructure supporting plete with an ignition source.
the rig.

24. Desander: A hydrocyclone device that removes large 29. Mud Sack Storage: A general location to store materials
drill solids from the whole mud system. The desander to make drilling mud.
should be located downstream of the shale shakers and
degassers, but before the desilters or mud cleaners. A vol- 30. Mud Mixing Hopper or Mud Hopper: A mud-flow de-
ume of mud is pumped into the wide upper section of the vice, also called a jet hopper, in which materials are put into
hydrocylone at an angle roughly tangent to its circumfer- the circulating mud system. The mud hopper is powered
ence. As the mud flows around and gradually down the in- by a centrifugal pump that flows the mud at high velocity
side of the cone shape, solids are separated from the liquid through a venturi nozzle (jet) below the conical-shaped
by centrifugal forces. The solids continue around and down hopper. Dry materials are added through the mud hopper
until they exit the bottom of the hydrocyclone (along with to provide dispersion, rapid hydration and uniform mixing.
small amounts of liquid) and are discarded. The cleaner and Liquids are sometimes fed into the mud by a hose placed in
lighter density liquid mud travels up through a vortex in the the hopper.
center of the hydrocyclone, exits through piping at the top
of the hydrocyclone and is then routed to the mud tanks and 31. Mud Mixing Pumps: Large pumps with mixing blades to
the next mud-cleaning device, usually a desilter. Various size keep the drilling mud from coagulating.
desander and desilter cones are functionally identical, with
the size of the cone determining the size of particles the de- 32. Mud Pumps: Large reciprocating pumps used to circu-
vice removes from the mud system. late the mud (drilling fluid) on a drilling rig. They are an im-
portant part of the oilwell drilling equipment.
25. Mud Cleaner: A desilter unit in which the underflow is
further processed by a fine vibrating screen, mounted direct- 33. Pulsation Dampeners: An accumulator with a set pre-
ly under the cones. The liquid underflow from the screens is charge that absorbs system shocks while minimizing pulsa-
fed back into the mud, thus conserving weighting agent and tions, pipe vibration, water hammering and pressure fluctu-
the liquid phase but at the same time returning many fine sol- ations. By minimizing pulsation in the system, components
ids to the active system. Mud cleaners are used mainly with like regulators, solenoids, sensors, pumps, etc., will see de-
oil- and synthetic-based muds where the liquid discharge creased wear and have longer life. Pulsation dampeners are
from the cone cannot be discharged, either for environmen- tied directly onto the discharge manifold or plumbed imme-
tal or economic reasons. It may also be used with weighted diately downstream of the pump.
water-based fluids to conserve barite and the liquid phase.
34. Shock Hoses: Hoses in the high-pressure mud piping
26. Mud Guns (Bottom Type): Devices that provide supple- system that allow for flexibility and pressure spikes in the
mental or primary mixing in mud tanks, depending on the system.
number being used and the pit size. They are best used in
tank corners to keep solids from settling. A mud agitator is 35. Mud Discharge Lines: Lines into which the excess vol-
placed in the tank center. The number of mud guns depends ume of fluid is displaced.
on the size of the tank. Usually a mud gun is installed with
the mud line of the mud tank. The mud gun in the mud sys- 36. Brake Water Tank: A water tank apparatus that uses an
tem can also be used to transfer mud from compartment to air gap to stop reflux (backflow) into the system.
compartment (for example, for trip tank compartment).
37. Mud Lab: The area where the drilling mud is tested and
27. Mud Agitators: A device used in surface mud systems checked for density.
to suspend solids and maintain homogeneous mixture
throughout the system. A mechanical agitator is driven by 38. Mud Trip Tank: A small mud tank with a capacity of 10
an explosion-proof motor, coupled to a gear box that drives to 15 bbl, usually with 1-bbl or H-bbl divisions, used to as-
the impeller shaft. The impellers (turbines) transform me- certain the amount of mud necessary to keep the wellbore
chanical power into fluid circulation or agitation. The objec- full with the exact amount of mud that is displaced by drill
tive is to obtain a uniform suspension of all solids. pipe. When the bit comes out of the hole, a volume of mud
equal to that which the drill pipe occupied while in the hole
28. Mud Tanks: Open-top containers, typically made of must be pumped into the hole to replace the pipe. When the
square steel tube and steel plate, to store drilling fluid on a bit goes back in the hole, the drill pipe displaces a certain
drilling rig. They are also called mud pits, because they used amount of mud, and a trip tank can be used again to keep
to be nothing more than pits dug out of the earth. track of this volume.
39. Mud Return Lines: A trough or pipe placed between the

surface connections at the wellbore and the shale shaker. side of the ramp is a stairway for personnel movement to
Drilling mud flows through it upon its return to the surface the drill floor.
from the hole.
55. Catwalks: A long, rectangular platform about 3 ft (0.9
40. Drilling Water Tank: A tank used to store water that is m) high, usually made of steel and located perpendicular to
used for mud mixing, cementing and rig cleaning. the vee-door at the bottom of the slide. This platform is used
as a staging area for rig and drill string tools, components
41. SCR House: A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semicon- that are about to be picked up and run, or components that
ductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state cur- have been run and are being laid down. A catwalk is also
rent-controlling device. the functionally similar staging area, especially on offshore
drilling rigs, that may not be a separate or raised structure.
42. Cable Tray: A cable tray system is used in the electrical
wiring of buildings to support insulated electric cables used 56. Drill Pipe: Tubular steel conduit fitted with special
for power distribution and communication. threaded ends called tool joints. The drill pipe connects the
rig surface equipment with the bottomhole assembly and
43. Cable Elevator (Grass Hopper): A large cable tray that the bit, both to pump drilling fluid to the bit and to be able
provides a means for the cables at ground level to get up to to raise, lower and rotate the bottomhole assembly and bit.
the drill floor.
57. Pipe Rack: Onshore, two elevated truss-like structures
44. Engines & Generators: Devices that provide power for having triangular cross-sections. The pipe rack supports
all of the systems required to drill a well. drill pipe, drill collars or casing above the ground. These
structures are used in pairs located about 20 ft (6 m) apart
45. Engines & Air Compressors: Devices that convert pow- and keep the pipe above ground level and closer to the lev-
er (usually from an electric motor, diesel engine or gasoline el of the catwalk. Pipe stored horizontally on the pipe racks
engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressuriz- can have its threads cleaned and inspected, and the rig crew
ing air, which, on command, can be released in quick bursts. may roll the pipe from one end of the pipe racks to the other
There are numerous methods of air compression, divided with relative ease. The pipe racks are usually topped with
into either positive-displacement or negative-displacement a wooden board so as to not damage pipe, especially cas-
types. ing, as it is rolled back and forth along the racks. When large
amounts of pipe are stored, wooden sills are placed between
46. Parts Storage: General storage area for rig spare parts. the layers of pipe to prevent damage.
47. BOP Closing Unit (BOP Control System): The assembly 58. Auxiliary Brake: Extra brake on the drawworks to assist
of pumps, valves, lines, accumulators, and other items nec- in stopping the drill line if needed.
essary to open and close the BOP equipment.
Drilling Structures
48. Work Shop: General work area for small repair work. Drilling structures are divided into a few different catego-
ries. Derricks are four-sided structures that are used to
49. Pump Parts Storage: General storage area for pump support the downhole drilling loads from tools, drill pipe
spare parts. and casing. Masts are three-sided structures that are used
to support the downhole drilling loads from tools, drill pipe
50. Fuel Tank: A safe container for flammable fluids in which and casing. Both of these structures are connected to a drill
the fuel is stored. floor structure. The main purpose of the drill floor structure
is to support the mast or derrick, rotary table, pipe setback,
51. Junk Bin: Container for scrap and waste. drawworks, driller’s cabin or console, and other important
drilling-related equipment. Major load-carrying elements of
52. Personnel Elevator: Elevator for personnel to gain ac- the drill floor are the rotary beams, drawworks frame and
cess to the drill floor from ground level. setback frame. Other frames and supports are located on
the drill floor as needed to support other equipment. The
53. Wire Line Stand: Extra spool of wire rope to be used for main purpose of the substructure is to support the drill floor
drilling activities. and all of the loads that are imparted to it by the hook load
through the derrick or mast, environmental, pipe setback,
54. Stairway with Pipe Ramp: A ramp for moving drill pipe and drilling equipment. The substructure also commonly
from the pipe rack at ground level to the drill floor. On the

Figure ST-3: Swing-up substructure in process of erecting.

Figure ST-2: Box-on-box substructure.
provides a means for the drill floor to skid or move in order

to accommodate various well locations.
Substructures
The substructure is the foundation of the drilling structure
assembly. Various types of substructures are used for var-
ious situations. There are primarily four basic substructure
styles: box-on-box, swing-up, truck-/trailer-mounted and
rigid frame.
The box-on-box substructure consists of fabricated truss

frames that are welded into box shapes (Figure ST-2). One
set of boxes is set for the foundation, and one or more sets
are put on top. This creates the necessary height for the
blowout preventer and other equipment that needs to have
access below the drill floor. The drill floor is then lifted into
place on top of the top box frame assembly, and the mast is
lifted into place on the drill floor. After the mast is erected,
other equipment is lifted on the drill floor, and the structure
is secured, drilling can begin. This type of substructure is
used mainly onshore and occasionally offshore on suitable
rig locations. This type of substructure is not easily move-
able and is therefore used when high mobility is not required.
The swing-up substructure consists of foundation beams

with pivotable legs that support the drill floor (Figure ST-3).
Once the foundation beams are set in place, the pivotable
Figure ST-4: Truck rig.
legs, drill floor, some drilling equipment, and sometimes
the mast are set on them. Then, by mechanical or hydraulic desirable when the rig is to be very mobile and rig-up/rig-
means, the drill floor is swung/lifted into position and locked down time is critical.
into place. If the mast is set in place on the drill floor prior to
the erection of the substructure, it is typically erected and Trailer- or truck-mounted substructures are similar in prin-
in the operating position. Some styles of swing-up rigs have ciple to the swing-up substructure but are mounted on a
the mast connecting to the foundation beams. In this case, trailer towed behind a large truck, thus providing the mo-
the drill floor and equipment are lifted into position sepa- bility required by many customers (Figure ST-4). When the
rately from the mast. Usage of this type of substructure is trailer reaches drilling location, bearing pads are set that

Figure ST-5: Skid base structure.
support all loadings, and trailer wheels are lifted off ground.
The mast is then erected. Trailer rigs are used where rigging
up and rigging down has to be performed in the minimum
amount of time.
Rigid-frame substructures are usually a one piece weld-

ment specially designed to transfer all rig loads to specified
bulkheads on a jackup, submersible, semi-submersible, drill
ship, or some other offshore floating type rig. It is usually
welded in place; however, it can be bolted if required. The
rigid frame absorbs all dynamic loadings due to wind, wave
and sailing motion acting on the rig in addition to drilling
and equipment loads. This substructure is typically built in
a shipyard and inserted into the vessel, or it is built directly
in the vessel.
A substructure master skid or skid base can be used to sup-

port the substructure (Figure ST-5). Substructures used in
conjunction with a master skid are usually of the rigid-frame
type. The primary purpose of a skid base is to lift the sub-
structure and allow controlled movement to position the
structures above the skid base to desired locations to ser-
vice several wells from the same platform. The lateral move-
ment of the substructure on the skid base is usually provid-
ed by a hydraulic cylinder or gear and rack system. The skid
base concept is used primarily on fixed offshore platforms
where available deck space is very limited or when there is a
need to service several wells from one platform.
In summary, the substructures carry the maximum casing

loads, setback loads, dead loads, drawworks weight, rota-
ry table weight, drill pipe weight, doghouse weight and any
other equipment specified by the customer. The shoe reac-
tions from the mast or derrick may be supported by the sub-
structure also. The base or bottom of the substructures will
connect to a skid base, vessel structure or mat foundation Figure ST-6: Drilling derrick.
on the ground. Substructures consist of many pinned con-

Figure ST-7: Derrick racking board with drill pipe.
nected members and heavy welded members for the rotary

beams, floor extensions, setback beams, doghouse support
brackets, etc. The substructure is a critical item for a drilling
rig, so care must be taken in the design, fabrication, erection
and maintenance of this item.
Derricks and masts

Derricks are four-sided tower-like structures that support
loads during oilfield drilling (Figure ST-6). The typical drill-
ing loads are from hook load (the support of loads in the well
bore that consist of drill pipe, casing, traveling equipment
or tools), pipe setback in the derrick, environmental loads
(wind and vessel motion), and accessory equipment loads
(pipehandling machines, casing stabbing boards, etc.). Der-
ricks have access for personnel to inspect or operate var-
ious equipment. They also support lights to illuminate the Figure ST-8: Drilling mast.
drill floor and the pipe rack, provide aircraft warning, and
provide navigation markers. The main structural steel of a Another major function of the derrick is to support drill pipe
derrick can range from 147 ft tall to 215 ft tall. The base di- and/or casing that is not in the wellbore. During the pro-
mensions typically range from 30 ft by 30 ft to 50 ft by 60 cess of drilling, drill pipe will be inserted into and out of the
ft. Derricks are typically used offshore, although there are a wellbore several times. To save time, stands of drill pipe are
few onshore. A derrick is not very mobile; therefore, few are racked back in the derrick in a racking board (Figure ST-7).
used onshore today. The pipe applies horizontal load to the derrick from pipe
lean, wind on the pipe and rig motion. Some derricks have
The wellbore drilling loads are applied to the derrick through a casing setback area that speeds up the process of running
the crown. At the crown, several sheaves are engaged with casing into the wellbore. The casing inputs similar loads into
wire rope that reeves to a traveling block. The ends of the the derrick as drill pipe.Several other pieces of equipment
wire rope terminate at a drawworks at one end and usually a are located in the derrick. This includes, but is not limited
deadline anchor at the other end. It is possible to have each to, pipehandling equipment, navigation equipment, traveling
end of the wire rope terminate at a drawworks. As the draw- equipment, controls, mud standpipes, cement standpipes,
works spools and unspools, load is applied to the crown and casing running equipment, maintenance platforms, mainte-
through the derrick to the drill floor and substructure. The nance access baskets, deadline anchors, degasser ventlines
origin of this load is what is suspended from the traveling and weather-sensing devices. The derrick is the pinnacle of
equipment. This load could be several thousand feet of drill the drilling rig and is an icon for the drilling industry.
pipe or casing. Also, downhole tools for measuring well for-
mations, removing foreign objects, or cutting casing or drill Masts are three-sided tower-like structures that support
pipe apply loads to the derrick. loads during oilfield drilling (Figure ST-8). The typical drill-

ing loads are from hook load (the support of loads in the
wellbore that consist of drill pipe, casing, traveling equip-
ment or tools), pipe setback in the mast, environmental
loads (wind and vessel motion), and accessory equipment
loads such as casing stabbing boards, etc. Masts have ac-
cess for personnel to inspect or operate various equipment.
They also support lights to illuminate the drill floor and the
pipe rack, provide aircraft warning, and provide navigation
markers. The main structural steel of a mast can range from
105 ft tall to 185 ft tall. The base dimensions typically range
from 20 ft by 20 ft to 30 ft by 35 ft. Masts are typically used
onshore, although there are a few offshore, mainly on plat-
form rigs. A mast is typically very mobile; therefore, many
are used onshore today.
The wellbore drilling loads are applied to the mast through Figure ST-9: Mast racking board with drill pipe.
the crown. At the crown, several sheaves are engaged with
wire rope that reeves to a traveling block. The ends of the
wire rope terminate at a drawworks on one end and usually a cross-section, having members that are latticed or
deadline anchor on the other end. It is possible to have each trussed on all four sides
end of the wire rope terminate at a separate drawworks, • Mast: Structural latticed tower of rectangular cross-
but not typical on a mast. As the drawworks spools and un- section with an open face.
spools, load is applied to the crown and through the mast
to the drill floor and substructure. The origin of this load is Derricks are almost always located offshore and very rarely
what is suspended from the traveling equipment. This load on a land rig. The reason for this is dynamics. The arrange-
could be several thousand feet of drill pipe or casing. Also, ment of structural steel members in a derrick is better
downhole tools for measuring well formations, removing equipped to handle dynamic motion due to waves. Der-
foreign objects, or cutting casing or drill pipe apply loads to ricks tend to have a larger footprint at the base and a larger
the mast. cross-section than masts do. Because of this, drill pipe and
other tubulars are racked inside a derrick.
Another major function of the mast is to support drill pipe
and/or casing that is not in the wellbore. During the process Derricks are sometimes assembled member by member
of drilling, drill pipe will be inserted into and out of the well- once on the drilling rig or vessel. However, many times, the
bore numerous times. As a time saver, stands of drill pipe derrick for offshore is assembled before being moved to the
are racked back external to the mast in a racking board (Fig- drilling rig and then set into place by a crane, either in single
ure ST-9). The pipe applies horizontal load to the mast from or multiple crane lifts. While a derrick can be a more effi-
pipe lean, wind on the pipe, and rig motion. In rare cases cient design in terms of strength and ability to handle oper-
masts have a casing setback area that speeds up the process ating and environmental loads, they are at a disadvantage
of running casing into the wellbore. The casing inputs similar to masts when it comes to rig-up time. Longer rig-up time
loads into the mast as drill pipe. means drilling operations do not happen as quickly.
Several other pieces of equipment are located in the mast. Masts can be used both onshore and offshore, and they can
This includes, but is not limited to pipehandling equipment, be raised and lowered. This is typically done by means of
navigation equipment, traveling equipment controls, mud hydraulic cylinders or with wire rope (drawworks or winch-
standpipes, cement standpipes, casing running equipment, es). Masts can also be scoped together. The most common
maintenance platforms, maintenance access baskets, dead- types of masts are cantilever (starts in a horizontal position
line anchors, degasser ventlines and weather sensing devic- and raised 90° to vertical), bootstrap (sections of the mast
es. The mast caps off the mobile drilling rig package. are brought in and scoped to the operating position) and
telescopic (may be two or three mast sections that transport
Common characteristics within one another and are scoped “out” to the operating
API 4F is a good place to start for a standard definition of position). Masts will often be outfitted with a racking board
derricks and masts. According to API 4F: on the open side of the cross-section, and this is where drill
• Derrick: Structural tower of square or rectangular pipe and other tubulars will be racked/stored. The structural
members of a mast are generally welded together. The vari-

The Driller and Assistant Driller share job functions. On

smaller rigs, an Assistant Driller is not necessary. On larger
rigs, the Driller and Assistant Driller divide up the work load,
usually by equipment location. The Driller may handle the
mud pumps, traveling equipment and drawworks, and the
Assistant Driller may handle the drill floor equipment such
as the iron roughneck, mousehole, and pipehandling equip-
ment. The Driller is the supervisor of the rig crew. The Driller
and Assistant Driller need to be mindful of activities in the
derrick/mast and drill floor. The equipment they operate
can damage the structures and equipment or hurt members
of the drill crew working on the drill floor or in the derrick or
mast.
Members of the drill crew that work in the derrick or mast

Figure ST-10: Masts can be used both onshore and offshore, at the racking board are the Derrickmen. The Derrickman
and can be raised and lowered. This is typically done handles drill pipe at the racking board when tripping into
by means of hydraulic cylinders or with wire rope.. and out of the wellbore. This job requires coordination with
the Driller who is operating the drawworks and top drive. A
harness and safety attachment point on the derrick or mast
ous sections of the mast are then connected together with a structure is utilized by the Derrickman to prevent injury in
pin-and-plate assembly or with bolts. Masts usually do not case of a fall from the racking board. He also uses this safety
take as long to rig up as derricks. line to enable him to lean out toward well center to handle
the pipe transfer to and from the top drive. This is a very
Drilling rig structures, whether onshore or offshore, com- physically demanding and dangerous job. Some drilling rigs
monly have a mechanical system allowing the structure have automated pipehandling equipment that removes the
to move from well to well. These are typically referred to need for the Derrickman.
as “skidding” or “walking” systems. These systems are at-
tached to the structure in a variety of configurations and The Mechanic is responsible for ensuring that all parts re-
styles. See Appendix for more on walking systems. quiring maintenance on the drilling rig are properly main-
tained and in good working order. For the drilling structures,
Skidding systems allow the rig to move in forward and back- this includes crown sheaves, fairleads and skidding systems.
ward. Typical arrangements include a “jack and claw” where The Mechanic needs to access all points of the structure
a “claw” grips slots in a beam or plate while a hydraulic cylin- from the top to the bottom. Access ways and maintenance
der pushes or pulls the structure. “Lift and roll” systems also points are important for safety and reliability to the Me-
utilize hydraulic cylinders to push and pull the rig. However, chanic.
these systems have an additional hydraulic cylinder that lifts
the rig, placing the full weight on rollers that move as the rig
is pushed or pulled. Skidding systems can be used on both Maintenance
onshore and offshore drilling rig structures.
Objective
Walking systems act much like a lift and roll system but The objective of the maintenance section is to provide the
tend to have more capabilities. Walking systems are typi- owners and operators of the drilling equipment listed below
cally designed to allow the rig to move in more than just one with guidelines for maintenance and repair, establishing the
direction. In most cases, the walking system allows the rig necessary steps that may be utilized to maintain serviceabil-
to make complete turns, allowing access to multiple rows of ity of the covered equipment, recommending practices and
wells. The application for walking systems is only on land procedures for use in the safe operation and maintenance of
rigs. the equipment, and promoting safe working conditions for
personnel engaged in drilling operations and well servicing
Personnel operations, including special services.
There are four important job positions that pertain to drill-
ing rig structures: Driller, Assistant Driller, Derrickman and Note: The maintenance guidelines mentioned within this
Mechanic. section should in no way be intended to supersede the rec-
ommended instructions as given by the original equipment

manufacturer (OEM). The reader of this section shall refer to • Information provided by the manufacturer, serial number,
the OEM instructions and develop their maintenance sched- identification marking;
ule accordingly. This section is intended as a basic guideline • Inspection records, date and name of responsible person;
that could be used to assist the reader in their maintenance • Maintenance records, date and name of responsible
program. person;
• Repair records;
This section covers the following drilling equipment: • Remanufacture records (if applicable).
• Onshore/offshore drilling structures: masts, derricks,
substructures and skidding systems; Safety summary
• Guide track system; The following points summarize the safety aspects related
• Drilling rig accessories: crown and other sheaves, snatch to maintenance:
blocks, man rider, utility winches, bearings, bushings, • Only qualified personnel should be allowed to carry out
fastline stabilizers, rollers/wheels; maintenance.
• Bolts, bolted connections, pins; • Only the prescribed maintenance to the user by the OEM
• Hoisting equipment supported by the drilling rigs: bridge should be carried out by the user. Anything else should
rackers, pipehandling systems, BOP trolley beams, be clarified with supplier’s/OEM’s service department
stand building systems; before being carried out.
• High-pressure pipes and others: cement standpipes, • It is extremely important to do a thorough visual check
mud standpipe, vent lines, hydraulic systems; and inspection of any equipment before and after
• Personnel support devices: drilling rig elevators, safe implementing any procedure, to avoid or mitigate
climbing equipment, fall arrest systems, ladders and hazards to personnel in the event of a failure.
cages, emergency evacuation systems; • See the Safety section of this chapter for more details.
• Electrical equipment, junction boxes;
• Wire rope/wireline, mast-raising slings, hang-off lines; Routine inspections for maintenance
• Wind walls, other rig equipment, and drill floor The inspection part of routine maintenance should be car-
equipment. ried out regularly. A maintenance inspection schedule
should be developed by the user. All abnormal observations
Maintenance instructions should be reported to the maintenance supervisor at once
A Maintenance Log must be established for the equipment. and also recorded in the Maintenance Log. Due dates should
All maintenance, abnormal observations and repairs should also be logged.
be logged. Upon request, the log should be made available
to the owner and serviceman. Ask the operator if any abnormalities have been observed.
All such observations should be logged for follow-up.
The OEM should keep and maintain a modification and
service database for the equipment supplied. It is of great Periodic maintenance schedule
importance that the user reports deficiencies, modifications • If the routine inspection revealed any abnormal
and problems to the OEM. This information is essential for conditions, these must be followed up by the operator/
OEMs to identify critical items prone to excessive wear or owner of the equipment.
problems, and it will highlight components that require a de- • The inspection notes must be followed up by the
sign review to improve safety and reliability. Areas of major operator/owner;
concern shall without hesitancy be brought to the attention • Inspect all assembly components for structural integrity,
of OEMs. If important deficiencies appear after the equip- and ensure all bolts and nuts are in place and are
ment is taken into use, OEMs should issue Safety or Service made-up to appropriate minimum installation
Bulletins to users as deemed necessary. requirements for all fasteners;
• Structures should be visually inspected for damage and
Maintenance and repair procedures should be carried out deformation and reported immediately if any
by personnel qualified by professional trade and verified by abnormality occurs;
widely accepted or recognized standards covering the spe- • Check if the Operation and Inspection Program is firmly
cific skills or knowledge required. in place and is being followed by the personnel and if it
needs to be reviewed and updated;
See the Inspection and Safety sections of this chapter for • See the Inspection section of this chapter for more
more details. details;
Maintenance records may include the following:

as required by API Standards and local regulations as per

Monthly maintenance the original equipment criteria.
• Keep the equipment clean. • Levelling shims should be installed per OEM instructions
• Check for structures’ (mast, derrick) level status. Correct if the structure is not level.
if out of vertical as per OEM instructions. • Check for any operating interference with any of the
• If signs of abnormal wear are detected, repair accordingly derrick accessories or equipment.
and correct the situation immediately. • Check that the bumper blocks at crown level are in good
• Carry out the monthly lubrication maintenance specified shape.
for each piece of equipment according to the • In the event of extreme load cases resulting from
equipment’s lubrication chart. abnormal operations beyond the rated capacity of the
• Check that the Emergency Evacuation System is working equipment, check the connection points (welded, pinned
properly. or bolted) and primary load-carrying members. Check
• Review specific maintenance manuals for specific for cracks or signs of deformity. Repair according to
equipment. approved methods.
• See the Inspection section of this chapter for more • Note areas with rust or corrosion and repair immediately.
details. • Use approved method of repair.
• Check for missing or damaged name plates, tags,
Yearly maintenance instruction plates or other equipment markings, and
• Structures such as derrick, masts, wind walls and crown replace with duplicate as required by OEM;
blocks should be inspected for critical areas at least once • Look for items rubbing against paint, and repair to reduce
a year. amount of rubbing.
• Have the entire (lifting appliance) equipment inspected • If any equipment or structure needs to be modified or
by a qualified person. See the inspection section of this added to the mast or derrick, consult the OEM.
chapter for more details. • Do not burn holes or weld unless without adhering to
• A signed copy of the inspection report must be filed in approved methods and consulting with the OEM.
the Maintenance Log, and the remarks must be followed • Always inspect the wirelines before raising or lowering a
up. mast. Pay particular attention to areas near sockets or
• The annual inspection should include employing around sheaves. See the Wire Rope chapter of this
appropriate non-destructive examination (NDE) manual.
techniques at suspected critical areas that will reveal • Follow inspections and maintenance schedules as
defects that would not otherwise be visible to the naked described in previous sections of this chapter.
eye. • See the Inspection and Safety sections of this chapter for
• Wirelines such as mast and substructure raising wire further details.
ropes should be inspected after each use. If the wire rope
does not pass inspection, it must then be replaced by a »» Guide track system
new wire of the original type. See the Wire Rope chapter The Guide Track System should provide a level platform for
of this manual for further details. the traveling equipment. When a tubular or pipe is hang-
• See the Inspection section of this chapter for further ing in the traveling equipment (in normal running mode), it
details and recommendations. should pass cleanly through the rotary. Otherwise the der-
rick or mast must be levelled.
5-year maintenance
Change all hydraulic hoses (see OEM’s instructions). Only The guide track bracing may be adjusted vertically and hori-
original-type hoses must be used. zontally in both directions with shims if needed.
Periodic maintenance »» Drilling rig accessories

Follow supplier/OEM recommendations for each piece of • Periodic checks of the sheaves will help for longer wire
equipment. rope service life.
• Worn sheaves and drum grooves cause excessive wear
»» Drilling structures on the wire rope.
• Careful, periodic checking and maintenance of the • All sheaves should be in proper alignment to avoid wear
structure will ensure the safe, dependable and on the wire rope.
economical service life of the rig. • Guidelines on API RP 9B and API RP 8B should be
• The drilling structure should be operated and maintained followed.
• Cap plates on all shafts and all wired bolts should be

checked regularly to ensure that the bolts are tight and test or operation by the local hydraulic controls. Only
the retaining wires in place. well-trained personnel should use these controls.
• See API RP 2D, Appendix G and Section G.5.1.4 for • Make sure that unauthorized personnel do not have
recommended methods of lubrication for wire rope. access to these systems.
• During replacement of the wire rope, the opportunity
should be taken to examine the sheaves, checking for any »» High-pressure and other pipes
signs of undue wear or damage. Follow API RP 9B or • Follow all safety and inspection recommendations.
OEM recommendations for allowed sheave wear. • No welding of lugs, brackets, etc. should take place on
• Check that the safety “Hobble Lines” under the the equipment. Contact the OEM for further guideance;
watertable/crown block are attached to the tugger or • In the case of a fire, be aware that hydraulic oil is
snatch blocks and are in good condition. flammable.
• Padeyes provided by the original OEM and stamped with • Before any maintenance on the hydraulic system, make
a SWL (safe working load) should be used as the sure that the pressure is vented fully and that accidental
maximum load capacity for the padeye as noted by the starting is prevented.
SWL. • Adjustable valves sealed by the supplier are not to be
• No additional padeyes should be added to the structures adjusted by user without approval and guidelines from
without consulting with the OEM first. the supplier.
• See the Wire Rope chapter of the IADC Drilling Manual, • Only original spare parts ordered through the OEM must
12th edition, for more information. be used.
• A maintenance warning sign should be clearly placed
»» Bolts, bolted connections, and pins when maintenance is being performed.
• Bolts provide critical connections for the overall • See OEM data for steps for venting hydraulic systems.
structural integrity. It is essential that they are installed • Repair of hydraulic cylinders should be always be
with enough tension to secure and maintain the performed by qualified personnel.
assembly components. • If a hydraulic hose, oil seal or gaskets become worn or
• Improper bolt installation can be just as dangerous and damaged, the defective piece must be replaced by a new
subject to failure as bolts missing from the assembly. It is one of the original type following the manufacturer’s
essential to follow the bolt installation method as given instructions. Note the date of replacement.
by the OEM. • Avoid twisting of the hose during assembly. A twisted
• If hole elongation occurs, it may be due to an abnormal hose is subject to stress that eventually may work loose
load. The origin of the abnormal load must be the connections.
determined and this operation discontinued. The lug or
lugs require repair or replacement by approved method. Warning: Do not unscrew hydraulic hoses before pressure
• If wear on pin or pinhole allows for excess movement, is thoroughly vented!
then approved repair or replacement is required.
• Contact the OEM before making any repairs. »» Personnel support devices
• All personnel support devices must be maintained in
WARNING: Operating equipment with bolts and nuts working order at all times.
which are improperly installed or missing can cause cat- • All hooks used for support of personnel shall have an
astrophic equipment failure resulting in serious injury or operable latch.
death. • A crane hook that may be closed and locked, with a
pinned or positive locking device, eliminating the hook
See the Inspection and Safety sections of this chapter for throat opening, shall be used for any personnel lifts.
further details. • Additionally, a hook with a designed lifting eye integral to
the hook may be used in conjunction with a shackle that
»» Hoisting equipment may be pinned to prevent opening. These hooks are
• Use adequate hoisting equipment. Observe all safety designed to prevent the personnel basket sling from
precautions. Follow OEM guidelines for operation and coming off the hook accidentally
maintenance. • Check proper function of all safety gates at all levels.
• The hoisting system should be in a serviceable condition • Check that the mechanical spring mechanisms are all
and inspected before use. properly greased.
• Do not attempt to use the hoisting system if any of the • Check for no obstruction over the entire climbing height.
components are damaged. • Check that both descending guide wires are correctly
• Keep clear of the hoisting system’s moving parts during fitted and pre-tensioned.

• Check that the guide bar in the emergency evacuation »» Corrections and minor repairs
system can slide freely over the entire length. Follow User should contact the OEM’s service department to dis-
OEM guidelines for testing. cuss any corrections and repairs. If authorized by the service
• See the Inspection and Safety sections of this chapter for department, work permits and procedures should be issued
further details. as required.
»» Electrical equipment Major repairs and modifications

• Disconnect the electrical power supply when working on All major repairs and modifications must be discussed with
a system, and tag controls to prevent accidental and approved by OEM’s service department before the work
operation. Use mechanical shutoff when available. can start. The service department should involve OEM’s de-
• Some sensitive electrical equipment, such as control sign engineers as necessary, and a conclusive report and
cabinets, must be protected at all times, and when stored proposal should be issued.
it should be indoors in heated and humidity-controlled
areas. Maintenance not normally performed by user
• All housings made of stainless steel must be protected The repair/modification work listed below shall specifically
from spatter of welding and grinding. not be carried out by user without approval and instructions
• Glass should be protected. from OEM’s Service Department. The list is not exhaustive,
• Junction Boxes must be protected from weld spatter and and the general rule is still that maintenance/repairs not de-
grinding spatter with suitable cloth. scribed in the Maintenance Section require OEM’s approval
before carried out.
»» Wire rope/wireline, mast raising slings, hang-off lines • If any equipment or structure needs to be modified or
• API RP 9B covers Application, Care, and Use of Wire added to the mast or derrick, the OEM should to be
Rope for Oil Field Service. consulted.
• API RP 2D, Appendix G covers recommendations for • Do not burn holes or weld unless strictly adhering to
wire rope inspection. approved methods and consulting with the OEM.
• All wire ropes, including slinglines, are well-lubricated • The OEM should be contacted prior to any repair,
when manufactured; however, the lubrication will not last reinforcement or other modification to ensure the
throughout the entire service life of the rope. Periodically, structural acceptability, proper engineering design and
therefore, the rope will need to be field-lubricated with a installation of the proposed modifications, and to ensure
good rope lubricant and kept lubricated at all times. that adequate repair methods and procedures are
• Sudden, severe stresses and extreme loading are followed so that the certification given by the OEM is not
injurious to wire rope, and such applications should be impaired.
reduced to a minimum and inspected afterwards. • Adjustments, repairs and replacements of parts
• Excessive speeds when running blocks under light load belonging to the main hydraulic system.
may damage wire rope. If the wire doesn’t pass the • Adjustments, repairs and replacements of mechanical or
inspection, it must be changed as soon as possible. hydraulic components with load-carrying or safety
• The wire rope can be used until examination indicates functions.
that it no longer is suited for continued use. It must then • Adjustments, repairs and replacements of components
be replaced by a new wire of the original type. sealed by the supplier.
• The examination should preferably occur during the • Dismantling hydraulic motors and gearboxes.
yearly inspection of the hoist/raising system by
authorized personnel. Between examinations, the wire
must be greased as described in the lubrication chart. Inspections
• During replacement of the wire, the opportunity should While performing API RP4G Inspections, it should be not-
be taken to examine the sheaves, checking for any signs ed that the standard itself is identified as a “recommend-
of undue wear or damage. ed” practice only, and that in the absence of an established
• See the Inspection and Safety sections of this chapter for internal inspection program by a given manufacturer, the
more details. information and forms provided in this standard are intend-
ed for use as an aid and framework. The acceptance criteria
»» Wind walls, other rig and drill floor equipment and requirements in this procedure are based on manufac-
Wind walls should be firmly attached to the drilling struc- turing experience of global providers of drilling and well ser-
ture. See the OEM data sheet for maintenance for other vicing structures and aspects of accepted domestic and in-
equipment not listed in this section. ternational standards such as AWS D1.1 (American Welding
Society), AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction),

Table ST-1 : Frequency and required documentation should maintain and retain an equipment file containing
for inspection categories12 pertinent information regarding the mast or substructure to
be inspected. These records can be primarily used to estab-
Category Frequency Documentation lish the clear identification of the structure to be inspected
(original manufacturer, serial number, rating, etc.) and any
I Daily Optional
history which might include areas of concern to which ad-
II At Rig Up Optional ditional focus might to be given. Documents which fall in to
this category are, as applicable:
Every 730 operating
III
days
Equipment File • Assembly and critical-area drawings;
• Internal procedures including acceptance criteria;
Every 3650 operating
IV
days
Equipment File • Documentation of repairs and or modifications;
• Photos of repairs and or modifications;
One operating day equals 24 hours
• Performance test records;
• Records of category III and IV inspections;
ASTM (ASTM International), TC-1A, API 8B, API 9A, RP 9B • Weld procedures;
and API 4F. • Welders’ qualifications;
• NDE methods and results;
Qualification of personnel performing • NDE technician qualifications;
inspections • Material test reports (MTRs);
Personnel performing structural inspections shall be quali- • Guying requirements, if applicable, including
fied in one or more of the following manners or disciplines:• recommended patterns;
• A registered professional engineer; • Nameplate information (which should include the
• Possession of a recognized certificate of training based manufacturer, serial number, static hook load capacity
on a manufacturer’s documented inspection training and number of lines strung).
program;
• An AWS-certified welding inspector with additional Inspection categories and limitations
documented subject matter training; • Category I and II inspections, as defined by the API RP4G
• An AWS-certified associate welding inspector with standard, are generally performed by rig personnel
additional documented subject matter training; designated by the owner or user and would not typically
• A person who by knowledge, training or experience has be performed by an inspector.;
successfully demonstrated the ability to solve or resolve • Category III and IV inspections as defined by the API
problems relating to the subject matter of metals RP4G standard shall be limited in scope to the detection
fabrication and or inspection (verified resume). of defects such as cracks, mechanical damage, corrosion
or wear on an existing engineered structure within the
Pre-inspection data review following frameworks;
Prior to the performance of any inspection, a request for • Category III: A visual inspection of all load-bearing
a review of existing data should be made. The user/owner
Figure ST-11: Major areas substructure (side view).

components and members to determine the condition of

the mast/derrick or substructure;
• Category IV: A 100% visual inspection of all welds,
including the disassembly and cleaning of the structure
to the extent necessary to conduct NDE of all defined
critical areas including and when applicable, ultrasonic
examination for all tubular-style or closed members.
Defects reported during Category III and IV inspections

shall be based upon acceptance criteria, as established in
this procedure, unless otherwise instructed by the client.
Inspections shall not include any determinations by the in-

spector as to the validation of the original design or structur-
al capacity of any modifications made to an existing struc-
ture.
Figure ST-12: Major areas substructure (top view). Any damage found during the inspection shall be defined on
the following basis:
• Major: Significant geometrical distortion or structural
damage to primary load-carrying components including
raising assembly, main legs, hinge points, sheaves or
sheave shaft, crown and pin connections.
• Secondary: Damage or distortion to non-primary
load-carrying components including gerts and diagonal
bracing.
• Minor: Damage or distortion to ancillary equipment, i.e.,
ladders, monkey board, walk arounds, tong hangers, etc.
Documentation requirements
Documentation requirements for Category III and IV inspec-
tions shall include the use of the appropriate visual inspec-
tion form as provided by the API RP4G standard.
• Appendix A: Drilling Masts Visual Inspection Form;
• Appendix B: Well Servicing Mast Visual Inspection
(trailer-mounted);
• Appendix C: Drilling Derrick Visual Inspection Form;
• Appendix D: Substructure Visual Inspection Form.
Documentation requirements for the inspections of modifi-

cations shall be reported.
Category IV Inspections, in addition to the provided visual

inspection form, shall also require the following documen-
tation as applicable:
• The appropriate Category III Visual Inspection Form;
• Date and location repairs were made;
• Photos or drawings denoting the location of significant
defects reported;
• Photos or drawings denoting the location and extent of
repairs;
• NDE methods and results, including those reports;
Figure ST-13: Major areas mast. • Verification of Level III certification of procedures;
• Welders’ qualifications;

Figure ST-14: Examples of cracks. Clockwise from top left, longitudinal wel metal-face crack, toe crack, toe crack, stress crack.
Figure ST-15: Stress crack on backside of pad eye. Figure ST-16: Stress crack.

2 10 13
2 5 13
13
3 11 12
6 13 3
3 6
7 13
1 Crater crack
2 Face crack
3 Heat-affected zone crack
4 Lamellar tear
5 Longitudinal crack
6 Root crack
7 Root surface crack
8 Throat crack
9 Toe crack
10 Transverse crack
1 11 Underbead crack
12 Weld interface crack
13 Weld metal crack
4 2 5 8 13
Figure ST-17: Any crack shall be unacceptable, regardless of size or location.
• Weld Procedure Specifications (WPS); Weld inspection performance and acceptance

• Calibration certification for equipment used ; criteria
• MTRs; Visual inspection of welds in all steels can begin immediate-
• Date and name of the qualified inspector performing the ly after completed welds have cooled to ambient tempera-
inspection; ture, except for steels falling under the ASTM A 514, A517,
• Any other documentation pertinent to the condition or A709 Grade 100 and 100W steel, (high-yield-strength
status of the structure. steels), which shall be visually inspected not less than 48
hours after the completion of the welds.
Position of masts and derricks during inspections
Category III inspections may be performed on masts and Weld inspection criteria shall be based on the categories of
derricks in the horizontal position in order to allow access to discontinuities established by the AWS D1.1/D1.1M Visual
welds and all load-bearing components. Inspection Acceptance Criteria, Table 6.1, and shall include
the following categories of discontinuities.
Category IV inspections may be performed on masts and • Cracks;
derricks in the horizontal position in order to allow access to • Weld/base metal fusion;
all welds and ancillary equipment. In addition, it is preferable • Crater cross-section;
that the mast or derrick be sandblasted and may be coated • Insufficient weld profiles;
with a zinc-type coating to prevent surface corrosion during • Undercut;
the exposure of unprotected metal. • Porosity.
Modifications, dependent on the location, may be inspected Thorough fusion shall exist between layers of weld metal
with the mast or derrick in the upright position but shall not and between weld metal and base metal. Incomplete fusion
be considered a Category III or IV inspection. is a weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur between

Table ST-2: Weld table.
Weld size (x) in. (mm)
1/16 (1.6) .93k/in 1.31k/in 1.86k/in .56k/in

1/8 (3.2) 1.86k/in 2.63k/in 3.71k/in 1.11k/in
3/16 (4.8) 2.78k/in 3.94k/in 5.57k/in 1.67k/in
1/4 (6.4) 3.71k/in 5.25k/in 7.43k/in 2.23k/in
5/16 (8.0) 4.64k/in 6.56k/in 9.28k/in 2.78k/in
3/8 (9.5) 5.57k/in 7.88k/in 11.14k/in 3.34k/in
7/16 (11.1) 6.50k/in 9.19k/in 12.99k/in 3.90k/in
1/2 (12.7) 7.43k/in 10.50k/in 14.85k/in 4.46k/in
9/16 (14.3) 8.35k/in 11.81k/in 16.70k/in 5.01k/in
5/8 (16.0) 9.28k/in 13.13k/in 18.56k/in 5.57k/in
11/16 (17.46) 10.21k/in 14.44k/in 20.42k/in 6.13k/in
3/4 (19.0) 11.14k/in 15.75k/in 22.27k/in 6.68k/in
13/16 (20.64) 12.07k/in 17.06k/in 24.13k/in 7.24k/in
7/8 (22.23) 12.99k/in 18.38k/in 25.99k/in 7.80k/in
15/16 (23.81) 13.92k/in 19.69k/in 27.84k/in 8.35k/in
1” (25.4) 14.85k/in 21.0k/in 29.70k/in 8.91k/in
Capacity Capacity Capacity

= .7071 (x) 21ksi = (x) 21ksi = (x+x) .7071 x 21ksi
Method to determin capacity
weld metal and fusion faces or adjoining weld beads. It is The capacity of a weld, while ultimately a final determination
usually the result of improper welding techniques, improp- of the engineer, should be based on an accepted method to
er preparation of base metal or improper joint design, but it determine the capacity and should generally follow the cri-
can include insufficient welding heat or lack of access to all teria for weld dimensions in Table ST-2 and pin connections
fusion faces. in Figure ST-18.
All craters shall be filled to provide the specified weld size, Undercut for material less than 1 in. (25 mm) thick shall not
except for the ends of intermittent fillet welds outside of exceed 1⁄32 in. (1 mm) for any accumulated length up to 2 in.
their effective length. Crater cracks occur at the end of a in any 12-in. length of continuous weld.
weld when the weld is improperly terminated and are found
most frequently in materials with a high coefficient of ther- Undercut for material equal to or greater than 1 in. (25.4
mal expansion, such as austenitic stainless steels. mm) shall not exceed 1⁄16 in. for any length of weld.
Unless otherwise specified, all accessible contact surfaces For fillet welds, no porosity over 1⁄8 in. in diameter (3.2 mm)
are to be joined with a continuous 45° fillet weld, with weld shall be allowed or the sum of all holes 1⁄32 in. (1 mm) diam-
sizes to be 1⁄16 in. smaller than the lighter member of the eter or greater shall not exceed 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) in any linear
joint up to 5/16 in. thickness and 1⁄8 in. smaller than the lighter inch of weld and shall not exceed ¾ in. (20 mm) over any 12
member of the joint up to 3⁄4 in. thickness. in. (300 mm) length of weld.
For the purpose of the acceptance criteria only, the size of a Inspection of repairs and modifications
fillet weld in any continuous portion of weld may not be less Inspection acceptance criteria for repairs and modifications
or more than 20% of the nominal size of the weld and shall shall be based on the following API RP4G Recommended
not exceed 10% of the weld length. Practice guidelines.

Figure ST-18: Pin connection design for fixed connections.
Repair welding shall be performed using approved welding iner, as certified by the American Society for Nondestructive
procedures by welders qualified to perform those specific Testing (ASNT), or equivalent.
welding procedures.
Personnel performing NDE shall, at minimum, be certified as
Components displaying deviations as listed below shall be Level II Technicians.
reported and considered for repair/replacement:
• Legs: ¼ in. (6.4 mm) bow in 10 ft (3.048 m); All critical welds shall be 100% visually examined.
• Braces: ½ in. (12.7 mm) bow in 10 ft (3.048 m);
• Overall alignment on structure: ¾ in. (19.0 mm); Twenty percent of critical welds shall be inspected using
• Pin diameters: 1⁄16 in. (1.6mm) undersize; magnetic particle (MP) or liquid penetrant (LP) testing. The
• Pin hole diameters less than 3 in.: (76.2 mm) maximum inspector shall be allowed to choose the areas for random
oversize 3⁄16 in. (4.8 mm); inspection coverage.
• Pin hole diameters 3 in. or larger: ¼ in. (6.4 mm)
maximum oversize; Areas examined shall include the weld area and the adjacent
• Corrosion over 10% reduction in cross-sectional area; areas up to 3 in. (76mm) on both sides of the weld. The area
• Sharp kinks or bend in a local area; shall be 100% scanned.
• Loose connections or fittings;
• Missing bolts, pins or safety keys; Welds that are subject to magnetic-particle (MT) and pen-
• Missing members; etrant testing (PT), in addition to visual inspection, shall be
• Sheaves or rollers which do not turn freely or have evaluated on the basis of the applicable requirements for vi-
cracks; sual inspection (AWS D1.1, Table 6.1).
• Line cuts or groove cuts that exceed 1.75 times the line
diameter; Welds subject to examination by ultrasonic testing (UT), in
• Exposure to heat in excess of 500°F (260°C). addition to visual inspection, shall be evaluated on the basis
of the acceptance criteria as determined in the AWS D1.1,
Inspections and nondestructive examinations Table 6.2 Statically Loaded Non-tubular Connections.
NDE, when performed, shall be performed using procedures
which have been reviewed and approved by a Level III Exam- Welds subject to examination by X-ray (radiographic test-

Figure ST-19: Bent or bowed braces, ½ in. (12.7 mm). Figure ST-21: Impact damage to pin connection.
Figure ST-20: Distorted pad eyes. Figure ST-22: Distorted braces.
ing, RT), in addition to visual inspection, shall be evaluated area shall be considered the maximum amount of reduction
on the basis of the acceptance criteria as determined in the allowed before replacement.
AWS D1, Figure 6.1.
Inspection of pad eyes, lifting eyes and pin
When known, all full or partial penetration welds loaded in connections
tension to 70% or greater of their allowable stress, as de- Pad eyes should be identified with an SWL rating. Holes
termined by design, shall be ultrasonic or radiographic in- should be machined, and welds should be examined using
spected. a non-destructive testing (NDT) process. Surface contact of
leg ends, at pin connections, for mast sections, should be
Documentation requirements for NDE performed shall in- maintained at a minimum 85%.
clude a copy of the Level II certification for the technician
performing the NDE and a signed MT, PT, UT or RT report Inspection of raising lines, guy lines and wire
that indicates the area inspected and makes a determination rope
concerning the inspected areas pass or fail status. Wire rope used as guy lines, escape lines and pendant lines
should be maintained in a well-lubricated condition and re-
In corrosive environments (humidity, salt, H2S, etc.), the in- moved from service when any of the following conditions
spection activity should include an ultrasonic examination exist:
for the purpose of checking for internal corrosion on tubu- • Three broken wires are found within one lay length;
lar-style members. A 10% reduction in a cross-sectional • Two broken wires are found at the end connection in the
strand valley;

• Marked corrosion or rust appears;

• Corroded wires are observed at end connections;
• End connections are corroded, cracked, bent, worn or
improperly applied;
• Evidence of kinking, crushing, cutting, cold working or
bird caging is observed.
Inspection of racking platforms

Pipe racking fingers should be straight and secured with a
safety device. The working platform should be made of a
nonskid material. Racking platforms may be made of special
high-strength steel; care should be taken to ensure that like
materials are used in repair and replacement.
Inspection of substructures
It should be noted by the inspector that the critical areas of a
substructure are the areas associated with the rotary table,
rotary beams, pin connections, shoes and spreaders. These
areas as well as the set-back support the majority of the load
and are considered critical to the substructure.
Report documentation and record requirements

Documentation requirements shall consist of objective
evidence substantiating any and all works performed, in-
cluding, where applicable, qualifications for personnel per-
forming such work and verification of the materials and pro-
cedures used in the modifications or repair of the structure
in question.
Welding procedures that have been pre-qualified on the

bases of conformance with all the applicable requirements
of Section 3 of the AWS D1.1 Standard for Structural Weld-
ing Code, “Prequalification of WPS’s”, shall be exempt from
qualification testing. WPSs that do not conform to the re-
Figure ST-23a (top) and ST-23b:
Toe cracks on pad eyes.
quirements of Section 3 shall be qualified by tests in con-
formance with Section 4, of the AWS D1.1 Standard, “Qual-
ifications.”
Welders shall submit documented evidence of qualification

to the specific procedures used in the repair or modification
of the structures in question.
NDE, whether performed by third-party outside sources or

in-house, shall be performed using procedures reviewed
and approved by an ASNT-TC-1A Level III examiner or an ex-
aminer qualified to a standard recognized by ASNT.
The procedures shall meet the requirements of the 4th edi-

tion of API 4F Standard, Section 11.4.4.2, regarding the area
of examination:
“The area of examination shall include the weld area and adja-
Figure ST-24: Distorted connection plate. cent areas up to 3 in. (76.2 mm) from the weld. The area shall
be 100% scanned.”

Figure ST-25: 85% surface contact of leg ends at pin connections. Figure ST-27: Wires maintained in a well-lubricated condition.
Note Acute Angle
Figure ST-26: Wire crushed at connection.
Personnel performing NDE shall be required to submit a cer-

tification indicating a minimum of a Level II Technician.
Nondestructive reports submitted shall indicate the nonde-

structive method used, the area inspected and a clear pass/
fail status.
Material test reports indicating the identification, character- Figure ST-28: : Guy lines per requirements.
istics and heat number of materials and/or fasteners used
for modifications or replacement shall also be considered
relevant to the report. that show repairs and modifications may also be included as
relevant to the report, to the extent necessary.
Any certifications of conformance for calibration, testing,
ratings, coatings, etc. shall also be considered relevant to Calibration requirements
the final report. Equipment used to inspect, test or examine material or oth-
er equipment shall be identified, controlled, calibrated and
Drawings, photos, and finite-element analysis (FEA) reports adjusted at specific intervals in accordance with the manu-

Next Page
Figure ST-29: Substructure critical areas.
facturer’s documented procedures or consistent with a rec- A calibrated tape measure is an essential tool and should
ognized industry standard. always be included in an inspector’s equipment.
Useful tools and equipment Because inspections are often performed by a single inspec-
Because inspections are often performed immediately after tor, magnets and string can be a useful tool to allow an in-
the sandblasting of a structure, a coarse-haired brush is a spector to determine the bow of a beam over a given length
convenient tool to have available in order to brush away any without needing the assistance of another person.
excess debris to better visually inspect the entire weld. See
Figure ST-29 for images of useful equipment. Because linear measurements are often referenced to the
centerline of a given diameter or the centerline of the well, a
Bright-colored metal markers are useful for identifying dis- plumb bob is a useful tool for establishing an extended refer-
continuities located and also serve as a way of indicating ence point for intersecting lines of measurement.
areas that will require further non-destructive examination.
Fillet gages are used to determine the consistent profile of a
The use of a handheld telescopic mirror can be helpful for weld over a given area.
the inspection of welds that are difficult to access or are in
areas that are hard to easily see. Calipers are used for exact measurements of deformation

Previous Page
of pins and pin connections as well as the other precise

measurements needed to determine conformity to require-
ments.
Groove gauges are used to determine the amount of defor-

mation that has occurred to the corresponding grooves in
sheaves.
Brinell hardness testers can be useful in the determination

of heat-affected zones in areas where extensive welding or
repairs have taken place.
Ultrasonic testers are used to determine internal corrosion

to tubular-style members.
Coating testers are used to determine the required thick-

nesses of epoxy or zinc coatings.
Ethics and the inspector

Inspectors shall be entrusted to first and foremost protect
the health, safety, property and welfare of any individuals,
clients or other members of the general population that
might reasonably include an interaction of any sort with the
decisions regarding the conditions of the structures inspect- Figure ST-30: Equipment needed.
ed.
Safety
Inspectors shall immediately notify the client of any con-
ditions that might endanger the health, safety, property or Areas of concern
welfare of any members which might reasonably include an When approaching the drill floor or any other work area on
interaction of any sort with the structures being inspected. a drilling rig, one must be aware of his surroundings as there
are several areas of concern that can be hazardous. Many
Inspectors shall report in an objective and truthful manner basic safety measures can ensure that injuries and incidents
and strive to make affected parties aware of the inspector’s are reduced. Some of these measures are listed below:
professional concerns regarding the consequences of any • Standard PPE that should be worn includes hearing
issues cited during inspections. protection, eye protection, hard hat, and steel-toe shoes.
Other equipment may be needed depending upon the
Inspectors shall practice only in their area of expertise and specific circumstances.
shall not perform any engineering that the inspector is not • When navigating stairways keep one hand on the guard
qualified by education or experience to perform. However, rail at all times.
an inspector may accept an assignment that includes verifi- • Never run, jump or skip steps.
cation of phases outside of the inspector’s area of expertise • Always look ahead and be aware of your surroundings.
if these other phases are reviewed and approved by legally • Stop, Look and Listen before entering the rig floor.
qualified consultants, associates or employees.
Trips, slips and falls are typically mitigated by way of proper
Inspectors shall maintain the confidentiality of the client and housekeeping and awareness of one’s surroundings. Keep-
exercise reasonable care to prevent unauthorized disclosure ing all walkways and work areas clear of debris, tools, and
or the use of private information concerning the client. spills (fluids) reduces the potential hazard of navigating the
drill floor and other work areas. A good method of planning
Inspectors shall not accept direct or indirect compensation is to imagine that a quick departure from a work area is re-
for making false or misleading statements concerning in- quired. What would need to be changed for this quick depar-
spections performed on structures. ture to safely occur?
Be responsible for you and everyone around you. Safety is

everyone’s responsibility.

Figure ST-32: When working at height, defined as more than

6 ft above the nearest walking surface, a properly fitting body
harness should be worn. The harness should be attached to
an appropriate tie-off point that can support 5,000 lb.
that is dropped can be hazardous as it gains energy during

the fall. Several precautions should be taken when work at
heights is being performed in relation to dropped objects.
• The area under and around the work zone shall be
sectioned off with caution tape and warning signs to
keep all unauthorized and non-essential personnel out of
danger.
• Any tools used at heights shall be documented when in
use and removed from the storage location. After use,
the tools shall be removed from the work zone and
Figure ST-31: : Safety device on pipe-racking fingers. checked in to the storage area. All tools should be
confirmed as being returned to storage before rig
operations resume. This will ensure that no tools have
Common work areas been left in the work zone that can potentially fall.
Common work areas on a drilling rig are the drill floor, rack- • All tools used while working at heights shall be safety
ing board, crown and various walkways on and around the tied off using lanyards either to a tie-off point or the
derrick, mast and substructure. These platforms and work person using the tool.
areas are located at various elevations throughout the drill- • All work pieces shall be properly restrained with the use
ing rig. Each work area has its own set of safety concerns. of safety cables, lanyards or other appropriate means for
For instance, the drill floor has a higher potential of a hazard the item.
from a dropped object than a platform at the crown would
have. However, the potential danger of a fall on the crown When others are working at heights, be aware and obey the
platform is greater than that of the drill floor. For this reason, caution zones. Also, be aware that falling objects can impact
different safety measures should be taken at different loca- other objects that could alter the path of the falling object.
tions on the drilling rig. This increases the potential for personnel or equipment be-
ing impacted by falling objects, since the potential landing
Safety tie-off points radius is increased.
When working at high elevations, typically six or more ft
from the nearest walking surface, certain safety equipment Being aware of one’s surroundings and the actions of others
should be utilized. A body harness that fits properly should is the best safety plan on a drilling rig.
be worn. This harness should be attached to an appropriate
tie-off point that is designed and rated for personnel tie-off.
All safety tie-off points must be able to withstand 5,000 lb Storage of drilling structures
without permanently yielding or failing. During the operating life of a drilling structure, it is often nec-
essary to temporarily cease routine operations for extended
Dropped objects periods of time. In order to ensure that the structures do not
Another aspect of working at high elevations is the poten- sustain permanent damage during storage that may require
tial for dropped objects. When at high elevations, any object costly repairs upon redeployment, some simple steps can be

taken that will provide adequate protection of critical areas

during periods of inactivity.
Sheave assemblies
In any drilling structure, the most critical components that
can fail during long-term storage are components with an
internal bearing, primarily crown and raising sheaves. The
bearings in the cluster assembly require constant mainte-
nance during operations, and this maintenance does not
stop when the operations cease.
Short-term storage
If the storage period will not exceed two or three months,
then the routine operating maintenance procedure of greas-
ing the bearing every day can be reduced to greasing the
bearing once a week, as well as spinning the sheaves after
greasing to ensure that the grease is distributed throughout
the bearing and that the bearing does not rest in any one
place for long enough to cause internal damage to the bear-
ing material.
Long-term storage
For extended long-term storage, the sheave assemblies
should be dismounted from their shafts and bearings, their
internal surfaces thoroughly greased, a heavy plastic coat-
ing installed that covers the machined surfaces, and a suit-
able storage location out of inclement weather found.
Racking boards and service platforms

Racking boards and service platforms may require some
special consideration when being stored.
Service platforms normally need to be disassembled, and

any bolts present will have to be replaced. If any paint or
galvanic coatings are damaged, they should be repaired fol-
lowing an established repair procedure to prevent any sur-
face corrosion.
Racking boards typically require extensive repairs when the

rig is out of operation for an extended period of time. It is Figure ST-33 (top) & ST-34: Offshore masts and derricks are
recommended that a qualified fabrication shop be employed generally much less likely to be subjected to long-term
to make necessary repairs. After repairs are completed, the storage, but they are occasionally removed, stored on land
racking board should be blasted clean, thoroughly inspected or replaced in a shipyard. Photos courtesy Ensco plc.
for damage and then recoated.
cess of 50 years. They are generally of bolted construction
and almost free of pinned connections, and the galvanized
Offshore masts and derricks coating provides for 100% coverage of the steel, so there are
Offshore masts and derricks are generally much less likely
no exposed surfaces requiring preservation as might be the
to be subjected to long-term storage, but they are occasion-
case with the land-based structures described earlier. After
ally removed, stored on land or replaced in a shipyard. Aside
disassembly, all used bolts should be discarded, and the gal-
from the sheaves and shafts being preserved, as previously
vanized structure can be stored in any environment without
mentioned, the offshore structures are typically much easier
the risk of additional damage from surface corrosion.
to preserve. The vast majority of these structures are galva-
nized prior to installation, and this type of coating has been Telescoping masts
seen to provide for a very long service life, often times in ex- Telescoping drilling and workover masts present several

unique storage challenges. First, in addition to the crown be thoroughly inspected,and any deficient surfaces should
and raising sheaves, there is the likelihood of the presence of be treated with rust-inhibiting paint.
hydraulic cylinders that require special care during storage.
As part of the scoping system, there are rollers or extensive Cantilever masts
regions of contact for guiding the mast sections as they are Aside from maintaining the sheaves and shafts, the can-
scoped. The rollers require preservation similar to that used tilever mast is one of the easiest to prepare for extended
with the sheaves and shafts, and the contact area requires a storage. They are typically of welded construction, which
thorough application of grease to inhibit corrosion in these makes most of the connections nearly maintenance-free.
regions. All of the locking devices for the telescoping masts All of the pins and connections between the sections should
should be completely disassembled, thoroughly greased, be greased to prevent corrosion in the unprotected surfac-
and either stored separately or reassembled. All pins and pin es, and the painted surfaces should be inspected and spot
connections should be disassembled, thoroughly greased treatment applied to prevent the structure from developing
and then reassembled. Because telescoping masts are typi- pockets of surface corrosion.
cally painted for normal service, the painted surfaces should

REFERENCES
IADC Lexicon (iadclexicon.org). API 7L: Procedure for Inspection, Maintenance, Repair and
Remanufacture of Drilling Equipment.
IADC Technology Value Guide. www.IADC.org/tvg/tech_
value_guide_rev.htm. API RP 54, Section 9: Drilling and Well Servicing Equipment.
API STD 53, Blowout Prevention Equipment Systems for API RP 9B: Application, Care, and use of Wire Rope for Oil
Drilling Wells, Upstream Segment, Fourth Edition, Novem- Field Service
ber 2012. Global Standard
API RP 2D: Operation and Maintenance of Offshore Cranes
Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary, 2013.
API RP 8B: Recommended Practice for Procedures for In-
Dictionary of Petroleum Terms, PETEX, University of Texas, spections, Maintenance, Repair and Remanufacture of
Austin (All rights reserved © PETEX 2001). Hoisting Equipment.
API 4F: Specification for Drilling and Well Servicing Struc-

tures.

Enhancing
operational
integrity by
ensuring a
competent
workforce
Accreditation
STRUCTURES AND LAND RIG MOBILIZATION ST-A1
APPENDIX - LAND MOBILIZATION

Pre-planning for move and the trucking company on when the well will be finished
Prior to beginning any rig move, a pre-job planning meeting and the rig ready for trucking. If the rig manager is obtain-
is executed. Pre-job planning is mandatory prior to project ing trucks for the move, he must to stay in contact with the
start-up. Planning includes a meeting among the operator trucking company as to when the rig will be ready;
representative (company man), drilling rig manager and
trucking representative. In some cases, the drilling contrac- After the operator representative informs the rig manager
tor owns and operators its own trucks, simplifying the proof the next location, the rig manager will identify an appro-
cess. priate route. The rig manager further checks to see whether
equipment can be set on nearby locations during the move.
The operator notifies the rig representatives where the next While field moves do not require permits, if the move will
location will be. proceed using public roads, the rig manager must commu-
nicate this to the trucking company in advance to ensure the
proper permits are obtained prior to move day. To comply
with statute, some equipment must be completely broken
down to abide by statute, if the rig will be moved on public
roadways.
Identify equipment requiring dismantling (derrick, substruc-

ture, etc.) or any equipment that will need maintenance or
repairs during the move. In some cases the best time to
make repairs or do maintenance to equipment is when the
rig is shut down. If repairs are required, the rig manager will
inform the trucking company which equipment will be set
aside. Extensive repairs might require more than a day. This
information must be shared with all parties.
Video ST-A1: Time-lapsed video of rig up of Precision
Drilling Rig 823, a 1,200-hp AC super singles rig Identify and document critical lifts. Many rigs are moved
capable of drilling 12,500 ft. Move took 4 hr 10 min. onto trucks using cranes. Identify loads that are broken
(30 sec video). Courtesy Precision Drilling. down and moved with cranes. Also ensure that all trucking
personnel are trained and certified appropriately. This in-
First, decide which rig equipment will be loaded first. Gener- cludes, but is not limited to certifications for H2S, forklifts,
ally, a rig will be moved the same way each time. Rig moves cranes, and basic orientation.
can be affected, however, by the difficulty of the well and on
the amount of operator-rented equipment that the trucking The rig manager will inspect the route and the new loca-
firm will also move. tion for potential hazards. These can include low power
lines, washed-out roads and narrow cattle guards. The rig
Further, planners must decide whether to first move rig manager should also mark the route for the trucks to use.
components, followed by any extra equipment, or vice ver- However, marking can only be done on lease road, not public
sa. This extra equipment includes living quarters for the highways. Any hazards discovered will be communicated to
company representative. the trucking firm and the operator representative. Eliminate
hazards as soon as possible.
Next, decide when to begin the move and notify the trucking
firm. Organize equipment into loads and consult with the Ensure that the location is prepared for the rig. Check to en-
trucking company representative on the amount and type sure that mouse and rat holes, when applicable, have been
of equipment needed the trucking firm must supply. Ensure drilled in the proper location. Ensure that the cellar is built
that any barrels being transported are properly marked, and in position and that reserve pits, as applicable, are lined
sealed and cleaned. Barrels should be in containment for and ready.
transporting and safety data sheets (SDS) for any chemicals
provided to the trucking company. Upon “rig release”, defined as when the operator releases
the rig from the well, rig-down operations can begin.
Then, set a date and start time for the move. The toolpush-
er/rig manager must coordinate with the company man
ST-A2 STRUCTURES AND LAND RIG MOBILIZATION
Rigging down
Before beginning all rig crews and third parties involved
must hold a safety meeting to discuss potential hazards and
planned tasks. This shall include general rig-down JSA docu-
mentation, with signatures required from all attendees, plus
additional JSAs for each crew regarding their specific work
assignments. Remind all personnel to remain 100% tied-off
when working above 4 ft.
Figure ST-A2: Loading mud pits. Mud pits and equalizer

lines and openings must be as clean as possible and
securely capped or plugged. Courtesy Bandera Drilling.
where necessary. Perform derrick inspection prior to laying

over to ensure there is no loose equipment anywhere in the
derrick. Secure all Geronimo or slow-speed descending de-
vices, plus any climbing assist lines and weight buckets.
Trucks arrive on location

Figure ST-A1: Lowering the mast. Upon arrival of trucks, rig crews, all moving personnel, and
Courtesy Bandera Drilling Co. any third party should conduct a pre-job safety meeting and
a JSA prior to starting work. (Everyone on location should be
Drain and plug or cap all equipment being disassembled. present.) Discussions should include but not be limited to:
Equipment requiring disassembly varies by rig type, but in- • Responsibilities for rig crews;
cludes mud pumps, mud pits, equalizer lines, fuel pumps, • Moving crews;
2-in. and 4-in. vibrator hoses, suction and discharge lines, • Third party and any additional personnel;
water and fuel lines, water and diesel tanks, hopper line,
stand pipe, diesel and water tanks, and electrical cords. Discuss all hazards associated with the current operation.
Emphasize the importance of reporting any injuries or
Follow these guidelines: equipment damage immediately and remind crews to in-
• Mud pits and equalizer lines and openings must be as spect all equipment before use. Also remind crews to oper-
clean as possible and securely capped or plugged; ate only equipment that they are authorized to use. Again,
• Diesel and water tanks must be as empty as possible, all personnel that 100% tie-off is required when working
with all valves and openings closed. Any drums,
chemicals and pallets, lube totes or oil cans should also
be securely stored and fastened in order for transport;
• All electrical cords should be unplugged and securely
rolled up, with ends capped and fastened;
• All ground rods on location should be removed prior to
any equipment being moved;
• Any additional equipment should be secured and stored
in an orderly fashion for move.
The traveling block system should be kept secure in accor-

dance with rig-specific policy. The Kelly hose/mud line must
be drained, pumped clean with water, capped and secured.
Figure ST-A3: Hold a JSA before starting work.
The top drive should be pumped clean with water and se-
Discuss all possible hazards and emphasize the
cured, along with any associated equipment (service loops,
importance of immediately reporting injuries and
hydraulic and electric lines). Where applicable, break the equipment damage. Remind crews to inspect
Kelly loose and place in shuck. Bridle up blocks and secure equipment before use. Courtesy Bandera Drilling.
above 4 ft. Finally, any transportation issues should be dis- conduct the bulk of this operation. Derrick stands should be
cussed with truck/equipment operators and the importance set in place, and all cables and equipment secured prior to
of communication must be made clear. removing the derrick from rig floor. Once all employees are
clear, remove derrick from rig floor. Employees should re-
Emergency response plan main clear of the swing zone and of all operating equipment
Before concluding the safety meeting, ensure that all emer- and cranes. After the derrick is removed and secured from
gency numbers and addresses (hospitals, fire department, rig floor, remove the drawworks from rig floor. (This is rig
HSE Rep) are communicated to everyone on location. For specific, as some rigs will not require drawworks removal.)
the safety of the employees, a rig move might be cancelled
at any time due to poor weather or lease conditions. Inci- Loading, securing and transporting
dent-reporting procedures and responsibilities should be The loading process will vary for different types of derricks/
thoroughly established, both on the location and on the road masts. However, as mentioned earlier, all employees must
during transport. maintain 100% tie off when working at heights above 4 ft.
Any pins that are hammered out need to be returned to
Equipment/backyard their correct position, with safety pins replaced. All cables,
Equipment is picked up, set out for loading and transport- climbing assist lines, Kelly hose, and any potential hazards
ed to new location. Depending on the rig type, the order in must be rolled up and secured to the derrick. Boom poles,
which equipment is loaded can vary. Many rigs begin mov- bridle-lines and blocks should also be secured in accordance
ing their “backyard” equipment first. Backyard equipment with company policy.
includes mud pits, pumps, electrical power units and gen-
erators. Backyard equipment often moves first because the
rig-up of many rigs depends on the pit layout at the new lo-
cation. Again, with all the different rig types, this may vary
significantly. All tubulars and pipe racks will be loaded and
secured during this time.
Laying down derrick/mast

This operation is highly rig specific. However, many of the
same hazards persist and require due precautions. Prior
to laying a derrick or mast down, conduct a JSA and safe-
ty meeting. Ensure that all employees are kept completely
clear of the travel path and far from the path of any potential
falling object. Complete a derrick/mast inspection before Figure ST-A4: The loading process varies for different types
lowering it to ensure that all loose objects are secure. Below of derricks/masts. Ensure that all employees maintain
are general requirements regarding derrick-lowering opera- 100% tie off when working at heights above 4 ft.
tions. However, be aware that the derrick-lowering process
varies among different rig types. Once the derrick is ready to load, all employees should re-
main clear of the danger zone. Further, ensure that any re-
If a rig requires cylinders to lay down, first ensure that the maining equipment on location clear of the operation. Once
cylinders are functioning properly and are pinned to der- loaded and secured, ensure before leaving location that all
rick. Conduct a function test, bleed trapped air and main- equipment on each load complies with statutory specifica-
tain correct hydraulic fluid levels to ensure proper operation. tions for height and weight restrictions. After all equipment
Slingshot or jackknife layover systems must ensure that the is loaded, clean the old location n of any debris or trash. Cov-
derrick stand is in the correct location before laying over, er the cellar of the existing.
and that the correct vehicle is used to break derrick over.
Once the A-leg pins are removed, the driller should control
layover speed. All additional personnel should remain clear Rigging up
of potential falling objects, while watching for any potential Conduct a pre-job/JSA/Safety Meeting with rig crews and
hazards or caught lines that could disrupt the operation. trucking personnel. Ensure that all crew members and truck-
ing personnel are aware of the hazards associated with the
Once the derrick is secure on the derrick stand or fifth wheel, tasks to be completed. The loads are now going to be set in
employees should prepare for removing the derrick from rig place. If rig crews are assisting, inform them of critical areas.
floor, if applicable. This includes removing drill line from Do not stand next to the substructure as it is being set, nor
drawworks. Many times a third party string-up crew will between pits and pumps, as pumps are being set. Stay away
Video ST-A2: Rig walking systems are contributing to higher

Figure ST-A5: The order of setting equipment
efficiency for multi-well pad drilling in unconventional
will vary depending on rig design, weather and
shale plays. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
trucking equipment. Courtesy Bandera Drilling.
from suspended loads. Use taglines on all suspended loads There are several different methods to attach to the
that require human assistance to stabilize. suction. The connection will either need to be aired up or
the hammer union tightened;
These are only examples and not intended to be comprehen- 5. Set in generators: All electrical lines will be run and
sive. All moves differ and can require special considerations. connected to their designated equipment. No plugs
should be plugged in if the generators are running and
Set in equipment. Each piece of equipment has an estab- the breakers are in the on position. Make sure generators
lished place. Order of setting equipment will vary depending are not on or breakers are in the off position prior to
on rig design. Weather conditions and trucking equipment plugging in electrical lines. The generators should be
issues can also cause a variance. Any time the move chang- grounded before they are started;
es, personnel involved must be made aware of what is taking 6. Set in SCR/VFD houses: As with generators, all electrical
place. It should also be noted that several of these opera- lines will be run. All breakers should be in the off position
tions are occurring at the same time. before being plugged in;
7. Set in fuel tank;
The following is only one example of a conventional jack- 8. Set in water tanks;
knife-style rig: 9. Set in pipe racks and drillstring.
1. Set in steel mud pits. These are usually the first
equipment put in place; Once the rig is reassembled, an intensive pre-spud inspec-
2. Set substructure over the hole: tion of the rig will be conducted. All safety equipment must
a. The substructure will be set and lined up and be in order. All equipment must be properly set and secured.
centered; Ground rods set and connected. This inspection must be
b. Drawworks will be replaced at this time if they had done before drilling operations can commence. Rig-down
been removed. and rig-up procedures involve a series of labor-intensive
3. Reassemble derrick/mast and raise into position: steps that must be accomplished before moving or drilling
a. Depending on derrick/mast type, the derrick/ mast operations can begin.
may need to be repined together following transport;
b. All cables that were secured for the move will need to
be untied and strung out. Ensure cables will not be Walking systems overview
caught up when the derrick is put into position to The continued growth that the US land drilling is experience
raise; is being driven in large part by oil and gas resources found
c. The drilling line will be reattached to the drawworks; in unconventional shale plays. The effective adoption and
d. The derrick will be secured to the substructure and implementation of current technologies in creating cost ef-
raised and secure into position; ficiencies is a primary reason that this market is remaining
e. Dress derrick for service. robust, and continuing to grow. One technology that is cre-
4. Set in mud pumps: The pumps will be lined up and set ating a lot of that efficiency is multi-well pad drilling utilizing
into place. They will then be attached to the mud pit. drilling rigs with walking systems.
Figure ST-A6: Walking systems can be designed to connect to the substructure externally
(pin-on) on a slingshot or box-on-box sub. Courtesy Patterson-UTI Drilling Co.
One of the challenges associated with walking a substruc-

ture and mast independent of the remainder of the rig in-
clude: extending the mud system and electrical systems,
as well as other ancillary systems. Some of the systems de-
signed to address these challenges include electrical/fluid
festoons and flowline manifolds that allow the substructure
to walk independently as far as 150 ft (see Figure ST-A7).
Entire rigs may also be mounted onto walking systems (see

Figure ST-A7). The advantage to this design is the elim-
ination of the requirement for festoons and manifolds as
described above. One disadvantage is the added time and
complication of transporting and handling of large structural
Figure ST-A7: In some walking systems, electric/
components during the initial rig up and rig down.
fluid festoons and flowline manifolds allow the
substructure to walk independently up to 150
ft. Courtesy Patterson-UTI Drilling Co. Function and components
• Walking cycle: A modern walking system utilizes large
bore hydraulic “lift” cylinders to lift the drilling rig onto
Time associated with moving a drilling rig high capacity rollers. The load is then pushed on
between wells is generally considered the rollers utilizing horizontally mounted
non-productive time. Rigs that can hydraulic “travel” cylinders. The lift
“walk” from well to well on multi- cylinders then lower the load and the
well pads is helping to reduce this
NPT.
Disassembling, moving and reassem-

bling a typical 1,500-hp rig generally
takes 3-5 days. The time required to walk
the same rig (with a full setback) from one well to
the next on a multi-well pad is generally less than two hours.
Walking systems can be designed to connect to the drill-

ing substructure either externally (pin-on) on a slingshot
or box-on-box sub (see Figure ST-A6), or directly mounted Figure ST-A8: Walking systems can also be designed to
into the lower sub box (see Figure ST-A8). connect to the drilling substructure by directly mounting
into the lower sub box. Courtesy Patterson-UTI Drilling Co.

Figure ST-A9: Typical components of a pin-on walking system. Courtesy Columbia Industries LLC.
travel cylinders retract, resetting the system for another • Flow control: Precise flow control systems are necessary
cycle. in order to allow controlled, deliberate motion of the
• Hydraulic power unit: Hydraulic power units provide the load. This flow control is what allows the substructure to
hydraulic pressure and volume for lifting and pushing a be moved with the derrick standing and full setback.
drilling substructure. The hydraulic power unit can be Effective flow controls ensure that the load is moved
driven by a dedicated diesel engine or electric motor. smoothly and dynamic loads are reduced.
Control functions for both lift and travel can be • Counterbalance: Counterbalance valves are essential to
accomplished by wireless remote, wired pendants, or controlling the speed and holding the load while being
manual spool valve controls. lifted by the large diameter lifting cylinders.
• Walking foot: The walking foot (stomper) is the ground • Relief valve: Relief valves are required to protect the
bearing plate used to distribute the load of the drilling system from damage due to over-pressurization. Excess
substructure. Walking systems typically require rig mats pressure and flow are diverted back to the tank.
to better distribute the loads to the soil.
• Steering: Walking systems also provide a significant Summary
advantage for centering the substructure over a well The effective use of walking systems on land-based drilling
center and aligning with the mouse hole. A walking rigs is a technology helping the industry improve efficiencies
system can offer several steering options including in multi-well pad drilling. These efficiency gains are current-
forward, backward, right, left as well as diagonal. A ly fueling the increase in drilling activities that we are expe-
walking system can also allow a mast and substructure riencing in many US oil and gas markets; and our ability to
to be rotated around the well or rig center. These steering continue developing these technologies will determine the
modes allow for very precise, infinitely variable future continued growth of our industry.
positioning on the pad.
WC
WELL CONTROL
EQUIPMENT &
PROCEDURES

Proven Leadership
Then. Now. Always.
Covering well control events of all magnitudes for the past 40
years, our experience and dedication to quality, timely execution
of operations has positioned us as industry leaders.
When the largest of the world’s oilfield disasters calls for a

company that can take on the impossible, Wild Well is there.
There then, here now, and always ready with innovative solutions.
wildwell.com
WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES WC-i
CHAPTER
WC
WELL CONTROL
EQUIPMENT &
PROCEDURES
nance and repair.
by the reader.
CONTRIBUTORS
Fred Mueller, Chevron
Lachelle Ahmed, GE Oil & Gas
Richard Grayson, Nabors Offshore Drilling
David Cormack, Auriga Training Limited
Arash Haghshenas, Boots & Coots A Halliburton Service
Bhavesh Ranka, Cudd Well Control
Mel Whitby, Cameron Drilling Systems
Darren Mourre, National Oilwell Varco
REVIEWERS
Jason Sasarak, BP
WC–ii WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9909049-4-6

WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES Contents WC-iii
CHAPTER WC
WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT &

PROCEDURES Contents
Introduction................................................................... WC-1 Typical diverter system for onshore and/or
Blowout preventer stack equipment...................... WC-1 bottom-supported offshore installations............WC-26
Typical stack arrangement........................................WC-5 Typical diverter system
BOP design considerations.......................................WC-5 for floating installations............................................WC-27
BOP arrangement considerations...........................WC-6 Diverter system maintenance................................WC-27
BOP arrangements: surface stacks........................ WC-7 BOP performance characteristics.........................WC-28
Testing surface stacks with one pipe size..........WC-11 Blowout preventer control systems......................WC-29
BOP arrangements: subsea stacks.......................WC-15 Diverter types............................................................ WC-41
Inside blowout preventers.......................................WC-17 Well control procedures......................................... WC-47
Choke manifold..........................................................WC-19 Appendix 1: Glossary..............................................WC-A1
Diverter systems........................................................WC-22 Appendix 2: IADC Kill sheets...............................WC-A3

IADC
Safety Toolbox
IADC SAFETY TOOLBOX


WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES WC-1
Introduction
Preventing and, when prevention is not sufficient, respond-
ing to potential uncontrolled releases of oil or gas ("blow-
out") is critical to safe drilling operations. A kick is an influx
of formation fluids into the wellbore. A blowout is an uncon-
trolled kick exiting the well at surface.
Well control is a process that begins with spudding the well

and is not complete until the well is put on production and all
drilling operations cease.
This chapter will examine equipment commonly used in well

control and processes used to control kicks of oil or gas.
Blowout preventer stack equipment

Annular blowout preventer
The annular blowout preventer is installed at the top of the
BOP stack (Figure WC-1) and has the capability of closing
(sealing off) on anything in the bore or completely shutting
off (CSO) the open hole by applying closing pressure.
The sealing device of an annular blowout preventer is re-

ferred to as the “packing element”. It is basically a do-
nut-shaped element made out of elastomeric material. To
reinforce the elastomeric material, different shapes of me-
tallic material are molded into the element. This keeps the
elastomeric material from extruding when operating system
pressure or wellbore pressure is applied to the bottom of the
packing element. Since the packing element is exposed to
different drilling environments (i.e., drilling fluid/mud, cor-
rosive H2S gas and/or temperature of the drilling fluid), it is
Figure WC-1: Schematic (top) and photo of annular blowout
important to make sure that the proper packing element is preventers. Photo courtesy GE Oil & Gas. Top image, IADC drawing.
installed in the annular preventer for the anticipated envi-
ronment of the drilling operation. anything in the bore or on the open hole. Compression of
the elastomer throughout the sealing area assures a strong,
During normal wellbore operations, the preventer is kept ful- durable seal off against almost any shape, even with a previ-
ly open by applying hydraulic pressure to position the piston ously used or damaged packer.
in the open (down) position. This position permits passage
of drilling tools, casing, and other items which are equal to The piston is moved to the closed position by applying hy-
the full bore size of the BOP. The blowout preventer is main- draulic pressure to the closing chamber. Guidelines for clos-
tained in the open position by relaxing all hydraulic control ing pressures are contained in the operational section for
pressures to the closing chamber and applying hydraulic each manufacturer’s type of annular blowout preventer and
pressure to the opening chamber. Application of hydraulic in the Operator’s Manual. The correct closing pressure will
pressure to the opening chamber ensures positive control ensure long life, whereas excessive or deficient closing pres-
of the piston. sures will reduce packer life. The pressure regulator valve of
the hydraulic control unit should be adjusted to the manu-
Close preventer operation facturer’s recommended closing pressure.
In order for the annular BOP to close on anything in the bore
or to perform a complete shut-off, CSO or open-hole clo- As the packing element rubber deteriorates, higher closing
sure, closing pressure must be applied. A CSO is typically pressures may be required to effect a seal. Subsea applica-
limited to 50% of the annular rated working pressure, RWP. tions may require an adjustment of closing pressure due to
As the piston is moved to the closed position, the elastomer effects of the hydrostatic head of the control fluid and of the
packer is squeezed inward to a sealing engagement with drilling fluid column in the marine riser. Some manufactur-

WC-2 WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES
Figure WC-2: Schematic of ram-type BOP. IADC drawing.
Video WC-1: Animation shows internal BOP

action. Courtesy National Oilwell Varco.
ers may also require limiting the closing pressure depending

upon the diameter and wall thickness of casing or large di-
ameter tubulars. The applicable operator’s manual will ex-
plain these requirements.
Stripping with an annular BOP

Drillpipe can be rotated and tool joints stripped through a
closed packer while maintaining a full seal on the drillpipe.
Longest packer life is obtained by adjusting the closing
chamber pressure just low enough to maintain a seal on the
drillpipe with a slight amount of drilling fluid leakage as the
tool joint passes through the packer. The leakage indicates
the lowest usable closing pressure for minimum packer wear
and provides lubrication for the drillpipe motion through the
packer. Figure WC-3: Schematic (top) and photo of typical subsea BOP
stack. Photo courtesy GE Oil & Gas. IADC drawing at top.
A pressure regulator valve should be set to maintain the
proper closing pressure. For stripping purposes, the reg- ping. Check manufacturer’s recommendations for proper
ulator valve is usually too small and cannot respond fast nitrogen precharge pressure for your particular operating
enough for effective control, so a surge bottle is connected requirements. In subsea operations, it is advisable to add an
as closely as possible to the BOP closing port (particular- accumulator to the opening chamber line to prevent unde-
ly for subsea installations). The surge bottle is pre-charged sirable pressure variations.
with nitrogen, and is installed in the BOP closing line in order
to reduce the pressure surge which occurs each time a tool
joint enters the closed packer during stripping. A properly
installed surge bottle helps reduce packer wear when strip-

Figure WC-4: Blind rams. IADC drawing. Figure WC-6: Variable bore rams. IADC drawing.
Figure WC-5: Pipe rams. IADC drawing.
Ram-type blowout preventer

A ram-type blowout preventer is basically a large bore valve
(Figure WC-2). The ram blowout preventer is designed to
seal off the wellbore when pipe or tubing is in the well. In a Figure WC-7: Schematic (top) and photo of Upper
BOP stack, ram preventers are located between the annular and lower shearing blind rams. Photo courtesy
BOP and the wellhead. (See schematic of a typical subsea GE Oil & Gas. IADC drawing at top.
BOP stack in Figure WC-3.) The number of ram preventers
include production tubing, drill pipe, drill collars, and
in a BOP stack ranges from one to eight depending on appli-
casing that will seal off the wellbore around it (Figure
cation and water depth. Flanged or hubbed side outlets are
WC-5);
located on one or both sides of the ram BOPs. These outlets Variable bore rams: Sealing element is much more
are sometimes used to attach the valved choke and kill lines complex and allows for sealing around a particular
too. The outlets enter the wellbore of the ram preventer im- range of pipe sizes (Figure WC-6);
mediately under the ram cavity. Shearing blind rams: Blade portion of the rams shears or
cuts the drillpipe, and then a seal is obtained much like
Other than sealing off the wellbore, rams can be used to the blind ram (Figure WC-7);
hang-off the drillstring. A pipe ram, closed around the drill- Casing shear rams: Casing shear rams are typically
pipe with the tool joint resting on the top of the ram, can hold shearing rams only and will not seal. They are
up to 600,000 lb of drillstring. specifically designed to cut large diameter tubulars that
are incapable of being sheared by blind shear rams.
Several different types of rams are installed in the ram type
BOP body. The five main types of rams are blind rams, pipe Note: Shear rams are also available that are capable of
rams, variable bore rams, shearing blind rams, and casing shearing multiple tubing strings and large diameter tubulars
shear rams. Following is a brief description of each type: while maintaining a reliable wellbore pressure seal.
Blind rams: Rubber sealing element is flat and can seal
the wellbore when there is nothing in it, i.e., “open hole” Operation and use of pipe rams
(Figure WC-4); As described earlier, pipe rams are designed to fit around
Pipe rams: Sealing element is shaped to fit around a certain diameter tubulars to seal off the wellbore (annulus)
variety of tubulars with a particular diameter, which
in a blowout situation. Most pipe rams are designed with re-

placeable elastomer packers and top seals. Besides sealing Ram locking device
off the wellbore in an emergency situation, the pipe rams A ram locking device must be fitted to all ram blowout pre-
can be used for stripping. Use of two ram-type preventers venters. This device is used whenever it is necessary to re-
would only be resorted to if the annular preventer was bad- move hydraulic operating pressure from the “close” side of
ly worn. However, stripping drillpipe through rams can be the ram operating system, but maintain the ram preventer in
done with less string weight than if the annular preventer is the close position. Ram locking devices are used when rams
used, since there is no closure around the larger diameter of will be closed in for a long period of time as a contingency
the tool joints. One additional ram-type BOP must always plan for a loss of hydraulic pressure scenario.
remain available below any used for stripping, to allow the
well to be closed in safely. On BOP stacks that are used in a surface application, the
ram locking device is a threaded rod, referred to as a “lock
Stripping with ram-type BOPs screw”. This lock screw reacts between the operating pis-
Stripping through ram-type BOPs requires at least three ton in the ram operating system, and the housing of the lock
preventer ram cavities fitted with the proper size rams for screw. The locking device on a ram preventer that is used in
the pipe to be stripped. If the pipe string is a tapered string, a subsea application must be designed to be remotely actu-
i.e., having more than one size pipe in the string, two pre- ated by either the BOP hydraulic control unit, or by the ac-
venter ram cavities will be required for each size of pipe in tual movement of the operating piston in the ram operating
the string. A tapered pipe string can be stripped using only system.
two preventer ram cavities provided variable (multiple) bore
rams are used. Variable bore rams have a specified pipe size Operation and use of shearing blind rams
range and will seal off on any size pipe within the size range. Under normal operating conditions, shearing blind rams are
The two preventer ram cavities used for stripping should used as blind rams. The large front packer in the upper shear
be spaced sufficiently far apart so that closed rams in each ram seals against the front face of the lower shear ram, re-
preventer cavity will clear the length of a pipe connecting sulting in prolonged packer life similar to that of standard
joint. This also includes any upset (increased pipe diameter) blind packers.
portions adjacent to the connection. The distance between
the two preventer ram cavities should provide enough addi- If emergency conditions make it necessary to shear the
tional space so that positioning the pipe joint between the drillpipe, the closing shearing blind rams will shear the pipe
cavities does not require an excessive amount of precise and seal the wellbore whether the fish (the lower section
positioning. of sheared pipe) is suspended on the lower pipe rams or
dropped. If the fish is not dropped, the lower shear ram will
When operations indicate that a considerable amount of bend the sheared pipe over a shoulder and away from the
stripping may be required, it is advisable to include a third front face of the lower shear ram which then seals against
preventer ram cavity fitted with pipe rams for added safety the packer in the upper shear ram.
and to permit replacement of the ram packers in the strip-
ping preventers. The pipe rams in the upper two preventer If different grades, weights, or large diameter pipe has to be
cavities would be considered the “stripping” rams while the sheared, each oil tool manufacturer has a variety of shear
pipe rams in the third preventer cavity would be “safety” rams available to perform the shearing operation.
rams. Stripping pipe through ram packers causes wear on »» Recommended shearing procedures
the packers and packer replacement is sometimes required. 1. Raise the bit off the bottom and position the pipe in the
The safety rams in the third preventer cavity will permit well preventer so that the tool joint is positively NOT in the shear
pressure to be shut in below the stripping preventers when ram cavity.
required. The preventer with safety rams is only closed on a
stationary pipe string and therefore the rams do not receive 2. To ensure proper alignment for shearing, a set of pipe
much wear, thus always providing a reliable backup closure. rams may be closed before the shearing blind rams are
closed. Also, if the fish is not to fall downhole after being
Stripping requires no special equipment beyond what is nor- sheared, a tool joint may be landed on closed and locked
mally available on a drilling rig; however, as the pipe string pipe rams at least 30 in below the shear rams. The tool joint
becomes insufficient to overcome the upward force of the and upset portion of the drillpipe must be below the low-
er edge of the shear ram cavity to ensure that the pipe is
well pressure acting on the pipe, provisions must be made
sheared successfully.
for restraining the pipe string against upward movement. At
this point, the stripping operation becomes a “snubbing” op- 3. Close the shearing blind rams with 3,000 psi on the BOP
eration. Capability for pipe snubbing is also required when operating system. The accumulator system should be sized
starting a pipe down into the wellbore against well pressure. such that the pressure does not fall below 2,700 psi during

the shearing operation. The hoses for

the open and close functions of the Figure WC-8: Typical blowout preventer arrangement
BOP are recommended to be at least for 10,000-psi and 15,000-psi working pressure
one inch in diameter. service surface installations. IADC drawing.
4. Lock the shearing blind rams in the

closed position by actuating the man-
ual lock or applying locking (closing)
pressure to the appropriate locking
mechanism as required.
5. If the lower fish is suspended in

pipe rams below the shearing blind
rams, killing mud may be circulated
through a BOP outlet between the
shearing blind rams and the pipe rams
and into the lower fish in order to cir-
culate a kick out of the hole in the con-
ventional manner.
Care and maintenance of

all blowout preventer stack
equipment
Each manufacturer has individual care
and maintenance manuals for each
product of the blowout preventer
stack. They should be contacted for
detailed information regarding their
specific recommendation on each
piece of equipment. Proper care and
maintenance is essential to keep the
equipment working. * Annular preventer A and rotating head G can have lower pressure ratings.
Typical stack arrangement Example API BOP stack

and testing procedures for a surface stack "5M - 13 5/8 in. SRRA" describes a 5,000-psi W.P., 13 5/8-in.,
5M bore stack with components from bottom up, consisting
of a drilling spool, two single rams and an annular BOP.
The American Petroleum Institute has established standard
nomenclature for describing BOP components and ratings, For control of any well, blowout preventer stacks and as-
including the following information: sociated kill/choke lines and valving must be arranged to
provide a high degree of backup and flexibility. Figure WC-8
BOP component codes illustrates typical arrangements for BOP and choke/kill
manifolds. However, this API standard deals with the sub-
Code Component
ject only in a general way. The majority of this section will
A Annular
be devoted to analyzing several specific BOP stack arrange-
G Rotating Head
ments. Before doing this, first consider certain general facts
R Single Ram
concerning BOP design and arrangements.
Rd Double Ram
Rt Triple Ram
S Drilling Spool BOP design considerations
The principal BOP design considerations are to:
Pressure code Confine wellbore pressure;
M = 1,000-psi rating Provide for passage of tools.
working pressure
Controlling bottomhole pressure while killing a well is the
primary purpose of a BOP. In most cases, the BOP working

pressure exceeds the limit of all other well control system Flexibility and safety
elements. A BOP stack should be able to contain the max- The rest of this section will analyze two BOP stack arrange-
imum anticipated surface pressure, which is essentially the ments used for maintaining control below surface casing on
full bottomhole formation bore pressure. non-floating type rigs.
Obviously, the BOP bore must be large enough for passage Both arrangements consist of a singular annular and three
of anticipated tool sizes. On occasion, underreamers must rams. The advantages and disadvantages of these arrange-
be used to open the hole because of BOP bore restrictions. ments in terms of flexibility and safety will be discussed.
Pilot holes are sometimes drilled to investigate formation
pressure and the BOP is removed to open the hole and run Also, included are recommendations for developing a safe,
casing. This practice could be disastrous. The BOP bore efficient BOP test procedure and the description of a specific
should be sufficient to provide protection during any drilling test sequence for one of the subject stack arrangements.
process.
There can be no “best” standard stack arrangements, since
each drilling environment and rig influences, to some de-
BOP arrangement considerations gree, BOP equipment configuration. But a closer look at sev-
Specific BOP arrangements are based on the following con-
eral good hookups highlights principles that will be helpful to
siderations:
anyone responsible for arranging or inspecting BOP stacks.
Governmental regulations;
Company policy;
Physical size and cost; BOP arrangements: surface stacks
Flexibility and safety. The drilling business is often a series of compromises, both
in equipment and practices. This is certainly true with BOP
Governmental regulations stack arrangements.
Rules and regulations governing the operation of a BOP in
the USA outer continental shelf areas are contained in the Location of the shear/blind ram
Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) 30 Consider placement of blind rams in a 3-ram surface BOP
code of Federal Regulations Part 250. These rules and reg- stack. If blind (or shear) rams are placed at the bottom of the
ulations must be complied with. Likewise, in other areas of stack, with no flowlines below, then the BOP stack has the
the world, governments will usually have local regulations advantage of a “master valve” for open hole situations or a
governing the use and testing of BOP stacks. last resort valve if all else fails during a kick. But this place-
ment also imposes limitations on stack use.
Company policy
Both the Operator and the Contractor will usually have their For example, drillpipe cannot be hung off on pipe rams be-
own policies concerning BOP stack configuration and test- low the blind ram and the well killed by circulating through
ing. The operator should be made aware of the contractor’s the drill stem. This arrangement may also force placement
policies prior to the occurrence of any kick. of pipe rams so close together that adequate space is not
available for ram-to-ram stripping.
Physical size and cost On the other hand, if blind rams are placed at the top of the
If physical size and cost is no consideration, the ideal sit-
ram BOP stack, they can be replaced with pipe rams for ram-
uation would be to have only one BOP stack of sufficient
to-ram stripping operations to either protect the lower pipe
bore, working pressure and backup components to drill
ram or in the event of a tapered string, to furnish the pipe
the complete well. Such stacks are actually being built for
ram size that will fit the size of drillpipe being stripped. But
deepwater subsea operations where such designs can be
this arrangement also presents a problem because it pre-
justified. Most non-floating rig BOPs are surface mounted.
vents the utilization of the blind ram as a master valve in
Two independent stack arrangements are normally used.
open hole situations, for repair of items above it or changing
A large-bore, relatively low-pressure stack consisting of an
to casing rams. It also may force spacing of pipe rams so
annular only, or an annular plus one or two rams, is used
close that the ram-to-ram stripping is impossible.
for well control until surface casing is set. This large bore
stack sometimes is used as part of a diverter system. After The question arises as to how to best maximize advantages
setting surface casing, a small bore stack of higher working of both of these placements and minimize disadvantages.
pressure is normally used to TD. The two compromise arrangements illustrated in this sec-
tion (Figures WC-9 and WC-10) place blind rams on top
for tapered string drilling and in the middle when one size
drillpipe is being used. This allows hanging off pipe in the

pipe rams and circulation through the drill stem when kill
and choke lines are placed properly, adequate clearance for
To Test Manifold
ram-to-ram stripping and partial utilization of the blind ram Vent
P P
as a master valve for equipment out of hole repairs (top ram
change to casing size obviously being safer with the blind
ram in the middle).
To
Shaker
Arrangement of a double and a single ram unit

A standard size 13 5/8-in., 5,000-psi flanged double ram From From 5 P
Cement Mud
should be mounted on top of a single ram unit. This provides Unit Pumps Annular
Top Pipe
sufficient space for shearing above a standard 5–in. API Ram
NC50 connection hung in the bottom pipe ram as illustrated Shear/

2a
Blind
in Figure WC-11. This is the best arrangement for use with a Ram Alternate
location
1
single drillpipe size.
Bottom 2
Pipe Ram 4
Figure WC-11 depicts a standard length API NC50 pin and
box joint. An extra-long joint would probably not clear the 3
shear ram in a standard 5,000-psi BOP. Each arrangement
must be reviewed on a case-by-case basis. Figure WC-9: BOP arrangement for one pipe size. IADC drawing.
Some contractors prefer to assemble the single on top so

that the annular and the single can be separated from the To Test Manifold
Vent
double for purposes of easier handling. Trade-offs may be
P P
necessary in this matter. The primary aim here is not to de-
bate each point, but to emphasize the importance of critical-
ly reviewing BOP arrangements.
To
Shaker
Activities possible: One pipe size
From From
Refer to Figure WC-9: Cement Mud 5 P
Unit Pumps
Annular
Blind Ram
1. Normal kill down drillpipe using either pipe ram; 1
Small
a. Choke flowlines 2 and 4 below each pipe ram. Pipe
Ram
2. Kill with blind or shear ram closed;
a. Double ram unit must be on top of single ram to pro-
vide sufficient space for hang off and shear; Large
4 2
Pipe Ram
b. Kill flowline 1 and choke flowline 4 must be arranged
as shown. 3
3. Ram-to-ram stripping;
a. Blind ram must be in middle to provide sufficient Figure WC-10: BOP arrangement for two pipe sizes. IADC drawing.
space;
b. Kill flowline 1 to equalize pressure before opening
bottom ram; Annular
Must Shear
Above Upset
c. Choke flowlines 2 and 4 to bleed fluid and monitor Pipe
pressures below each ram during stripping; Top Pipe Ram Upset
Pin
d. Kill flowline 3 to lubricate in fluid (volumetric method
when bleeding gas) or kill below bottom ram; Shear Ram
14.56” 25”
e. Could also strip between annular and either ram and

do items 2, 3, or 4 above. Bottom 25.56” Box
Pipe
4. Location of blind ram in the middle. Ram
Set on
a. More room for ram-to-ram stripping as previously Ram
Pipe
mentioned; Ram
b. Safe “out of hole” top ram change, annular element CIW 13 5/8” 5000 psi Type-U Double and Single
5” XH Tool Joint (standard)
change or repairs to the single ram unit or annular.

Figure WC-11: Clearance for shearing. One pipe size. IADC drawing.
K1-4C
Clearance for Shearing

NOTE: Location of primary choke flowline 2 at alternate lo-

cation 2a will allow all previously mentioned activities but is
somewhat more exposed to mechanical damage.
Double ram units can be special ordered with enough room

between rams to hang-off and shear. This special “long
neck” double ram unit could be put on bottom, best satisfy-
ing both single and tapered string application. This discus-
sion considers standard height double and single BOP units
only, with no spool or special stacks, so the most practical
compromise is to place the double ram unit on top.
Activities possible: Two pipe sizes

Refer to Figure WC-10:
1. Normal kill down drill pipe using either pipe ram;

Figure WC-12: Normal kill down drill pipe using a. Choke flowlines 2 and 4 below each pipe ram.
ram. One pipe size. IADC drawing. 2. Kill with blind or shear ram closed;
b. Can hang off in large pipe (bottom) rams, shear, and
kill;
c. Can hang off in small pipe (top) rams but cannot
shear due to small space so must back off before
closing blind rams;
d. Kill flowline 1 and choke flowlines 2 and 4 must be
arranged as shown.
3. Ram-to-ram stripping;
a. Could change blind ram to large pipe size and strip
ram-to-ram but the arrangement shown provides in-
sufficient space to strip small pipe ram-to-ram;
b. Kill flowline 1 to equalize pressure before opening
bottom rams;
c. Choke flowlines 2 and 4 to bleed fluid and monitor
pressures below each ram during stripping;
d. Kill flowline 3 to lubricate in fluid (volumetric method
when bleeding gas) or kill below bottom ram;
Figure WC-13: Kill with blind or shear ram
e. Could also strip between annular and either small or
closed. One pipe size. IADC drawing.
large ram and do items 2, 3 and 4 above.
NOTE: Relocation of kill flowline 1 required to accomplish kill

procedures mentioned in items 2c and 3b;
4. Location of blind rams on top:

a. Can accomplish kill with either size pipe hung off;
b. Can change to large pipe size for ram-to-ram strip-
ping;
c. Can change to either pipe size thereby minimizing
wear on lower pipe rams, which inevitably occurs
when pipe is worked with rams closed;
d. A disadvantage is open-hole exposure while install-
ing casing rams while out of hole.
NOTE: If the single ram unit were arranged on top of the

double unit or there was enough space between the top and
Figure WC-14: Ram-to-ram stripping. One pipe size. IADC drawing. the middle ram provided some other way, then small pipe
ram-to-ram stripping might be possible.

NOTE: Refer to items 2b and 3a for Figure WC-10: Arrange-

ment for tapered strings indicates that space between the
blind rams and small pipe rams limits certain activities.
For tapered string application, this space problem could be Annular
eased by stacking the single ram unit on top of the double
ram unit. Figure WC-3 shows the double on top, another Blind Ram
compromise. In field use it is not practical to rearrange the

BOP stack just before picking up a smaller drillpipe string.
1 2
Double ram units can be special ordered with enough room Small Pipe Ram
Flow with annular or
between rams to hang-off and shear. This special “long Large Pipe Ram
small ram closed
4
neck” double ram unit could be put on bottom, best satisfy-
ing both single and tapered string applications. This discus-
Flow with large ram closed
sion considers standard height double and single BOP units 3
only, with no spool or special stacks, so the most practical

compromise is to place the double ram unit on top.
Figure
FIGUREWC-15: Kill
K1-8C Kill down
down drill drill pipeeither
pipe using usingram.
either
ram. Two pipe sizes. IADC drawing.
Choke and kill flowlines
Arranging rams is important, but choke and kill flowline
(wing valves) placement is equally important to fully utilize
the BOP. Again, compromises are made between the most
conservative position of having no flowlines below the bot-
Annular
tom ram and a middle road position of arranging the flowline
for maximum BOP usage. Blind Ram
Figures WC-9 and WC-10 illustrate two BOP and wing valve
arrangements. Activities possible with each of these two 1 2
arrangements are summarized near the figures and further Small Pipe Ram
illustrated in Figures WC-12 through WC-17. Large Pipe Ram
Check (non-return) valves, are located in each “kill” wing

valve assembly for the following reasons: 3
To stop backflow in case the kill flowline ruptures while

pumping into the well at high pressure;
FIGURE K1-9C Kill blink or shear ram closed.
Other kill flowline gate valves between the check valve Figure WC-16: Kill blind or shear ram closed.
and BOP can be left open during kicks for pumping into Two pipe sizes. IADC drawing.
the well whenever desired without personnel having to
open them. Kill lines should not be used as fill-up lines.
Constant use could result in erosion of lines and valves
which would result in an unsuitable kill flowline. A
separate line from the mud standpipe (independent of
all choke and kill flowlines) is desirable for filling the Annular
hole during trips. Large Pipe

Ram
Inboard valves adjacent the BOP stack on all flowlines are

manual operated “master” valves to be used only for emer- 1
2
gency. Outboard valves should be used for normal killing
Small Pipe Ram
operations. Hydraulic operators are generally installed on
Large Pipe Ram
the primary (flowlines 1 and 2 in Figures WC-9 and WC-10) 4
choke and kill flowline outboard valves. This allows remote
control during killing operations. Choke/kill flowlines are
3
generally not connected to the casing wellhead outlets but
valves and unions are provided there as:
Figure WC-17: Ram-to-ram stripping. Two pipe sizes. IADC drawing.
FIGURE K1-10C Ram to ram stripping K1-10C

Alternate
P P
P P Lift
Drill
Pipe
From
Cement
Unit
From
Test Cement
Pressue From From P
P Unit Mud
From Mud Annular
Cement Pumps Annular Pumps
Pump Top Ram
Top Ram Pipe
Pipe
Blind Blind
Ram Ram
Bottom Bottom
Pipe Ram Pipe Ram
Casing Head
Figure WC-18: Testing entire casing string and Figure WC-19: Testing upper casing joints
casing head valves. IADC drawing. after drilling shoe. IADC drawing.
FIGURE K1-12C Testing Upper Casing Joints after Drilling Shoe
Reserve outlets for emergency use only; 4. All connections in choke, kill and relief lines, and the
Relief openings to prevent pressurizing of casing and choke manifold should have a pressure rating at least
open hole should a casing head plug tester leak during equal to the rating of the BOP stack;
BOP testing.
Flowing through a casing head outlet should be avoided. 5. Choke and kill wing valves are subjected to severe me-
Should this connection be ruptured or cut out, there is no chanical and vibrational stresses during drilling opera-
control. Therefore, primary and secondary choke and kill tions and when handling or controlling a “kick”. Where
flowlines should all be connected to heavy duty BOP out- practical, all overhanging valves, piping and connections
lets (or spool outlets) with wellhead outlets used only in an should be supported.
emergency.
NOTE: When operating wing valves that have pressure on
them, proper manufacturer procedures should be observed
Suggestions for rigging up surface stacks to prevent explosive decompression of the elastomer.
The following practices and principles should be considered:
1. All ring grooves should be cleaned of heavy grease. A ring 6. Swivel joint pipe sections in flowlines are necessary for
will not seal properly if the ring groove is full of grease or ease of rig-up, but where practical, “choke” flowlines
“puddled” oil. A “light” film of oil only should be applied from BOPs to manifold should be straight or curved
to ring grooves before nippling up. Avoid using a wire (hoses). Sharp turns should be minimized, and where
brush which would damage seal surfaces; practical, targeted tees with lead-filled bull plugs should
be used to minimize flow stream erosion. Using swivel
2. To achieve proper make-up torque on flange, clamp or joint pipe in kill flowlines is not as bad, because of less
BOP bonnets, a power torque wrench is useful. Bonnet severe vibrations and fluid conditions.
bolt makeup torque is high and, if not properly tightened,
could vibrate loose during drilling. Makeup torque tables 7. Choke flowlines conduct well fluid under pressure from
are available from BOP manufacturers. Most tables give the well to the choke manifold. Flow velocities are some-
required torque using either API 5A thread lube or Mo- times greater than through the kill line by virtue of the
ly-lube. Torque requirements using Moly-lube are much expansion of gas in the annulus, so small lines may cre-
less so always be aware of the relationship between the ate high pressure drops and erosion. By sizing the prima-
lubricant and the torque requirement; ry choke line to a larger size (minimum 3–in. I.D. instead
of 2–in.), the line will have greater strength, less friction-
3. Plug all BOP control lines not in use to prevent acciden- al pressure loss and be subjected to less wear. All lines
tal loss of accumulator fluid. Do not couple unused open should be properly secured.
and close control lines together. Plug them!
8. Where applicable, all connections, piping and valves in
flowlines should be protected from freezing by draining,
heating or keeping the line filled with non-freezing fluid.

P P P P Test
Pressure
Through
Drill Pipe
From
Cement
Test Unit
Pressure From
from From Cement
P
Unit From P
Cement Mud Mud Annular
Pumps Annular
Pump Pumps
Top Ram Top
Pipe Ram
Pipe
Blind Blind
Ram Ram
Bottom Remove Checks When

Testing Kill Wing Valves Bottom
Pipe Ram Pipe Ram
Open Casing Head Open Casing Head Keep Open Keep Open
Casing Head Plug Tester
Stand of Drill Collars Casing Head Test Plug with Port
FIGURE K1-13C Testing Blind Ram FIGURE K1-14C Testing pipe rams, annular, all choke and kill manifolds,
Figure WC-20: Testing blind ram. IADC drawing. K1-13C
Figure WC-21: Testing pipe rams, annular and all choke and kill
flow lines, and BOP wing valves.
manifolds, flow lines, and BOP wing valves. IADC drawing.
Rams and choke manifold should be tested to full working

9. The gas/mud separator (gas box), vessel diameter, gas
pressure upon:
vent exhaust and mud seal at the discharge should be
Initial installation of BOP on wellhead;
designed to separate the maximum expected influx and
Maintenance or repair. Only test the affected
not allow gas to exit the mud discharge or mud to exit component(s).
the gas vent.
Routine ram and choke manifold maximum test pressure
Testing surface stacks with one pipe size should be limited to the lesser of:
This section contains a typical BOP test procedure using the 70% of rated working pressure;
Figure WC-9 (one pipe size) arrangement. Figures WC-18 Wellhead rated working pressure;
70% of casing minimum internal yield strength.
through WC-21 illustrate each test step. The objective of this
test example is to focus on principles that could apply for However, in no case should these or subsequent test pres-
testing any BOP systems. sures be less than the maximum anticipated surface pres-
sure.
Test frequency, pressures and fluids
BOP test pressure and frequency requirements vary among The annular BOP maximum test pressure should not exceed
governmental regulators, operators and contractors. 70% of rated working pressure or 70% of casing minimum
burst strength, whichever is less. If governmental regula-
The following are general recommendations. tions or the operator does not stipulate annular BOP test
pressures, do not exceed 50% of working pressure.
Frequency
After initial installation; All well control system components should be tested in the
After each casing setting operation; direction normally felt by wellbore pressure during a kick.
Before drilling into any known or suspected high-
pressure zones;
Test fluids
Routine test no less than once each seven days of
For water-based muds, use water.
operation;
For oil-based muds, use diesel or acceptable alternative.
After a ram change, maintenance or BOP repair, test the
component that was affected;
Prior to a production test. General testing procedures
All choke manifold and choke and kill flowlines should
Test pressures be flushed out before each test and clean water be
inside all systems being tested when pressure is
The rams and annulars should betested in two stage, at a
applied. Drilling mud is a good sealant, which makes it
low pressure test of 200-300 psi and then at maximum test
an unsuitable test fluid.
pressure. Both pressure holding periods should not be less Pipe-rams should be closed only when there is pipe in
than three minutes. A 5 or 10 min holding period is common. the hole. Closing rams on the wrong size pipe or ON

a swab and must have the proper OD to fit upper size

and weight casing joints. This test should be per-
formed regularly. However, actual test interval de-
pends upon regulations and company policy.
The appropriate cup tester is made up on drill pipe

and lowered approximately 90 ft (two casing joints)
below the casing head. Some operators require that
the cup tester be run into the casing to a point below
cement on the outside. After filling the stack with
clean water, the top pipe rams or annular is closed.
Pressure is built up by either pumping down the flow-
lines or by hoisting the drill string slowly (as shown
in Figure WC-19) to provide desired pressure. Hoist-
ing the drillstring is preferred over pumping, because
there is less chance of accidentally exceeding casing
yield or drillpipe strength.
Pressure applied to the cup tester directly imposes

a load on the drillpipe test string which could cause
drillpipe failure, particularly with Grade E. The usual
problem is collapsed pipe due to a combination of
outside crushing forces and pull.
A safe approach is to use Grade S135 or heavy wall

Figure WC-22: Cup-type Figure WC-23: Test plug. IADC drawing. drillpipe for all casing tests. Another technique is to
tester. IADC drawing. run a casing head plug tester in combination with a
cup tester. The casing head plug would be spaced
OPEN HOLE could result in ram front packer damage. out 90 ft above the cup with heavy wall pipe. After
This fact is often overlooked.
landing the casing head plug, test pressure would be applied
To prevent collapsed pipe, vent the annulus when
through the casing head outlets. This allows the cup-in-
closing a pipe ram. If a ram is forced into a closed BOP
bore, the trapped fluid pressure will rise rapidly as the duced forces to be supported by the casing head.
operating cylinder rod enters the BOP cavity.
Regardless of the approach, remember that all cup testers
are swabbing devices. To prevent swabbing, pull the cup
A BOP test sequence slowly and never run a test string that is not fully open to
Figures WC-18 through WC-21 provide schematics for test- atmosphere. In other words, the underside of the cup must
ing BOP stacks and casings. Explanations and reasoning be- always be open through the test string bore.
hind the different schematics and procedures are discussed
briefly in this section. 1. Before drilling out any casing shoe, test entire casing to
operator’s specifications, but never exceed 70% of rated
Entire casing string and casing head valves casing burst pressure;
Figure WC-18 shows the schematic for testing the BOP and 2. Flush all lines and fill BOP with test fluid. (Test fluid might
casing. There is no cup tester in the BOP stack. To avoid be water or diesel, depending on the type of fluid, as dis-
exerting external pressure to the formation, this test is per- cussed on page WC-11 ["Test fluid"].) Close blind ram.
formed after cementing the casing and when the bumped Pressure up using cementing pump through kill manifold
cement plugs are sealing. Some operators prefer to apply or a special test pump through (alt.) point. This tests en-
casing test pressure when the cement plug bumps. The rea- tire casing string plus casing head valves.
soning is that micro-cracks in the cement may occur if test
pressure is applied after cement has set up. NOTE: Casing tests are the only tests where casing head
valves are closed. These valves should always be open for
Upper casing joints after drilling the shoe other tests to prevent casing or formation rupture should
See Figure WC-19. After drilling the casing shoe, all future casing head plug tester leak.
tests of casing and casing head requires use of a casing cup
tester (Figure WC-22). The cup tester is nothing more than

3. Run appropriate size and weight casing cup tester on Wellbore test pressure, psi
5,000
drillpipe to approximately 90 ft below casing head. Fill
annulus with water and close top ram;
GK
during actual kic k

Limit to min. 50 psi
1
3-
4,000
5/
0 psi
8”
4. Build up test pressure to operator’s specifications by lift-
,1
psi
18-3/4” 5,00
6-
3/
ing drilling pipe, being careful not to exceed 70% of rat-
GL 13-5/8”, 5,000
4”
3,000
5,0
ed casing burst pressure or tensile strength of drill pipe
00
ps
being used.
GL 16-3/4”,
MS
2,000
P2
Testing BOP stack
,00
02
Most kill and choke manifold valves, flowlines, and BOP 1/2
”
1,000 29-
1-1
wing valves could be pressured during the Figure WC-20 500
/4”
P
MS
test. However, the test string arrangement in Figure WC-21
(pressuring down the drillpipe which simulates a well kick) is 0
1,500 1000 500 0 500 1,000 1,500
best suited for this purpose because all valves can be tested
Opening pressure Closing pressure
in the direction that the pressure is applied during a kick.
Therefore, Figure WC-20 test is designed primarily to test Opening pressure, psi
the blind ram only by pressuring down a kill flowline. * Operating pressure may vary with individual packing elements (bags).
Adjust operating pressures accordingly, but do not exceed maximum
closing pressure of 1,500 psi except on CIW Type-D annulars.
See Figure WC-21. Some casing head plug testers are man-
ufactured with an integral port which allows the BOP bore ** During actual kick situations, for safety’s sake, operating pressure
should not be applied to the OPENING chamber of wellbore pressure.
cavity to be pressured by pumping down the drillpipe test
string. If the plug tester is not equipped with an integral port, Figure WC-24: Annular operating characteristics with 5-in.
a perforated sub could be used with the test plug. Be sure drillpipe.* (Actual values may vary.) IADC drawing.
the casing head outlet is open to prevent pressuring casing
and open hole. Failure to select the proper size and style test plug can cause
problems. Casing head hanger contours vary. For example, a
Because the BOP bore is being pressured through the drill- CIW Type “F” 5,000-psi tubing head has tapered contours,
pipe, all valves can be tested in the normal well kick direc- while the Type DCB head is straight contoured.
tion. By sequencing valves, open and closed in proper order,
a minimum of repressuring will be necessary. Always leave Insert a Type “F” plug tester in a Type DCB head, pressure
K1-18C
downstream valves open and remove the spring loaded up,Figure K1-18C:
and 5-inch
the two Annular operating
will become characteristics
almost with Always
inseparable.
drill pipe (Actual values may vary).
check in the check valve (when applicable) to ensure a valid consult with the casing head manufacturer to ensure that
test on each kill valve. It is important that all manifolds and the appropriate plug tester is being used.
flowlines be flushed out before this test so that all are clear
and full of water. The rams, annular, and hydraulic operated valves should be
tested in two stages. API Standard 53 (4th edition, section
Several precautionary notes are necessary for test steps il- 6.5.3.2) recommends a low pressure test of 250-350 psi
lustrated in Figures WC-20 and WC-21. held for at least 5 minutes before pressuring up to full test
pressure.
1. Ensure that casing head valves are always open when a
casing head plug tester is in use. This allows detection There are several reasons for this. Many preventers are de-
of a plug tester seal leak and prevents over pressuring of signed such that the wellbore pressure (test pressure) caus-
casing or open hole; es a closing force, so the BOP may be more likely to leak at
low pressure than at full test pressure. Because actual well
2. Casing head plug testers come in many shapes and sizes. kicks are normally closer to 300 psi than full working pres-
Figure WC-23 illustrates a test plug. Some have special sure, the low pressure test is significant. Also, mud solids
features such as integral ports. Some have open bore sometimes plug a potential leak hole. A low pressure test
with bull plugs provided for testing the blind rams while will come closer to uncovering this hole than the full test
others are solid bore. Some function as combination plug pressure.
testers and wear bushing retrievers.
Some annular preventers will hold maximum test pressure
with no more than 700-1,000 psi operating pressure. Be-
cause of special design features, operating pressure (from
accumulator) should be reduced on Hydril GK and 21 1/4–in.

Table WC-1: Schedule of operating vs. test pressure »» High-pressure test

Psi-regulated Operating pressure Opening 1. All equipment in this test should be tested to rated work-
Psi pressure closing test side side ing pressure of the weakest member;
0 700* N/A
2. From previous test, open blind rams, install appropriate
1,000 300 N/A test string and screw into plug tester. Fill BOP with water
1,500 50 N/A and close top pipe ram.
2,000 N/A 50**
3. Apply test pressure down drill pipe and through perfo-
2,500 N/A 300 rated sub or plug tester if it has an integral port.
3,000 N/A 500
4. Bottom ram can be tested in similar manner. Test string
3,500 N/A 700 must fit ram size.
MSP annulars as the test (wellbore) pressure increases. This 5. Annular preventer can also be tested similarly, but do
greatly reduces element stress. For example, on a GK 16 3/4– not test to more than 70% of rated working pressure in
in. 5,000-psi annular, if operating pressure is held at 700 the U.S. Gulf or 50% of rated working pressure where
psi (closing chamber), the compression force on the element regulations do not specify.
increases from approximately 380,000 lb at zero test pres-
sure to about 780,000 lb at 3,500-psi test pressure. NOTE: Most annular preventers will hold maximum test
pressure with no more than about 700-psi regulated accu-
On the other hand, if operating pressure is reduced accord- mulator operating pressure. Reducing accumulator operat-
ing to Figure WC-24, compression force on the element will ing pressure as the test pressure increases is recommended
actually reduce to about 180,000 lb. If an annular BOP of for some annular preventers. This can greatly reduce ele-
this type is tested, use an operating pressure versus test ment stress. Where applicable, use an operating pressure
pressure chart to minimize element stress. Alway consult versus test pressure chart during testing.
the operating manual and/or the manufacturer for testing
procedure and operating recommendations.
1. All equipment in this test should be tested to rated work-
From Figure WC-24, the schedule for test pressure vs oping pressure of the weakest member.
erating pressure shown in Table WC-1 was developed for a
13 5/8–in. or 16 3/4–in. GK 5,000-psi annular on 5–in. drillpipe. 2. Pick up kelly, install full open safety valve on bottom of
Notice that at test pressures higher than about 2,000 psi, lower kelly valve. Using an adapter, connect to an inde-
regulated operating pressure is applied to the OPENING pendent test pump or cement pump.
chamber instead of the closing chamber.
3. Open appropriate standpipe valves and all kelly valves.
»» Low-pressure test Fill system with water and close standpipe and kelly. By
alternatively closing upstream and opening downstream
1. All equipment in this test should be tested to 200-300 valves, all kelly valves could be tested without pressuring
psi; up again, although it may not be possible to operate the
upper kelly valve under pressure.
2. Install one stand drill collars below appropriate casing
head plug tester. Land plug tester and back off running 4. Although not shown, the inside BOP (float-type) can be
joint. NOTE: Open bore-type plug testers can be provid- tested similarly by installing below the safety valve and
ed with a plug to test blind rams with drillstring removed. opening all valves through the standpipe.
Fill BOP with water and close blind rams;
Remember that each make, size and model annular pre-
3. Open casing head valves to prevent casing rupture or venter may have unique characteristics. For example, most
formation break-down should the plug tester leak; annulars require increasing, not decreasing, closing pressure
to prevent leaks as test pressure increases. Using incorrect
4. Apply test pressure as illustrated. Although test pres- procedures could cause damage or be unsafe. Always con-
sure is applied to a number of flowlines and valves, the sult the manufacturer for testing recommendations.
primary purpose of this test is to evaluate blind rams and
certain BOP connections as indicated by the arrows. Casing sizes larger than 7 in. might be collapsed by annular
element forces if the operating pressure is too high. Recom-

Kill / Choke Line

Riser
Adaptor
Rotary Hose
Kill / Choke Line

Flex
Joint
Alternate Mud
Standpipe
Swivel Upper
Annular
P P Lower Kelly Preventer
Kelly Valve
Valve
Full Open Hydraulic
Safety Connector
Valve
Pressure Annular
From Preventer
Test Pump
P
From
Cement
Unit From Ram-type Preventer
Mud Pipe Rams
Pumps
Annular
Ram-type Preventer
Top Ram Pipe
Blind/Shear Rams
Blind Ram Ram-type Preventer

Pipe Rams
Ram-type Preventer
Pipe Rams
Bottom
Pipe Ram
Hydraulic
Connector
Figure WC-26: Typical subsea BOP arrangement. IADC drawing.
Figure WC-25: Testing inside BOPs, kelly valves,

swivel and rotary hoses. IADC drawing.
FIGURE K1-17C Testing inside BOPs, kelly Valves, Swivel and Rotary Hose.
Figure K1-21C: Typical Subsea BOP Arrangement
mended maximum operating pressures for closing on var-

ious manufactures size casing can be obtained from most
annular preventer manufacturers.
Testing inside BOPs, kelly valves, swivel sand rotary

hoses
Refer to Figure WC-25. Although only one mud standpipe
and rotary hose test is shown, the other side should be test-
ed before being put into service.
Instead of using an adaptor sub as illustrated, an alternative Figure WC-27: Deepwater BOP stacks are built in two,
method for testing this equipment would be to move directly sometimes three, sections to facilitate transport. Here,
from the test illustrated to Figure WC-21. Pick up the kelly, if the top half of a 20,000- psi BOP stack is loaded onto
it was not already connected, and apply test pressure down a trailer for transit to port. Courtesy GE Oil & Gas.
a kill flowline with the cement pump or special test pump (at
Blind shear rams are generally set high in the stack to
an alternate inlet location). The perforated test sub or plug
provide more pipe hang-off options below. With the
tester ingetral port will allow the test string to be pressured blind shear rams closed over hung-off pipe, the well can
in the direction normally felt during an actual kick. be monitored or circulated in pipe or annulus;
Choke and kill lines are dual purpose, i.e., either can be
BOP arrangements: subsea stacks used to kill (pump in) or choke (direct to choke
Figure WC-26 illustrates a typical subsea BOP arrangement. manifold);
Figure WC-27 shows only a portion of a 20,000-psi subsea Two fail-safe valves for each choke and kill BOP outlet
that are fail-safe in the closed position;
BOP. Note how it towers over the attendants.Some of the
Two hydraulic or electro hydraulic control PODs each
differences when compared to surface stacks are:
with 100% redundancy;
More backup units needed because of the difficulty of All rams equipped with remote operated ram locks.
retrieving and deploying a subsea BOP;
Upper annular(s) can be recovered with the riser for Testing subsea BOP stack
repairs without removing the “big” stack; Test pressures and test frequency are similar to surface
Do not normally pull BOP for casing ram change so two stacks with the following notable exception.
annulars are needed for back-up;
Variable bore rams usually installed in one of the ram All subsea BOP stack rams and valves are generally tested
cavities to provide redundancy when tapered strings at surface (on a test stump) to their rated working pressure.
are used or when running production casing;

The choke manifold, valves, kill and choke lines and fail-safe
Table WC-2: 'Inside' BOPs—Rigs with Kelly drive
valves should be pressure tested with water to the rated
Inside BOP Normal
Common type
Figure working pressure of the ram type preventers, or the rated
name location Illustration
working pressure of the manifold, whichever is the lower.
Upper kelly
Between swivel Flapper or full
valve or upper Figure WC-28
kelly cock
and kelly open ball The kelly or top drive and kelly stopcocks should be pressure
tested to their rated working pressure with a test sub.
Lower kelly Between kelly
valve or upper and kelly saver Full open ball Figure WC-29
kelly cock sub Tests during lowering and after connecting the BOP stack,
kill and choke lines, marine riser and operating hoses.
In front of
Safety valve Full open ball Figure WC-29
drawworks
When running the BOP stack on riser joints, the kill and
choke lines should be pressure tested at least when the
Table WC-3: 'Inside' BOPs—Rigs with top drive
stack is below the splash zone and both before and after
Inside BOP Normal
Common type
Figure landing. More frequent testing may be stipulated, i.e., each
5 or 10 riser joints.
Between main
Upper remote Figures
shaft and lower Full open ball
safety valve
valve
WC-30 & -31 After the BOP stack is connected to the wellhead, a full
Lower safety Below upper Figures
function test on both pods and a low pressure test should
Full open ball be conducted.
valve safety valve WC-30 & -31
Table WC-4: 'Inside' BOPs—Kelly drive or top drive rigs The pressure test upon initial and any subsequent mating of
the BOP and wellhead should be performed with sea water
Inside BOP Normal Figure
Common type to the maximum anticipated pressure at TD of the well to
In front of confirm connector/wellhead integrity. This pressure is only
Inside BOP Poppet check Figure WC-32
drawworks required against one pipe ram if the stack has been com-
Drop-in check pletely stump-tested prior to running. For routine tests, the
Top of BHA Ball check Figure WC-33
valve BOP will be tested with the fluid in the hole at the time of
Installed in bit Flapper or the test.
Bit float Figure WC-34
sub poppet check
In deep water, a serious well control problem could develop
The annular is generally tested to 70% of rated working due to loss of hydrostatic head, with the choke and kill line
pressure. The subsea stack, once deployed and connected full of water. Therefore, after initial and subsequent mating
to the conductor casing wellhead is not disconnected until of the BOP on the wellhead, the choke and kill lines will be
the well is complete. Therefore, a higher stump test pressure kept full of in-hole drilling fluid. All lines should be flushed
is required than is normal for surface stacks. daily to ensure they are not blocked.
In shallow water (less than 1,500 ft), operators may prefer

Testing procedure for subsea BOPs to keep the choke/kill lines filled with sea water to prevent
solids from settling out. Blind shear rams are normally test-
Tests before lowering the BOP stack ed against casing prior to drilling out, first at low pressure
All subsea BOP stack components should be installed,
and again at a higher pressure, as indicated on the actual
checked, and pressure tested to their rated working pressure
drilling prognosis. The blind shear rams are generally not re-
and to a low pressure of 250 psi while the stack is mounted
tested during the normal test intervals as is done with the
on the test stump. After the surface tests, all clamp connec-
other BOP components unless the seal integrity is in ques-
tions and all studded connections should be checked for
tion, but will be retested prior to drilling out of subsequent
tightness. The complete BOP operating unit should be test-
casing strings.
ed in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations
and pressure tested to its rated working pressure. The test
Routine tests
should include at least the following:
The opening/closing times and the volumes of hydraulic
Test every BOP control; operating fluid required for the operation of the various un-
Check that each function is properly connected; derwater stack components (i.e., rams, kill and choke line
Activate the functions which are indicated from both valves, annular preventers, hydraulic connectors, etc.) shall
control pods; be recorded during testing of the stack underwater. These
Check and record test volumes and response times for results shall be compared with the normal opening/closing
each function. times and volumes required of the hydraulic system. Any

major differences are an in-

dication that the system is
not operating “normally” and
shall require further inves-
tigation and possible repair.
Pressures of the wellhead or
preventers should be to the
anticipated wellhead pres-
sure with a maximum limit
for the annular preventer of
70% of its working pressure.
It should also be pressure
tested at low pressure, as
described earlier.
"Inside" blowout
preventers
There are several pieces of
equipment in addition to the
primary blowout prevention
equipment that are some-
times necessary to control
a kick. The equipment which

furnishes closure inside the
drill string is called an “in-
side” blowout preventer.
A number of devices serve

this purpose. The “names” of
these devices are often con-
fusing. Tables WC-2 through
WC-4 classify inside BOPs to
eliminate this confusion.
Upper Kelly valve

The upper kelly valve, or kelly
cock (Figure WC-28), is in-
stalled between the kelly and
the swivel and normally has
left hand threads. Because it
is installed above the kelly, it
is always available. The basic
purpose of this valve is to iso-
late the fluid in the drillstring
from the swivel, rotary hose
or standpipe and to prevent
The most common design has a flapper as shown in Figure
leaks or rupture under well conditions. If the drillpipe pres-
WC-28. The other design is a full open ball similar to the
sure exceeds the rating of the rotary hose, closing the valve
lower kelly valve.
allows a safe change to higher pressure connections. It also
permits removal of the swivel so that wire lines or tools may The upper kelly valve should have a WP rating equal to or
be run into a pressurized drillstring. greater than that of the blowout preventer assembly being
used, and should have an inside opening equal to that of the

kelly. To operate this valve, a special wrench is required, and

should be kept in an accessible place on the rig floor.
Lower Kelly valve

A lower kelly valve (Figure WC-29), sometimes called a low-
er kelly cock. It is installed on the lower end of the kelly, and
is used when the upper kelly valve is damaged or not easily
accessible. If the kill pressures approach the rotary hose rat-
ings, this valve is closed, the kelly broken out and set back
and the cement standpipe hose is connected via a circulat-
ing head to the lower kelly valve.
Safety valve
During trips on rigs with kelly drive, the kelly and both up-
per and lower kelly valves are stored in the rat hole. For this
reason, another valve, identical to the lower kelly valve, is
stored close by so it can be quickly installed on the drillpipe
during a trip should a kick occur. When used in this manner,
it is called a safety valve.
If a tapered drillstring is being used, then a safety valve for

each size pipe and crossovers to drill collar connections
must be available on the rig floor.
All of these kelly and safety valves should be operated at the

Figure WC-30: Safety valves installed in
beginning of each tour. They should be tested when the BOP
top drive system. IADC drawing. is tested and the pressure should be applied in the direction
pressure would be felt should the well be closed.
Upper remote safety valve and lower safety valve

The upper and lower safety valves on top drive systems are
connected together. They are a ball type design. Both are very
likely to be inaccessible should a kick occur during drilling op-
erations, so the upper valve is remote operated as shown in
Figure WC-30. The body on this particular design is splined to
accommodate the pipe handler system. Some top drive units
use a different kind of torquing mechanism which does not
require a special OD profile on the upper safety valve. In these
cases, the upper and lower safety valves may be identical ex-
cept that the upper is fitted with a remote actuator crank and
the lower is plain manual operated. Figure WC-30 illustrates
the two valves installed in the top drive assembly. Figure WC-
31 show these two valves separated.
During trips with the top drive system, the swivel and safety
valves are not set back but rather are hoisted with the drill-
string. Should a kick occur during the trip, the safety valves
are immediately connected to the drillstring, and the upper
valve remotely closed. There is no need to have another safe-
ty valve on standby as with kelly drive operations.
Figure WC-31: Splined and plain top- Should a top drive require repairs, it's recommended to stab
drive safety valve. IADC drawing. a safety valve atop the drillpipe, should there be a need to
close the drillpipe.

Figure WC-32: Inside BOP. IADC drawing. Figure WC-33: Wireline retrieval and drop-
in check valve. IADC drawing.
sembly of the drillstring. These inside BOPs are often used

Inside BOP in stripping operations and particularly stripping “out” oper-
Although all valves that secure the drillstring bore are “in-
ations. Some are wireline retrievable. Figure WC-33 shows
side” BOPs, the check valves discussed in the following
one type of drop-in check valve.
paragraphs are — confusingly — the only ones commonly
called “inside BOPs” (Figure WC-32). They are normally
Bit float
used for stripping in the hole under pressure when a kick oc-
A bit float (Figure WC-34) may be considered an “inside”
curs off bottom during a trip.
preventer. It is basically a flapper or poppet-type check valve
By utilizing a special tool, the inside BOP or check valve may that is installed in the bit sub to prevent backflow during
be kept open to permit stabbing into the drillstring when the connections; however, it is subjected to severe wear by the
well is kicking. Once made up in the drillstring, the tool is drilling mud and may not function when needed. A common
released and the check valve closes. The inside BOP on the practice is to use a slotted flapper. This reduces backflow to
rig floor should be kept in open position, as a guard against a a minimum, yet allows stabilized closed-in pipe pressure to
kick or flow through the drillpipe. be easily read should the well kick.
However, check valves are more difficult to stab against drill Most operators discontinue the use of bit floats after setting
pipe flow than are full open ball valves. Therefore, the full surface casing. Kicks are more likely to occur below surface
open safety valve should be installed first and then the “in- casing and the bit float might interfere with a good stabilized
side” BOP (check valve) installed if it is necessary to strip closed-in drillpipe pressure reading. Bit floats are most use-
back in the hole. ful in top-hole drilling where backflow during connections is
more likely due to imbalanced annular fluid density.
Drop-in check valve
Another type inside BOP is the pump down or drop-in type
which requires a special sub near or in the bottomhole as-

Choke manifold
If the hydrostatic head of the drilling fluid is insufficient to
control subsurface pressure, formation fluids will flow into
the well. To maintain well control, back pressure is applied
by routing the returns through adjustable chokes until the
well flow condition is corrected. The chokes are connect-
ed to the blowout preventer stack through an arrangement
of valves, fittings and lines which provide alternative flow
routes or permit the flow to be halted entirely. This equip-
ment assemblage is designated the “choke manifold.”
Design Considerations
Choke manifold design should consider such factors as an-
ticipated formation and surface pressures, method of well
control to be employed, surrounding environment, corrosiv-
ity, volume, toxicity, and abrasiveness of fluids.
Installation guidelines
Recommended practices for planning and installation of
choke manifolds for surface installations include:
Manifold equipment subject to well and/or pump
pressure (normally upstream of and including the
chokes) should have a working pressure equal to the
rated working pressure of the blowout preventers in
use. This equipment should be tested when installed to
pressures equal to the rated working pressure of the
blowout preventer stack in use.
Components should comply with applicable
specifications to accommodate anticipated pressure,
temperature and corrosivity of the formation fluids and
drilling fluids.
For working pressures of 3,000 psi and above, flanged,
welded or clamped connections should be employed on
components subjected to well pressure.
The choke manifold should be placed in a readily
accessible location, preferably outside of the rig
Figure WC-34: Clockwise from top left: Bit float, poppet- substructure.
type, flapper-type and plunger type. IADC drawing.
Figure WC-35:
Typical 2,000-psi
(13.8 MP) manifold.
IADC drawing.

Figure WC-36: Typical

5,000-psi (34.5 MPs)
manifold. IADC drawing.
Figure WC-37: Typical

10,000-20,000-psi
(69.0-138.0 MP) manifold.
IADC drawing.

Packing unit/
Packing element/
Sealing element
Piston
Vent
outlet
Lower piston
seal seat
Figure WC-38: Diverter with annular Figure WC-39: Diverter with insert-type
packing element. IADC drawing. packing element. IADC drawing.
The choke line (which connects the blowout preventer All choke manifold valves subject to erosion from well
stack to the choke manifold) and lines downstream of flow should be full-opening and designed to operate in
the choke should: high pressure gas and drilling fluid service. Double,
Be as straight as practicable; turns, if required, full-opening valves between the blowout preventer
should be targeted; stack and the choke line are recommended for
Be firmly anchored to prevent excessive whip or installations with rated working pressures of 3M and
vibration; above.
Have a bore of sufficient size to prevent excessive For installations with rated working pressures of 5,000
erosion or fluid friction. psi and above the following are recommended:
Minimum recommended size for choke lines is 3-in. One of the valves should be remotely actuated.
nominal diameter (2-in. nominal diameter is acceptable Double valves should be installed immediately
for Class 2M installations). upstream of each choke.
Minimum recommended size for vent lines downstream At least one remotely operated choke should be
of the chokes is 3-in. nominal diameter. installed. If prolonged use of this choke is
For high volumes and air or gas drilling operations, 4-in anticipated, a second remotely operated choke
nominal diameter lines are recommended. should be used.
Alternate flow and flare routes downstream of the A valve should be installed downstream of the choke
choke line should be provided so that eroded, plugged to provide isolation from the buffer tank when
or malfunctioning parts can be isolated for repair changing wear items while circulating through the
without interrupting flow control. second choke.
Consideration should be given to the low temperature Downstream of the choke, a decrease of one
properties of the materials used in installations to be pressure rating, i.e., 5,000 psi down to 3,000 psi,
exposed to unusually low temperatures. 10,000 psi down to 5,000 psi, etc., may be
The bleed line (the vent line which bypasses the considered for the valves and buffer tank.
chokes) should be at least equal in diameter to the Spare parts for equipment subject to wear or damage
choke line. This line allows circulation of the well with should be readily available.
the preventers closed while maintaining a minimum of Testing, inspection, and general maintenance of choke
back pressure. It also permits high-volume bleed-off of manifold components should be performed on the
well fluids to relieve casing pressure with the preventers same schedule as employed for the blowout preventer
closed. stack in use.
Although not shown in the typical equipment All components of the choke manifold system should be
illustrations, buffer tanks are sometimes installed protected from freezing by heating, draining or filling
downstream of the choke assemblies for the purpose of with proper fluid.
manifolding the bleed lines together. It also provides a Figures WC-38 through WC-40 illustrate typical choke
large chamber for gas expansion and reduction in gas manifolds for various working pressure service.
velocity. When buffer tanks are employed, provisions Refinements or modifications such as additional
should be made to isolate a failure or malfunction hydraulic valves and choke runs, wear nipples
without interrupting flow control. downstream of chokes, redundant pressure gauges
Pressure gauges suitable for drilling fluid service should be and/or manifolding of vent lines will be dictated by the
installed so that drillpipe and annulus pressures may be conditions anticipated for a particular well and the
accurately monitored and readily observed at the station degree of protection desired. The guidelines discussed
where well control operations are to be conducted. and illustrated represent typical industry practice.

Side Flow Line

View Fill-Up Line
Bell Nipple
30” - 1,000 psi W.P.

A-A Annular Preventer
Hydraulic-Operated
Ball Valve Hydraulic Operated
Ball Valve
Diverter Vent Line Diverter Vent Line
30” - 1,000 psi W.P.

30” Conductor Pipe Drilling Spool/Mud Cross
with 30” - 1,000 psi W.P.
Welded on Top
View A-A
Figure WC-41: Typical diverter system with control- K1-4F

sequenced flow system. IADC drawing.
FIGURE K1-4F: Typical Diverter System with Control
Overboard Overboard Sequenced Flow System
Vent Vent
Packing unit/
Packing element/
Sealing element
Piston
Two-Position
Target Plug Diverter Exhaust
K1-3F
Figure WC-40: Switchable 3-way target valve. IADC drawing.
Figure K1-3F: Switchable 3-Way Target Valve
Vent
outlet
For economic reasons, it may be desirable at the beginning
of a drilling operation to install a manifold with a pressure
rating equivalent to that of the highest pressure rated sys- Lower piston
seal seat
tem which will be used on that well. This will preclude the
necessity of always matching manifolds with BOP stack
Figure WC-42: Example of purpose-designed diverter
ratings, minimizing time lost changing choke manifolds and with built-in vent valving. IADC drawing.
reduce the number of manifolds held in inventory.
Screwed connections are optional for only the 2,000-psi Annular sealing device
manifold; all others shall be welded or flanged. Suggested The annular sealing device is available in three different de-
configurations are shown in Figures WC-38, WC-39 and signs.
WC-40 as 2,000-psi and 3,000-psi, 5,000-psi, 10,000-
psi, and 15,000-psi manifolds. Annular packing element
Figure WC-41 is an example of an annular sealing device
Diverter systems that utilizes an annular packing element as the sealing
The function of a diverter system is to provide a low mechanism. The annular packing element can effect a seal
pressure well flow control system to direct controlled or on any pipe or kelly size in the wellbore, or can effect a seal
uncontrolled wellbore fluids or gas away from the im- on open hole where no pipe is present. This is often times
mediate drilling area for the safety of personnel and referred to as “complete shut-off” (CSO).
equipment involved in the drilling operation. The divert-
er system is not designed to shut in or halt well flow. Insert-type packing element
Figure WC-42 is an example of an annular sealing device
that utilizes an insert-type packing element as the sealing
Diverter system equipment that can be exposed to a hydro-
mechanism.
gen sulfide environment should comply with NACE MR-01-
75: Material Requirements Sulfide Stress Cracking Resistant An insert-type packing diverter element uses a group of in-
Metallic Materials for Oil Field Equipment, latest edition. serts. The inserts are placed one inside the other. Each in-
sert in the group is designed to close and seal on different
A diverter system comprises the following components: ranges of pipe diameters. A hydraulic or mechanical func-

tion serves to latch each insert in place. The correct size in- full-opening, have at least the same through-bore opening
sert should be in place for the pipe size in use. In order to as the vent outlet that it is attached to, and should be capa-
pass large bottomhole assemblies, it is necessary to remove ble of opening with maximum anticipated pressure across
some or all of the inserts. An insert-type packing element the valve sealing mechanism. Several types of full-opening
cannot CSO. valves which can be used in this application are gate valves
(various types), ball valves, knife valves, switchable 3-way
Rotating head targeted valves (Figure WC-40), and valves that are integral
A rotating head can be used as a diverter to complement a to the annular sealing device. Any valve used in a diverter
blowout preventer system. The stripper rubber is energized system application should be fitted with remote actuators
by the wellbore pressure to seal the rotating head element capable of operation from the rig floor. The actuators can
against the drillpipe, kelly or other pipe to facilitate divert- be operated either with hydraulics or pneumatics. The ac-
ing return wellbore media and can be used to permit pipe tuator should be sized to open the valve with the maximum
movement. system rated working pressure across the closed valve seal-
ing mechanism, with hydraulic or pneumatic pressure that is
Vent outlet(s) available from the diverter system remote control unit. The
Vent outlet(s) for the diverter system are located below the trim of the internal components of the valve actuator should
annular sealing element. One or more vent outlets can be be suitable for the media that is going to be used to operate
used in a system. Vent outlet(s) may either be incorporated the actuator. If a water-based fluid is the media, the actuator
in the housing of the annular sealing device, or may be an trim should be suitable for water service, corrosive. Exces-
integral part of a separate drilling spool/mud cross that is sive resistance due to drilled solids in the valve should be
assembled using a flange or clamp type connection just be- kept in mind, especially if using a pneumatic system where
low the annular sealing device. variations in rig air pressure are common.
Design considerations for the connection between the vent Vent line piping
outlet(s) and the vent line(s) should include ease of instal- There are various considerations that need to be investigat-
lation, leak-free construction and freedom from solids accu- ed for the vent line piping in a diverter system. These consid-
mulation. Regarding the size of the vent outlet(s), different erations are as follows:
regulator bodies have different requirements, depending
on the area of operation. For example, the requirements for
drilling operations that utilize a surface wellhead configura- Sizing
tion in areas regulated by the U.S. Minerals Management The vent line piping in a diverter system should be sized
Service (reference CFR 30, Chapter II, 7-1-88 Edition, para- to minimize back pressure on the wellbore while diverting
graph 250.59) require that no spool outlet or diverter line wellbore media. The vent line should be run as straight as
shall have an internal diameter less than 10 in.; except in the possible, keeping in mind that bends, tees and elbows not
case where dual outlets are provided, in which case the min- only create higher back pressure than straight pipe, but are
imum internal diameter of each vent outlet is 8 in. For drill- more susceptible to erosion during a diverting operation
ing operations where a floating or semi-submersible type than straight piping. Just as with the vent outlet(s) discussed
drilling vessel is used, the vent outlet internal diameter shall in the above paragraph, government regulatory bodies have
not be less than 12 in. For drilling activity outside the United minimum requirements for the internal diameter of the vent
States, the drilling contractor is advised to become familiar line piping. The drilling contractor should be familiar with
with the regulations for that particular area of operation. the requirements for the area where the drilling operation is
going to take place.
Drilling spool/mud cross
If a drilling spool/mud cross is utilized under the annular Flexible lines
scaling device, the through-bore diameter of the drilling Flexible lines with integral end couplings can be employed in
spool/mud cross should be equal to the through-bore diam- a diverter vent line piping system. If used, the flexible lines
eter of the annular sealing device. The design working pres- should have the same or larger internal diameter as the vent
sure rating of the drilling spool/mud cross should be equal outlet and valve, they should be resistant to fire and erosion,
to the design working pressure rating of the annular sealing have end couplings that are compatible with those utilized in
device. the hard piped section(s) of the vent line piping system, and
supported adequately.
Valves
Valves used in a diverter vent line(s), or in the flow line to
the shale shaker in a floating drilling operation, should be

Routing Volumetric capacity

The vent line(s) used in a diverter system should be rout- As a minimum, the volumetric capacity of the diverter con-
ed so that at all times, one line can vent wellbore media to trols system accumulators should be sufficient to provide
the downwind side of the rig. Routing changes should be as the usable fluid volume (with pumps inoperative) required
gradual as possible. Long radius bends are preferred over to close and open all functions in the diverter system and
short radius bends. In the case of a 90° bend, it is preferred still retain a 50% reserve. Usable fluid volume is defined
to use a targeted tunning tee equipped with a blind flange or as the fluid recoverable from an accumulator between
plug to minimize effects of erosion. If the vent line is required maximum operating pressure of the system (the pressure
to change direction two times in one location, it is preferred at which the pumps automatically shut off) and 200 psi
to use a “y-type” branch over a tee. The vent line (s) should above the gas pre-charge pressure. The API RP-16E, Recom-
be sloped along their entire run in order to eliminate low mended Practices for Design of Control Systems for Drill-
spots which may accumulate drilling media and debris. ing Well Control Equipment, latest edition, should be used
to assist in determining the accumulator volume required.
Support For a control system that incorporates an integral divert-
The vent lines should be firmly secured. The dynamic ef- er system with the blowout preventer control system, the
fects of high-volume fluid/gas flow and the impact of drilling accumulators required for the diverter system should have
solids are to be considered in the vent line(s) support. Sup- their supply isolated from the accumulators required for the
ports located at points where piping direction changes must blowout preventer system by a check valve. On systems uti-
be capable of restaining pipe deflection. Special attention lizing pneumatically-operated valves, an independent power
should be given to the supports located at the end sections source should be provided to supply the necessary air/gas
of the vent line(s). This area will tend to whip and vibrate required in the event of reduction or loss of rig air pressure.
during a diverting operation.
Response time
Cleanouts The diverter control system should be capable of operating
Provisions for cleaning and flushing any accumulated debris the vent line valve(s) and the flow line valve (if so equipped),
from the vent line(s) should be made. Cleanouts should be and closing the annular sealing device packing element on
placed upstream of all valves and sharp direction changes, pipe in use within 30 seconds if the packing element of the
with flushing jets located to aid removal of sharp debris and annular sealing device has a nominal open bore of 20 inches
drilling solids. Cleanouts and flushing ports should be ade- or less. For annular sealing devices that have a packing ele-
quately sealed to prevent the escape of any wellbore media ment nominal open bore greater than 20 inches, the diverter
when the diverter is in use. The cleanout should have the control system should be capable of operating the vent line
same rated working pressure as the piping into which they valve(s) and flow line valve (if so equipped), and closing the
are installed. Well-monitoring devices (flow indicators, etc.), annular sealing device packing element on pipe in use within
gumbo busters, etc., which are exposed to diverting media 45 seconds.
should be able to withstand the anticipated back pressure
without leaking or failing. Pump requirements
The pump(s) used in a diverter control system should be
Fill-up lines capable of recharging the diverter control system accu-
If a fill-up line is positioned below the annular sealing device, mulator system to full system operating pressure within 5
it should be valved. The valve can be either a remote-operat- minutes after one complete divert mode operation of the
ed gate, ball or knife-type valve, or a check valve. The pres- diverter control system. The discharge pressure rating of
sure rating of the valve should be equivalent to the pressure the pump(s) should be equal to the rated working pressure
rating of the rest of the diverter system valve components. of the diverter control system. Power supply to the pumps
should be available to the diverter control system at all
Control system times, such that the pump(s) will automatically start when
The diverter control system is usually hydraulic or pneumat- the system supply pressure in tile accumulator(s) decreas-
ic, or a combination of both. The system should be capable es to less than 90% of the accumulator operating pressure.
of being controlled from two or more remote units. All units The pump(s) should automatically stop when the full design
should be available for ready access by operating personnel. operating pressure is reached. An over-pressure protection
The diverter control system may be a completely self-contained device (i.e., relief valve) should be set to function at no more
system, or it may be an integral part of the blowout preventer than 110% of the design operating pressure. The overpres-
control system. In some cases, the blowout preventer control sure protection device should be designed to automatically
system can double as the diverter control system. This is de- shut off and reset within 25% decrease of the design oper-
pendent on the type/configuration of diverter system used. ating pressure.

Back-up system not practical. The complexity of the control sequencing sys-
An alternate means, or back-up system, should be employed tem is dependent on the design of the diverter system and
to permit operation of the diverter system should the pri- the components selected to be used in the diverter system.
mary control system become inoperative. This can be ac-
complished by use of an alternative pump source, separate Control system location
isolated accumulator capacity, bottled nitrogen, or other The main pump/accumulator/control manifold unit should
means. The back-up system need not be automatic, but be located in a safe place which is easily accessible to rig
should be available if the need arises. personnel in an emergency. It should also be located such
that maintenance to the components on the system can be
Valves, fittings, lines, and manifolds done in an easy manner. The distance of the main unit from
All valves, fittings, lines and manifolds should have the same the diverter system components will determine the sizing of
rated working pressure as the pump(s). Sizing of valves, fit- the control lines between the two, keeping in mind the re-
tings, lines and manifolds should be adequate enough to sponse time requirement for operating the annular sealing
supply the diverter system components volume enough device and vent line valve(s). In addition to the main pump/
to satisfy the response time required. Pressure-regulating accumulator/control manifold unit, remote control units
valves should be provided for the annular sealing device, and should also be incorporated. These too should be located
for all other components in the diverter system. Accurate in a position that is readily accessible by the rig person-
pressure gauges should be incorporated to indicate critical nel in an emergency. At least one of these remote control
system pressures. Pressure regulating valves utilized in the units should be located a safe distance from the rig floor.
system should have the capability to be manually operated The design of all components utilized in the diverter control
within their rated operating pressure range should the re- system should comply with the area classifications found
mote control capability fail. in API RP 500B, Recommended Practice for Classification
of Locations for Electrical Installations on Drilling Rigs and
Fluid reservoir capacity Production Facilities on Land and Marine Fixed and Mobile
The reservoir capacity of the diverter control system should Platforms, latest edition.
be equal to at least 2 times the usable fluid capacity of the
diverter control system accumulator system. Mounting of diverter
An important consideration for diverters is to structural-
Fluid recommendation ly secure the mounting, since the device receives the full
A suitable hydraulic fluid (nonflammable petroleum or wa- force of diverted wellbore media. If the diverter is mounted
ter-based) should be used as the operating fluid. In cold utilizing API or MSS/ANSI type flanges, refer to the appro-
ambient environments, sufficient volume of glycol should be priate standards for these flanges to determine the proper
added to the operating fluid in order to keep the fluid from bolting material and method of making up the flange. If the
freezing. Use of diesel oil, motor oil, chain oil or any other diverter is attached to the rig floor structure (e.g., rotary ta-
similar fluid is not recommended due to the possibility of ex- ble beams), the connection should be designed so that the
plosion or resilient seal damage. upward force is directed back into the structure.
Control sequencing Typical diverter system for onshore and/or

The diverter control system should have the capability to be
operated such that the well can never be shut in with the
bottom-supported offshore installations
When diverter systems are deemed necessary, they should
diverter system. For installations where the annular sealing
be installed on the drive or conductor pipe.
device is located below the flow line, the control sequencing
should be that the vent line valve(s) always open before the
annular sealing device is closed. If more than one vent valve
System arrangement
There are various arrangements of diverter systems for on-
is installed, both valves should remain open during the ini-
shore and/or bottom-supported offshore installations. The
tial closing of the annular sealing device, and then allow for
most common of these consists of an annular sealing de-
closure (either automatic or manual) of the upwind vent line
vice attached to a drilling spool/mud cross (Figure WC-41).
valve, if so desired. On installations where the flow line is
The drilling spool/mud cross generally has one or two vent
below the annular sealing device, the desired vent valve(s)
outlets. The annular sealing device often times used is an
should be opened (if not already open) while simultaneously
annular type blowout preventer. The typical sizes of annular
closing the shale shaker/flow line valve and annular sealing
preventers used are:
device. If possible, the design of the control system and/or
the vent line piping system should allow that the vent(s) fail 29 1/2-in. - 500-psi W.P.
to the open position. Although desired, this is sometimes 30-in. - 1,000-psi W.P.

20 3/4-in. - 3,000-psi W.P.

21 1/4-in. - 2,000-psi W.P.
There are insert-type preventers that are available for this

application. The typical size for this type of diverter is a 30-
in., - 2,000-psi W.P.
Also available for onshore and bottom-supported offshore

installations are annular preventers purpose designed for a
diverter application, in that the vent valving has been de-
signed into annular preventer (Figure WC-42).
Additionally, substructure mounted diverter systems are

also available for onshore and/or bottom-supported off-
shore installations (Figure WC-43). These are similar in
design to the diverters that are designed for floating drilling
rigs. One of the major advantages of this design system is
that it allows the diverter, overshot spool and overshot pack-
er assembly to be pulled or run without having to connect
or disconnect flow line, fill-up line and diverter vent lines.
Hydraulic-actuated seals are used to isolate the flow line,
diverter vent lines and fill-up lines by providing a reliable, Figure WC-43: Substructure-mounted diverter system for onshore
positive seal between the diverter and the support hous- or bottom-supported offshore installations. IADC drawing.
ing. The diverter assembly is mechanically locked into the
support housing with a right-hand “J” which also positively
aligns the outlets of the diverter with the outlets in the sup-
port housing. The overshot packer, which is used to connect
the diverter to the conductor pipe, is a stab-over and seal
mechanism, thereby eliminating the need for welding and/
or making up flanges each time different size casing is run.
The overshot packers and spools are connected utilizing a
stab-type casing connector. Tools are available that allow
testing the diverter assembly seals, insert packer(s), and all
flow line and diverter vent valving. These types of diverter
systems are available for use with 37 1/2-in. and 49 1/2-in. ro-
tary tables. This diameter is not the internal diameter of the
diverter, but the minimum internal diameter of the support
Figure WC-44: Substructure mounted diverter with
housing. These types of diverters are available with either an annular packing element. IADC drawing.
annular packing element (Figure WC-38 and WC-44) or in-
sert-type packing elements (Figure WC-39). Compare Fig- Installation
ures WC-42 and WC-44 to see diverter vent connections Diverter systems on floating drilling rigs are typically mount-
for two different systems. ed to the drill floor substructure (rotary support beams). The
diverter system is the upper end of the marine drilling riser
Typical diverter system for floating rigs system. A floating drilling operation requires equipment
Floating drilling operations include operations from drill- that allows for relative motion between the subsea blowout
ships and semi-submersibles that drill in the floating mode. preventer stand and the drilling vessel. A flex/ball joint is
These vessels are distinguished from other types of drilling usually located above the blowout preventer stack (at the
units by the use of subsea blowout preventer stacks. The bottom of the marine drilling riser system) to allow for this
subsea blowout preventer stack and associated equipment motion. An additional flex/ball joint may be located at the
are connected to the drilling vessel via the marine drilling top of the marine drilling riser package as well in order to re-
riser system. duce bending stresses caused by vessel offset, vessel surge
and sway motions, and environmental forces. This flex/ball
joint is usually located between the bottom of the diverter
and the top of the telescopic joint.

Flow Line
Diverter system maintenance
Packing
Unit A schedule for routine check-out and maintenance of
diverter systems equipment should be implemented and
Ported Valve kept by the rig operating personnel. Specific guidelines for
Sleeve
each diverter component or subsystem should be based on
maintenance manuals and recommendations provided by
Vent Line the equipment manufacturer.
Side Seal Visually inspect the rubber components of the system after
Piston
each test to verify that they are in good working condition.
Packer components should be replaced when their proper
functioning is questionable due to damage, wear, and/or
age. The diverter system should be function tested on a pe-
riodic basis. During diverter function tests, observe all com-
ponents of the diverter system including the diverter, valves,
valve actuators, valve actuator piping, and control panel to
verify that there are no leaks in the system. In the event a
Figure WC-45: Diverter for floater installations with built-
FIGURE K1-8F: DIVERTER FOR FLOATER INSTALLATIONS
in flow line and vent line valving. IADC drawing. leak is discovered, it should be repaired immediately.
WITH BUILT-IN FLOW LINE AND VENT LINE VALVING
K1-8F If the diverter system utilizes a separate control system from
System arrangement the blowout preventer control system, the unit requires peri-
Diverter systems used on floaters are similar in design to the odic maintenance including such items as checking various
substructure mounted systems used on bottom-supported fluid levels, cleaning air strainers, cleaning pump strainers
offshore installations. In fact, the idea for the substructure and cleaning filter elements.
mounted diverter systems used on bottom-supported off-
shore installations came from the floating installation de- Tightening of packing and lubrication of power actuating
sign. Because of the large diameter of the marine drilling cylinders should be performed. The nitrogen precharge in
riser that is used today, the most common size of diverter the system accumulator bottles should be checked as well.
system is one that is designed to work with a 49 1/2-in. ro-
Control hoses, tubing, vent line piping support brackets,
tary table. This diameter is not the internal diameter of the
targeted fittings, valves, fittings, etc., should be visually in-
diverter, but the minimum internal diameter of the sup-
spected on a routine basis. Due to the difficulty in hydro-
port housing. This large diameter allows conductor casing
statically pressure testing of the vent line(s) of a diverter
and marine drilling riser to be pulled or run without having
system, it is recommended that the wall thickness of these
to connect or disconnect flow line, fill-up line and diverter
lines and their associated fittings be checked using ultrason-
vent lines. Hydraulic actuated seals are used to isolate the
ic inspection devices. These lines are not only highly suscep-
flow line, diverter vent lines, and fill-up lines by providing a
tible to erosion due to high velocity flows, but they are highly
reliable, positive seal between the diverter and the support
susceptible to material loss due to corrosion.
housing. The diverter assembly is hydraulically locked into
the support housing with hydraulic operated dogs. When Control system pressure gauges should be calibrated and
properly installed and locked in place, the diverter outlets tagged at intervals not to exceed 12 months.
are positively aligned with the outlets in the support hous-
ing. Tools are available that allow testing the diverter as-
sembly seals, insert packer(s) and all flow line and diverter
BOP performance characteristics
Blowout preventers are valves which can close off the annu-
vent valving. Diverters for floating installations are available
lus space between the BOP bore and drillpipe, or as in the
with either an annular packing element (Figure WC-44) or
case of blind rams and annular blowout preventers, close off
insert-type packing elements (Figure WC-39). Additionally
the well when the hole is open. As with any valve, a pressure
available for floaters are diverters that incorporate automat-
differential can exist across the valve that opposes its open-
ic valving for the flow line and diverter vent line. A single hy-
ing or closing. This differential was not formerly considered
draulic function is used to close the diverter and at the same
a factor to reckon with when BOPs were only rated at 5,000-
time close off the flow line to the shale shakers and open the
psi MWP (maximum working pressure). The design of the
diverter vent line. Figure WC-45 shows an example of this
BOP, depending on manufacture, generally ranged from a
component. The figure does not show the support housing
4.5:1 to a 6.8:1 closing ratio. With the high closing ratio and
that the diverter fits into. This housing is similar in design to
low MWP rating of the BOP, and the advent of the 3,000-psi
the substructure mounted insert-type diverter.

Next Page
closing units in 1953, there was always sufficient pressure to Prior to consideration of 10,000 psi and higher maximum
close the BOP against its full rated working pressure. working pressure BOPs, the accumulators on the BOP clos-
ing unit were precharged and the minimum working pressure
The closing ratio is a product of the area on the ram side of the accumulator calculated to optimize the fluid capacity
which is exposed to wellbore pressure versus the area of the of the accumulator system, and simplify the calculations us-
operator piston exposed to operating pressure. BOP manu- ing Boyles Law. The minimum pressure was established at
facturers calculate and publish the opening and closing ra- 1,200 psi (200 psi above precharge). The precharge pres-
tios. Since pressure in psi times area in inches equals force sure was established at 1,000 psi. When the accumulator
in pounds, it is easy to recognize that wellbore pressure was charged with hydraulic pressure to 3,000 psi, 50% of
versus operator pressure oppose each other. For example, the accumulator fluid volume could be discharged down to
if the difference in area exposed to operator pressure pro- the pressure at which the poppet valve in the accumulator
duces seven times greater force than the area exposed to closed and shut off flow. This would be between 1,200 psi
wellbore pressure, the ratio is said to be 7:1. This means op- and 1,000 psi. The minimum working pressure (1,200 psi)
erator pressure produces seven times the force to close as was used in calculations to ensure a margin of safety.
the wellbore side produces to resist closing. Another factor
that affects closing force is inherent friction; however, this The recommended practice for design of control systems for
is considered minimal and is not normally figured into the drilling well control equipment API RP16E, 1st edition, Octo-
closing characteristics of the BOP. ber 1, 1990, recognized the operating characteristics of the
BOP. The applicable reference today is API Spec 16D, 2013.
Simple calculations divide the BOP maximum working pres-
sure by the opening or closing ratios to determine the min- Opening or closing the ram BOPs at maximum rated well-
imum operator pressure required to open or close the BOP bore pressure is not recommended. However, operators
against full wellbore pressure. should be aware of the operating characteristics and lim-
itations of the well control equipment so that surprises can
With the advent of 10,000-psi and higher maximum work- be avoided when encountering well control problems. Users
ing pressure BOPs, the closing ratio does become a factor to should contact the manufacturers for any information not
reckon with if the BOP must be closed against high wellbore contained in the equipment users manual.
pressure. The following examples show the effect of closing
against full rated wellbore pressure assuming closing ratios To prepare for emergency operations, should the accumula-
of 4.5:1 and 6.8:1 tor pumps be out of service and wellbore pressure increases,
operators should isolate the pumps and, using the accumu-
4.5:1 Closing ratio lators only, create a table to show actual performance of the
MWP (psi) Operator Pressure Req’d (psi) system. This can be accomplished during initial installation
5,000 1,111 by checking the accumulator precharge then charging them
10,000 2,222 to full design pressure. Then isolate the pumps and chart the
15,000 3,333 finishing pressure each time a ram BOP is closed (exclude
shear rams).
6.8:1 Closing ratio
MWP (psi) Operator Pressure Req’d (psi) The resulting table will show what the final pressure will be
5,000 735 after certain numbers of ram closures based on the result-
10,000 1,470 ing decrease in accumulator pressure as volume is expelled.
15,000 2,205 With the known closing ratio of the BOP, the operator can
divide specific wellbore pressures by the BOP closing ratio
It must be noted that the BOP also has an opening ratio. The and know before attempting to do so if there will be suffi-
opening ratio is less than the closing ratio since the ram face cient accumulator pressure to effect closing and seal off
is sealed off against the drill pipe or the other blind ram block, against whatever elevated wellbore pressure is in the hole.
and is not exposed to wellbore pressure until this seal is bro- Most BOP closing units are equipped with a manifold pres-
ken. Prior to opening then, the ram block area is not exposed sure reducing and regulating valve that supplies the hydrau-
to wellbore pressure, thus the pressure in the ram cavity lic pressure to operate the ram BOPs, kill and choke valves.
actually assists in maintaining the ram in the closed posi- This device normally limits pressure to a maximum of 1,500
tion. This means the operator pressure must be increased psi and may often be regulated lower than that. There is also
to open against wellbore pressure. In some cases, this is a a manifold regulator bypass valve. When this valve is in the
moot point since the components for ram block retraction “high” pressure position, the ram control valves receive full
are not designed to pull the block open under pressure and accumulator pressure for operation. The bypass valve can
damage to the BOP would result if it were attempted. be placed in the “high” position anytime wellbore pressure

Previous Page
causes difficulty in closing. This will ensure full “force” ca- ratios in accordance with the control system manufacturer’s
pability to close against elevated wellbore pressure. To de- recommendations. The control system manufacturer should
termine the operator pressure required to close a ram BOP specify control system fluid which is compatible with the
against full-rated working pressure of the BOP, divide the equipment seals and materials.
MWP of the BOP by the closing ratio:
The main accumulator with its hydraulic control manifold,
Example (closing ratio= 7.11): separate hydraulic manifold, or hydraulic panel should be
installed in a safe area protected from falling debris or gas
15,000 MWP = 2,109 psi (operator pressure)
accumulations during a blowout. All of the control functions
7.11
should be operable from the drill floor by use of a remote
The BOP manufacturer should be consulted to determine control panel. A second remote control panel is recom-
how much operator pressure is required to shear drillpipe. mended. This panel is normally located in the tool pusher’s
Usually this is determined by actually testing the BOP design office or in a safe egress area and is intended as a last means
by shearing the size and grade drillpipe that will be used in to close in the well as the rig is being abandoned. The initial
the drilling program. Shear rams normally have larger oper- installation, (and each time the rig is moved), should be fully
ator pistons than pipe or blind rams. This creates more force tested to ensure proper leak-free operation and correctness
to shear, but increases capacity requirements for sizing the of function.
accumulator system. Some BOP designs use a pressure in-
Hydrostatic test should be to full working pressure and/or
tensifier operator piston design which basically doubles the
10% below any relief valves in the line. Piping downstream
shear force as well as the capacity requirements. Other BOP
of pressure reducing and regulating valves should be tested
designs use a pressure balanced piston design that elimi-
to the maximum (full open) regulator settings. Automat-
nates the closing and opening ratio, and consequently only
ic pump system cut off devices should be tested to ensure
require pressure to overcome friction. If high pressure is re-
the pump(s) cut off at the maximum system design working
quired to shear, additional accumulator capacity or increas-
pressure.
ing the stored volume pressure may need to be considered.
Operators should consult the control system manufacturers The system design capacities should be verified at the initial
for recommendations for sizing accumulator systems for installation and interface of the control system to the BOP
shearing. stack. The contractor must ensure that all companies, local
statutes, governmental and other governing agencies at the
Blowout preventer control systems drilling venue have been met in the design. In particular, the
contractor must ensure the following:
Surface BOP stacks (land rigs, offshore jackups, The control system design meets or exceeds the
performance requirements of the most stringent of the
and platforms) regulatory bodies in force;
Control systems for surface mounted blowout preventers
Accumulator precharge is maintained within the control
used for well drilling are usually “closed loop” design hy- system manufacturer’s specification;
draulic systems. This means two lines are required for all Pump system cut “on” and cut off automatic set points
pressure open/pressure close BOP stack functions, and that are maintained at the control system manufacturer’s
fluid in one line is returned to the control unit reservoir when specification for the system design;
the other line is pressurized. These systems lend themselves Closing response times from activation at any control
to use of petroleum base fluids for the control system op- point are within the time limits of the most stringent of
erating fluid. Since there is a possibility of an “ecological the regulatory bodies in force.
incident” in the event of a system leak, many offshore con-
tractors are turning to the use of water-based control sys- NOTE: The minimum performance and capacities recom-
tem fluids. Water-based fluids have no detrimental effect on mendations for surface BOP well drilling control systems is
operations as long as: listed in API Spec 16D, 2013.
Environmentally safe lubricating agent is added to the
water; Operation
Freeze protection is provided if the system is to be Well control procedures are discussed elsewhere in this
operated in cold climates; chapter. These procedures are intended to inform of possi-
The fluid is regularly inspected and bacteria growth is ble well control practices that have proven practical. They
checked either by addition of chemical agents or timely should not be interpreted to be a solution to all problems.
replacement of the fluid. Control system manufacturers generally make the following
operational recommendations.
Water-based control system fluid can be premixed in proper

Figure WC-46: Typical surface BOP control system. Shown for air remote control panel operation. System designed to meet API Spec
16D, 2013 must have electric remote control panels if they are used on offshore rigs. See Table WC-5 on page WC-32 for legend.
1.During normal drilling, the blowout preventer control 5.Ensure the nitrogen precharge in all of the accumulators
valves are typically in the “open” position, kill and choke is properly maintained within the specified limits. Re-
valves are typically in the “closed” position. This will hy- duced precharge decreases the recoverable (usable) flu-
draulically lock the BOP in position, give visual indication id from the accumulator. Zero precharge (probable rup-
of the annular, ram or valve position and most impor- tured bladder) equals nil recoverable fluid. The nitrogen
tantly, indicate leaks in the valves, lines or BOP which precharge must be measured when there is zero hydrau-
can be detected by the pumps coming on too frequently. lic pressure on the accumulators. This means they must
be bled back to the reservoir to measure precharge.
2.Ensure all pump system (air and electric) power is “on-
line” at all times. 6. Operate with the fluid reservoir approximately half full.
Reservoirs are typically sized to hold at least twice the
3.Ensure all accumulator banks are “online” at all times. recoverable (usable) fluid of the accumulator system.
This means bleeding down all of the accumulators is
4.Ensure pump system automatic “on/off” limits are prop- possible without overflowing the reservoir. Newer sys-
erly set. Setting the pump system cut off too low results tems built in accordance with API Spec 16D, 2013 have
in significantly reducing usable fluid capacity of the ac- twenty-five percent (25%) accumulator bank isolation.
cumulator system. Setting the pump system “on” point They also have isolation and bleed valves on each bank
too low results in accumulator pressure being too low, permitting checking precharge on one bank at a time
and the usable fluid capacity reduced significantly so without shutting down operations.
that the BOP performance is adversely affected.
7. Ensure all components of the BOP control system are in
proper working order, clean, and, where required, lubri-
cated.

Table WC-5: Legend for Figure WC-46

Accumulators – Pre-charge per label. Warning! Use nitrogen only –
1. 22. High-pressure strainer – Clean every 30 days.
do not use oxygen! Check every 30 days.
2. Accumulator bank isolation valve. 23. Shut-off valve – Connection for separate operating fluid pump.
Manifold regulator - Regulates operating pressure to ram preventers

3. Accumulator bank bleed valve. 24.
and gate valves.
4. Accumulator relief valve. 25. Manifold regulator internal override valve.
5. Air filter – automatic drain. Clean every 30 days. 26. Four-way control valve.
Air lubricator – Fill with SAE 10 lubricating oil. Set for 6 drops per
6. 27. Manifold bleeder valve.
minute. Check oil level weekly.
7. All pressure gauge – 0-300 psi. 28. Accumulator pressure gauge.
Hydro-pneumatic pressure switch – Automatically stops air operat-

8. ed pumps when pressure reaches 2,900 psi and starts pumps when 29. Manifold pressure gauge.
pressure drops approximately 400 psi.t
9. Air supply valves – Close when servicing air-operated pumps. 30. Annular regulator.
10. Suction valve, air operated pumps. 31. Annular pressure gauge.
11. Suction strainer, air operated pumps. Clean every 30 days. 32. Annular pressure transmitter.
12. Air operated pump. 33. Accumulator pressure transmitter.
Manifold pressure transmitter - (Transmitter converts hydraulic pres-

13. Discharge check valve, air operated pump. 34. sure to air pressure and sends a calibrated signal to corresponding air
receiver gauges on the Driller’s air-operated remote control panel).
Duplex or triplex pump – Fill crankcase with SAE 20 oil for 40°F to
14. 35. Air junction box.
115°F ambient temperature. Check oil level monthly.
Chain guard – Fill with SAE 40 oil for operation above 20°F ambient
15. 36. Reservoir.
temperature. Check oil level monthly.
16. Explosion-proof electric motor. 37. Clean out man-way - Some models.
Electric pressure switch – Automatically stoops pumps when accu-

17. mulator pressure reaches 3,000 psi and starts pumps when pres- 38. Sight glass, find level - Some models.
sure drops to 3,800 psi nominal.
Electric motor starter – Keep starter switch in “Auto” position ex-
18. 39. By-pass valve - Hydro-pneumatic pressure switch.
cept when servicing.
Normal pressure isolation valve - Normally open. Lose for pressure
19. Suction calve, triplex or duplex pump. 40.
above 3,000 psi. This feature can be used for shearing.
20. Suction strainer, triplex or duplex pump – Clean every 30 days. 41. Manifold protector relief valve - Set at 5,500 psi.
21 Discharge check valve, Duplex or Triplex pump.
Typical maintenance items on the BOP closing unit. Since nitrogen obviously cannot op-
While BOP control systems by various manufacturers may erate electric pumps, and is inefficient to run air operated
vary widely in color, size, configuration, and layout, they pumps for the time required to be practical, the nitrogen is
are functionally very similar. Figure WC-46 (See Table introduced directly into the hydraulic supply piping to oper-
WC-5 for key), “Typical surface BOP control system,” and ate the BOPs.
Table WC-6, “Preventative maintenance schedule check-
It should be noted that nitrogen bottles are charged to be-
list,” are intended to highlight areas that must be identified
tween 2,000 psi and 2,500 psi. Each 22.5-cu ft bottle
and properly maintained to ensure the capability or the con-
equals 6.2 gal however, the normal operating system pres-
trol system to perform to its design intent, not to promote
sure of 3,000 psi cannot be met. Nitrogen bottles are not
any manufacturer’s product.
under the jurisdiction of ASME. They are covered by D.O.T.
(Department of Transportation) 3AA2015. They are rated
Nitrogen back-up systems
for 2,015 psi and hydrostatically tested to 3,360 psi. Users
Nitrogen back-up systems used for closing blowout pre-
should therefore monitor the conditions of the nitrogen bot-
venters in the event hydraulic capability is lost.
tles for evidence of corrosion that may decrease wall thick-
Nitrogen back-up to operate the BOPs was originally intend- ness and replace them if necessary. Control system man-
ed to be an alternative to one of the “power source” system ufacturers generally consider nitrogen back-up the least
attractive of the alternatives. Nitrogen gas expands rapidly

when exposed to the atmosphere (i.e., reservoirs require ad- Table WC-6: Preventive maintenance schedule checklist
equate venting). Consequently, the following nitrogen back-
up system operation procedure should be followed when Daily Weekly Monthly Annually
Rig
Move
using nitrogen to close the BOPs.
1. Check all fluid levels. Ñ Ñ
Nitrogen back-up can, when implemented successfully, fill 2. Check air pressure & Ñ Ñ
this void if the rig-stored air system is not designed to han- water trap.
dle it. The nitrogen back-up system should include pressure 3. Power on line, air, and Ñ Ñ
electric.
regulation, relief valve protection, and either automatic in-
4. Accumulator pressure,
tervention in the event rig air pressure is interrupted, or be charging to full design Ñ Ñ
selectively available from the driller’s panel and at least one pressure.
“safe area” remote panel. 5. Manifold pressure and
annular pressure (all gauges Ñ Ñ
and meters).
Nitrogen back-up systems 6. Guards in place (Blind/ Ñ Ñ
Since more operators are insisting on, and/or more drilling Shear/Ram)
contractors are complying with API recommendations to 7. Proper valve positions. Ñ Ñ
move the main hydraulic power unit and control manifold off 8. Look for leaks. Ñ Ñ
the drill floor, it is becoming more important that the remote
9. Listen for air leaks in
control panel located in the area of the driller is operational remote-control system.
Ñ Ñ
even in the event of utilities failure. Many electric remote 10. Keep equipment clean. Ñ Ñ
control systems either operate off the emergency generat-
11. Air supply should be
ing system which automatically takes over when the main clean, dry 100-125 psi.
Check water trap, fill lubri- Ñ Ñ
power system fails, or they have dedicated emergency bat- cator with SAE 10 oil and
tery back-up systems like subsea control systems have had set for 6 drops per minute.
for years. In most cases, the neglected area is the lack of 12. Accumulator precharge
pressure 1,000 psi (or per
provisions for the pneumatic back-up of electro-pneumatic instruction tag). Use nitro- Ñ Ñ
remote control systems. gen only. Check for bottle
mechanical support.
Nitrogen back-up system operation 13. Initially fill fluid reservoir

with either SAE 10 oil or
Warning: Failure to follow these instructions could result in water, anti-freeze and
lubricator combination to
rupturing the fluid reservoir within 8 in. from top. After
initial operation of the BOP,
Ñ Ñ
the fluid level in the reser-
1. Set annular regulator to highest regulated pressure; voir should be maintained
at approx. half full. This
allows bleeding down the
2. Place manifold regulator bypass valve in the “high” po- accumulators if required for
maintenance or moving.
sition;
14. Fill chain guard on
triplex pump to proper
3. Ensure nitrogen bottle valves are open and place the ni- level with SAE 40 oil. Fill Ñ
crankcase of pump with
trogen system isolator valve in the “open” position; SAE 20 oil.
15. Check pressure switch
4. Close appropriate bops for well control situation; settings and relief valve Ñ
settings.
Note: leave bops closed until they can be opened hydrauli- 16. Ensure proper electrical
supply current, voltage, and
cally, (refer to following steps); phase balance adequate Ñ
grounding, and skid
support.
5. Remove 4–in. Tank inspection plugs at top end of res- 17. Check operating and Ñ
warning lights.
ervoir;
18. Inventory spare parts, Ñ
order as necessary.
6. Close nitrogen isolator valve (after emergency). With
19. Remote panels (air or
bops still closed, open the manifold bleed valve and electric). Ensure meters
Ñ
slowly bleed nitrogen back to the reservoir; indicate within 3% of hy-
draulic gauges on unit.
20. Inspect air/electric
7. If nitrogen was used to close the annular, slowly decrease interconnect cable con-
Ñ
dition & repair/replace as
the annular regulator setting allowing nitrogen to bleed required.
back to the reservoir;

(either open or close) should not exceed the minimum ob-

8. Re-establish hydraulic pressure and return the manifold
served ram close response time. Time to unlatch the LMRP
regulator bypass to the “LOW” position;
should not exceed 45 seconds.
9. Reset the annular regulator to the correct operating Measurement of response time begins at pushing the but-
pressure.; ton or turning the control valve handle to operate the func-
tion and ends when the BOP or choke or kill valve is closed
10. Open the BOPs hydraulically. effecting a seal, or when the hydraulic connector(s) is fully
unlatched.
Subsea BOP stacks
In addition to the equipment required for surface-mounted A BOP may be considered closed when the regulated pres-
BOP stacks, subsea control systems use pilot signals sure has recovered to its nominal setting and the nominal
and readbacks which are transmitted to and received fluid volume of the function is indicated on the flow meter.
from subsea control valves in order to effect control of If confirmation of seal off is required pressure testing below
the subsea BOP. Dual (redundant) controls are utilized the BOP or across the valve is necessary.
for increased reliability and hydraulic supply power fluid
subsea. Two independent pilot signal transmission/ Requirements for accumulator valves
readback means are provided to control the two subsea Multi-bottle accumulator banks should have valving for bank
control pods mounted on the LMRP (lower marine riser isolation. The isolation valves should have a rated working
package). The two control pods each house the pilot- pressure at least equivalent to the designed working pres-
operated control valves for directing power fluid to and sure of the system to which they are attached. The valves
readback from the BOP stack functions. must be in the open position except when the accumulators
are isolated for servicing, testing, or transporting.
The subsea control system types include hydraulic control
systems, Electrohydraulic control systems and multiplexed Accumulator types
Electro-Hydraulic control systems. Either separator or float type accumulators may be used.
System description and operation of the Hydraulic fluid mixing system

hydraulic pilot control The hydraulic fluid reservoir should be a combination of
two storage sections: one section containing mixed fluid
Accumulator volumetric capacity calculation to be used in the operation of the blowout preventers and
The accumulator volumetric capacity is sized to the require- the other section containing the concentrated water-solu-
ments of the individual BOP stack to be controlled. Accu- ble hydraulic fluid to be mixed with water to form the mixed
mulators may be mounted on the subsea BOP stack to re- hydraulic fluid. This mixing system should be automatically
duce response time and/or to serve as a backup supply of controlled so that when the mixed fluid reservoir level drops
power fluid. The stored capacity should be protected from to a certain point the mixing system will turn on and water
discharge through the supply lines by suitable devices such and hydraulic fluid concentrate will be mixed into the mixed
as pilot operated check valves. fluid reservoir. The mixing system should be designed to mix
at a rate equal to the total pump output. In cold climates an
Note: The minimum performance and capacities recom- extra storage section and triple component mixing system
mendations for subsea BOP well drilling control systems is may be needed for glycol additive.
as listed in API Spec 16D, 2013.
Pump systems
The subsea accumulator capacity calculations should com-
The subsea BOP control system should have a minimum of
pensate for subsea hydrostatic pressure gradient at the rate
two independent pump systems (i.e., one electric and one
of 0.445 psi per foot of true vertical water depth. For exam-
pneumatic or two electric powered by two separate elec-
ple, the hydrostatic head at 500 ft water depth is 222.5 psi.
trical power sources). The combination of all pumps should
This requires that all pressure values related to accumulator
be capable of charging the entire accumulator system from
sizing be increased this additional amount.
the established minimum working pressure to the maximum
rated system pressure in fifteen minutes or less.
Response time
The control system for a subsea BOP stack should be capa- Isolated accumulators may be provided for the pilot control
ble of closing each ram BOP in 45 seconds or less. Closing system which may be supplied by a separate pump. The
response time should not exceed 60 seconds for annular dedicated pump, if used, can be either air powered or elec-
BOPs. Operating response time for choke and kill valves tric powered.

Air pumps should be capable of charging the accumulators the subsea control pod. Alternatively, a larger diameter rigid
to the system working pressure with 75-psi minimum air conduit can be included on the riser to supply fluids to the
pressure supply. Provision should be made to supply hy- subsea control pod.
draulic fluid to the pilot accumulators from the main accu-
mulator unit should the dedicated pump fail to perform. Hose reels
Hose reels are used to store, run and retrieve the umbilical
Central control point hose bundles. The hose reels are equipped with hose reel
A subsea hydraulic control system should have a central manifolds having valves, regulators, and gauges for main-
control point. For a hydraulic system this should be a mani- taining control through the subsea umbilical of selected
fold capable of controlling all the hydraulic functions on the functions during running and retrieving of the pod or LMRP
blowout preventer stack. The hydraulic control system will and/or the BOP stack.
consist of a power section to send hydraulic fluid to subsea
equipment and a pilot section to transmit signals subsea via The hose reel drum is normally equipped with a brake capa-
pilot lines. ble of overriding and stalling the motor. The brake should be
capable of supporting the weight of the fully deployed sub-
When a valve on the control manifold is operated a signal sea umbilical when it is suspended in water.
is sent subsea to a control valve which when opened allows
hydraulic fluid from the power fluid section to operate the Operation should be slow, smooth, and deliberate so as not
blowout preventers. Pressure regulators on the surface to overstress the drive and braking assemblies. Fast opera-
control manifold send pilot signals to subsea regulators to tion can build momentum that is difficult to control.
control the pressure of the hydraulic fluid at the preventers.
The hose reel drum will normally have a mechanical locking
The surface control system will normally include a flow
device that positions the hose reel manifold and junction box
meter which by a measure of the volume of fluid going to a
in an accessible position.
particular function will indicate if that function is operating
properly. Two independent hose reels are provided. Each reel should
be clearly identified regarding which subsea control pod it
Remote control and monitoring panels services. Standard practice is to color code the reels or the
The subsea BOP control system should have capability to hose reel manifolds one blue and one yellow corresponding
control all of the BOP stack functions, including pressure to the color of the associated pod.
regulation and monitoring of all system pressures from at
least two separate locations. One location should be in a Hose reel manifold
non-classified (non-hazardous) area (i.e., as defined in API The hose reel manifold provides control of selected func-
RP 50). tions through the pilot lines when the hydraulic jumper hose
to the control manifold has been removed to permit rotation
In addition to the driller’s panel and main hydraulic control
of the hose reel drum.
unit at least one additional remote control panel is normally
provided for BOP stack and diverter functions. All functions required to land and retrieve the LMRP and/
or the BOP stack remain fully active during landing and re-
Umbilical control hose bundles trieval.
Umbilical control hose bundles are used to provide the main
supply of power fluid and pilot signals from the surface hy- Hose sheaves
draulic control manifold to the subsea control pods mount- Hose wheel or roller sheaves facilitate running and retrieving
ed on the BOP stack. The surface jumper hose bundle is a the subsea umbilical from the hose reel through the moon-
fixture on the rig that extends from the manifold to the hose pool and support the moonpool loop which is deployed to
reel. The subsea umbilical is run, retrieved and stored on the compensate for vessel heave.
hose reel.
The sheaves are normally positioned directly over the LMRP
The pilot signals are routed to the hose reels through the mounted control pods (or valve manifolds). They are nor-
appropriate length of surface umbilical jumper hose bundle mally hung off the rig structure, a davit or an extendable arm.
from the hydraulic control manifold to the junction boxes lo-
cated on the hose reel side plate. Hose sheaves should be mounted to permit three-axis free-
dom of movement of the umbilical.
The main hydraulic power fluid supply can be carried by a
steel pipe run communicating through a swivel fitting on Wheels or rollers which support a bend in the subsea umbil-
the hose reel through a supply hose in the hose bundle to ical should have a minimum arc of 170° of load bearing sup-

port and provide a bend radius greater than the minimum will supply “uninterrupted” power for approximately two
bend radius recommended by umbilical manufacturer. hours.
Subsea control pods / manifolds All functions are operable from and monitored from a re-
There should always be two fully operational and completely mote control panel located on the rig floor interfacing with
redundant control pods/manifolds on the blowout preventer the central control unit. Another electrical panel in the tool-
stack. The control “pods” may be retrievable or non-retriev- pusher’s office has the same or limited functions as found on
able. Manifolds would be considered as rigidly fixed equip- the driller’s panel.
ment added to the LMRP and not separable as a unit (i.e.,
The electrical control unit should maintain function status
pod). Each control pod/manifold will contain all necessary
memory in the event of power interruption. Upon resto-
valves and regulators to operate the LMRP and blowout pre-
ration of power, the system should display the status of all
venter stack functions. Should a problem occur within one
functions as they were prior to the loss of power.
pod/manifold, the control can be switched to the other pod/
manifold. It is common for both pods/manifolds to have the
pilots function in parallel so that if a switch is made from
Subsea umbilical cables and connectors
The subsea umbilical cable is run, retrieved and stored on
one pod to the other (by switching the main hydraulic supply
a cable reel. The subsea umbilical electrical cable supplies
from one to the other), the previously selected functions re-
power, communications and control of the subsea control
main as originally selected. The hoses from each control pod
pods. The electrical conductors, electrical insulation/jack-
should be connected to a shuttle valve that is connected to
eting, and end terminations must be carefully handled so as
the function to be operated. A shuttle valve is a slide valve
not to stretch, kink, puncture or crush any of these elements
with two inlets and one outlet which prevents movement of
causing failure and rig shutdown.
the hydraulic fluid between the two redundant control pods.
A wheel or roller sheave, with appropriate bend radius to
Electrohydraulic and multiplex control systems suit the umbilical being used, is positioned directly over the
for subsea lower marine riser package (LMRP) mounted control pods
Electrohydraulic and multiplex control systems are used in (or valve package). It is normally hung off the rig structure, a
deepwater where response times of hydraulic signals would davit or an extendable arm.
be too lengthy. Electrical command signals transmitted over
lengthy subsea umbilical cables have nearly instantaneous Cable reels
response times. The cable reels are designed to run and retrieve the cable
without damaging or kinking. Certain functions required to
Electrical command signals operate subsea solenoid valves run, land and retrieve the LMRP and/or the stack should re-
which, in turn, provide hydraulic pilot signals directly to op- main fully active during running, landing and retrieval. This
erate the pod valves that direct power fluid to the subsea is typically accomplished by use of an electrical slip ring as-
functions (i.e., BOPs, connectors, choke and kill valves). sembly at the reel shaft so that these certain functions re-
main “live” when reeling cable out or in.
Electrohydraulic systems have conductor wires in the sub-
sea umbilical cable dedicated to each function. Multiplex A mechanical locking mechanism should be used to lock the
(MUx) systems serialize and code the command signals drum in position when the reel is to remain stationary.
which are then sent subsea via shared conductors (normally
four, for redundancy) in the umbilical cable. Subsea data are The cable reel may have payout and take up controls locat-
electrically transmitted to the surface. ed on the reel or at a remote location. Operation should be
slow, smooth and deliberate so as to not overstress drive
Electrical control unit and brake assemblies. Fast operation can build momentum
An electrical control unit may be the central control point that is difficult to control.
(corresponding to the hydraulic control manifold of a hy-
draulic control system). This unit typically does not have in- Subsea control pods and manifolds
dividual function control buttons for operating. Alternative- The control pod serves as the subsea control valve manifold
ly, this unit may be eliminated and each control panel may and contains all the pressure regulators and valves required
communicate directly and independently with each subsea to operate the subsea LMRP/BOP functions.
control pod. The electrical control unit is normally supplied
electrical power from an uninterruptible power supply. A Two control pods/manifolds should always be fully oper-
bank of batteries are typically used as a back-up to the main ational to provide backup control of all subsea functions.
electrical supply. If the main power is lost, the battery bank Should a problem occur within one pod/manifold, the con-

trol can be switched to the other pod/manifold. It is com- Subsea electrical equipment
mon for both pods/manifolds to have the pilots function in All electrical connections which may be exposed to seawa-
parallel so that if a switch is made from one pod to the oth- ter should be protected from over current to prevent over-
er (by switching the main hydraulic supply from one to the loading the subsea electrical supply system in the event of
other), the previously selected functions remain as originally water intrusion into the connection. Auxiliary subsea elec-
selected. The surface electrical control point directs func- trical equipment which is not directly related to the BOP
tion commands through the umbilical cables to operate the control system should be connected in such a manner to
pressure regulators, valves and straight through functions avoid disabling the BOP control system in the event of a fail-
installed in the pod. ure in the auxiliary equipment.
Umbilical hoses and rigid conduits Subsea electrical equipment should be galvanically isolated
A cable strain relief/radius guard should be employed at the from any surface exposed to seawater.
cable/pod interface to prevent kinking or cutting the umbil-
ical. Maintenance procedures referenced
The subsea pressure regulators in each pod/manifold
from service interval chart
should provide regulated pressures to ensure proper oper-
ation of the designated function. Manufacturers of equip-
Hydraulic power unit
A. General Inspection: Inspect the hydraulic power unit
ment to be functioned (i.e., BOPs, connectors and choke/kill
daily for leaks at the following points, and correct if
valves) will provide operation pressure data. The valves and necessary:
regulators should be sized to supply the volume required to 1) Piping
operate each function within the specified response time 2) Reservoirs
(per company policy). 3) Accumulators
4) Air supply manifold
The pods may or may not be retrieved independently of the 5) Electric pumps
LMRP. A retrievable control pod assembly would be com- a) Crankcase
prised of the retrievable control pod and at least two pod b) Packing
receivers (single receiver assembly or multiple stab type). 6) Air pumps
One receiver would be mounted on the LMRP to provide a) Power end
the landing and seal interface between the pod and LMRP b) Packing
functions (LMRP receiver). The second receiver would be B.Panel valves
Whenever rig operations permit, check the panel
mounted on the BOP stack to provide the landing and seal
valves for leaks with the following procedure:
interface between the pod or LMRP and the BOP stack func-
Caution: Do not perform the following tests during
tions (BOP stack receiver). Proper alignment between the critical drilling operations. Loss of pressure in the
control pod and receivers should be maintained to ensure pilot lines may cause stack components or the
fluid seal integrity. Usually, one elastomeric/steel seal as- control pod selector to change position.
sembly is dedicated to each function interface. 1) Turn off all pumps.
2) Close the isolation valves on the accumulators.
A retrievable control pod is equipped with a locking mecha- 3) Observe the panel gauges. A slow decrease in
nism to lock the control pod to the LMRP or receiver. If con- pressure indicates a leak. Troubleshoot the hydraulic
ditions dictate, the control pod locking mechanism may be system and repair as necessary.
capable of being unlocked by means of a mechanical over- C.Fluid reservoirs (lubricant, glycol, and mixed fluid)
ride. 1) Inspect the fluid levels of the fluid reservoirs daily, and
add fluid if necessary.
Non-retrievable control pods/manifolds are usually fixed to 2) Inspect the mixed fluid reservoir every 1-2 months for
the LMRP and may require only the BOP stack receiver to bacterial buildup, scum, and sludge with the following
provide the landing and fluid seal interface for the control procedure:
pod to the BOP stack. a) Check for an unpleasant odor, which indicates the
presence of bacteria.
Corrosion in the subsea control equipment should be min- b) Check for scum floating on top of the fluid and
imized by implementing measures such as anticorrosive adhering to the reservoir walls.
3) Remove the bacterial buildup, scum, and sludge with
coating/lubricant selection, corrosion resistant material
the following procedure:
selection for replacement parts, modifications utilizing an-
a) Add an environmentally safe biocide to a fresh
ticorrosive materials, cathodic protection, etc. batch of reservoir fluid to kill the bacteria.
b) Charge the accumulators to 3,000 psi.

c) Wait at least 30 minutes for the bacteria to die. F. Air Regulators

d) Drain the reservoir and the accumulators. a) Clean air regulator strainer screens monthly with
e) Flush the system with clean, fresh water. detergent and water.
f) Fill the reservoir with the correct mixture of fresh b) Test air regulators monthly by verifying that the set
water, soluble lubricant, and ethylene glycol. pressure is maintained during air flows.
g) Charge the accumulators to 3,000 psi. c) Inspect air regulator settings every six months by
h) Open the purge valve or disconnect the tubing, reading the discharge pressure gauges.
and flush the fluid from the pilot lines at the subsea G. Accumulators
control valve until fresh fluid appears. Inspect accumulator precharge every six months, at
D. Pumps each rig move, or when a problem is suspected,
1) Air pumps whichever occurs first.
a) Visually inspect air pumps daily for leaks, and Note: Install a repair kit in each accumulator every
correct if necessary. three years.
b) Inspect air pumps weekly with the following 1) Use the following procedure on each accumulator to
procedure: determine if any of the accumulators have defective
i. Turn off electric pumps. valve assemblies that are not closing completely or are
ii. Turn on air pumps. leaking nitrogen.
iii. Relieve accumulator pressure until air pumps a) Turn off all pumps.
start to operate (approximately 2,750 psi). b) Close the isolation valves on all accumulators
iv. Observe and listen to pump operation. If the except the one to be tested.
sound of the pump stroke is uneven or if the pump Note: It may be necessary to drain fluid from the
rod moves faster on one stroke, the pump could reservoir before relieving accumulator pressure.
be leaking on either the forward or reverse stroke. c) Relieve the pressure in the accumulator being
See the Maintenance Procedures for repair tested to 0 psi with the bleeder valve on the
instructions. accumulator return line, and listen for a bubbling
v. The pumps should stop operation at 3,000 psi. sound.
If the pumps continue to operate slowly after the d) If no bubbling sound is heard in the reservoir after
pressure reaches 3,000 psi, the pump governor the pressure is relieved, the accumulator valve
or bypass valve is defective. See the Maintenance assembly is working correctly. Repeat steps (a)
Procedures for repair instructions. through (d) for each accumulator and proceed
2) Electric pumps to step 2.
a) Visually inspect electric pumps daily for leaks, and e) If a bubbling sound is heard in the reservoir after
correct if necessary. the pressure is relieved, the accumulator valve
b) Inspect electric pumps weekly with the following assembly is not closing completely or is leaking
procedure: nitrogen. Repair the valve assembly according to the
i. Relieve accumulator pressure until electric following instructions:
pumps start to operate (approximately 2,750 psi). i. Relieve the nitrogen precharge pressure in the
ii. Observe and listen to pump operation. accumulator with the nitrogen needle valve on the
iii. Pumps should start smoothly, and pressure valve assembly.
should start to build up immediately. ii. Remove the valve assembly, and repair it. See
iv. Visually inspect the rod packing for leaks. Maintenance Procedures for repair instructions.
v. Listen to and feel the suction and discharge line iii. Precharge the accumulator. See the
relief valves for discharges caused by leaks. Maintenance Procedures for precharge
vi. If a leak is detected, see the Maintenance instructions.
Procedures for repair instructions. f) Close the bleeder valve on the accumulator return
c) Inspect the oil level in the electric pumps weekly, line.
and add oil if necessary. g) Repeat step G1 for each accumulator before
d) Change the oil in the electric pumps every 6 continuing to step G2.
months. Use nondetergent SAE 10 or SAE 20 motor 2) Determine if any of the accumulators do not have
oil for temperatures below 40°F and SAE 30 or SAE sufficient precharge pressure with the following
40 for temperatures above 40°F. procedure:
e) Inspect the tension of the belts weekly. Depress Note: This procedure will not determine if any of the
the belt with thumb pressure; movement should be accumulators have submerged floats. See step G3
no more than 1/2 in. to determine if an accumulator has a submerged
E. Air Lubricators float.
a) Inspect the oil level of the air lubricators weekly, a) Ensure that all pumps are turned off.
and add oil if necessary. b) Ensure that the bleeder valve on the accumulator
b) Use nondetergent SAE 10 motor oil to fill air return line is closed.
lubricators. c) Ensure that the accumulator pressure gauge

registers zero psi. BOP stack

d) Turn on the pumps. Wait 4-5 seconds for electric Wash the pod baseplates with fresh water to remove all
pumps, slightly longer (until the pump reaches a mud and foreign objects;
steady level of operation) for air pumps. Inspect the female with the following procedure:
e) Observe the accumulator pressure gauge. 1) Inspect the female for internal scoring and freedom of
i. If the accumulator pressure gauge registers movement. If scoring is found, use an emery cloth to
from 900-1,100 psi, all accumulators have remove protruding metal.
sufficient precharge pressure. 2) Lubricate the female with clean, lightweight,
ii. If the accumulator pressure gauge registers waterproof grease.
below 900 psi, one or more accumulators has 3) Cover the female when not in use.
insuffient precharge pressure. Continue to step
G3.
3) Perform the following tests on each accumulator
Remote-operated choke controls
to determine which accumulator(s) has insufficient
precharge pressure or a submerged float: Purpose
a) Close the isolation valves on all accumulators While it is possible to control a well kick using a manual ad-
except the one to be tested. justable choke at the choke manifold, this method is not con-
b) Close the bleeder valve on the accumulator return venient because the manifold is usually some distance from
line. the drilling floor. Also the distance involved and the noise
c) Ensure that the accumulator pressure gauge associated with drilling operations may make communica-
registers 0 psi. tion between the driller and the choke operator difficult or
d) Turn on the pumps. Wait 4-5 seconds for electric impossible thus creating a potentially dangerous situation.
pumps, slightly longer (until the pump reaches a Therefore, most choke manifolds are equipped with at least
steady level of operation) for air pumps.
one remotely operated drilling choke which requires a choke
e) Observe the accumulator pressure gauge.
control system located on the drilling floor.
i. If the accumulator pressure gauge registers
from 900-1,100 psi, the accumulator has
The purpose of this section is to describe some of the design
sufficient precharge pressure.
considerations in a choke control system, identify and de-
ii. If the accumulator pressure gauge registers
below 900 psi, the accumulator does not have scribe the functions of the major components, and provide
sufficient precharge pressure. See the some installation guidelines for the system.
Maintenance Procedures for precharge
instructions. Design considerations
iii. If the accumulator pressure gauge registers a The functional requirements for drilling choke control sys-
steady pressure increase from 0-3,000 psi, the tems are specified in API Spec. 16C. It is the responsibility of
float is submerged. the control console manufacturer to ensure that his equip-
Note: As an option, to verify the accumulator ment meets these requirements in addition to the specific
pre-charge pressure, install a test gauge in the performance requirements also listed in Spec. 16C. The in-
nitrogen needle valve on the accumulator valve
terested reader should consult Spec. 16C for more detail.
assembly.
f) Repeat step G3 for each accumulator.
Major control system components
The major components in a remote drilling choke control
Hose reels
Inspect the oil level of the air lubricator and chain system are:
lubricator weekly, and add oil if necessary; »» Drilling choke and actuator
Use nondetergent SAE 10 motor oil to fill the A drilling choke is essentially a pressure reducing valve of
lubricators. very robust design. Its function in the control system is to
provide for the control of drilling system pressures while cir-
Lower riser assembly – Control pods culating out a kick. The choke actuator is usually the hydrau-
Inspect each subsea control pod on the lower riser assem- lic piston type which moves the choke open or closed by the
bly, using the following procedure, every time the pods are application of hydraulic pressure to one side or the other of
retrieved. the piston.
Remove the protection covers from the pods;
Wash all valves, stingers, and piping thoroughly with »» Choke position transmitter
fresh water. During choking operations, it is necessary to know what po-
sition the choke is in, and to have this information displayed
at the console. The position transmitter is usually attached
to the rear of the actuator and is driven by a rod which ex-

tends through the back of the actuator. The transmitter floating piston which allows pressure to be transmitted into
produces a signal, usually pneumatic, hydraulic, or electric, the hose. In higher pressure systems (greater than 10,000
which is proportional to the choke position. This signal is psi) the piston-type isolator will provide a 4:1 pressure re-
sent to the position indicator display on the console face. duction ratio in order to allow the use of lower working pres-
sure hoses. The gauge faces are calibrated to actual system
»» Choke control console
pressure, but have a working pressure four times less than
The console provides the choke operator with the controls
the maximum gauge reading.
needed to change the choke position in addition to the var-
ious displays which provide the operator with the informa- An alternative method for measuring and displaying these
tion needed for proper kick control. The console also con- pressures is through the use of low pressure pneumatic
tains the hydraulic power system which drives the choke pressure transducers. These transducers are located at the
actuator. The major pieces of equipment contained in the standpipe and manifold pressure monitoring points and are
console and their function is as follows: supplied with low pressure air from the console. The design
»» Hydraulic power system is such that the signal returned through the separate signal
The hydraulic power required for the choke is usually sup- line is proportional to the mud pressure being monitored.
plied by an air driven hydraulic pump. In addition to the This signal pressure will generally not exceed 30 psi. The
pump the system usually contains a hydraulic oil reservoir console gauges will display actual system working pressure,
and may contain an accumulator. When present, an accu- but will in fact be low pressure pneumatic gauges.
mulator provides for smoother operation of the choke and »» Pump stroke counter
also provides a power reserve usually sufficient to operate The console also contains a pump stroke counter. This
the choke through one or more complete cycles should counter takes its input signal from the limit switches located
there be a failure of the rig air supply. The hydraulic system at the mud pumps. The counter will accumulate total strokes
also contains an emergency hand pump which can be used and the count totalizer may be reset to zero when needed.
to drive the choke should rig air fail. The hydraulic system In addition to the stroke totalizer the unit will also contain a
pressure is monitored with a pressure gauge in the face of stroke rate indicator which reads in strokes per minute. The
the console. stroke counter unit will generally allow for switching from
»» Choke operation system one pump to another if that is necessary.
The choke position is usually controlled with a hydraulic
The stroke counter unit may be powered externally, but is
spool valve which will deliver oil to either the open or closed
most usually battery powered with lithium batteries. These
side of the choke actuator. The valve is generally a spring
batteries will generally provide a life of up to five years. The
centered type which when released will automatically return
unit may be constructed to meet explosion proof require-
to the center position which closes both hydraulic lines lead-
ments, but many are built to be intrinsically safe which leads
ing to the actuator. This action effectively locks the choke
to a lighter weight unit.
in its last position (if there are no hydraulic oil leaks). The
choke position at any time is indicated by a choke position
indicator located in the face of the console.
Installation guidelines
The following practice is recommended for the installation
The choke operation system will frequently contain a choke of a drilling choke control console and the other control
speed control valve. This is usually a small needle valve system components in a typical drilling rig. A location for
located upstream of the choke control valve. By partially the console should be selected so that it is near enough to
closing this valve the speed of opening or closing the choke the driller so that easy spoken communication between the
can be reduced thus providing for precise positioning of the driller and the console operator is possible. This consider-
choke. ation is critical to the safety of the operation when kick con-
trol is required.
»» Standpipe and casing pressure gauges.
The pressure condition in both the standpipe and casing is The console should be securely attached to the floor. This
monitored by large diameter pressure gauges mounted in attachment should be permanent if the control system is
the face of the console. These gauges are usually calibrated owned by the rig owner. If the control console and drilling
in 25-psi, or smaller, increments. The gauges are connected choke is rental equipment, the attachment means is neces-
by flexible high pressure hose to their respective monitoring sarily temporary, but the attachment must be sufficient to
points. The hoses are usually oil-filled to prevent entry of prevent the console from moving as a result of rig vibration.
drilling mud. This is accomplished through the use of iso- Should the console move around, the hydraulic and/or other
lators at the standpipe and manifold pressure connection lines connected to the console may be damaged.
points. These isolators contain either a flexible diaphragm or

The air supply line, the hydraulic power lines from the choke The critical issues when shallow gas is encountered and
actuator, the standpipe and casing pressure lines, the choke as soon as the “kick” is detected is to respond quickly and
position transmitter lines, and the pump stroke counter correctly. Quickly because in the shallow well there is little
lines need to be routed so that they do not become kinked hydrostatic head pressure and little distance for the gas to
or otherwise damaged during the normal course of drilling travel before a blowout.
operations. Any excess line should be carefully rolled up and
stored near the console, but in a location where it will not Correctly because closing in the well could cause a blowout
interfere with operations or become damaged. to occur around the conductor allowing gas to migrate up
the outside of the conductor and to the drill floor. To pre-
Care needs to be taken to ensure that all lines to the con- vent closing in the well, at least one vent line must be open
sole are connected to the proper port on the console. For ex- prior to closing the diverter packer (flowline access to the
ample, the casing pressure line should be connected at the annulus).
choke manifold pressure transmitter and also to the console
port which leads to the casing pressure gauge on the face The most common diverter systems used on land, or fixed
of the console. The design of the console may be such that offshore rigs consist of an annular type blowout preventer
the various hydraulic and pressure lines have different size with a top mounted bell nipple which has an outlet for the
connectors so that they can be connected to only one port flowline to the shale shaker/mud pits and one or two di-
on the console, but this may not be the case so care must verter lines to vent the diverted gas overboard. When the
be exercised. diverter packer closes on the drillpipe it closes the annulus
space shutting off the flow of drilling mud through the flow-
The limit switches for the pump stroke counter must be inline. Even in simple systems like this, it is prudent to have
stalled on the frames of the mud pumps in such a way that the diverter control system designed in a manner to prevent
they are tripped by the pump plunger during each stroke of closing the diverter packer until at least one diverter vent is
the pump. If the control system is rented, the limit switches open. It is even more imperative in the more complex plat-
are usually supplied with a “C” clamp to facilitate attach- form diverter systems and subsea diverter systems that crit-
ment to the mud pump frame. ical functions occur automatically and that safeguards are
employed to prevent erroneous operation which could result
After all the lines are properly routed and attached, the oil in injury, damage to the rig and damage to the environment.
reservoir should be checked to ensure that it is filled to the
proper level. The hydraulic pump should then be started by Generally accepted diverter control system recommended
opening the air supply line. As soon as hydraulic pressure practices are listed in API Spec 16D, 2013.
in the system builds up to the point where the pump shuts
down, the choke control valve (or valves) should be cycled in The master hydraulic diverter control manifold or panel
order to move the choke actuator from open to closed and should be treated in the same manner as the BOP hydraulic
back several times to facilitate removal of any air from the control unit as stated in API Spec 16D, 2013. It should be
hydraulic system. It may be necessary to add oil to the choke located in a safe (protected) area away from the drill floor
actuator during this operation. but accessible to rig personnel in case the drill floor has to
be evacuated in an emergency. This means that the diverter
Diverter control systems functions should be capable of remote control from the
Diverter Systems are used where shallow gas is anticipated driller’s position.
during the initial drilling of the well prior to reaching the stable
The automatic sequencing circuitry and safety interlock cir-
formation where the casing is cemented. Once this “shoe” is
cuitry should always be established in the master hydraulic
established, the BOP stack can be installed and the well closed-
diverter control manifold. If these circuits were to be estab-
in should a “kick” be encountered during further drilling.
lished in the remote control panel, they could be inaccessi-
Prior to cementing and establishment of the “shoe”, gas en- ble or rendered inoperative by damage if the drill floor was
countered during the initial drilling must be diverted. Normally evacuated because of gas, fire or falling debris.
two diverter lines are employed at right angles to the prevailing
wind. Diverting is accomplished by opening one or both of the
diverter lines, then closing the annulus space, (flowline access)
with the “packer” element. This directs gas away from the rota-
ry and mud pits, through the diverter vent lines and harmlessly
away from the rig. The shallow pocket of gas will normally loose
its pressure and bridge closed in a matter of minutes.

Diverter types Time delay circuits - The following circuits should be de-
signed so they can be overridden after a 10-60 second delay:
Overboard valve can be shifted to port open / starboard
Hydril MSP close or starboard open / port close;
Normal auto sequence - Placing the diverter packer control Flowline valve can be opened or closed at the operator’s
valve in the close position automatically opens the pre-se- discretion;
lected overboard valve. Trip tank valve can be opened or closed at the
operator’s discretion;
Normal safety interlock - Hydraulic pressure to close the di- Riser fill valve can be opened or closed at the operator’s
verter packer is prevented until at least one overboard con- discretion.
trol valve has been shifted to open.
NOTE: If overriding these functions is desired by the opera-
Vetco KFL tor with the overboard valves closed, the diverter-test valve
Normal auto sequence - Placing the diverter packer control can be placed in the test position interrupting the auto se-
valve in the close position automatically opens the pre-sequence. This is normally required for low pressure testing of
lected overboard valve and locks the insert packer. the diverter lines.
Normal safety interlock - Hydraulic pressure to close the Additional features common to platform diverters:
diverter packer is prevented until at least one overboard Safety circuit to prevent venting the flowline seals or
control valve has been shifted to open and the insert packer overshot packer when the diverter packer is closed;
Optional divert/strip function;
control valve has been shifted to lock.
Divert/test mode function allows closing all diverter
functions for low pressure testing;
Hydril FSP Low deadband failsafe pneumatic motor driven remote
Normal auto sequence - Not required in the control system. controlled regulators. Normally only the diverter packer
Normal safety interlock - Not required in the control system. pressure regulator is remotely operated. All regulators
can be remotely operated. Remotely operated
NOTE: The FSP diverter is designed so that when the pis- regulators should be sensitive to downstream pressure
ton moves up to close the diverter packer closing the flow- changes within plus/minus 150 psi;
line out of the top mounted bell nipple, it clears the bottom KFDJ and KFDS diverter control systems should include
outlet to the vent line which is blocked when the piston is a “Diverter Ready” indicator to indicate when the safety
down (diverter packer open). The vent line cannot be closed. interlock circuits have been preset to their proper
There is a selector deflector to select port or starboard. position;
Hydraulic safety logic should be used to reduce the
dependence on pneumatic circuitry;
Vetco KFDJ Pneumatic circuits should be minimized for safety. Air
Normal auto sequence - Placing the diverter packer control
supply for a minimum of two times the volume to
valve in the close position automatically shifts the pre-se- sequence the diverter controls should be checked,
lected overboard control valve to the open position, and en- valved in and stored in the panel for emergency
sures the inflowing valves shifts to the position indicated if operation;
they are not already in that position: Low air supply pressure and low hydraulic supply
pressure warning lights should be included in diverter
Insert Packer - Lock Diverter Lock Dogs control systems with electric remote control. Function
- Lock Flowline Seals position status indication should also be included.
- Pressurized
Vetco KFDS
Overshot Packer - Pressurized Flowline / Shaker Valve The normal auto sequence, safety interlocks, delay circuits
- Close and additional features described in the KFDJ diverter brief
descriptions are generally applicable to the KFDS diverter
Trip Tank Valve - Close (if applicable) Fill-Up Valve
controls for subsea systems. KFDS systems usually have
- Close (if applicable)
more hydraulic functions than the KFDJ and will include a
Normal safety interlocks - Hydraulic pressure to close the divert- slip joint packer which may be energized by air or hydraulic
er packer is prevented until the following pilot signals are sensed: pressure.
At least one overboard valve has been actuated to open;
The insert packer has been actuated to lock; KFDS diverter control systems are normally self-contained
Pressure is applied to both the flowline and overshot packer units. They include dedicated pumps, reservoirs and accu-
seals. mulators.

Diverter remote controls mounted. Hydraulic back-up systems, whether unit mount-
The master hydraulic diverter control manifold or control ed or separate skid mounted, must be designed with consid-
panel should be located off the drill floor in an area relatively eration of the reservoir size for the additional fluid volume of
safe from gas, fire and falling debris and should be accessi- the back-up accumulators.
ble to the drilling crew for operation in an emergency. This
Pump up time for initially charging the back-up system accu-
means that the diverter control functions should be capa-
mulators need not be considered when sizing pump systems
ble of remote control from the driller’s location. On offshore
in accordance with API Spec 16D, 2013. The back-up accu-
drilling rigs, the control panel at the driller’s location should
mulators will remain charged after the initial charging unless
as a minimum include the following features:
operated in an emergency according to their design intent.
Control and status position indication of all diverter
control functions;
Control of the diverter packer regulator to increase/ Control systems: typical capacity and
decrease function; performance data and calculations
Low hydraulic supply and low air supply to the master Blowout prevention equipment such as annular preventers
panel alarms. If the diverter control system is a and ram preventers are normally opened or closed by fluid
“self-contained” unit, low reservoir level of the diverter
pressure. The fluid to accomplish this is stored in the ac-
control fluid reservoir should be included.
cumulator. The pressure used must meet the capacity and
Electric pump running light. (Self-contained units with
electric pump.); operational pressure requirements of the particular blowout
“On battery power” indicator (units so equipped with preventer in order for it to perform as designed.
emergency battery back-up);
Nitrogen back-up initiated (if so equipped); API recommendations specify that ram BOPs for surface
Indication of all system pressures; equipment should be capable of closing within 30 seconds
Function controls oriented and represented in a graphic of actuation regardless of size. Closing time for annular
display of the diverter system. preventers smaller than 18 3/4–in. nominal bore should not
exceed 30 seconds from actuation and annular preventers
The driller’s remote control panel should be designed in ac- 18 3/4–in. and over should not exceed 45 seconds. When the
cordance with the recommendations of API Spec 16D, 2013. BOPs are located on the ocean floor (subsea systems), an
Driller’s panels should be suitable for installation in explo- additional 15 seconds is generally acceptable to allow for pi-
sive gas environments. lot signals from the surface which actuate the control valves
mounted in control pods which are located on the lower ma-
Diverter control panels can frequently be incorporated with
rine riser package.
the BOP control system panels to conserve space. Divert-
er functions should be electrically independent of the BOP In order to have the fluid capacity at the pressure required
control functions. to operate the BOPs within the specified time limit, accu-
mulator bottles are used to store this energy. Accumulator
Diverter back-up systems bottles are pressure vessels pre-charged with nitrogen gas
The response time recommendation to sequence the divert- to store the operating fluid under pressure.
er system and close the diverter packer within 30 seconds
for diverter packers up to 20–in. nominal bore size and 45 The basic principle of operation of the accumulator is that
seconds for diverter packers over 20–in. nominal bore size when the volume of pre-charge gas is reduced by pumping
can be met with a nitrogen back-up system or dedicated hy- liquid into the bottle, its pressure increases. Boyle’s Law
draulic accumulators. The back-up system can have manual defines this relationship between the volume of gas and its
intervention as long as it is selectable on demand (remote pressure as given below:
control from the driller’s panel) or otherwise, automatic.
“The absolute pressure of a confined body of gas varies in-
Automatic hydraulic back-up systems sense the loss of a hy-
versely to its volume provided its temperature remains con-
draulic pilot signal and automatically open the back-up ac-
stant”.
cumulator supply into the hydraulic control manifold of the
diverter control system. This means that if a volume of gas is compressed to one-
third of its original size, the pressure will be 3 times greater
Automatic nitrogen back-up systems likewise sense the loss
than before compression after it has been allowed to cool
of hydraulic pilot pressure and automatically inject stored
to its original temperature (compression generates heat).
nitrogen pressure into the manifold circuit for sequencing
Boyle’s Law can be expressed by the following equation:
the diverter functions and closing the diverter packer.
P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
Either system can be “unit” mounted or “separate skid”

Where: We can calculate (under isothermal conditions) that amount

P1 = initial pressure (nitrogen pre-charge) not considered usable by solving the Boyle’s Law equation
V1 = initial gas volume for V2 as given below:
P2 = pressure at a later time
V2 = gas volume at a later time V2 = P1 x V1 / P2
= 1000 x 10 / 1200
There are two important considerations to Boyle’s Law that = 8.3 gallons nitrogen
have not been taken into account. One is absolute pressure
and the other is temperature effects. Where:
V2 = gallons of nitrogen at minimum system pressure
Absolute pressure P1 = initial pressure (nitrogen pre-charge)
A pressure gauge is calibrated to read zero psi when it is V1 = initial gas volume in gallons
disconnected regardless of atmospheric pressure, elevation, P2 = minimum system pressure in psi
or barometric pressure. This is written as psig, pounds per
So as the pressure in the bottle rises from 1,000 psi (pre-
square inch - gauge. At sea level, the weight of air produces
charge pressure) to 1,200 psi (minimum system pressure),
an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi. If pressure is to be stat-
the nitrogen gas is compressed from 10 gal to 8.3 gal, or 1.7
ed in absolute terms for solving problems using Boyle’s Law,
gal of liquid was forced into the bottle, causing the pressure
atmosphere pressure must be added to the gauge reading to
rise. This 1.7 gal is not considered stored usable fluid.
obtain the absolute pressure level and this should be written
psia, pounds per square inch - absolute. The total volume of liquid in the bottle at the maximum sys-
tem pressure can also be calculated using Boyle’s Law as
Temperature given below:
Nitrogen gas is used to pre-charge accumulators primari-
ly because it is an inert gas. This means it does not easily V3 = P1 x V1 / P3
take part in chemical reactions. Therefore, nitrogen has the = 1000 x 10 / 3000
advantage of not being combustible under pressure in con- = 3.3 gallons nitrogen
junction with petroleum based hydraulic fluid. While there
are other inert gases that could be used, nitrogen gas is rela- Where:
tively cheap and readily available in many parts of the world. V3 = gallons of nitrogen at maximum system pressure
P1 = initial pressure (nitrogen pre-charge)
If compression and expansion of the nitrogen gas is allowed V1 = initial gas volume in gallons
to occur slowly providing sufficient time for heat to be dis- P3 = maximum system pressure in psi
sipated, this condition is referred to as isothermal and no
allowance for the relationship between gas and temperature Now we know that as the pressure in the bottle rises from
is entertained. The safety factors included in standard cal- 1,000 psi (pre-charge pressure) to 3,000 psi (maximum
culations normally are sufficient to compensate for absolute system pressure), the nitrogen gas is compressed from 10
pressure and temperature effects. These effects are there- gal to 3.3 gal, or 6.7 gal of liquid is now in the bottle. Remem-
fore not considered in order to simplify the calculations for bering that the 1.7 gal is not usable, we can determine the
the rig personnel. stored usable fluid in the bottle by the following equation:
Application of Boyle’s law for calculating stored usable fluid Stored Usable Fluid = (6.7 - 1.7) gal = 5.0 gallons.
in surface accumulator bottles
Said another way, as the pressure in the 10 gal accumulator
Since accumulator bottles for surface systems are often pre- falls from 3000 psi to 1200 psi, 5.0 gal of liquid are forced
charged to 1,000 psi, that becomes the initial pressure (P1). out of the bottle and into the lines.
Let us say that the accumulator bottle has 10 gallons of ca-
NOTE: Accumulator bottles come in various sizes. Some
pacity (V1), the minimum pressure required to operate the
manufacturers state the size in regard to their gas volume
BOP function is 1,200 psi, and the maximum pressure that
while others state the physical inside volumetric capacity as
will be placed in the bottle is 3,000 psi.
the size. It is sometimes necessary to subtract the bladder
It is important to note that the “stored usable fluid” con- or float displacement from the physical inside volumetric ca-
tained in the accumulator bottle is that amount pushed out pacity in order to arrive at the true gas volume or stored us-
of the bottle by the expanding nitrogen gas bubble as pres- able fluid volume. For example, an 11 gal accumulator bottle
sure falls from 3,000 psi to 1,200 psi. Any fluid remaining in becomes 10 gal capacity when subtracting approximately 1
the bottle at that time is not considered “usable”. gal for bladder displacement.

Sizing accumulator system capacity for surface Therefore, control systems for subsea BOP stacks are can be
blowout preventers described as “indirect” whereas control systems for surface
BOP stacks are referred to as “direct.”
Obtain the value of gallons to close from the appropriate
BOP manufacturer. For this example, assume that we have Accumulator bottles mounted below the water’s surface
a surface BOP stack that requires the following closing vol- are subject to additional pressure proportional to the ser-
umes of fluid: vice depth. When the subsea control valve is piloted sending
pressure to close the BOP, the open side valve “vents” to the
Annular gallons to close = 17.98 gal sea. As the BOP closes, the fluid in the open chamber is ex-
3 Rams @ 5.8 gal each to close = 17.40 gal pelled from against the hydrostatic pressure of the seawater.
35.38 gal This pressure can be expressed as hydrostatic pressure or
Plus 50% Safety Factor: 17.69 gal as a pressure gradient. Seawater has a weight density of ap-
Stored Usable Fluid Required = 53.07 gal proximately 64 pounds per cubic foot or a pressure gradient
of 0.445 psi per foot. This may vary somewhat in different
Having previously calculated the stored usable fluid in a 10 areas around the world.
gal accumulator bottle, we can calculate the number of bot-
tles required according to the following equation; Let us use Boyle’s Law to calculate the stored usable fluid
in a 10 gallon accumulator bottle that is to be operated in
Accumulator Stored Usable Fluid Required 6,000 feet of water. In this case the correct pre-charge
–: Stored Usable Fluid per Bottle pressure is calculated as given below:
= 53.07 gal –: 5.0 gal/bottle
= 10.6 or 11 bottles Pre-charge pressure = Seawater Hydrostatic Pressure for
Subsea Bottles + Pre-charge Pressure
Government regulations of various countries and some oil
companies have specific requirements regarding accumula- = (0.445 x 6,000) + 1,000
tor capacity. The preceding references and calculations are = 2,670 + 1,000
only intended to explain the considerations and fundamen- = 3,670 psi
tals of calculating accumulator capacity using Boyle’s Law
which is a widely accepted method. It is important to note that the minimum system pressure is
still 200 psi above the pre-charge pressure and maximum
Pre-charge pressure, minimum system pressure, and maxi- system pressure is still 2,000 psi above pre-charge pres-
mum system pressure of the accumulator system may vary sure. Therefore;
on certain “high pressure”, BOP systems. These pressures
may be changed as a result of requirements to close ram Minimum System Pressure = 3,670 + 200 = 3,870 psi
type BOPs against full wellbore pressure. Control system Maximum System Pressure = 3,670 + 2,000 = 5,670 psi
manufacturers may recommend alternative accumulator
The stored usable fluid in our subsea bottle is calculated
capacity calculations in order to optimize performance of
in exactly the same fashion as for a surface bottle. We can
the system while minimizing cost. Contact a reputable con-
calculate that amount not considered usable by solving the
trol system manufacturer when proper accumulator capac-
Boyle’s Law equation as follows:
ities are in question.
V2 = P1 x V1 /P2
Application of Boyle’s Law for calculating stored = 3,670 x 10 / 3,870
usable fluid in subsea accumulator bottles = 9.5 gallons of nitrogen
BOP control systems used to control blowout preventers
Where:
which are connected to the wellhead at the ocean floor
V2 = gallons of nitrogen at minimum system pressure
sometimes have accumulator bottles mounted on the BOP
P1 = initial pressure (nitrogen pre-charge)
stack as well as surface accumulator bottles. These subsea
V1 = initial gas volume in gallons
bottles serve to give a quicker response by holding some of
P2 = minimum system pressure in psi
the stored usable fluid very close to the preventers. Also,
if supply from the surface is interrupted, the stored usable So as pressure in the accumulator bottle rises from 3,670 psi
fluid in the subsea bottles can be used to close in the well (pre-charge pressure) to 3,870 psi (minimum system pres-
while corrective action is taken. One important difference to sure), the nitrogen gas is compressed from 10 gal to 9.5 gal
remember between surface and subsea systems is that sub- or 0.5 gal of liquid was forced into the bottle. This 0.5 gal is
sea control systems do not return fluid to the reservoir after not considered stored usable fluid. The total volume of liquid
it is used to open or close a preventer or choke/kill valve.

in the bottle at the maximum system pressure can also be specified in order to operate the BOP function.
calculated using Boyle’s Law as given below:
For explanation purposes let us say the same BOPs are used
V3 = P1 x V1 / P3 for the subsea calculations as were previously used:
= 3,670 x 10 / 5,670
= 6.5 gallons nitrogen Annular gallons to close = 17.98 gallons
Annular gallons to open = 14.16 gallons
Where: Rams (3) @ 5.8 gal each to close = 17.40 gallons
V3 = gallons of nitrogen at maximum system pressure Rams (3) @ 5.4 gal each to open = 16.20 gallons
P1 = initial pressure (nitrogen pre-charge) 65.74 gallons
V1 = initial gas volume in gallons Plus 50% safety factor = 32.87 gallons
P3 = maximum system pressure in psi Stored usable fluid required = 98.61 gallons
Now we know that as the pressure in the bottle rises from We will say in this instance it is desired that the capacity to
3,670 psi (pre-charge pressure) to 5,670 psi (maximum close the annular and one ram will be mounted subsea.
system pressure), the nitrogen gas is compressed from 10
gal to 6.5 gal or 3.5 gal of liquid is now in the bottle. Remem- This capacity can be subtracted from the surface capacity
bering that the 0.5 gal does not count, we can determine the as given below:
stored usable fluid in the bottle by the following equation:
98.61 gal - (17.98 gal + 5.80 gal) = 74.83 gal
Stored Usable Fluid = 3.5 – 0.5 gal = 3.0 gallons
Therefore, we now know that we need to have enough accu-
Said another way, as the pressure in the 10 gal accumulator mulator bottles at surface to give 74.83 gal of stored usable
bottle falls from 5,670 psi (maximum system pressure) to fluid and enough accumulator bottles at the BOP stack to
3,870 psi (minimum system pressure), 3.0 gal of liquid are give (17.98 gal + 5.80 gal) 23.78 gal of stored usable fluid.
forced out of the bottle and into the lines. As you can see, Since we have previously calculated the stored usable fluid
one problem encountered in deepwater drilling is diminish- in both surface and subsea 10-gal accumulator bottles, we
ing stored usable fluid inside subsea accumulator bottles as can calculate the number of bottles required as follows:
depth of water increases.
Surface Accumulator = Stored Usable Fluid Required
NOTE: The maximum system pressure used in this exam- Bottles Required –: Stored Usable Fluid per Bottle
ple would exceed the design working pressure of standard = 74.83 gal –: 5.0 gal per bottle
3,000 psi WP accumulator bottles. Bottles with sufficient = 15 bottles at surface
working pressure to withstand the maximum system pres-
Surface Accumulator = Stored Usable Fluid Required
sure would need to be used.
Bottles Required –: Stored Usable Fluid per Bottle
= 23.78 gal –: 3.0 gal per bottle
Sizing accumulator system capacity for subsea
= 7.93 or 8 bottles mounted subsea
blowout preventers
Subsea systems because of their isolation by location and
Calculating reservoir capacity
greater risk of environmental damage usually are sized for
Closed hydraulic system reservoirs used to operate surface
more accumulator volume than surface systems. API RP16D
mounted BOP stacks should be sized to hold a minimum
recommends capacity to close and open all of the ram type
of two times the usable fluid of the accumulator system.
BOPs and one annular BOP plus 50% reserve. Consideration
The purpose of the additional reservoir capacity is to allow
for minimum pressure is also stated for closing a ram (ex-
bleeding the accumulator system hydraulic pressure back
cluding shear ram) against full rated wellbore pressure or
to the reservoir without over-filling. This means that during
the minimum pressure required to open and hold open any
normal operation, if the reservoir is exactly sized for this ca-
kill or choke valve at maximum rated wellbore pressure.
pacity, it should be operated half full.
Calculations for surface mounted accumulators are the
Open hydraulic system reservoirs used to operate subsea
same as previously described. When part of the accumu-
mounted BOP stacks should be at least equal to the total
lator volume is to be placed subsea, the subsea volume
accumulator storage capacity. There should be sufficient
requirements can be subtracted from the total volume re-
space in the reservoir above the upper hydraulic fluid fill
quirement which leaves the surface volume requirement. In
valve shut-off level to permit draining the largest bank of ac-
other words, the subsea stored usable fluid volume plus the
cumulator bottles back into the tank without overflow.
surface stored usable fluid volume must meet or exceed the
total fluid volume required at the minimum system pressure

Sizing pump systems Well control procedures

Pump systems should be capable of delivering sufficient
volume of control fluid with the accumulators isolated from Philosophy
service to meet the greater of the following recommenda- This section of the manual is not intended as a training man-
tions: ual, rather it is meant to be a resource to be used at the well-
Close one annular BOP (excluding diverter) on open site by trained personnel in “remedial” or “secondary” well
hole and open one choke line valve while attaining
control operations.
sufficient pressure to effect seal off as recommended
by the annular BOP manufacturer at zero wellbore
pressure (this is nominally 1,200 psi). Verification Scope
should be by closing on the minimum size drillpipe to be This section of the manual will be applicable to land, off-
used. The pump system should accomplish this within shore floating, and offshore bottom-supported rigs from
two minutes. close-in to kill.
Pump the entire accumulator system up from
accumulator pre-charge pressure to full charging The information in this section is meant to be used a refer-
pressure (the maximum system pressure) within 15 ence for personnel. Well control operations should only be
minutes. conducted by and/or directly supervised by personnel who
have appropriate well control certification. The information
There should be a minimum of two independent pump sys- in this section should be applied as needed, and always ap-
tems operating from separate power sources. Each of the plied by and/or under the direct supervision of personnel
pump systems should have sufficient sizes and quantity of who have appropriate well control certification.
pumps to meet the preceding recommendation.
There are many variations of Wait and Weight kill sheets
generally available, but for the purposes of illustration in this
manual the IADC Wait and Weight kill sheet has been in-
cluded (Appendix 2).
The volumetric kill guide at the end of this section is included

because of the rarity of using the volumetric kill technique.
Whether a person in charge of a volumetric kill chooses to
use this tool or a different tool, we urge that some similar
tool be used, as use of the tool can help in organizing the
information for those in need of implementing a volumetric
kill.
Kick vs blowout: well control objective(s)

A kick is an influx of formation fluids into the wellbore. A
blowout is an uncontrolled kick exiting the well at surface.
The objective of well control procedures discussed in this
section is to safely handle kicks and reestablish primary well
control (and therefore preventing blowouts).
Primary well control

During normal drilling operations, formation fluid flow into
the wellbore is prevented by ensuring that the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the drilling fluid in the wellbore is great-
er than the pressure present in adjacent formation(s). When
fluids within the wellbore have a hydrostatic pressure which
is greater than the pressure found in the adjacent formation
there is said to be an overbalance.
Circulation pressures
Resistance to flow can be considered as friction. Friction
acts in the opposite direction of flow. Because of the inher-
ent resistance of liquids to flow, force must be applied to cir-

culate drilling fluids around the well. Most of the pressure can be added without exceeding the pump liner rating, and
seen on the Drillpipe pressure gauge when drilling is caused to better enable the choke operator to make correct adjust-
by resistance to flow inside the surface lines, the drillstring, ments. This enables choke operators to adjust the choke and
and at the bit. This pressure is not exerted, or “felt” in the an- pressure with better accuracy and given time to react.
nulus, when circulating the “normal” direction. The pressure
caused by resistance to flow in the annulus is applied in the Be sure to:
annulus, and the sum of all the annulus friction is focused at Allow sufficient time for mixing and maintain the drilling
fluid;
the bottom of the hole.
Reduce the amount of cuttings flowing through the
choke manifold;
Bottomhole pressure (BHP) vs. formation Exert additional pressure to the annular to prevent
pressure (FP) formation flow without causing excessive pressure on
Bottomhole pressure may be defined as the total pressure at the pumps and surface lines.
the bottom of the well. For well control purposes, this may
be considered as a downward force. Formation Pressure, the Subsea stack considerations
pressure of the fluids in the formation, may be considered an When killing a kick on a rig with a subsea BOP stack there is
upward force, for well control purposes. BHP and FP then act additional circulating pressure from the extra friction in the
in opposite directions. choke line (choke line friction or CLF) acting on the annulus
and the bottom of the hole. In order to compensate for CLF
When primary well control is working as intended - BHP is when circulating through the choke line on a rig with a sub-
greater than FP. When a kick is occurring, FP is greater than sea BOP stack, subsea you need to measure what CLF is.
BHP.
Choke line friction (CLF) can be measured using several
When the well is open and the pumps are off then: methods but one commonly used method is to line up the
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of Wellbore Fluids rig pump to circulate down the choke line, through open side
outlet valves (failsafes) and up through the riser across the
When the well is open and the pumps are on then: flowline. The reading on the gauge will be CLF. This method
BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure of Wellbore Fluids ensures you circulate clean drilling fluid into the choke line
plus Annulus Friction and does not require you to close a BOP.
This is sometimes called bottomhole circulating pressure
(BHCP) which when converted to ppg this is termed called Another accepted method is to pump at each predetermined
“Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD). slow circulating (kill) pump rate in the normal drilling circu-
lation path, i.e., down the drillstring, up the annulus through
Slow circulating/kill rate pressure the BOP and up the riser to the flow line. After pumping
For well kick killing operations, a circulating pressure can be in the usual flow path, the flow path should be changed to
measured at a convenient slow circulating (kill) pump rate, simulate that of well fluids during a well kill. To simulate the
frequently one-half or less of the normal circulating rate. flow path of fluids during a kill, the BOP should be closed
It is recommended that the pressures be recorded at the and the valves on the BOP stack to the choke line opened,
same gauge that would be used during any well kill opera- all choke manifold valves to and through the remote choke
tion – usually at a remote-operated choke panel. It is rec- to the mud/gas separator opened and the choke itself fully
ommended that the stroke rate and pressure be recorded opened, as well. After completing the correct line-up, the
on the IADC Daily Drilling Report for each pump and redone pumps should then be run at the same slow circulating (kill)
whenever any of the circulating system pressure parame- rates as through the normal drilling circulation path.
ters is significantly changed, i.e., when drilling fluid density
is changed by 0.2 ppg or more, when bit nozzle sizes are The differences between the pressures at the same pump
changed, when over 500 ft of new hole is drilled, after pump rates on the same pump through the different flow paths
repairs or liner sizes are changed, etc. (The IADC Daily Drill- is considered the CLF at that pump rate and must be tak-
ing Report can be ordered from store.iadc.org or by calling en into account when killing wells on floating rigs. If, at the
the IADC Bookstore at +1 713 292 1945.) time of pump startup, the casing pressure is not reduced by
the CLF value the pressure throughout the well will to in-
Slow circulating (kill) rates are usually required when circu- crease. Pump startup procedures will be addressed later in
lating kicks for several reasons: in order that time for drill- this chapter.
ing fluid mixing (to increase & maintain mud density) may
be increased during circulation, to minimize the amount of The slow circulating pressure through the riser is considered
cuttings that may be circulated up and through the choke, the “kill rate pressure” (KRP).
in order that additional pressure to prevent formation flow

For subsea stacks in deep water, slow circulating Shut-in drillpipe pressure, psi
(kill) rates (less than one-half normal circulating 2100
Begin filling in immediately after closing in well
rate) may be required to avoid excessive friction 2000

1900
back pressure from pumping drilling fluids up
1800
the choke lines from the BOP to the choke man- 1700
ifold (CLF), in addition to those reasons stated 1600
earlier in this section. 1500

1400
1300
Large changes in annulus hydrostatic pressure 1200
occur when a choke line goes from being filled 1100
with mud to being filled with gas and later when 1000
900
the choke line goes back to being filled with mud. 850
800
These annulus hydrostatic pressure changes 700
cause changes in the bottomhole pressure of the 600
well which are more easily compensated for with 500

400
choke back pressure changes when the circula- 300
tion rate is slow. 200
100
Pre-kill procedures 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Shut-in procedures Time (minutes)
Figure WC-47: Example graph using increasing pressures to determine well

1. Soft shut-in:
underbalance. When the rate of increasing pressure changes (slows) the
Pre-kick line up: pressure at that point may be considered the amount of underbalance.
BOP open;
Remote choke open; There is also a possibility that the formation has low perme-
Hydraulic valve(s) on BOP stack closed; ability, and for that reason the total that the wellbore hydro-
All choke manifold valves to remote choke open; static pressure lacks to balance the formation pressure is
All choke manifold valves past remote choke to slowly expressed on the drillpipe and casing pressure gauges.
mud/gas separator (poorboy degasser) open.
Shut-in: There is at least one good way to determine what the amount
Open Hydraulic valve(s) on BOP stack; of underbalance is in a well where the shut-in pressures con-
Close designated BOP;
tinue to rise rather than rising and then stabilizing after closing
Close remote choke.
in the well. This method requires that the driller, or whoever
2. Hard shut-in:
Pre-kick line up: monitors the shut-in pressures, write down the shut-in pres-
BOP open; sure values at some pre-agreed upon time interval, beginning
Remote choke closed; as soon as possible after the initial shut-in.
Hydraulic valve(s) on BOP stack closed;
All choke manifold valves to remote choke open; If a non-ported float is installed in the string, only the shut-
All choke manifold valves past remote choke to in casing (annulus) value will be increasing. This pressure
mud/gas separator (poorboy degasser) open. should still be tracked/recorded.
Shut-in:
Open hydraulic valve(s) on BOP stack; The recommended time interval for writing down the shut-in
Close ram designated BOP. drillpipe and shut-in casing (annulus) pressures is once every
minute (at least until the pressures stabilize).
Stabilized pressures
When a kick is detected, the well should be closed in as quick- In order to use the increasing pressures to determine the un-
ly as possible to minimize kick influx volume. When (and if) derbalance in the well, use the following procedure:
the shut-in drillpipe pressure and the shut-in casing pressure
As the pressures are recorded, they need to be entered on to
rise to some pressure and then stabilize, it is assumed that
a sheet of graph paper. Increasing time would be expressed
they show what the hydrostatic column in the drillpipe or the
on the axis going from left to right. Increasing pressure would
annulus lacks to balance the formation pressure.
be expressed on the axis going upwards. See example graph
If after closing in the well the surface pressures do not stop in- (Figure WC-47). When the rate of increasing pressure chang-
creasing, there is a strong possibility that there is a gas influx es (slows) the pressure at that point may be considered the
in the hole and that it is rising (migrating) in the hole, much amount of underbalance.
the same as an air bubble in water.

Shut-in drillpipe pressure Shut-in drillpipe pressure determination with a float

When the well is closed in, the bottomhole pressure will rise in the string
until equal to formation pressure. As the drillpipe and annu- To determine the shut-in drillpipe pressure when a back
lus are in communication, the shut-in drillpipe and the shut- pressure valve (float) is in the drillstring, shut-in drillpipe
in casing (annulus) pressures will also rise and stabilize (in pressure should be increased slowly in 50 or 100 psi incre-
the absence of migrating gas). ments using the smallest pump available.
The shut-in drillpipe pressure at this time indicates the After each stage of increasing the drillpipe pressure, the
amount of underbalance of the hydrostatic pressure in the casing (annulus) pressure should be monitored for a change.
drillstring relative to the formation pressure. It is assumed If the casing pressure does not change (increase), the float
that the drillstring is filled with a column of clean drilling fluid has not opened, and the shut-in drillpipe pressure is less
of equal density from the rig floor to the bit, i.e., a known hy- than the underbalance of the hydrostatic pressure in the
drostatic pressure value. In well killing operations, the drill- drillstring.
ing fluid density is increased by the equivalent value of the
shut-in drillpipe pressure. When casing pressure is seen to rise, pumping should be
stopped immediately. The current shut-in drillpipe pressure,
Until circulation begins, if there is gas in the well and if that minus any increase seen on the casing (annulus) pressure
gas is migrating, surface pressures will continue to rise due gauge, is the amount of underbalance of the hydrostatic
to that gas migration. Increased drillpipe pressures due to pressure in the drillstring relative to the formation pressure.
gas migration which may be seen after any stabilized read- This is the value to be used when calculating the kill weight
ing will indicate excessive drilling fluid density increase. Mud.
Again, this indicates the importance of tracking & record-
ing pressures from the time of Shut-in until the pressures Formation integrity information
stabilize, in order to be able to make the best decisions in
regard to mud weight increase, and any decisions that may Leak-off test and MASP
be required to control rising pressures due to gas migration. A leak-off test is made to determine the pressure at which a
formation will begin to leak off. Leak-off tests are usually run
Gas migration considerations after drilling a short distance below the most recent casing
Migrating (rising) gas in a shut-in well causes pressures to shoe. A leak-off test is performed by pumping drilling fluid
rise throughout the well. The increasing pressure in the well into the wellbore at a slow rate or in increments of volume
caused by migrating gas can lead to loss of integrity in the with blowout preventers closed. The resulting pressures are
circulating system, i.e., lost circulation. Such excessive pres- to be carefully plotted versus the volume pumped.
sure should be avoided whether gas rises through a static
drilling fluid column or if it is circulated out by allowing the It is recommended that the pressures be recorded at the
gas to expand as it rises while maintaining constant bottom- same gauge that would be used during any well kill opera-
hole pressure. When properly using a well kill method which tion – usually at a remote-operated choke panel.
keeps bottomhole pressure constant, any gas in the well will
be allowed to expand by the amount necessary to keep bot- The pressure at which the plotted curve begins to flatten,
tomhole pressure constant. This also requires that the pits i.e., when the pressure increases a smaller amount for a
be allowed to gain volume. volume pumped, is the surface leak-off pressure. Pumping
should be stopped immediately. The surface leak-off pres-
If it is believed that there is migrating gas in the well when sure plus the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid at the
waiting to begin circulation, if the bit is at or near bottom, shoe is the formation leak-off pressure.
and if the shut-in drillpipe pressure can be read; in order to
avoid excess wellbore pressures, the choke should be used The formulas to calculate the formation fracture pressure
to bleed drilling fluid from the casing (to lower the shut-in and other maximum allowable surface pressures are to be
drillpipe pressure or to maintain a shut-in drillpipe pressure found on the kill sheets provided at the end of this section.
value equal to or slightly greater than the amount of under- The gauge to monitor for maximum allowable surface pres-
balance). The amount of pressure to try to keep constant sures is the casing (annulus) pressure gauge.
is the shut-in drillpipe pressure value which reflects the
amount of underbalance in the drillstring, plus 100 or 200
Formation integrity test and MASP
A formation integrity test is made to evaluate if a wellbore
psi (for some overbalance to avoid allowing further influx).
will support drilling fluid of a higher pre-determined density
See page WC-54 for choke adjustment considerations.
than that which is currently in use. The formation competen-
cy test is performed by pumping drilling fluid into the well-

bore at a slow rate or in increments of volume, with blowout

and the pump operator, prior to and throughout the kill
preventers closed. Pumping into the wellbore should be con-
operation. The choke operator should normally give the
tinued until reaching the pre-determined surface test pres-
instructions.
sure as calculated below:
Test Pressure (psi) = 3. While bringing the pump up to speed, adjust choke to
0.052 x Casing TVD (ft) hold the casing pressure constant at the shut-in value.
x Density difference (ppg)* By holding the casing pressure constant at the shut-in
value for the short time required to bring the pump up
* Density difference (ppg) = anticipated maximum drilling to speed, the bottomhole pressure remains essentially
fluid density for this section of open hole desired drilling flu- constant. Note: some supervising personnel will want
id density - drilling fluid density currently in use. to add some “extra” casing pressure to ensure that the
well does not go underbalanced during the start-up and/
While conducting this test, surface pressure should be plot- or the kill. While this is not unusual, any decision to add
ted against the volume pumped into the wellbore. If at any pressure above the underbalance should be only done
time the plotted curve should begin to flatten or the pres- after assessing the risks associated with same.
sure decrease, pumping should be stopped immediately.
4. After the pump is running at the desired constant speed
It is recommended that the pressures be recorded at the
and the casing pressure is stabilized at the shut-in val-
same gauge that would be used during any well kill opera-
ue, wait at least 2 seconds per thousand feet measured
tion – usually at a remote-operated choke panel.
depth of the well and then read and record the drillpipe
pressure. It is necessary to wait approximately 2 seconds
Kill objective per 1,000 ft of measured depth of the well in order to
After a kick has been stopped by well closure, it should be
compensate for the lag time for a pressure change from
circulated to the surface maintaining constant bottomhole
a choke adjustment to go from the choke all the way to
pressure in order to avoid both (1) further influx of formation
the drillpipe pressure gauge sensor.
fluids and (2) excessive wellbore pressures.
The drillpipe pressure read at this point is usually termed
Drilling fluid density will normally need to be increased to
initial circulating pressure (ICP), if this pump start-up is tak-
reestablish primary well control.
ing place at the beginning of the kill. The difference between
A drilling fluid of required density may be pumped while the shut-in and pumping drillpipe pressures is the pressure
circulating out the kick (Wait and Weight Method), or the required to circulate drilling fluid at the slow circulating (kill)
kick may be pumped out and then drilling fluid of required rate, and is often termed the Kill Rate Pressure (KRP).
density circulated (Driller’s Method). In the event of insuf-
ficient barite supply, drilling fluid density can be increased 5. Compare any calculated or expected initial circulating
temporarily to an intermediate value using either of these pressure (ICP) to that which is now seen on the drillpipe
methods. pressure gauge. If there is a difference and if the instruc-
tions above for establishing initial circulating pressure
Establishing circulation: surface stacks (ICP) have been followed, the pressure on the drillpipe
To establish the slow circulating (kill) rate while keeping a pressure gauge is correct.
constant bottomhole pressure, the pump rate should be in-
creased from zero spm to the kill rate spms while holding a If the calculated drillpipe pressure is appreciably different
constant casing pressure equal to the shut-in casing pres- from what is seen on the drillpipe pressure gauge
sure. The recommended procedure is as follows: after establishing initial circulating pressure (ICP) it is
recommended that the cause be identified.
1. Record the current shut-in drillpipe and shut-in casing
pressures immediately before starting. Through visu- 6. After bringing the pump strokes up to the slow circulat-
al confirmation, ensure that no valves are closed in the ing (kill) rate, it is absolutely necessary to keep the pump
circulation loop – all the way from the pumps to and strokes constant in order to keep bottomhole pressure
through the BOP and the finally to and through the choke constant.
manifold (excepting the choke itself).
Establishing circulation: subsea stacks, Method A
2. Slowly bring the pump up to the slow circulating (kill) To establish the slow circulating (kill) rate while keeping a
rate while at the same time opening the choke. This re- constant bottomhole pressure, the pump rate should be in-
quires clear communication between the choke operator creased from zero spm to the kill rate spms while holding a

constant casing pressure which is equal to the shut-in casing

6. After bringing the pump strokes up to the slow circulat-
pressure, minus the choke line friction (CLF) value for the
ing (kill) rate, it is absolutely necessary to keep the pump
pump and pump speed which are to be used. (This assumes
strokes constant in order to keep bottomhole pressure
that the shut-in casing pressure minus the choke line friction
constant.
will be a positive number). The recommended procedure is
as follows:
Establishing circulation: subsea stacks, Method B
1. Record the current shut-in drillpipe and shut-in casing The kill line pressure gauge can be used to monitor choke
pressures. line friction and surface back pressure when circulation is
begun after a kick has been detected and closed in. This as-
2. Slowly bring the pump up to the slow circulating (kill) sumes that only the choke line will be used to circulate the
rate while at the same time opening the choke. well.
3. While bringing the pump up to speed, adjust choke to 1. The kill line should be opened to the surface manifold (to
reduce the casing (annulus) pressure from the shut-in enable the pressure to be “read” by the pressure sensor
value to the shut-in value minus the choke line friction on that “side” of the manifold and transmitted to the kill
(CLF). By holding the casing pressure constant at the line gauge). Note: circulation will NOT occur through the
shut-in value minus the choke line friction (CLF) value for kill side.
the short time required to bring the pump up to speed,
the bottomhole pressure remains essentially constant. 2. Record the current shut-in drillpipe, shut-in casing, and
shut-in kill line pressures.
Note: some supervising personnel will want to not reduce
the shut-in casing pressure by some or all of the choke line 3. Slowly bring the pump up to the slow circulating (kill)
friction (CLF) value in order to add some “extra” pressure rate while circulating only through the choke line at the
within the wellbore to ensure that the well does not go un- same time opening the choke. Maintain the kill line pres-
derbalanced during the startup and/or the kill. While this is sure constant at the shut-in value by adjustment of the
not unusual, any decision to add pressure above the under- choke while bringing the pump up to the slow circulat-
balance should be only done after assessing the risks asso- ing (kill) rate. By holding the kill line pressure constant
ciated with same. during the pump start-up, the bottomhole pressure re-
mains essentially constant.
4. After the pump is running at the desired constant speed
and the casing pressure is stabilized at the shut-in value Note: some supervising personnel will want to allow the
minus the choke line friction (CLF) value, wait at least shut-in kill line pressure to rise by some or all of the choke
2 seconds per 1,000 ft measured depth of the well and line friction (CLF) value in order to add some “extra” pres-
then read the drillpipe pressure in order to compensate sure within the wellbore to ensure that the well does not
for the lag time for a pressure change from a choke ad- go underbalanced during the startup and/or the kill. While
justment to go from the choke all the way to the drillpipe this is not unusual, any decision to add pressure above the
pressure gauge sensor. underbalance should be only done after assessing the risks
associated with the added pressure.
The drillpipe pressure read at this point is usually termed
initial circulating pressure (ICP), if this pump start-up is tak- 4. After the pump is running at the desired constant speed
ing place at the beginning of the kill. The difference between and the kill line pressure is stabilized at the closed-in val-
the shut-in and pumping drillpipe pressures is the pressure ue, wait at least 2 seconds per 1,000 ft measured depth
required to circulate drilling fluid at the slow circulating (kill) of the well and then read the drillpipe pressure in order to
rate, and is often termed the Kill Rate Pressure (KRP). compensate for the lag time for a pressure change from a
choke adjustment to go from the choke all the way to the
5. Compare any calculated or expected initial circulating drillpipe pressure gauge sensor.
pressure (ICP) to that which is now seen on the drillpipe
pressure gauge. If there is a difference and if the instruc- The drillpipe pressure read at this point is usually termed
tions above for establishing initial circulating pressure initial circulating pressure (ICP), if this pump start-up is tak-
have been followed, the pressure on the drillpipe pres- ing place it the beginning of the kill. The difference between
sure gauge is correct. If the calculated drillpipe pressure the shut-in and pumping drillpipe pressures is the pressure
is appreciably different from what is seen on the drillpipe required to circulate drilling fluid at the slow circulating (kill)
pressure gauge after establishing initial circulating pres- rate, and is often termed the Kill Rate Pressure (KRP).
sure (ICP) it is recommended that the cause be identified.

Table WC-7: Steps of the Driller’s Method

Step Mudweight to Casing (annulus)
Drillpipe pressure Purpose of this step and relevant remarks
No. use pressure
The purpose of this step is to circulate the kick fluids out of the
Casing (annulus) hole (1) and to circulate clean original weight mud through both
After establishing initial circula-
pressure will vary the drillstring and the annulus (2).
tion pressure (ICP)
depending on the kick
Drillpipe pressure is kept con-
fluid type and hole This step is over when (1) the kick fluids have been circulated
Original Mud stant until the end of this step
1 Wt. (OMW) by choke manipulation.
geometry. out of the hole, and (2) when clean original weight mud is found
coming out of the hole.
Hydrostatic pressure in
Hydrostatic pressure in drill-
the annulus will vary/ When this step is over, close in the well and observe the shut-in
pipe is constant.
change. pressures. Both should be equal to the original shut-in drillpipe
pressure.
After establishing initial

The purpose of this step is to circulate kill weight mud from the
circulation pressure
surface to the bit.
(ICP).
Drillpipe pressure will fall as As the KWM fills the drillstring, the drillpipe pressure will fall.
Casing (annulus)
KWM fills the drillstring. Once the drillpipe pressure stops decreasing, stabilizes and then
Kill Wt. Mud pressure is kept
2 (KWM) constant until the end
begins to increase, this indicates the KWM has displaced the
Hydrostatic pressure in drill- OWM in the drillstring and has begun to fill the annulus. This step
of this step by choke
pipe is increasing. is over at that point.
manipulation.
It is not necessary to stop the pump at this point. The pressure on
Hydrostatic pressure in
the drillpipe pressure gauge is the final circulating pressure.
the annulus is constant.
Continue pumping with con- Casing pressure will de-
stant pump stroke rate. crease as KWM fills the
The purpose of this step is to circulate KWM from the bit to the
annulus, and should be
surface within the annulus.
Kill Wt. Mud Drillpipe pressure kept constant near zero when KWM
3 (KWM) at FCP value until end of step at surface.
When kill weight mud reaches the surface, confirmed by weighing
by choke manipulation
the returns, this step is over.
Hydrostatic pressure
HP constant. increasing.
5. Compare any calculated or expected initial circulating loop – all the way from the pumps to and through the
pressure (ICP) to that which is now seen on the drillpipe BOP and the finally to and through the choke manifold
pressure gauge. If there is a difference and if the instruc- (excepting the choke itself).
tions above for establishing initial circulating pressure
have been followed, the pressure on the drillpipe pres- 2. Slowly bring the pump up to the slow circulating (kill)
sure gauge is correct. rate while at the same time opening the choke. Maintain
the BOP stack pressure constant at the shut-in value by
If the calculated drillpipe pressure is appreciably different adjustment of the choke while bringing the pump up to
from what is seen on the drillpipe pressure gauge after es- the slow circulating (kill) rate.
tablishing initial circulating pressure (ICP) it is recommend-
ed that the cause be identified. 3. By holding the BOP stack pressure constant during the
pump start-up, the bottomhole pressure remains essen-
6. After bringing the pump strokes up to the slow circulat- tially constant.
ing (kill) rate, it is absolutely necessary to keep the pump
strokes constant in order to keep bottomhole pressure Note: some supervising personnel will want to allow the shut-in
constant. BOP stack pressure to rise by some or all of the choke line fric-
tion (CLF) value in order to add some “extra” pressure within
Establishing circulation: subsea stacks, Method C the wellbore to ensure that the well does not go underbalanced
On newer generation floating (deepwater) rigs equipped during the startup and/or the kill. While this is not unusual, any
with BOP stack pressure sensors, the BOP Stack pressure decision to add pressure above the underbalance should be
gauge can be used to monitor choke line friction and sur- only done after assessing the risks associated with same.
face back pressure when circulation is begun after a kick has
been detected and closed in. 4. After the pump is running at the desired constant speed
and the BOP stack pressure is stabilized at the closed-
1. Record the current shut-in drillpipe, Shut-in casing pres- in value, wait at least 2 seconds per 1,000 ft measured
sure, shut-in kill line pressure, and BOP stack pressures. depth of the well and then read the drillpipe pressure
Immediately before starting. Through visual confirma- in order to compensate for the lag time for a pressure
tion, ensure that no valves are closed in the circulation change from a choke adjustment to go from the choke all

increase the mud density before continuing to pull the string

the way to the drillpipe pressure gauge sensor.
out of the hole. The assumption is that the well was stable
with the mud in the hole before coming off bottom, therefore
Choke adjustment considerations
it should only be necessary to circulate out the swabbed-in
During the course of either of the kill methods presented in
kick and then the string should be able to be pulled out of
the following pages, it might be necessary to make adjust-
the hole.
ments to the drillpipe pressure gauge by manipulating the
choke. The correct method is essential. 4. The second step of the Driller’s method is to circulate kill
weight mud (KWM) from the surface to the bit.
1. When it is noted that a change is desired on the drillpipe
pressure gauge, note the amount of pressure by which it The kill weight mud (KWM) is circulated into the well to
is to be changed. increase the hydrostatic pressure to a value which will be
equal to or greater than the pressure in the (kicking) forma-
For example, if the current drillpipe pressure is 850 psi and tion.
the desired drillpipe pressure is 1,000 psi, the amount of
change desired is an additional 150 psi. It is assumed that there is a column of clean (original weight
mud) drilling fluid of the same density in both the drillstring
and the annulus at the beginning of the circulation.
2. Note the current casing (annulus) gauge pressure and
by manipulating the choke, change the casing (annulus) As the kill weight mud (KWM) is circulated from the surface
gauge pressure by the amount of pressure change de- to the bit, the casing (annulus) pressure is held constant af-
sired on the drillpipe pressure gauge. ter bringing the pump up to the slow circulating (kill) rate.
Since the hydrostatic pressure is staying constant in the an-
For example, continuing from the example in item 1 above, if
nulus, and the surface casing (annulus) pressure is kept con-
the current casing (annulus) pressure is 1,050 psi, the choke
stant through choke manipulation, the bottomhole pressure
operator should close the choke to increase the casing (an-
is held (essentially) constant.
nulus) pressure by 150 psi to 1,200 psi.
The pressure seen on the drillpipe pressure gauge when the
3. Wait at least 2 seconds for every 1,000 feet of measured kill weight mud (KWM) reaches the bit is the final circulat-
depth of the well for the pressure change to come from ing pressure (FCP) for the Driller’s Method.
the choke to the drillpipe pressure gauge in order to
compensate for the lag time for a pressure change from 5.The third step of the Driller’s Method begins when
a choke adjustment to go from the choke all the way to the drillstring has been filled with the kill weight mud
the drillpipe pressure gauge sensor. (KWM). The kill weight mud (KWM) is now to be circu-
lated from the bit to surface in the annulus, holding the
Kill techniques drillpipe pressure constant at the final circulating pres-
sure (FCP) value.
Driller's method
Use the following information, Table WC-7, and an approved Since the hydrostatic pressure in the Drillstring stays con-
kill sheet when utilizing this kill method. stant and the surface Drillpipe pressure is kept constant at
the final circulating pressure (FCP) through choke manipula-
1. The first step of the Driller’s Method circulates the kick tion, the bottomhole pressure is held (essentially) constant.
out of the hole, using the current (original) mud weight.
Wait and Weight Method
2. The first step of the Driller’s Method is most appropriate Use this guide and an approved kill sheet when utilizing this kill
for use (by itself) when circulating out kicks that have method.
been swabbed in while tripping out of the well. The fact
that the mud density is not increased in the first step of 1. When the Wait and Weight Method is used, the well is shut-
the Driller’s Method makes it the best choice in that sit- in on the kick, drilling fluid density is increased as required,
uation. and the kick is circulated out using the weighted fluid.
3. After the full circulation is complete, and the kick circu- 2. Circulation is established at the kill rate as described in
lated out of the hole, it is usual to stop circulating and to the sections which address establishing circulation.
observe the pressures.
3. A schedule of drillpipe pressure changes should be pre-
In a swabbed-in kick situation, it is not always necessary to pared and followed if the calculated initial circulation

pressure (ICP) conforms to the actual ICP after doing a Table WC-8: Comparison of kill methods —
correct pump start-up, as outlined in the sections which advantages and disadvantages
address Establishing Circulation. Kill
Advantages Disadvantages
method
If there is a difference between the actual (gauge) ICP and
Circulation can be started al-
the calculated ICP, the gauge ICP should be considered cor- most immediately.
rect (assuming that the correct method of establishing cir-
Simpler.
culation has been followed). If there is a difference between
Minimum of two circula-
the gauge ICP and the calculated ICP, the drillpipe pressure Fewer calculations. tions. More time.
schedule should be adjusted up or down by the difference Driller’s (Potentially) Higher an-
KWM can be mixed to uniform
between the actual (gauge) ICP and the calculated ICP. For Method density while first circulation is nulus pressures.
example, if the pump start-up is conducted as described in completed. More wear on choke and
gas handling machinery.
the sections which address establishing circulation, and the Does not require special con-
actual ICP is 1,500 psi and the calculated ICP is 1,300 psi, sideration/ modification in
directional wells or wells with
all of the values in the Pressure drop schedule, including the
tapered strings.
final circulating pressure (FCP) should be increased by the
Circulation must wait to
difference (1,500 psi – 1,300 psi = 200 psi). These correct- start until kill weight mud
ed values should be followed by manipulating the choke, if (KWM) has been mixed
Minimum of one circulation, (waiting period).
necessary. Wait and less time. (Potentially) Lower
Weight annulus pressures. More calculations. More
Less wear on choke and gas complex.
Method
4. After kill weight mud has been circulated to the bit, fi- handling machinery. Requires special consid-
erations/modifications in
nal circulating pressure (FCP) should be held constant directional wells and wells
on the drillpipe pressure gauge until the kill weight mud with tapered strings.
(KWM) is at the surface, confirmed by weighing the re- A diverter may be used in those areas with possible shallow
turns. gas sands to direct well flow away from the rig during kicks.
The diverter should be arranged so that a diverter line au-
Diverter usage tomatically opens or is open when the diverter is closed in
Where shallow casing strings are set, fracture gradients are order to divert the kick fluids and prevent back pressure on
often very low and wells may not be able to be safely closed the hole.
in on a kick without danger of lost circulation and possible
broaching to the surface. Gas from shallow sands can be If a diverter is to be utilized during drilling, the plans for use
abnormally pressured, increasing the possibility of lost cir- of the diverter should be discussed prior to drilling in those
culation and the possibility of vertical fracturing of shallow hole sections where there diverter is nippled up. The divert-
formations allowing formation fluids to vent to surface outer is not intended to close-in the well, and therefore flamma-
side of the drilled hole. ble gases and liquids may be found to be passing out of the
diverter lines within close proximity of the rig, when well-
The time needed to get formation fluids to surface from bore fluids are being diverted. The actions listed below are
shallow formations may be less than one minute. This short all appropriate for when the diverter and diversion system
amount of time leaves the driller little time to react. It is ab- are intact and while the environment at the rig site is safe.
solutely necessary that the driller know the signs of and the Should there be a failure in the system, and/or if there be
appropriate actions to take in the event of a shallow gas kick. other circumstances which indicate that the rig environment
is no longer safe, implementing a plan for rig site evacuation
Drilling shallow sands too rapidly can cause excessive gas
is considered normal.
cutting of the drilling fluid from cuttings gas - to the extent
that expansion of that gas while being pumped to the surface Diversion is usually away from the rig, resulting in loss of
lowers the hydrostatic pressure enough to cause formation drilling fluid from the circulating system. Under these condi-
flow because of the lack of/loss of bottomhole pressure. tions, formation fluid flow continues during the well control
operation until the hole bridges or hydrostatic pressure can
Conversely, large amounts of drilled cuttings in the drilling
be (re)built enough to regain primary control or until the for-
fluid from drilling at high rates of penetration may cause the
mation is depleted.
drilling fluid density to increase to a point that circulation
may be lost. When lost circulation occurs the level of fluid Pumping at a fast rate tends to improve the drilling fluid/gas
may fall in the well, causing the hydrostatic head to drop to a ratio and also creates a small increase in bottomhole pres-
point that may allow the well to flow. sure due to annular friction pressure. Increasing the drilling

fluid density at a fast rate increases hydrostatic pressure

quired to be bled from the well in order to lower hydro-
and may eventually stop flow. Thus, when a shallow gas flow
static pressure 100 psi. 100 psi / mud weight (ppg) /
occurs, the following actions should be taken immediately:
0.052 = height of column of mud to change the hydro-
1. Pump as fast as possible; static pressure by 100 psi.
2. Increase drilling fluid density as rapidly as possible while For example, in a well with 11.2 ppg mud,
pumping;
100 psi / 11.2 ppg / 0.052 = 171.7 ft
3. If drilling fluid supply should be exhausted, continue by 3. Calculate the volume of mud which is required to be bled
pumping water; from the well in order to lower hydrostatic pressure 100
psi.
4. Divert the well fluids in a safe path away from the rig
floor. Height of column of mud to change mud hydrostatic pres-
sure 100 psi x Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) = volume
On large drilling rigs in areas with possible shallow gas, a
reserve supply of drilling fluid weighted above the current For example, using the information immediately above in a
mud weight may be carried in reserve for use in shallow gas well with a casing I.D. of 9.12 in.:
kick remediation. Immediate pumping of a pre-weighted kill
171.7 ft x (9.122 / 1029.4) = volume of mud to change HP by
mud into the well, should a shallow-gas kick occurs, should
100 psi
be integrated into the shallow-gas kick contingency plan.
171.7 ft x 0.0808 bbls/ft = 13.87 bbls
If the drilling fluid supply is exhausted, a plug may be at-
tempted. This procedure may serve to (1) increase the hy-
4. Allow the Casing (annulus) pressure value to increase to a
drostatic pressure, (2) to form a super-viscous pill, or (3) to
value which is 200 psi greater than the value which reflects
form a fast-hardening concrete pill - depending on the plug
the amount of underbalance in the well, see #1 above.
type.
For example, if the amount of underbalance is determined to
Gas migration considerations while out of the hole: be 700 psi, the pressure to allow the casing (annulus) gauge
volumetric method to increase to is 900 psi (700 + 200 = 900).
Gas migration considerations when the bit is at or near bot-
tom were discussed earlier in this chapter, under pre-kill It is now assumed that the bottomhole pressure is 200 psi
considerations. In the event that the well is shut in with the greater than the formation pressure.
bit completely out of the well, the drillpipe pressure gauge
5. Slowly bleed mud through the choke, maintaining casing
value will be meaningless, i.e., zero.
(Annulus) pressure constant, until the volume of mud
Since the drillpipe pressure value cannot be used in the to lower hydrostatic pressure by 100 psi has been bled
event that the well is closed in while out of the hole, a dif- from the well.
ferent logic must be used to control bottomhole pressure
For example, continuing with the examples from this section,
than that found in the paragraph on gas migration. The logic
13.87 bbl of mud should be bled during the first bleed oper-
discussed in this section is based on monitoring the casing
ation. At the end of the first bleed operation, the pressure
(annulus) pressure gauge, and making choke adjustments
on the casing (annulus) pressure gauge should be the value
based on well parameters.
which reflects the underbalance in the hole plus 200 psi.
Refer to the following paragraphs in this section and the Vol-
At this point in the kill it is assumed that the bottomhole
umetric Kill Guide at the end of this section when making
pressure is 100 psi greater than formation pressure.
preparations to use this kill technique.
6. After completing the first bleed operation, the choke
1. Determine the amount of underbalance. A mechanism should be closed and the pressure allowed to increase
for identifying the amount of underbalance in a closed-in 100 psi more.
well with migrating gas was discussed in the paragraph
on stabilized pressures. In the circumstances discussed For example, continuing with the examples from this sec-
in this section, the casing (annulus) pressure gauge value tion, after bleeding 13.87 barrels from the well - the choke is
must be used, rather than the drillpipe pressure gauge. to be closed and the pressure on the Casing (annulus) gauge
allowed to increase from 900 psi to 1,000 psi.
2. Calculate the height of a column of mud which is re-

It is now assumed that the bottomhole pressure is 200 psi lowing should be considered.
greater than the formation pressure.
A. If the reader is drilling a directional well, it should be not-
7. Slowly bleed mud through the choke, maintaining cased that inaccuracies in the pressure drop schedules of Wait
ing (annulus) pressure constant, until the volume of mud and Weight Method Kill Sheets (surface or subsea) can lead
to lower hydrostatic pressure by 100 psi has been bled to over-pressuring the annulus - increasing the likelihood of
from the well. stuck pipe or lost circulation.
8. After completing the above bleed operation, the choke B. If the reader is drilling a well with a tapered drillstring
should be closed and the pressure allowed to rise 100 it should be noted that inaccuracies in the pressure drop
psi more. schedules of Wait and Weight Method kill sheets (surface
or subsea) can lead to underpressuring the annulus – in-
9. Repeat #7 and #8 above until gas is at surface, then creasing the likelihood of large secondary influxes.
close the choke immediately.
In order to avoid or minimize the problems associated with
10. When the gas kick reaches the surface it is necessary to “A,” and “B” immediately above, there are 3 best choices
pump mud into the well to replace the gas and to main- available to those charged with deciding which kill technique
tain bottomhole pressure equal to or greater than forma- is to be utilized.
tion pressure. »» Choice 1
Use the Driller’s Method. No adjustments will be necessary
It will be necessary to pump the mud into the well through
for either a directional well path or a tapered string.
the kill line and then allow the mud time to fall through the
gas. »» Choice 2
Use a computerized Wait and Weight kill sheet which has
As the mud is pumped into the well through the kill line, the the documented and accepted ability to compensate for
gas will be compressed, causing the casing (annulus) pres- either a directional well path or a tapered string, within its
sure to increase. It is critical that the person(s) conducting calculations.
this kill note the casing (annulus) pressure increase due to
compressing the gas. »» Choice 3
If a Wait and Weight Method kill is requested or required,
11. Slowly pump the volume of mud necessary to increase the risk of using the Wait and Weight Method using a “reg-
hydrostatic pressure by 100 psi into the well, then wait ular” kill sheet (one which does not compensate for the in-
for the gas to separate from the mud. accuracies caused by a directional well and/or by use of a
tapered string) should be assessed using the following para-
For example, continuing with the examples from this sec-
graphs.
tion, note the closed in Casing (annulus) pressure, then
slowly pump 13.87 barrels of 11.2 ppg mud into the well, then The inaccuracies caused by using a “regular” (surface or
stop the pump and wait for the mud to fall through the gas. subsea) Wait and Weight Method kill sheet are unlikely to
Expected time for the gas to fall through (separate from) the be equal to or greater than 100 psi if:
mud is 10 to 20 minutes, possibly longer!
1. The angle from vertical is equal to or less than 30°.
12. Slowly bleed gas only from the choke, lowering the cas-
ing (annulus) pressure to the value found on the casing 2. The shut-in drillpipe pressure is less than 1,000 psi. Be-
(annulus) pressure gauge immediately before pumping cause inaccuracies caused by using a “regular” Wait and
the volume of mud necessary to increase hydrostatic Weight Kill Sheet (Surface or Subsea) are likely to be less
pressure by 100 psi, then bleed 100 psi more to com- than 100 psi if “1” and/ or “2” above are not true, it may
pensate for the 100 psi increase in hydrostatic pressure be advisable to utilize the “regular” Wait and Weight
due to pumping the mud into the annulus. Kill Sheet in that circumstance - if the Wait and Weight
Method Kill is that which is preferred by the persons
13. Repeat #11 and #12 until gas has been replaced by mud making such decisions on the rig.
in the annulus. Well should be flow checked, then BOP
opened (if dead), and pipe run to bottom. In order to avoid the problems associated with “B” imme-
diately above, the best of several choices available to those
Well kills in directional wells charged with deciding which kill technique is to be utilized is
When considering which of the several well kill techniques presented immediately below.
to utilize which have been presented in this section the fol-

B. If the smaller diameter drillstring is longer than 1000 which is not gas cut, especially toward the end of the kill.
feet, it is recommended to use the Driller’s Method.
Volumetric Kill Guide – Part 1 Volumetric Kill Guide – Part 2
Mud Weight ______ ppg Casing ID ______ in. Mud Weight ______ ppg Casing ID ______ in.
Maximum Allowable Maximum Allowable
Surface Underbalance ______ psi Surface
Underbalance ______ psi Pressure ______ psi Pressure ______ psi
1. Height of column of mud to change hydrostatic pressure

100 psi During this time, hydrostatic pressure is increased each time
mud is pumped into the well and the equivalent amount of
100 psi / / .052 = casing pressure is to be released at the surface - plus any
mud weight increase in casing pressure due to pumping the mud into the
well, which causes compression of the gas.
2. Casing capacity feet
Casing I.D. 7. Casing pressure immediately before beginning to pump
mud into well.
2 / 1029.4 = bbl
8. Casing pressure to achieve by bleeding gas through
3. Volume of column of mud to change hydrostatic pressure
choke after pumping volume of mud to change hydro-
100 psi
static pressure 100 psi, and after waiting for mud to fall
x = bbls through gas – remember, bleed only gas!
#1 #2
- 100 = psi #7
4. Pressure to be seen on casing gauge at beginning of first
bleed-off to lower hydrostatic pressure by 100 psi The time required for the mud to separate from (fall through)
the gas may take from 10-30 minutes - remember, bleed
psi + 200 psi = psi only gas!
underbalance
9. Casing pressure to achieve by bleeding gas through
5. Pressure to be seen on casing gauge at end of first choke after pumping volume of mud to change hydro-
bleed-off to lower hydrostatic pressure by 100 psi static pressure 100 psi, and after waiting for mud to fall
through gas – remember, bleed only gas!
psi + 200 psi = psi
underbalance - 100 = psi #8
6. Pressure to be seen on casing gauge at beginning of The time required for the mud to separate from (fall through)
second bleed-off to lower hydrostatic pressure by 100 psi the gas may take from 10-30 minutes - remember, bleed
psi only gas!
psi + 300 psi = psi Continue to pump volumes of mud to change hydrostatic
underbalance pressure 100 psi into the well. After each time when mud is
pumped into the well to change hydrostatic pressure 100 psi,
After bleeding the amount of mud necessary to change hy-
and after waiting for the mud to separate from (fall through)
drostatic pressure 100 psi, it is necessary to allow the surface
the gas it is necessary to bleed gas to a pressure equal to the
pressure to increase 100 psi before bleeding another volume
casing pressure immediately before the mud was pumped
of mud necessary to change hydrostatic pressure 100 psi.
into the well minus 100 psi.
As soon as gas is at surface, stop bleeding mud and prepare
The objective of this step is to refill the well with mud, and
to pump mud back into the hole.
to bleed all of the gas out of the well. Casing pressure should
By following the above procedure, BHP remains 100-200 psi be near zero and virtually only gas cut mud can be bled for
above FP. the well at the end. The well should be flow-checked at this
point. After opening up the well, the pipe should be run into
When preparing to pump mud back into the well, it may be the hole to the casing seat (or as far as is considered safe)
advisable to increase the mud density by 0.2 ppg or 0.3 ppg and the hole circulated before continuing to bottom.
because it will be difficult to fill the annulus with clean mud

WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES - Appendix 1: Glossary WC-A1
APPENDIX 1: GLOSSARY OF WELL CONTROL TERMS

Accumulator: A pressure vessel charged with nitrogen gas Choke line: A high pressure line connected below a BOP to
and used to store hydraulic fluid under pressure for opera- transmit fluid flow to the choke manifold during well control
tion of blowout preventers. operations.
Accumulator bank: An assemblage of multiple accumula- Choke manifold: An assembly of valves, chokes gauges, and
tors sharing a common manifold. lines used to control the rate of flow from the well when the
blowout preventers are closed.
Accumulator unit: A hydraulic power unit with accumu-
lators, pumps control fluid reservoir and hydraulic control Choke valve: A valve that permits flow in one direction only.
manifold for operation of blowout preventers.
Closing unit: See Accumulator Unit.
Annular blowout preventer: A device with a generally toroi-
dal shaped steel reinforced elastomer packing element that Conductor casing: The first string of pipe cemented in the
is hydraulically operated to close and seal around any size well on which the casing head is attached for mounting
drillpipe or to provide full closure of the wellbore. BOPs. The first pipe intended to contain pressure.
Annulus: The space between the casing inside wall and the Dead band: Term used to describe the change in regulated
outside of the drillstring providing a return path for the drill- pressure required before a hydraulic pressure regulator au-
ing fluid to the surface and mud pits. tomatically adjusts to the change. Also called search band.
API: American Petroleum Institute Drilling spool: A connection component with ends either
flanged or hubbed. It must have an internal diameter at least
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers equal to the bore of the blowout preventer and can have
smaller side outlets for connecting auxiliary lines.
BHA: Bottomhole Assembly
Fail-safe: Said of equipment or a system so constructed
Blind ram (BOP): See BOP. A BOP with ram blocks designed that, in the event of failure or malfunction of any part of the
to mate against each other when closed to seal off the well- system, devices are automatically activated to stabilize or
bore when the wellbore is open. secure the safety of the operation. Subsea failsafe valve is
designed to “Fail Safe” close (spring loaded) should hydrau-
BOEMRE: Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regula-
lic operating pressure be lost.
tion and Enforcement
Floater: Floating Drilling Rig. Drill ship or semi-submersible
BOP ram type: A device designed or form a seal on the hole
vessel where the BOP stack is installed at the sea floor.
with no pipe or in the annular space with pipe in the hole.
The equipment can use pipe rams, blind rams, or blind/ Hydraulic control manifold: The assemblage of regulators
shear/cutter rams to effect the required seal, according to and hydraulic control valves used to operate the BOP and
equipment availability, arrangement of the equipment, and/ well pressure control valves. Normally part of the accumu-
or existing well conditions. Pipe rams have ends contoured lator unit.
to seal around pipe to close and seal the annular space. Blind
rams have ends not intended to seal against any tubulars, IADC: International Association of Drilling Contractors
rather they seal against each other to effectively close and
seal the wellbore. Blind/shear/cutter rams are blind rams Influx: See Kick.
equipped with a built-in cutting edge that will shear tubulars
Kick: Intrusion of gas into the well due to an unbalanced con-
that may be in the hole, thus allowing the blind rams to close
dition where hydrostatic pressure in the well is insufficient to
against each and seal the wellbore.
prevent the entrance of the higher pressure gas and fluids.
BOP preventer stack: The assembly of well control equip-
Kill line: A high-pressure line between the rig pumps or ce-
ment including preventers, spools, valves, and nipples con-
ment pump to a connection below a BOP. This line allows
nected to the top of the casing-head.
fluid to be pumped into the well or annulus with the BOP
BOP preventer test tool: A tool to allow pressure testing of closed during well control operations.
the blowout preventer stack and accessory equipment by
Leak-off test: A pressure test to determine the integrity of
sealing the wellbore immediately below the stack.
the casing, cement or shoe. Establishes the maximum pres-

WC-A2 WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES - Appendix 1: Glossary
sure allowed before migration of the drilling fluids into the Shear ram (BOP): See BOP. A BOP with ram blocks designed
formation. to cut the drillpipe and seal the wellbore in an emergency.
Normally for subsea BOP stacks.
Marine drilling riser: A tubular conduit serving as an exten-
sion of the wellbore from the equipment on the wellhead at Shoe: Established at the bottom end of the conductor casing
the seafloor to a floating drilling rig. by cementing. See leak off test and conductor casing.
Nipple down: Disassembly of well control equipment and Stripping: The process of running the drillstring into or out
lines for removal. of the well under “Kick” conditions (see Kick). Normally
through a closed annular BOP but may be run ram-to-ram
Pre-charge: The initial nitrogen charge in the accumulator. by carefully closing, bleeding off pressure and opening rams
The nitrogen gas charge is compressed by the pumps hy- to pass tool joints and collars.
draulically charging the accumulators and is used to expel
the fluid when the pumps are off. Swabbing: The lowering of the hydrostatic pressure in the
hole due to upward movement of pipe and/or tools.
psi: Pounds per square inch. Pressure.
Trip: Running the drillstring into or out of the well.
Ram: The closing and sealing component on a blowout pre-
venter. Rams are of three types: blind, pipe, and shear. Pipe Usable fluid: The hydraulic fluid volume recoverable from
rams, when closed, have a configuration such that they seal the accumulator system between the maximum charging
around the pipe; shear rams cut through drillpipe and then pressure and the minimum operating pressure of the ac-
form a seal. Blind rams seal on each other with no pipe in cumulator. The minimum operating pressure is established
the hole. by the pressure at which the precharge pressure closes the
accumulator poppet valve stopping further flow from the
Ram BOP: A blowout preventer that uses rams to seal off accumulator. The poppet valve prevents loss of the nitrogen
pressure in the wellbore; also called a ram preventer. precharge into the hydraulic control lines.
Riser joint: A riser joint consists of a section of pipe, with Working Pressure (WP): The normal operating pressure
couplings on each end. It may have provision for support- to which a component is designed to operate continuously
ing integral and non-integral auxiliary lines (flowlines, choke with a safe margin below the point at which the material will
and kill lines, control bundles, etc.) and buoyancy devices. yield or burst. Also called design working pressure or maxi-
mum working pressure.
Rotating head: A rotating pressure-sealing device used in
drilling operations utilizing air, gas, foam, or any other drill-
ing fluid whose hydrostatic pressure is less than the forma-
tion pressure.

Next Page
WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES - Appendix 2: IADC Killsheets WC-A3
APPENDIX 2: IADC KILLSHEETS
IADC has developed for industry use several kill sheets. This The project was sponsored by IADC, with additional finan-
appendix to the Well Control Chapter of the IADC Drilling cial support from Nabors International Inc.
Manual, 12th edition, displays samples of each.
To download these kill sheets from IADC's website, go to
The IADC killsheets published in this appendix were devel- http://www.iadc.org/well-control-committee/resources/
oped by a subcommittee comprising: or scan the QR code at the bottom of the page.
Edwin L. Geissier, Chairman Tommy Najar
Hal Kendall Gary Nance
Frank Klepper Steve Vorenkamp
Contents
Surface stack: Wait and Weight Method
n US units..................................................................................................................................................................................................WC-A4
n Metric units...........................................................................................................................................................................................WC-A7
n SI units..................................................................................................................................................................................................WC-A10
Subsea stack: Wait and Weight Method

n US units................................................................................................................................................................................................ WC-A13
n Metric units......................................................................................................................................................................................... WC-A16
n SI units.................................................................................................................................................................................................. WC-A19
Driller's Method Killsheets

n US units............................................................................................................................................................................................... WC-A22
n Metric units........................................................................................................................................................................................ WC-A25
n SI units................................................................................................................................................................................................. WC-A28
Bullheading Method Killsheets

n US units................................................................................................................................................................................................ WC-A31
n Metric units........................................................................................................................................................................................WC-A34
n SI units................................................................................................................................................................................................. WC-A37
Scan to access www.iadc.org/well-control-committee/resources/

Previous Page
WC-A4 WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT & PROCEDURES - Appendix 2: IADC Killsheets
IADC WellCAP Well Control Worksheet

Surface Stack - Wait and Weight Method
Well Name: ____________________________ Completed By: ___________________________ Date: _____ / _____ / _____
PRE-RECORDED INFORMATION
TRUE PUMP OUTPUT: ___________ x ___________ = ___________ CURRENT WELL DATA
Bbls/Stk @ 100% % Efficiency TPO (Bbls/Stk)
PRESENT MUD
WEIGHT: ppg
Surface : __________(Bbls) ÷ ____________ = ______________
Line Surface Line Capacity True Pump Strokes to Pump SLOW CIRCULATION RATE (SCR):
Output (Bbls/Stk) SCR taken @ _______________ (ft)
DRILL STRING CAPACITY: Stks/min Pressure(psi) Bbl/min Pressure(psi)
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls Pump #1: __________ @ __________
Pump #3 Pump #2 Pump #1

Pipe Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DP psi SPM
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls
Pump #2: __________ @ __________
Pipe Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DP
psi SPM
HWDP : ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls
Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) HWDP Pump #3: __________ @ __________
psi SPM
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls
Collars Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DC
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls CASING DATA:
Collars Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DC CASING _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
__________________ SHOE DEPTH

Total Drill String Capacity (Bbls)
@ MD / TVD / ft
SHOE TEST DATA:
STROKES FROM SURFACE TO BIT: _________
Depth #1
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ _________ @ Test MW of _________
Total Drill String Capacity (Bbls) True Pump Strokes, Surface to Bit (psi) (ppg)
Output (Bbls/Stk) _________
Depth #2
ANNULAR CAPACITY: _________ @ Test MW of _________
________ Bbls/ft x ________ ft = ________ Bbls _________
(psi) (ppg)
Between CSG and DP:
Depth #3
Between Liner #1 and DP: ________ Bbls/ft x ________ ft = ________ Bbls _________ @ Test MW of _________
(psi) (ppg)
Between Liner #2 and DP: ________ Bbls/ft x ________ ft = ________ Bbls LINER #1 _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
Between OH and DP/HWDP: ________ Bbls/ft x ________ ft = ________ Bbls LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
Between OH and DC: ________ Bbls/ft x ________ ft = ________ Bbls
LINER #1 TOP DEPTH ft
STROKES FROM BIT TO SHOE:
LINER #2 TOP DEPTH ft
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________
Open Hole Annular Vol. (Bbls) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Shoe LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH ft
Output (Bbls/Stk)
STROKES FROM BIT TO SURFACE: LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH ft
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ TVD CASING or LINER ft

Total Annular Volume (Bbls) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Surface HOLE DATA:
Output (Bbls/Stk)
TOTAL DEPTH (MD) ft
TOTAL STROKES FROM SURFACE TO SURFACE:
TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) ft
__________________ + ______________ = ______________
BIT DEPTH BIT SIZE _______
Strokes, Surface to Bit Strokes, Bit to Surface Strokes, Surface to Surface
@ MD / TVD / ft inches
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MUD DENSITY (ppg)
MAX. ALLOWABLE
( ______________ ÷ 0.052 ÷ _______________ ) + _______________ = ___________ ppg MUD DENSITY
Surface LOT Pressure (psi) Shoe Depth (ft,TUD) LOT Mud Density (ppg)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP) (psi)
MAX. ALLOWABLE ANNULAR
( ______________ - _______________ ) x 0.052 x ________________ = ________ psi SURFACE PRESSURE
Max. Allowable Present Mud Density (ppg) Shoe Depth (ft,TUD)
Mud Density (ppg)
DISCLAIMER: This Well Control Worksheet is intended solely for the use of the IADC and IADC accredited schools and organizations engaging in the teaching of the IADC WellCAP
Well Control classes. The IADC, its employees or others acting on its behalf, makes no warranties or guarantees expressed, implied or statutory, as to any matter whatsoever, with
respect to the use of this Well Control Worksheet.
Field Units Revised January 22, 2015
Surface stack, W&W method, US (psi, ft, ppg) Page 1

KICK DATA
SIDPP: __________ psi SICP: __________ psi PIT GAIN: __________ Bbls Time of Incident: ____ : ____
CALCULATIONS
KILL MUD WEIGHT (KMW)
KILL MUD
( ______________ ÷ 0.052 ÷ _______________ ) + _______________ = ___________ ppg WEIGHT
SIDPP (psi) True Vertical Depth (ft) Present Mud Weight (ppg)
INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (ICP)
INITIAL CIRCULATING
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ psi PRESSURE
SIDPP (psi) Pump Pressure (psi) @ SCR of _______SPM
FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (FCP)
FINAL CIRCULATING
__________________________ x ______________ ÷ ______________ = ___________ psi PRESSURE
Pump Pressure (psi) @ SCR of _______SPM Kill Mud Weight (ppg) Present Mud Weight (ppg)
PRESSURE CHART
Theoretical Drill Pipe Actual Actual
Stroke or Volume Actual Drill Pipe Pressure
Pressure Casing Pressure Pit Volume Deviation
SURFACE ICP
0
BIT FCP
_____________ ÷ 10 = _____________ ________________ - ________________ ÷ 10 = ____________

Strokes Surface to Bit Strokes per Step Initial Circulation Pressure Final Circulation Pressure PSI per Step
BIT FCP
SURFACE
______________ ÷ 10 = ____________
Strokes Bit to Surface Strokes per Step

GRAPHIC ANALYSIS
3000
INITIAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (psi)
FINAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (psi)

2000
1000
0
Stroke
Pressure
Time
FORMULAS
1. Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) = Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052
2. Hydrostatic Pressure (psi) = Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052 x Depth (ft, TVD)
3. Capacity (bbls/ft) = Inside Diameter2 (in.) ÷ 1029.4
4. Annular Capacity(bbls/ft) = (Inside Diameter of Casing2 (in.) or Hole Diameter2 (in.) - Outside Diameter of Pipe2 (in.)) ÷ 1029.4
5. Pipe Displacement (bbls/ft) = (Outside Diameter of pipe2 (in.) - Inside Diameter of pipe2 (in.)) ÷ 1029.4
Surface LOT Pressure (psi)

6. Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (ppg) = + LOT Mud Weight (ppg)
Shoe Depth (ft, TVD) x 0.052
7. MAASP (psi) = [Maximum Allowable Mud Weight (ppg) - Present Mud Weight (ppg)] x 0.052 x Shoe TVD (ft)
Drilling Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052 x Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)

8. Pressure Drop per Foot Tripping Dry Pipe (psi/ft) =
Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) - Metal Displacement (bbl/ft)
Drilling Mud Weight (ppg) x 0.052 x Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
9. Pressure Drop per Foot Tripping Wet Pipe (psi/ft) =
Casing Capacity (bbl/ft) - Closed End Displacement (bbl/ft)
10. Formation Pressure (psi) = Hydrostatic Pressure Mud in Hole (psi) + SIDPP (psi)
11. EMW (ppg) @ Shoe = (SICP (psi) ÷ 0.052 ÷ Shoe Depth (ft, TVD) ) + Present Mud Weight (ppg)
Bbls of Mud in System x 14.9 x (KMW - OMW)

12. Sacks (100 lb) of Barite Needed to Weight-Up Mud =
(35.4 - KMW)
NOTE: This formula assumes that the average density of Barite is 35.4 ppg and the average number of sacks (100lb) per barrel is 14.9.
13. Volume Increase from Adding Barite (bbls) = Number of Sacks (100 lb) added ÷ 14.9
14. Equivalent Mud Weight (ppg) @ __________ depth (ft) = [ DepthPressure x 0.052 ]+ Current Mud Weight
(ft, TVD)
(psi)
(ppg)
2
x [ ]
New Pump Rate (SPM)
15. Estimated New Pump Pressure at New Pump Rate (psi) = Old Pump Pressure (psi)
Old Pump Rate (SPM)
New Mud Weight (ppg)
16. Estimated New Pump Pressure with New Mud Weight (psi) = Old Pump Pressure (psi) x
Old Mud Weight (ppg)


Liters/Stk @ 100% % Efficiency TPO (Liters/Stk)
PRESENT MUD
WEIGHT: kg/l
Surface : __________(Liters) ÷ ____________ = ______________
Output (Liters/Stk) SCR taken @ _______________ (m)
DRILL STRING CAPACITY: Stks/min Pressure(bar) Liter/min Pressure(bar)
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters Pump #1: __________ @ __________

Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DP psi SPM
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters
Pump #2: __________ @ __________
Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DP
psi SPM
HWDP : ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters
Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) HWDP Pump #3: __________ @ __________
psi SPM
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters
Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DC
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters CASING DATA:
Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DC CASING _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
__________________ SHOE DEPTH

Total Drill String Capacity (Liters) @ MD / TVD / m
STROKES FROM SURFACE TO BIT: SHOE TEST DATA:

_________
Depth #1
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ _________ @ Test MW of _________
Total Drill String Capacity (Liters) True Pump Strokes, Surface to Bit (bar) (kg/l)
Output (Liters/Stk) _________
Depth #2
Between CSG and DP: ________ Liters/m x ________ m = ________ Liters (bar) (kg/l)
_________
________ Liters/m x ________ m = ________ Liters _________ @ Test MW of _________
Depth #3
Between Liner #1 and DP:
(bar) (kg/l)
Between Liner #2 and DP: ________ Liters/m x ________ m = ________ Liters LINER #1 _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
Between OH and DP/HWDP: ________ Liters/m x ________ m = ________ Liters LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
Between OH and DC: ________ Liters/m x ________ m = ________ Liters
LINER #1 TOP DEPTH m
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________
Open Hole Annular Vol. (Liters) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Shoe LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH m
Output (Liters/Stk)
STROKES FROM BIT TO SURFACE: LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH m
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ TVD CASING or LINER m

Total Annular Volume (Liters) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Surface HOLE DATA:
Output (Liters/Stk)
TOTAL DEPTH (MD) m
TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) m
__________________ + ______________ = ______________
@ MD / TVD / m inches
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE FLUID DENSITY (kg/l)
MAX. ALLOWABLE
[( ______________ x 10.2 ) ÷ _______________ ] + _______________ = ___________ kg/l FLUID DENSITY
Surface LOT Pressure (bar) Shoe TVD (m) LOT Fluid Density (kg/l)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP) (bar)
[( ______________ - _______________ ) x _______________ ] ÷ 10.2 = ________ bar SURFACE PRESSURE
Max. Allowable Current Fluid Density (kg/l) Shoe TVD (m)
Fluid Density (kg/l)
Metric Units Revised January 22, 2015
Surface stack, W&W method, metric (bar, liter, kg/l) Page 1

 KICK DATA 
SIDPP: __________ bar SICP: __________ bar PIT GAIN: __________ Liters Time of Incident: ____ : ____
CALCULATIONS
KILL FLUID DENSITY (kg/l)
KILL FLUID
[( ______________ x 10.2 ) ÷ _______________ ] + _______________ = ___________ kg/l DENSITY
SIDPP (bar) TVD (m) Original Fluid Density (kg/l)
INITIAL CIRCULATING
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ bar PRESSURE
SIDPP (bar) Pump Pressure (bar) @ SCR of _______SPM
FINAL CIRCULATING
__________________________ x ______________ ÷ ______________ = ___________ bar PRESSURE
Pump Pressure (bar) @ SCR of _______SPM Kill Mud Weight (kg/l) Present Mud Weight (kg/l)
PRESSURE CHART
SURFACE ICP
0
BIT FCP
_____________ ÷ 10 = _____________ ________________ - ________________ ÷ 10 = ____________

BIT FCP
SURFACE
______________ ÷ 10 = ____________

GRAPHIC ANALYSIS
INITIAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (bar)
FINAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (bar)

0
Stroke
Pressure
Time
1. Pressure Gradient (bar/m) = Fluid Density (kg/l) ÷ 10.2
2. Hydrostatic Pressure (bar) = (Fluid Density (kg/l) x TVD (m)) ÷ 10.2
3. Capacity (l/m) = Inside Diameter2 (mm) ÷ 1273
4. Annular Capacity(l/m) = (Inside Diameter of Casing2 (mm) or Hole Diameter2(mm) - Outside Diameter of Pipe2 (mm)) ÷ 1273
5. Pipe Displacement (l/m) = (Outside Diameter of pipe2 (mm) - Inside Diameter of pipe2 (mm)) ÷ 1273
Surface LOT Pressure (bar) x 10.2

6. Maximum Allowable Fluid Density (kg/l) = + LOT Fluid Density (kg/l)
Shoe TVD (m)
7. MAASP (bar) = [(Maximum Allowable Fluid Density (kg/l) - Current Fluid Density (kg/l)) x Shoe TVD (m)] ÷ 10.2
Drilling Fluid Density (kg/l) x Metal Displacement (l/m)

8. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Dry Pipe (bar/m) =
[Riser/Casing Capacity (l/m) - Metal Displacement (l/m)] x 10.2
Drilling Fluid Density (kg/l) x Closed End Displacement (l/m)
9. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Wet Pipe (bar/m) =
[Riser/Casing Capacity (l/m) - Closed End Displacement (l/m)] x 10.2
10. Formation Pressure (bar) = Hydrostatic Pressure Mud in Hole (bar) + SIDPP (bar)
Annular Pressure Loss (bar) x 10.2

11. Equivalent Circulating Density (kg/l) = + Fluid Density (kg/l)
TVD (m)
Liters of Mud in System x 4.25 x (KMW - OMW)
12. Kg of Barite Needed to Weight-Up Mud =
(4.25 - KMW)
Kg of Barite Needed to Weight-Up Mud
13. Volume Increase from Adding Barite (l) =
4.25
2
14. Estimated New Pump Pressure at New Pump Rate (bar) = Old Pump Pressure (bar) x [ New Pump Rate (SPM)
Old Pump Rate (SPM) ]
New Mud Weight (kg/l)
15. Estimated New Pump Pressure with New Mud Weight (bar) = Old Pump Pressure (bar) x
Old Mud Weight (kg/l)


m3/Stk @ 100% % Efficiency TPO (m3/Stk)
PRESENT MUD
WEIGHT: kg/m3
Surface : __________(m3) ÷ ____________ = ______________
Output (m3/Stk) SCR taken @ _______________ (m)
DRILL STRING CAPACITY: Stks/min Pressure(kPa) m3/min Pressure(kPa)
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3 Pump #1: __________ @ __________

Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DP psi SPM
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3
Pump #2: __________ @ __________
Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DP
psi SPM
HWDP : ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3
Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) HWDP Pump #3: __________ @ __________
psi SPM
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m 3
Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DC
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3 CASING DATA:

Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DC CASING _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
__________________ SHOE DEPTH

Total Drill String Capacity (m3) @ MD / TVD / m
STROKES FROM SURFACE TO BIT: SHOE TEST DATA:

_________
Depth #1
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ _________ @ Test MW of _________
Total Drill String Capacity (m3) True Pump Strokes, Surface to Bit (kPa) (kg/m3)
Output (m3/Stk) _________
Depth #2
Between CSG and DP: ________ m3/m x ________ m = ________ m3 (kPa) (kg/m3)
_________
________ m3/m x ________ m = ________ m3
Depth #3
Between Liner #1 and DP: _________ @ Test MW of _________
(kPa) (kg/m3)
Between Liner #2 and DP: ________ m3/m x ________ m = ________ m3 LINER #1 _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
Between OH and DP/HWDP:________ m3/m x ________ m = ________ m3 LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
Between OH and DC: ________ m3/m x ________ m = ________ m3
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________
Open Hole Annular Vol. (m3) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Shoe LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH m
Output (m3/Stk)
STROKES FROM BIT TO SURFACE: LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH m
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ TVD CASING or LINER m

Total Annular Volume (m3) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Surface
Output (m3/Stk)
HOLE DATA:
TOTAL DEPTH (MD) m
TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) m
__________________ + ______________ = ______________
@ MD / TVD / m inches
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE FLUID DENSITY (kg/m3)
MAX. ALLOWABLE
[ ______________ ÷ ( _______________ x 0.00981)] + ______________ = ___________ kg/m3 FLUID DENSITY
Surface LOT Pressure (kPa) Shoe TVD (m) LOT Fluid Density (kg/m3)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP) (kPa)
( ______________ - _______________ ) x 0.00981 x _______________ = ________ kPa SURFACE PRESSURE
Max. Allowable Current Fluid Density (kg/m3) Shoe TVD (m)
Fluid Density (kg/m3)
SI Units Revised January 22, 2015
Surface stack, W&W method, SI (kPa, m3, kg/m3) Page 1

KICK DATA
SIDPP: __________ kPa SICP: __________ kPa PIT GAIN: __________ m3 Time of Incident: ____ : ____
CALCULATIONS
KILL FLUID DENSITY (kg/m ) 3
KILL FLUID
[ _____________ ÷ ( ______________ x 0.00981)] + ______________ = ___________ kg/m3 DENSITY
SIDPP (kPa) TVD (m) Current Fluid Density (Kg/m3)
INITIAL CIRCULATING
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ kPa PRESSURE
SIDPP (kPa) Pump Pressure (kPa) @ SCR of _______SPM
FINAL CIRCULATING
__________________________ x ______________ ÷ ______________ = ___________ kPa PRESSURE
Pump Pressure (kPa) @ SCR of _______SPM Kill Mud Weight (kg/m3) Present Mud Weight (kg/m3)
PRESSURE CHART
SURFACE ICP
0
BIT FCP
_____________ ÷ 10 = _____________ ________________ - ________________ ÷ 10 = ____________

BIT FCP
SURFACE
______________ ÷ 10 = ____________

GRAPHIC ANALYSIS
INITIAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (kPa)
FINAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (kPa)

0
Stroke
Pressure
Time
1. Pressure Gradient (kPa/m) = Fluid Density (kg/m3) x 0.00981
2. Hydrostatic Pressure (kPa) = Fluid Density (kg/m3) x 0.00981 x TVD (m)
3. Capacity (m3/m) = Inside Diameter2 (mm) ÷ 1273
4. Annular Capacity (m3/m) = (Inside Diameter of Casing2 (mm) or Hole Diameter2(mm) - Outside Diameter of Pipe2 (mm)) ÷ 1273
5. Pipe Displacement (m3/m) = (Outside Diameter of pipe2 (mm) - Inside Diameter of pipe2 (mm)) ÷ 1273
Surface LOT Pressure (kPa)

6. Maximum Allowable Fluid Density (kg/m3) = + LOT Fluid Density (kg/m3)
Shoe TVD (m) x 0.00981
7. MAASP (kPa) = [Maximum Allowable Fluid Density (kg/m3) - Current Fluid Density (kg/m3)] x 0.00981 x Shoe TVD (m)
Drilling Fluid Density (kg/m3) x 0.00981 x Metal Displacement (m3/m)

8. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Dry Pipe (kPa/m) =
Riser/Casing Capacity (m3/m) - Metal Displacement (m3/m)
Drilling Fluid Density (kg/m3) x 0.00981 x Closed End Displacement (m3/m)
9. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Wet Pipe (kPa/m) = Riser/Casing Capacity (m3/m) - Closed End Displacement (m3/m)
10. Formation Pressure (kPa) = Hydrostatic Pressure Mud in Hole (kPa) + SIDPP (kPa)
Annular Pressure Loss (kPa)

11. Equivalent Circulating Density (kg/m3) = + Fluid Density (kg/m3)
TVD (m) x 0.00981
m3 of Mud in System x 4250 x (KMW - OMW)
(4250 - KMW)
13. Volume Increase from Adding Barite (m3) =
4250
2
14. Estimated New Pump Pressure at New Pump Rate (kPa) = Old Pump Pressure (kPa) x [ New Pump Rate (SPM)
New Mud Weight (kg/m3)
15. Estimated New Pump Pressure with New Mud Weight (kPa) = Old Pump Pressure (kPa) x
Old Mud Weight (kg/m3)


Subsea Stack - Wait and Weight Method
PRESENT MUD
Surface : __________(Bbls) ÷ ____________ = ______________
WEIGHT:
ppg
Line Surface Line Capacity True Pump Strokes to Pump
Output (Bbls/Stk) SLOW CIRCULATION RATE (SCR):
DRILL STRING CAPACITY: SCR taken @ _______________ (ft)
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls Stks/min Pressure(psi) Bbl/min Pressure(psi)
Pipe Size (in) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DP Pump #1: __________ @ __________

Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls psi SPM
Pipe Size (in) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DP
Pump #2: __________ @ __________
HWDP : ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls psi SPM
Size (in) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) HWDP
Pump #3: __________ @ __________
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls psi SPM
Collars Size (in) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DC
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls

Collars Size (in) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DC CASING DATA:
CASING _______ , _______ , _______
__________________ size ID weight
Total Drill String Capacity (Bbls)
STROKES FROM SURFACE TO BIT: SHOE DEPTH
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________
@ MD / TVD / ft
Total Drill String Capacity (Bbls) True Pump Strokes, Surface to Bit SHOE TEST DATA:
Output (Bbls/Stks) _________
ANNULAR CAPACITY Depth #1
_________ @ Test MW of _________
Between CSG and DP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls (psi) (ppg)
Between Liner #1 and DP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls _________
Depth #2
Between Liner #2 and DP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls _________ @ Test MW of _________
(psi) (ppg)
Between OH and DP/HWDP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls _________
Between OH and DC: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls Depth #3
_________ @ Test MW of _________
Choke line capacity: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls (psi) (ppg)
LINER #1 _______ , _______ , _______

STROKES FROM BIT TO SHOE: size ID weight
LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ size ID weight
Open Hole Annular Vol. (Bbls) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Shoe
Output (Bbls/Stks) LINER #1 TOP DEPTH ft
STROKES FROM BIT TO SURFACE:
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ LINER #2 TOP DEPTH ft
Total Annular Volume (Bbls) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Surface
Output (Bbls/Stks) LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH ft
ANNULAR VOL. BETWEEN DRILL PIPE & RISER:
LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH ft
( __________ – __________ ) ÷ 1029.4 = ___________________
Riser ID 2
Drill Pipe OD 2
Capacity Drill Pipe/Riser (Bbls/ft) TVD CASING or LINER ft
HOLE DATA:
__________________ x __________ ft = ___________________ TOTAL DEPTH (MD) ft
Capacity Drill Pipe/Riser Riser Length Volume between Drill Pipe & Riser
(Bbls/ft) (Bbls)
TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) ft BIT SIZE _______
STROKES TO DISPLACE RISER: inches
BIT DEPTH
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ @ MD / TVD / ft
Volume between True Pump Strokes
Drill Pipe & Riser (Bbls) Output (Bbls/Stks)
KICK DATA
SIDPP: __________ psi SICP: __________ psi PIT GAIN: __________ Bbls Time of Incident: ____ : ____
Subsea stack, W&W method, US (psi, ft, ppg) Page 1

CALCULATIONS
KILL MUD WEIGHT (KMW) KILL MUD
( ______________ ÷ 0.052 ÷ _______________ ) + _______________ = ___________ ppg WEIGHT
INITIAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (ICP) INITIAL CIRCULATING
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ psi PRESSURE
FINAL CIRCULATING PRESSURE (FCP) FINAL CIRCULATING
__________________________ x ______________ ÷ ______________ = ___________ psi PRESSURE
Pump Pressure (psi) @ SCR of _______SPM Kill Mud Weight (ppg) Present Mud Weight (ppg)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE MUD DENSITY (ppg)
MAX. ALLOWABLE
( ______________ ÷ 0.052 ÷ _______________ ) + _______________ = ___________ ppg MUD DENSITY
Surface LOT Pressure (psi) Shoe Depth (ft,TUD) LOT Mud Density (ppg)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP) (psi)
( ______________ - _______________ ) x 0.052 x ________________ = ________ psi SURFACE PRESSURE
Max. Allowable Present Mud Density (ppg) Shoe Depth (ft,TUD)
Mud Density (ppg)
SELECTED KILL PUMP DATA

Kill Rate Speed Pump Output Circ. Rate
Slow Pump Pressure
Circ. Pres thru Choke Circ. Pres thru Choke
CLFP
(Circ. Down DP Choke Line Choke &
(STKS/MIN) (BBLS/STK) (BBLS/MIN) Line (PSI) & Kill Line (PSI)
& Up Riser) (PSI) Kill Line (PSI)
PUMP
No. 1
PUMP
No. 2
PUMP
No. 3
PRESSURE CHART
SURFACE 0 ICP
BIT FCP
_____________ ÷ 10 = _____________ ________________ - ________________ ÷ 10 = ____________

BIT FCP
SURFACE
______________ ÷ 10 = ____________

GRAPHIC ANALYSIS
3000
INITIAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (psi)
FINAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (psi)

2000
1000
0
Stroke
Pressure
Time
FORMULAS



(35.4 - KMW)
(ft, TVD)
(psi)
(ppg)
2
x [ ]
New Pump Rate (SPM)
Old Pump Rate (SPM)


PRESENT MUD
Surface : __________(Liters) ÷ ____________ = ______________
WEIGHT:
kg/l
Output (Liters/Stk) SLOW CIRCULATION RATE (SCR):
DRILL STRING CAPACITY: SCR taken @ _______________ (m)
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters Stks/min Pressure(bar) Liter/min Pressure(bar)
Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DP Pump #1: __________ @ __________

Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters bar SPM
Pump #2: __________ @ __________
HWDP : ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters bar SPM
Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) HWDP
Pump #3: __________ @ __________
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters bar SPM
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters

Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DC CASING DATA:
CASING _______ , _______ , _______
__________________ size ID weight
Total Drill String Capacity (Liters)
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________
@ MD / TVD / m
Total Drill String Capacity (Liters) True Pump Strokes, Surface to Bit SHOE TEST DATA:
Output (Liters/Stks) _________
_________ @ Test MW of _________
Between CSG and DP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters (bar) (kg/l)
Between Liner #1 and DP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters _________
Depth #2
Between Liner #2 and DP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters _________ @ Test MW of _________
(bar) (kg/l)
Between OH and DP/HWDP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters _________
Between OH and DC: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters Depth #3
_________ @ Test MW of _________
Choke line capacity: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters (bar) (kg/l)
LINER #1 _______ , _______ , _______

LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ size ID weight
Open Hole Annular Vol. (Liters) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Shoe
Output (Liters/Stks) LINER #1 TOP DEPTH m
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ LINER #2 TOP DEPTH m
Total Annular Volume (Liters) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Surface
Output (Liters/Stks) LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH m
LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH m
( __________ – __________ ) ÷ 1273 = __________________
Riser ID 2
Drill Pipe OD 2
Capacity Drill Pipe/Riser (Liters/m) TVD CASING or LINER m
HOLE DATA:
__________________ x __________ m = ___________________ TOTAL DEPTH (MD) m
(Liters/m) (Liters)
TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) m BIT SIZE _______
BIT DEPTH
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ @ MD / TVD / m
Drill Pipe & Riser (Liters) Output (Liters/Stks)
KICK DATA
SIDPP: __________ bar SICP: __________ bar PIT GAIN: __________ Liters Time of Incident: ____ : ____
Subsea stack, W&W method, metric (bar, liter, kg/l) Page 1

CALCULATIONS
KILL FLUID DENSITY (kg/l)) KILL FLUID
[( ______________ x 10.2 ) ÷ _______________ ] + _______________ = ___________ kg/l DENSITY
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ bar PRESSURE
__________________________ x ______________ ÷ ______________ = ___________ bar PRESSURE
Pump Pressure (bar) @ SCR of _______SPM Kill Mud Weight (kg/l) Present Mud Weight (kg/l)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE FLUID DENSITY (kg/l) MAX. ALLOWABLE
[( ______________ x 10.2 ) ÷ _______________ ] + _______________ = ___________ kg/l FLUID DENSITY
Surface LOT Pressure (bar) Shoe TVD (m) LOT Fluid Density (kg/l)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP) (bar) MAX. ALLOWABLE ANNULAR
[( ______________ - _______________ ) x ________________ ] ÷ 10.2 = ________ bar SURFACE PRESSURE
Max. Allowable Current Fluid Density (kg/l) Shoe TVD (m)
Fluid Density (kg/l)

Slow Pump Pressure
CLFP
(STKS/MIN) (LITERS/STK) (LITERS/MIN) Line (bar) & Kill Line (bar)
& Up Riser) (bar) Kill Line (bar)
PUMP
No. 1
PUMP
No. 2
PUMP
No. 3
PRESSURE CHART
Stroke or Volume Theoretical Drill Pipe Actual Drill Pipe Pressure Actual Actual
SURFACE 0 ICP
BIT FCP
_____________ ÷ 10 = _____________ ________________ - ________________ ÷ 10 = ____________

Strokes Surface to Bit Strokes per Step Initial Circulation Pressure Final Circulation Pressure Bar per Step
BIT FCP
SURFACE
______________ ÷ 10 = ____________

GRAPHIC ANALYSIS
INITIAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (bar)
FINAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (bar)

0
Stroke
Pressure
Time
2. Hydrostatic Pressure (bar) = Fluid Density (kg/l) x TVD (m) ÷ 10.2

Shoe TVD (m)
7. MAASP (bar) = [(Maximum Allowable Fluid Density (kg/l) - Current Fluid Density (kg/l)) x Shoe TVD (m)] ÷ 10.2

Drilling Mud Weight (kg/l) x 10.2 x Closed End Displacement (l/m)
9. Pressure Drop per Foot Tripping Wet Pipe (bar/m) =
Casing Capacity (l/m) - Closed End Displacement (l/m)

TVD (m)
(4.25 - KMW)
4.25
2


PRESENT MUD
Surface : __________(Liters) ÷ ____________ = ______________
WEIGHT:
kg/m3
Output (m3/Stk) SLOW CIRCULATION RATE (SCR):
DRILL STRING CAPACITY: SCR taken @ _______________ (m)
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3 Stks/min Pressure(bar) m3/min Pressure(bar)
Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DP Pump #1: __________ @ __________

Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3 bar SPM
Pump #2: __________ @ __________
HWDP : ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3 bar SPM
Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) HWDP
Pump #3: __________ @ __________
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3 bar SPM
Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m /m
3
Length (m) DC
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3

Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DC CASING DATA:
CASING _______ , _______ , _______
__________________ size ID weight
Total Drill String Capacity (m ) 3
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________
@ MD / TVD / m
Total Drill String Capacity (m )3

True Pump Strokes, Surface to Bit SHOE TEST DATA:
Output (m3/Stks) _________
_________ @ Test MW of _________
Between CSG and DP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3 (kPa) (kg/m3)
Between Liner #1 and DP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3 _________
Depth #2
Between Liner #2 and DP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3 _________ @ Test MW of _________
(kPa) (kg/m3)
Between OH and DP/HWDP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3 _________
Between OH and DC: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3 Depth #3
_________ @ Test MW of _________
Choke line capacity: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3 (kPa) (kg/m3)
LINER #1 _______ , _______ , _______

LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ size ID weight
Open Hole Annular Vol. (m3) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Shoe
Output (m3/Stks) LINER #1 TOP DEPTH m
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ LINER #2 TOP DEPTH m
Total Annular Volume (m3) True Pump Strokes, Bit to Surface
Output (m3/Stks) LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH m
LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH m
( __________ – __________ ) ÷ 1273 = __________________
Riser ID 2
Drill Pipe OD 2
Capacity Drill Pipe/Riser (m /m)
3
TVD CASING or LINER m
HOLE DATA:
__________________ x __________ m = ___________________ TOTAL DEPTH (MD) m
(m3/m) (m3)
TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) m BIT SIZE _______
BIT DEPTH
__________________ ÷ ______________ = ______________ @ MD / TVD / m
Drill Pipe & Riser (m3) Output (m3/Stks)
KICK DATA
SIDPP: __________ kPa SICP: __________ kPa PIT GAIN: __________ m3 Time of Incident: ____ : ____
Subsea stack, W&W method, SI (kPa, m3, kg/m3) Page 1

CALCULATIONS
KILL FLUID DENSITY (kg/m3) KILL FLUID
[ ______________ ÷ ( _______________ x 0.00981)] + _______________ = ___________ kg/m3 DENSITY
SIDPP (kPa) TVD (m) Original Fluid Density (kg/m3)
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ kPa PRESSURE
__________________________ x ______________ ÷ ______________ = ___________ kPa PRESSURE
Pump Pressure (kPa) @ SCR of _______SPM Kill Mud Weight (kg/m3) Present Mud Weight (kg/m3)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE FLUID DENSITY (kg/m3) MAX. ALLOWABLE
[ ______________ ÷ ( _______________ x 0.00981)] + _______________ = ___________ kg/m3 FLUID DENSITY
Surface LOT Pressure (kPa) Shoe TVD (m) LOT Fluid Density (kg/m3)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULAR SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP) (kPa) MAX. ALLOWABLE ANNULAR
( _____________ - ______________ ) x 0.00981 x _______________ = ________ kPa SURFACE PRESSURE
Max. Allowable Current Fluid Density (kg/m3) Shoe TVD (m)
Fluid Density (kg/m3)

Slow Pump Pressure
CLFP
(STKS/MIN) (M3/STK) (M3/MIN) Line (kPa) & Kill Line (kPa)
& Up Riser) (kPa) Kill Line (kPa)
PUMP
No. 1
PUMP
No. 2
PUMP
No. 3
PRESSURE CHART
Stroke or Volume Theoretical Drill Pipe Actual Drill Pipe Pressure Actual Actual
SURFACE 0 ICP
BIT FCP
_____________ ÷ 10 = _____________ ________________ - ________________ ÷ 10 = ____________

Strokes Surface to Bit Strokes per Step Initial Circulation Pressure Final Circulation Pressure kPa per Step
BIT FCP
SURFACE
______________ ÷ 10 = ____________

GRAPHIC ANALYSIS
INITIAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (kPa)
FINAL CIRCULATION PRESSURE (kPa)

0
Stroke
Pressure
Time


8. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Dry Pipe (kPa/m) = Riser/Casing Capacity (m3/m) - Metal Displacement (m3/m)
9. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Wet Pipe (kPa/m) =
Riser/Casing Capacity (m3/m) - Closed End Displacement (m3/m)

TVD (m) x 0.00981
(4250 - KMW)
4250
2

IADC Driller’s Method

Worksheet
KICK DATA CURRENT WELL DATA
SIDPP: __________ psi SICP: __________ psi PRESENT MUD
WEIGHT: ppg
PIT GAIN: __________ Bbls Time of Incident: ____ : ____
PROCEDURE SLOW CIRCULATION RATE (SCR):
SCR taken @ _______________ (ft)
First Circulation to clear influx from well:
Stks/min Pressure(psi) Bbl/min Pressure(psi)
1. Bring pump(s) up to slow circulation rate and attempting to Pump #1: __________ @ __________

hold casing pressure constant by manipulating or adjusting psi SPM
the choke. The slow circulation rate will normally be 50% of Pump #2: __________ @ __________
the rate used in drilling operations. psi SPM
2. Read and record Initial Circulating Pressure on Drill Pipe. Pump #3: __________ @ __________
This pressure should equal the SIDPP plus the slow psi SPM
circulation rate pressure.

Recorded ICP psi @ rate spm
TOTAL DEPTH (MD) ft
3. Maintain pump rate and drill pipe pressure constant until
influx is circulated out of well. TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) ft
4. Shut down pump(s) while holding casing pressure constant CASING DATA:
closing the choke as required. The trapped SIDPP will CASING _______ , _______ , _______
size ID weight
represent formation pressure.
5. With the pumps off and choke closed, the casing pressure CASING SHOE DEPTH ft
and drill pipe pressures should be equal. If not, continue to
circulate out the influx. SHOE TEST DATA:
Depth #1
6. Record the new shut in casing pressure. _________ @ Test MW of _________
(psi) (ppg)
SICP psi
Depth #2
7. Calculate Kill Mud Weight. _________ @ Test MW of _________
(psi) (ppg)
KMW = ppg
Depth #3
8. Increase surface mud system to required KMW density. _________ @ Test MW of _________
(psi) (ppg)
Second Circulation to balance well: LINER #1 _______ , _______ , _______

size ID weight
LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
1. Bring pump(s) up to slow circulation rate and open size ID weight
choke as required while holding new casing
pressure contant. LINER #1 TOP DEPTH ft
2. Adjust the choke to hold the new casing pressure LINER #2 TOP DEPTH ft
constant until the drill pipe is full of kill mud of the
required density. LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH ft
3. After drill pipe is full of kill mud, record drill pipe pressure. LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH ft
psi TVD CASING or LINER ft

4. Hold pump rate constant and drill pipe pressure by adjusting
the choke until the annulus is filled with kill mud. HOLE DATA:
BIT SIZE inches
5. When kill mud reaches the surface, choke pressure, if any,
is bled off.
6. Stop circulating and check for flow.
Driller’s method, US (psi, ft, ppg) Page 1

CALCULATIONS
KILL MUD WEIGHT (KMW)
KILL MUD
( ______________ ÷ 0.052 ÷ _______________ ) + _______________ = ___________ ppg WEIGHT

INITIAL CIRCULATING
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ psi PRESSURE
TRUE PUMP OUTPUT: STROKES, SURFACE TO BIT:

___________ x ___________ = ___________ ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________
Bbls/Stk @ 100% % Efficiency TPO (Bbls/Stk) Total Drill String True Pump Strokes,
Capacity (Bbls) Output (Bbls/Stk) Surface to Bit
DRILL STRING CAPACITY:

ANNULAR CAPACITY (Between):
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls
Pipe Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DP CSG and DP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls Liner #1 and DP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls
Pipe Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DP
HWDP: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls Liner #2 and DP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls
Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) HWDP
OH and DP/HWDP: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls
Collars Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DC OH and DC: _______ Bbls/ft x _______ ft = _______ Bbls
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls
Collars Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) DC
STROKES, BIT TO SHOE:
Surface:________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Bbls ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________
Line Size (in.) Weight (lb/ft) Bbls/ft Length (ft) SL Open Hole True Pump Strokes,
Annular Volume (Bbls) Output (Bbls/Stk) Bit to Shoe
STROKES, BIT TO SURFACE:
__________________ ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________

Total Drill String Capacity (Bbls) Total True Pump Strokes,
Annular Volume (Bbls) Output (Bbls/Stk) Bit to Surface
TOTAL STROKES, SURFACE TO SURFACE:
________________ + _____________ = _____________

Strokes, Strokes, Strokes,
Surface to Bit Bit to Surface Surface to Surface
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULUS SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP)

MAASP
( ___________________ - _______________ ) x 0.052 x _________________ = ___________ psi
Max. MW from Shoe Test (ppg) Present Mud Weight (ppg) True Vertical Depth Shoe (ft)
MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULUS SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP) WITH KILL MUD

MAASP WITH
( ___________________ - _______________ ) x 0.052 x _________________ = ___________ psi KILL MUD
Max. MW from Shoe Test (ppg) Kill Mud Weight (ppg) True Vertical Depth Shoe (ft)
COMMENTS


FORMULAS



(35.4 - KMW)
14. Equivalent Mud Weight (ppg) @ __________ depth (ft) = [ DepthPressure x 0.052 ] + Current Mud Weight
(ft, TVD)
(psi)
(ppg)
2
x [ ]
New Pump Rate (SPM)
Old Pump Rate (SPM)
COMMENTS



Worksheet
SIDPP: __________ bar SICP: __________ bar PRESENT MUD
WEIGHT: kg/l
PIT GAIN: __________ Liters Time of Incident: ____ : ____
SCR taken @ _______________ (m)
Stks/min Pressure(bar) Liter/min Pressure(bar)


Recorded ICP bar @ rate spm
TOTAL DEPTH (MD) m
influx is circulated out of well. TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) m
size ID weight
5. With the pumps off and choke closed, the casing pressure CASING SHOE DEPTH m
Depth #1
(bar) (kg/l)
SICP bar
Depth #2
(bar) (kg/l)
KMW = kg/l
Depth #3
(bar) (kg/l)

size ID weight
LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
pressure contant. LINER #1 TOP DEPTH m
2. Adjust the choke to hold the new casing pressure LINER #2 TOP DEPTH m
required density. LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH m
3. After drill pipe is full of kill mud, record drill pipe pressure. LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH m
bar TVD CASING or LINER m

BIT SIZE inches
is bled off.
Driller’s method, metric (bar, Liters, kg/l) Page 1

CALCULATIONS
KILL FLUID DENSITY (kg/l)
KILL FLUID
[( ______________ x 10.2 ) ÷ _______________ ] + _______________ = ___________ kg/l DENSITY

INITIAL CIRCULATING
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ bar PRESSURE

___________ x ___________ = ___________ ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________
Liters/Stk @ 100% % Efficiency TPO (Liters/Stk) Total Drill String True Pump Strokes,
Capacity (Liters) Output (Liters/Stk) Surface to Bit

Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters
Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DP CSG and DP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters Liner #1 and DP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters
HWDP: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters Liner #2 and DP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters
Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) HWDP
OH and DP/HWDP: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters
Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) DC OH and DC: _______ Liters/m x _______ m = _______ Liters
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters
Surface:________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ Liters ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________
Line Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) Liters/m Length (m) SL Open Hole True Pump Strokes,
Annular Volume (Liters) Output (Liters/Stk) Bit to Shoe
__________________ ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________

Total Drill String Capacity (Liters) Total True Pump Strokes,
Annular Volume (Bbls) Output (Liters/Stk) Bit to Surface
________________ + _____________ = _____________

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULUS SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP)

MAASP
( ___________________ - _______________ ) x _________________ ÷ 10.2 = ___________ bar
Max. Allowable Fluid Density (kg/l) Current Fluid Density (kg/l) Shoe TVD (m)

MAASP WITH
( ___________________ - _______________ ) x _________________ ÷ 10.2 = ___________ bar KILL MUD
Max. Allowable Fluid Density (kg/l) Kill Mud Weight (kg/l) Shoe TVD (m)
COMMENTS

Driller’s method, metric (bar, Liter, kg/l) Page 2

FORMULAS

Shoe TVD (m)
[Maximum Allowable Fluid Density (kg/l) - Current Fluid Density (kg/l)] x Shoe TVD (m)
7. MAASP (bar) =
10.2
Drilling Fluid Density (kg/l) x Closed End Displacement (l/m)
9. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Wet Pipe (bar/m) =
[Riser/Casing Capacity (l/m) - Closed End Displacement (l/m)] x 10.2

TVD (m)
(4.25 - KMW)
4.25
2
COMMENTS
Driller’s method, metric (bar, Liter, kg/l) Page 3


Worksheet
SIDPP: __________ kPa SICP: __________ kPa PRESENT MUD
WEIGHT: kg/m3
PIT GAIN: __________ m3 Time of Incident: ____ : ____
SCR taken @ _______________ (m)
Stks/min Pressure(kPa) m3/min Pressure(kPa)

Recorded ICP kPa @ rate spm

TOTAL DEPTH (MD) m
influx is circulated out of well. TOTAL DEPTH (TVD) m
size ID weight
5. With the pumps off and choke closed, the casing pressure CASING SHOE DEPTH m
Depth #1
(kPa) (kg/l)
SICP kPa
Depth #2
(kPa) (kg/l)
KMW = kg/m3
Depth #3
(kPa) (kg/l)

size ID weight
LINER #2 _______ , _______ , _______
pressure contant. LINER #1 TOP DEPTH m
2. Adjust the choke to hold the new casing pressure LINER #2 TOP DEPTH m
required density. LINER #1 SHOE DEPTH m
3. After drill pipe is full of kill mud, record drill pipe pressure. LINER #2 SHOE DEPTH m
kPa TVD CASING or LINER m

BIT SIZE inches
is bled off.
Driller’s method, SI (kPa, m3, kg/m3) Page 1

CALCULATIONS
KILL FLUID DENSITY (kg/m3)
KILL FLUID
[ _____________ ÷ ( 0.00981 x ______________ )] + ______________ = ___________ kg/m3 DENSITY
SIDPP (kPa) TVD (m) Original Fluid Density (kg/m3)

INITIAL CIRCULATING
_____________________________ + ____________________________ = ___________ kPa PRESSURE

___________ x ___________ = ___________ ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________
m3/Stk @ 100% % Efficiency TPO (m3/Stk) Total Drill String True Pump Strokes,
Capacity (m3) Output (m3/Stk) Surface to Bit

Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3
Pipe Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DP CSG and DP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m 3
Liner #1 and DP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3
HWDP: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3 Liner #2 and DP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3
Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) HWDP
OH and DP/HWDP: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3
Drill #1: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m3
Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DC OH and DC: _______ m3/m x _______ m = _______ m3
Drill #2: ________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m 3
Collars Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) DC

Surface:________ ________ ________ x ________ = ________ m 3 ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________
Line Size (mm) Weight (kg/m) m3/m Length (m) SL Open Hole True Pump Strokes,
Annular Volume (m3) Output (m3/Stk) Bit to Shoe
__________________ ________________ ÷ _____________ = _____________

Total Drill String Capacity (m3) Total True Pump Strokes,
Annular Volume (m3) Output (m3/Stk) Bit to Surface
________________ + _____________ = _____________

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE ANNULUS SURFACE PRESSURE (MAASP)(kPa)

MAASP
( ___________________ - _______________ ) x 0.00981 x ________________ = ___________ kPa
Max. Allowable Fluid Density (kg/m3) Current Fluid Density (kg/m3) Shoe TVD (m)

MAASP WITH
( ___________________ - _______________ ) x 0.00981 x ________________ = ___________ kPa KILL MUD
Max. Allowable Fluid Density (kg/m )
3
Kill Mud Weight (kg/m )3
Shoe TVD (m)
COMMENTS

FORMULAS


8. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Dry Pipe (kPa/m) =
Riser/Casing Capacity (m3/m) - Metal Displacement (m3/m)
9. Pressure Drop per Metre Tripping Wet Pipe (kPa/m) =
Riser/Casing Capacity (m3/m) - Closed End Displacement (m3/m)

TVD (m) x 0.00981
(4250 - KMW)
4250
2
COMMENTS


Bullhead
TRUE PUMP OUTPUT: ___________ x ___________ = ___________ SLOW CIRCULATION RATE (SCR):
STKS/MIN Pressure(PSI) BBL/MIN Pressure(psi)
PUMP RATE CONSIDERATIONS:
Pump #1
Kill Rate Speeds and Volume
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________
Pump #2
Desired Barrels per Pump Output Pump Rate
Minute (BBLS/MIN) (BBLS/STK) (STKS/MIN)
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________
Pump #3
Minute (BBLS/MIN) (BBLS/STK) (STKS/MIN)
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________

Desired Barrels per Pump Output Pump Rate RECORDED WELL DATA:
Minute (BBLS/MIN) (BBLS/STK) (STKS/MIN) Formation Pressure
VOLUME AND STROKE CONSIDERATIONS: ___________ PSI
Tubing Volume/Strokes (Surface to End of Tubing, E.O.T.)
_________
Tubing Length
x _________
Capacity per Foot
= _________
Tubing Volume
÷ _________
Pump Output
= ___________
Strokes Surface
Max. Allowable Mud Density
___________ PPG
C
Surface to E.O.T. in Tubing Surface to E.O.T. (BBLS/STK) to E.O.T.
(MD — FT) (BBLS/FT) (BBLS) (STKS) Maximum Pump Pressure
Casing Volumes/Strokes (Below End of Tubing, E.O.T. to Perforations)
_________ x _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
___________ PSI W
Length E.O.T. to Perfs Capacity per Foot Casing Volume Pump Output Strokes E.O.T.
M
Top/Middle/Bottom in Casing E.O.T. to Perforations (BBLS/STK) to Perforations
(MD — FT) (BBLS/FT) (BBLS) (STKS)
Shut In Tubing Pressure
Surface to Perforations Volume/Strokes (Kill Point)
___________ PSI
_________ + _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
Tubing Volume
Surface to E.O.T.
(BBLS)
Casing Volume Surface to
E.O.T. to Perforations Perforations Volume
(BBLS) (BBLS)
Pump Output
(BBLS/STK)
Strokes Surface
to Perforations
(Kill Point — STKS)
Shut In Casing Pressure
___________ PSI
M
Total Volume/Stokes to Pump (Including Overdisplacing)
Tree/Wellhead/
_________ + _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
Surface to Overdisplacement Total Volume Pump Output Total Strokes BOP Stack Rating
Perforations Volume — if any — to Pump (BBLS/STK) to Pump
(BBLS) (BBLS) (BBLS) (Overdisplace — STKS) ___________ PSI
FORMATION PRESSURE CONSIDERATIONS: Annulus Fluid Density

Kill Fluid Density CASING
___________
=
PPG
___________ ÷ 0.052 ÷ ___________ ___________
Formation Depth to Perforations Kill Fluid Density Packer Set
Pressure Top/Middle/Bottom (PPG)
(PSI) (TVD — FT) ___________
TVD
FT
Estimated Formation Integrity Pressure (Fracture) MD
PACKER
___________ x 0.052 x ___________ = ___________ Top Perforation

Max. Allowable Depth to Perforations Estimated Formation
Mud Density Top/Middle/Bottom Integrity Pressure ___________
TVD
FT
(PPG) (TVD — FT) (PSI)
MD
Average Hydrostatic Pressure in Tubing
END OF
Middle Perforation
______________ – ______________ = ___________ TUBING E.O.T.
Formation Initial Shut in Average Hydrostatic ___________
TVD
FT
Pressure Tubing Pressure Pressure in Tubing
(PSI) (PSI) (PSI) MD
Initial Estimated Maximum Pressure on Tubing (Static) Bottom Perforation

______________ – ______________ = ___________ ___________
TVD
Est. Formation Average Hydrostatic Initial Estimated Max. FT
Integrity Pressure Pressure in Tubing Pressure on Tubing MD
(PSI) (PSI) (PSI)
Kill Fluid Hydrostatic Pressure Final Estimated Maximum Pressure on Tubing (Static)
___________ x 0.052 x ___________ = ___________ __________ – __________ = ___________
Kill Fluid Depth to Perforations Kill Fluid Est. Formation Kill Fluid Final Estimated Max.
Density Top/Middle/Bottom Hydrostatic Pressure Integrity Pressure Hydrostatic Pressure Pressure on Tubing
(PPG) (TVD — FT) (PSI) (PSI) (PSI) (PSI)
Bullheading method, US (psi, ft, ppg) Page 1

TUBING & CASING DATA

TUBING DATA:
Tubing Tubing Collapse
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
Outside Diameter Inside Diameter Capacity per Foot Length to E.O.T. Tubing Collapse Safety Factor Adjusted Tubing
(INCHES) (INCHES) (BBLS/FT) (MD — FT) (PSI) (0.70 or Less) Collapse (PSI)
Tubing Tubing Yield

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
Weight Grade Internal Yield Collapse Tubing Yield Safety Factor Adjusted Tubing
(LBS/FT) (PSI @ 100%) (PSI @ 100%) (PSI) (0.70 or Less) Internal Yield
(PSI)
CASING DATA:
Casing Casing Internal Yield
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
Outside Diameter Inside Diameter Capacity per Foot Length Casing Internal Safety Factor Adjusted Casing
(INCHES) (INCHES) (BBLS/FT) (MD — FT) Yield (PSI) (0.70 or Less) Yield (PSI)
Casing
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
Weight Grade Internal Yield TREE/BOP
(LBS/FT) (PSI @ 100%) Rated Pressure (PSI)
PRESSURE CONSIDERATIONS:
A Lesser value of “Tubing Yield” or “Initial Estimated Maximum Pressure on Tubing” results
Pressure Consideration PSI per “Step” (see page 1)
__________A – __________
B ÷ 10 = ___________
Initial Max. Final Max. Number PSI per “Step” B Lesser value of “Tubing Yield” or “Final Estimated Maximum Pressure on Tubing (Static)” results
Pressure on Tubing Pressure on Tubing of “Steps” (PSI/STEP) (see page 1)
(PSI) (PSI)
Volume per “Step” Strokes per “Step”

__________ ÷ 10 = ___________ x 42 = ___________ __________ ÷ 10 = ___________
Surface to Number Volume per “Step” Volume per “Step” Stroke Surface Number Strokes per “Step”
Perforations of “Steps” (BBLS/STEP) (GALS/STEP) to Perforations of “Steps” (STKS/STEP)
Volume (BBLS) (STKS)
PRESSURE CHART
Estimated Max. Actual Tubing Casing
Strokes Volume in BBLS Volume in GALS Pump Rate Notes
Static Pressure Pressure Pressure
Initial
0 0 0
Kill Point Final
Overdisplace

FORMULAS


(35.4 - KMW)
(ft, TVD)
(psi)
(ppg)
2
x [
New Pump Rate (SPM)

COMMENTS


Bullhead
STKS/MIN Pressure(bar) Liters/MIN Pressure(bar)
Pump #1
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________
Pump #2
Minute (Liters/MIN) (Liters/STK) (STKS/MIN)
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________
Pump #3
Minute (Liters/MIN) (Liters/STK) (STKS/MIN)
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________

Minute (Liters/MIN) (Liters/STK) (STKS/MIN) Formation Pressure
VOLUME AND STROKE CONSIDERATIONS: ___________ bar
_________
Tubing Length
x _________
Capacity per Foot
= _________
Tubing Volume
÷ _________
Pump Output
= ___________
Strokes Surface
___________ kg/l
C
Surface to E.O.T. in Tubing Surface to E.O.T. (Liters/STK) to E.O.T.
(MD — m) (Liters/m) (Liters) (STKS) Maximum Pump Pressure
_________ x _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
___________ bar W
M
Top/Middle/Bottom in Casing E.O.T. to Perforations (Liters/STK) to Perforations
(MD — m) (Liters/m) (Liters) (STKS)
___________ bar
_________ + _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
Tubing Volume
Surface to E.O.T.
(Liters)
(Liters) (Liters)
Pump Output
(Liters/STK)
Strokes Surface
to Perforations
___________ bar
M
Tree/Wellhead/
_________ + _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
Perforations Volume — if any — to Pump (Liters/STK) to Pump
(Liters) (Liters) (Liters) (Overdisplace — STKS) ___________ bar

___________
=
kg/l
___________ ÷ 10.2 ÷ ___________ ___________
Pressure Top/Middle/Bottom (kg/l)
(bar) (TVD — m) ___________
TVD
meters
PACKER
___________ x 10.2 x ___________ = ___________ Top Perforation

TVD
meters
(kg/l) (TVD — m) (bar)
MD
END OF
Middle Perforation
______________ – ______________ = ___________ TUBING E.O.T.
TVD
meters
(bar) (bar) (bar) MD

______________ – ______________ = ___________ ___________
TVD
Est. Formation Average Hydrostatic Initial Estimated Max. meters
(bar) (bar) (bar)
Hydrostatic Pressure (bar) Final Estimated Maximum Pressure on Tubing (Static)

___________ x ___________ ÷ 10.2 = ___________ __________ – __________ = ___________
Fluid Density TVD Hydrostatic Pressure Est. Formation Kill Fluid Final Estimated Max.
(kg/l) (m) (bar) Integrity Pressure Hydrostatic Pressure Pressure on Tubing
(bar) (bar) (bar)
Bullheading method, metric (bar, liter, kg/l) Page 1


TUBING DATA:
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
(mm) (mm) (Liters/m) (MD — m) (bar) (0.70 or Less) Collapse (bar)
Tubing Tubing Yield

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
(kg/m) (bar @ 100%) (bar @ 100%) (bar) (0.70 or Less) Internal Yield
(bar)
CASING DATA:
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
(mm) (mm) (Liters/m) (MD — m) Yield (bar) (0.70 or Less) Yield (bar)
Casing
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
(kg/m) (bar @ 100%) Rated Pressure (bar)
Pressure Consideration Bars per “Step” (see page 1)
__________A – __________
B ÷ 10 = ___________
Pressure on Tubing Pressure on Tubing of “Steps” (bar/STEP) (see page 1)
(bar) (bar)

__________ ÷ 10 = ___________ _________ __________ ÷ 10 = ___________
Surface to Number Volume per “Step” Stroke Surface Number Strokes per “Step”
Perforations of “Steps” (Liters/STEP) to Perforations of “Steps” (STKS/STEP)
Volume (Liters) (STKS)
PRESSURE CHART
Strokes Volume in Liters Volume in GALS Pump Rate Notes
Initial
0 0 0
Kill Point Final
Overdisplace

FORMULAS
4. Annular Capacity (l/m) = (Inside Diameter of Casing2 (mm) or Hole Diameter2 (mm) - Outside Diameter of Pipe2 (mm)) ÷ 1273

Shoe TVD (m)
7. MAASP (bar) = [Maximum Allowable Fluid Density (kg/l) - Current Fluid Density (kg/l)] x Shoe TVD (m) ÷ 10.2

(35.4 - KMW)
NOTE: This formula assumes that the average density of Barite is 35.4 kg/l and the average number of kg per barrel is 4.25.
10. Volume Increase from Adding Barite (liters) = Number of Sacks (kg) added ÷ 4.25
2
11. Estimated New Pump Pressure at New Pump Rate (bar) = Old Pump Pressure (bar) x [ New
Pump Rate (SPM)

COMMENTS


Bullhead
STKS/MIN Pressure(kPa) m3/MIN Pressure(kPa)
Pump #1
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________
Pump #2
Minute (m3/MIN) (m3/STK) (STKS/MIN)
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________
Pump #3
Minute (m3/MIN) (m3/STK) (STKS/MIN)
______________ ÷ ______________ = _____________

Minute (m3/MIN) (m3/STK) (STKS/MIN) Formation Pressure
VOLUME AND STROKE CONSIDERATIONS: ___________ kPa
_________
Tubing Length
x _________
Capacity per Foot
= _________
Tubing Volume
÷ _________
Pump Output
= ___________
Strokes Surface
___________ kg/m3
C
Surface to E.O.T. in Tubing Surface to E.O.T. (m3/STK) to E.O.T.
(MD — m) (m3/m) (m3) (STKS) Maximum Pump Pressure
_________ x _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
___________ kPa W
M
Top/Middle/Bottom in Casing E.O.T. to Perforations (m3/STK) to Perforations
(MD — m) (m3/m) (m3) (STKS)
___________ kPa
_________ + _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
Tubing Volume
Surface to E.O.T.
(m3)
(m3) (m3)
Pump Output
(m3/STK)
Strokes Surface
to Perforations
___________ kPa
M
Tree/Wellhead/
_________ + _________ = _________ ÷ _________ = ___________
Perforations Volume — if any — to Pump (m3/STK) to Pump
(m3) (m3) (m3) (Overdisplace — STKS) ___________ kPa

___________
=
kg/m3
___________ ÷ 0.00981 ÷ ___________ ___________
Pressure Top/Middle/Bottom (kg/m3)
(kPa) (TVD — m) ___________
TVD
meters
PACKER
___________ x 0.00981 ___________ = ___________ Top Perforation

TVD
meters
(kg/m3) (TVD — m) (kPa)
MD
END OF
Middle Perforation
______________ – ______________ = ___________ TUBING E.O.T.
TVD
meters
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa) MD

______________ – ______________ = ___________ ___________
TVD
Est. Formation Average Hydrostatic Initial Estimated Max. meters
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
Hydrostatic Pressure (kPa) Final Estimated Maximum Pressure on Tubing (Static)

___________ x 0.00981 x ___________ = ___________ __________ – __________ = ___________
Fluid Density TVD Hydrostatic Pressure Est. Formation Kill Fluid Final Estimated Max.
(kg/m3) (m) (kPa) Integrity Pressure Hydrostatic Pressure Pressure on Tubing
(kPa) (kPa) (kPa)
Bullheading method, SI (kPa, m3, kg/m3) Page 1


TUBING DATA:
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
(mm) (mm) (m3/FT) (MD — m) (kPa) (0.70 or Less) Collapse (kPa)
Tubing Tubing Yield

___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
(kg/m) (kPa @ 100%) (kPa @ 100%) (kPa) (0.70 or Less) Internal Yield
(kPa)
CASING DATA:
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ ___________ x ___________ = ___________
(mm) (mm) (m3/FT) (MD — m) Yield (kPa) (0.70 or Less) Yield (kPa)
Casing
___________ ___________ ___________ ___________
(kg/m) (kPa @ 100%) Rated Pressure (kPa)
Pressure Consideration kPa per “Step” (see page 1)
__________A – __________
B ÷ 10 = ___________
Pressure on Tubing Pressure on Tubing of “Steps” (kPa/STEP) (see page 1)
(kPa) (kPa)

__________ ÷ 10 = ___________ __________ ÷ 10 = ___________
Surface to Number Volume per “Step” Stroke Surface Number Strokes per “Step”
Perforations of “Steps” (m3/STEP) to Perforations of “Steps” (STKS/STEP)
Volume (m3) (STKS)
PRESSURE CHART
Strokes Volume in m3 Volume in GALS Pump Rate Notes
Initial
0 0 0
Kill Point Final
Overdisplace

FORMULAS
4. Annular Capacity (m3/m) = (Inside Diameter of Casing2 (mm) or Hole Diameter2 (mm) - Outside Diameter of Pipe2 (mm)) ÷ 1273


(4250 - KMW)
NOTE: This formula assumes that the average density of Barite is 35.4 kg/m3 and the average number of kg per barrel is 4250.
10. Volume Increase from Adding Barite (m3) = Number of kg added ÷ 4250
2
11. Estimated New Pump Pressure at New Pump Rate (kPa) = Old Pump Pressure (kPa) x [ New
Pump Rate (SPM)

COMMENTS

WR
WIRE ROPE

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WIRE ROPE WR–i
CHAPTER
WR
WIRE ROPE
company recommendations, policies or procedures. In jurisdictions where the contents of the IADC Drilling Manual
may conflict with regional, state or national statute or regulation, IADC strongly advises adhering to local rules.
contributors to this chapter warrant or guarantee that application of any theory, concept, method or action described in this
book will lead to the result desired by the reader.
Authors
Brent Dein, WireCo WorldGroup
Dennis Fetter, WireCo WorldGroup

WR–ii WIRE ROPE


USA
ISBN: 978-0-9915095-7-7

WIRE ROPE WR–iii
CHAPTER WR
WIRE ROPE Contents

Preface & acknowledgements....................................WR-i Socketing of wire rope.............................................. WR-11
Introduction................................................................... WR-1 Attachment of wire rope clips to wire rope....... WR-11
Definition........................................................................ WR-1 Wire rope clips........................................................... WR-11
Wire rope nomenclature........................................... WR-1 How to apply clips..................................................... WR-11
Sizes and construction diameter............................. WR-1 Fist grip clips...............................................................WR-12
Basic strand consideration........................................ WR-2 Casing line and reeving line practice...................WR-12
Single layer...............................................................WR-2 Methods of reeving............................................. WR-12
Filler wire...................................................................WR-2 Function of reeving system.............................. WR-14
Seale.......................................................................... WR-3 Factors affecting service..........................................WR-15
Warrington.............................................................. WR-3 Ton-mile calculations................................................ WR-18
Combined patterns............................................... WR-3 Introduction........................................................... WR-18
Preforming............................................................... WR-3 Examples of ton-mile calculations................. WR-18
Lay.............................................................................. WR-3 Ton-miles per foot cut.......................................WR-29
Grades............................................................................. WR-4 Ton-mile calculations—drilling ton-miles
Cores............................................................................... WR-4 for top drive (drilling with stands).............WR-30
Care and handling........................................................ WR-4 Cut-off program.........................................................WR-30
Field care and use of wire rope......................... WR-6 Suggestions for cut-off practice......................WR-30
Handling on reel...........................................WR-6 Design factor.............................................................. WR-48
Proper steps in stringing line....................WR-6 Index..............................................................................WR-73
Care of wire rope in service...................... WR-7 Appendix.....................................................................WR-A1

IADC Technical
Resources

contracts and more.
position on a rig.
newsletter.
WIRE ROPE WR–1
Introduction Definition
The drilling line is a machine. It is an assembly of precision Drilling lines and wire lines are known as and are used inter-
parts, each can move independently, requires lubrication, is changeably with the term “wire rope”. Reference to all three
static until an external force is applied and it transmits energy. of these terms will be prevalent throughout this manual.
The information that follows will guide you in the selection, Wire rope is an intricate network of close tolerance, precision
care and use of drilling lines. Instructions are included for made steel wires, much on the order of a machine, where
attaching wire rope clips, socketing wire rope, seizing wire each part has a job to do. Each part must work in a perfect
rope, etc. relationship with the other part for the rope to properly func-
tion. Proper care and handling is mandatory to receive the
To keep the wire line costs at a minimum, the rig crews and
highest service at the highest level of safety.
all levels of operations management should know how to ob-
tain maximum safe life from the drilling line. The following is
basic to that objective. Nomenclature
Wire rope comprises just three parts—core, strand and wire
A. Select the proper size and type line to meet the
(Figure WR-1).
requirements.
B. Care for the line to prevent damage. Become familiar with each part; it is surprising how many
C. Compute the service obtained from the line in times a “wire” is reported to be a “strand”.
Ton-Miles.
Each of the components are detailed later in this manual.
D. Choose a cut-off program that best suits your
Wire rope is described and identified with numerals and ab-
conditions and follow it carefully. This will greatly
breviations. It is important to understand these terms and
increase the service obtained from the line.
to relate them to the wire rope specified within our industry.
When a new line is received, the reel number, make and
The following is an example description of a rotary drilling
description of the line should be recorded on the daily
line; the identifying terms are translated and explained
drilling report.
individually.
The ton-mile service should be computed daily and a record
5,000 ft × 1 in. 6×19 S-IWRC EIP SZ (RR) PRF
kept so cut-offs can be made after a proper interval of service.
5,000 ft = Length of wire rope, ft
1 in. = Nominal diameter of wire rope, in.
6 = Number of outer strands per wire rope
19 = Number of wires per outer strand
S = Seale outer strand wire pattern
Core
IWRC = Independent wire rope core
Strand
Wire EIP = Extra improved plow steel
SZ (RR) = Right regular lay
PRF = Preformed strands
This translates to a 5,000 ft length of 1 in. diameter, 6-strand
rope with 19 wires in each strand laid in a Seale pattern (S).
The strands of the rope are laid around an Independent Wire
Rope Core. The strength grade of the rope is Extra Improved
Plow Steel (EIP). The strands are laid in a Right Regular Lay
(SZ or RR) pattern and are preformed (PRF) in a helical shape
Rope prior to closing the rope.
Sizes and constructions diameter

Diameter measurements are correct only when made across
the “crowns” of the rope strands so that the true diameter is
the widest diameter of the rope. Always rotate the caliper
on the rope—or rotate the rope inside the caliper to take the
measurement.
Figure WR-1: Anatomy of wire rope, showing core, Always measure the diameter of any rope at its widest
strand and wire, which comprise the rope.
point by turning the caliper on the rope. Measurements for

WR–2 WIRE ROPE
Table WR-2: The number of strands and number of

wires per strand determine a rope's classification.
1 2
Classification Number of Wires per strand
strands
6×7 6 7
6×19 6 16 through 26
Correct 6×36 6 27 through 49
8×19 8 16 through 26
Wire rope differs in the number of strands and the number

1 2
and pattern of wires per strand. Most common wire rope
constructions are grouped into four standard classifications
based on the number of strands and wires per strand, as
shown in Table WR-2.
Within each classification there are specific rope construc-

Incorrect tions. For example, in the 6×19 class, some of the rope con-
structions are 6×25 FW (filler wire), 6×119 S (Seale) and
Figure WR-2: Wire diameter measurement. 6×26 WS (Warrington Seale).
Characteristics, such as fatigue resistance and resistance to

abrasion, are directly affected by the design of strands. As
a general rule, a strand made up of a few large wires will
diameter shall be taken on a straight portion of the rope at be more abrasion-resistant and less fatigue-resistant than
two positions spaced at least three feet apart. Two diame- a strand of the same size made up of many smaller wires.
ters shall be measured at each position at right angles from
each other. The average of these four measurements shall Basic strand constructions
be the reported diameter.
Most ropes are manufactured larger than the nominal diam- Single layer
eter. When first placed in operation, strands of new unused
rope will “seat in” and “pull down” from its original diame-
ter. Therefore, measurements recorded for future reference
and comparison should be taken after the rope has been in
service for a short period of time. See Table WR-1 for rope
diameter vs. tolerances.
Table WR-1: Rope diameter vs. tolerance. Figure WR-3: Example of a single-layer strand.
Rope Steel wire ropes Steel wire ropes

The “Single Layer Principle” is the basis of this strand con-
Diameter with IWRC with fiber core
struction. The most common example is a single wire center
Inches
Tolerance (percent) Tolerance (percent) with six wires laid around it. It is called a 7-wire (1–6) strand
(Figure WR-3).
UNDER OVER UNDER OVER
d < 3/16 0 8 0 9 Filler wire

3/16 ≤ d < 1/4 0 7 0 9 This construction has two layers of the same-sized wires
around a center wire, with the inner layer having half the num-
¼ ≤ d < 3/8 0 6 0 8
ber of wires as the outer layer. Small filler wires, equal in num-
3/8 and larger 0 5 0 7 ber to the inner layer, are laid in the valleys of the inner layer.

WIRE ROPE WR–3
Combined patterns
When a strand is formed in a single operation using two or
more of the foregoing constructions, it is referred to as a
“combined pattern”. Beginning from the center wire, the first
two layers constitute a Seale pattern. The third layer, with
two different wire sizes is a Warrington pattern. The fourth
layer of the same diameter wires forms a Seale pattern.
Figure WR-4: Filler wire has two layers of the

same-sized wires around a center wire. This is a
25 filler wire (1-6-6f-12) strand.
Seale
The Seale construction has two layers of wires around a
center wire with the same number of wires in each layer. All
wires in each layer are the same diameter and the strand
Figure WR-7: Strands formed in a single operations using two or
is designed so that the larger outer wires rest in the valleys
more of the foregoing constructions is called a “combined pattern.”
between the smaller inner wires. Above is 49 Seal Warrington Seale (1-8-8-(8+8)-16) strand.
Preforming
Preforming is a process by which strands are helically
formed into the shape they will assume in the finished rope.
Preforming improves fatigue resistance, ease of handling, and

resistance to kinking in a rope by equalizing the load among
the strands and among the individual wires of strands.
When a preformed rope is cut, the end does not unlay. If strands
are unlayed from the rope, they retain their helical shape. When
Figure WR-5: Seale construction features two layers of wires
around a center wire, with the same number of wires in a non-performed rope is cut, it will open up or "broom" unless
each layer. This example is 19 Seale (1-9-9) strand. the end has been secured (seized) before cutting.
The superior qualities of preformed ropes result from wires

Warrington and strands being “at rest” in the rope which minimizes in-
ternal stresses within the rope. Because wires and strands
The Warrington construction has 2 layers of wires. The in-
are free to move and slide in relation to each other when the
ner layer is a single size of wire and the outer layer has two
rope bends, the rope can adjust more easily while operating
diameters of wire, alternating large and small. The larger
on sheaves or drums. Unless otherwise indicated in the rope
outer-layer wires rest in the valleys and the smaller ones on
description, ropes are preformed.
the crowns of the inner layer.
Figure WR-8: Right lay, regular lay.
Lay
The first element in describing Lay is the DIRECTION of
Figure WR-6: Warrington construction features two layers strands lay in the rope—Right or Left. When you look along
of wires. The inner is a single size wire, and the outer has a rope, strands of a Right Lay rope spiral to the right. Left Lay
two wire diameters, alternating large and small. Drawing is rope spirals to the left.
of 19 Warrington (1-6-(6+6) strand.

WR–4 WIRE ROPE
The second element in describing lay is the relationship be- The grade of rope refers to the strength of a new unused
tween the direction the strands lay in the rope and direction wire rope. Standard 6 strand EEIP ropes within the same
the wires lay in the strands. classification and having an IWRC have a nominal strength
about 10% higher than EIP ropes.
In Regular Lay, wires are laid opposite the direction the
strands lay in the rope. In appearance, the wires in Regular Galvanized ropes are those in which the individual wires
Lay are parallel to the axis of the rope. have had a zinc coating applied to their surface to provide
increased corrosion resistance. The proper grade of rope to
The second element in describing lay is the relationship be-
use depends on the specific characteristics of the application.
tween the direction the strands lay in the rope and direction
the wires lay in the strands.
Cores
In Regular Lay, wires are laid opposite the direction the
The primary purpose of a core in wire rope is to provide a
strands lay in the rope. In appearance, the wires in Regular
foundation or support for the strands. Approximately 7 ½%
Lay are parallel to the axis of the rope.
of the nominal strength of a 6-strand IWRC rope is attribut-
ed to the core.
Wire rope cores are usually one of three types (Figure WR-
12). The first, fiber core (top) is either of natural fiber, such as
sisal or man-made fiber, such as polypropylene. The second,
independent wire rope core (center) is literally an indepen-
dent wire rope called IWRC. Finally, strand core (bottom) is
Figure WR-9: Left lay, regular lay.
a strand composed of wires.
In Lang Lay, wires are laid the same direction as the strands lay in
the rope and the wires appear to cross the rope axis at an angle.
Figure WR-10: Right lay, lang lay.
The third element in describing lay is that one rope lay is the
length along the rope axis which one strand uses to make
one complete helix around the core.
Figure WR-12: Examples of rope cores (from top)—fiber core (FC);

independent wire rope core, center; strand core, bottom.
Table WR-3: Lay designations.

Lay type Preferred Other
designations designations
One Rope Lay Right hand ordinary lay RR, sZ RHOL, RRL
Left hand ordinary lay LL, zS LHOL, LRL
Figure WR-11: One rope lay.
Right hand langs lay RL, zZ RHLL, RLL
Left hand langs lay LL, sS LHLL, LLL
Grades Right hand alternate lay RA, aZ RHAL, RAL
Today the greatest portion of all wire rope is made in two Left hand alternate lay LA, aS LHAL, LAL
grades: Extra Improved Plow Steel (EIP) and Extra Extra
Improved Plow Steel (EEIP)

WIRE ROPE WR–5
Table WR-4: Typical sizes and constructions of wire rope for oilfield service.
Service and well depth Wire rope inches Wire rope description
Rod & Tubing Pull Lines
Shallow 1/2 to 3/4 incl. 6×26 WS or 6×31 WS
Intermediate 3/4, 7/8 RRL or LRL IPS,EIP or EEIP, IWRC
Deep 7/8 to 11/8 incl.
Rod Hanger Lines 1/4 6×19, RRL, IPS, FC
Sand Lines
Shallow 1/4 to 1/2 incl.
Intermediate 1/2, 9/16 6×7 or 5×7 or 5×7 Swaged Bright or Galv.2, RRL IPS, FC
Deep 9/16, 5/8
Drilling Lines—Cable Tool (Drilling & Cleanout)
Shallow 5/8, 3/4
Intermediate 3/4, 7/8 6×21 FW, RRL or LRL, PS or IPS, FC
Deep 7/8, 1
Casing Lines—Cable Tool
Shallow 3/4, 7/8
Intermediate 7/8, 1 6×25 FW, RRL, IPS, FC or IWRC
Deep 1, 1 1/8 6x25 FW, RRL, IPS or ElP, IWRC
Drilling Line—Coring and Slim-Hole Rotary Rigs
Shallow 7/8, 1 6×26 WS, RRL, IPS or EIP, IWRC
Intermediate 1, 1 1/8 6×19 S or 6×26 WS, RRL, EIP or EEIP, IWRC
May have compacted strands or be plastic impregnated.
Drilling Lines—Large Rotary Rigs
Shallow 1, 1 1/8 6×19 S or 6×21 S or 6×26WS, RRL, EIP or EEIP, IWRC.
May have compacted strands or be plastic impregnated
Deep 1 1/4 to 2 incl.
5/8 to 7/8 incl. 6×26 WS or 6×31 WS, RRL, IPS EIP or EEIP, IWRC
Winch Lines—Heavy Duty
7/8 to 1 1/8 incl. 6×36 WS, PF, RRL, IPS EIP or EEIP, IWRC
Horsehead Pumping—Unit Lines
Shallow 1/2 to 1 1/8 incl.4 6×19 Class or 6×36 Class or 19×7, IPS, FC or IWRC
Intermediate 5/8 to 1 1/8 incl.3 6×19 Class or 6×36 Class, IPS, FC or IWRC
7/8 to 2 3/4 incl. 6×19 Class, Bright or GaIv., RRL, ElP or EEIP, IWRC
Offshore Anchorage Lines 1 3/8 to 4 3/4 incl. 6×36 Class, Bright or GaIv., RRL, ElP or EEIP, IWRC
3 3/4 to 4 3/4 incl. 6×61 Class, Bright or GaIv., RRL, ElP or EEIP, IWRC
Mast Raising Lines5 1 3/8 and smaller 6×19 Class, RRL, EIP or EEIP, IWRC
1 1/2 and larger 6×36 Class, RRL, EIP or EEIP, IWRC
Guideline Tensioner Line 3/4 6×25 FW, RRL, IPS or EIP, IWRC
6×36 WS or 6×41 WS or 6×41 SFW or
6×49 SWS, RRL, IPS or EIP, IWRC or
Riser Tensioner Lines 1 1/2 and larger
8×36 class RL IWRC
May have compacted strands and/or be plastic impregnated.
Abbreviations
WS Warrington Seale IPS Improved Plow Steel RRL Right Lay
S Seale ElPS Extra Improved Plow Steel LRL Left Lay
FW Filler-Wire PRF Preformed FC Fiber Core
PS Plow Steel NPF Non-preformed IWRC Independent Wire Rope Core
2
Bright wire sand lines are regularly finished; galvanized finish is sometimes required.
3
pplies to pumping units having one piece of wire rope looped over an ear on the horsehead and both ends fastened to a
A
polished rod yoke.
4
Applies to pumping units having two vertical lines (parallel) with sockets at both ends of each line.
5
See API Spec. 4E – Specification for Drilling and Well Servicing Structures.

WR–6 WIRE ROPE
Care and handling 4. Braking reels: Brake the reel flanges so that the rope
does not become loose on the reel while being unwound
Field care and use of wire rope and so an even tension is applied on the rope between
A. Handling on reel the blocks; do not apply the brake on the rope itself.
1. U
se of binding or lifting chain: When handling wire rope 5. Tension on rope: Keep the line in tension to make sure
on a reel with a binding or lifting chain, wooden blocks that it is tightly wound on the drum. Insufficient tension
should always be used between the rope and the sling in during installation and after slip-and-cuts can cause im-
order to prevent damage to the wire or distortion of the proper spooling.
strands in the rope.
6. Tight spooling: The rope should be spooled under a suf-
2. U
se of bars: Bars for moving the reel should be used ficient load to ensure tight spooling.
against the reel flange and not against the rope.
7. Swivel-type stringing grip: To start stringing the rope, re-
3. S
harp objects: The reel should not be rolled over or move the old rope from the dead line anchor and fasten
dropped on any hard, sharp object in such a manner that it to the new rope with a swivel grip. The grip becomes
the rope will be bruised or nicked. tighter as the load increases. This will prevent transfer-
ring the twist from one piece of rope to the other. Care
4. Dropping: The reel should not be dropped from a truck
should be taken to see that the grip is properly applied.
or platform. This may cause damage to the rope as well
as break the reel. 8. Winding old rope: Wind all the old rope on the draw-
works drum and slip enough of the new rope into the
5. Mud, dirt, or cinders: Rolling the reel in or allowing it to
system to permit attaching to the drum. Never pull rope
stand in any medium harmful to steel such as mud, dirt,
through a loosened clamp. Keep as much back tension in
or cinders should be avoided. Planking or cribbing will be
the rope as possible because slackness can cause loops
of assistance in handling the reel as well as in protecting
and/or kinks to form.
the rope against damage.
9. Fastening new line: Fasten the new line so that it will not
6. Corrosion: To minimize the effects of corrosion on wire
run back through the blocks. Remove the swivel grip.
rope, care should be taken to store and lubricate the
Then take the old line off the drum and transfer it to a
wire rope properly. Corrosion may be particularly severe
storage reel. Attach the new line to the drawworks drum
in environments containing high concentrations of salt
and provide enough wraps so that the proper number
or acid. Corrosion reduces a wire rope’s strength, resis-
will be on the drum at the pick-up point.
tance to fatigue, and service life.
10. Number of wraps on drawworks drum: When the traveling
7. Welding and flame cutting: Never use wire rope in an
block is at the lower pick-up point, 6–9 wraps should be on
arc welding circuit. The grounding clamp can arc or the
the drum (if grooved). Plain faced drums must have a full lay-
individual wires can arc and damage the line. If using a
er of line plus 4–6 wraps on the second layer as needed.
torch near the wire rope, always protect the rope from
the flame and sparks. 11. Deadline anchor: Hold-down sheaves are the best way to
anchor the line when cut-off practices are to be employed.
B. Proper steps in stringing line Such sheaves should be of sufficient diameter to prevent
dog-legging the line and should be at least 15 times the
1. Preliminary work: Attach the traveling block to the hang
rope diameter. The line should go around the hold-down
line, or otherwise support in a vertical position. The best
sheaves in the same direction as it comes over the dead-
position is where the elevators are in pick-up position
line sheave and from the storage reel. Never anchor the
near the rotary table.
dead end of the line to a wooden or steel joist if you plan to
2. Position of the reel: Provide a permanent location for the utilize a cut-off procedure. Such practices will put severe
reel of drilling line. This should be as close as practical to dog-legs in line which will cause premature damage when
the dead-line anchor. The reel should be firmly support- this section is later moved into service. Exercise great
ed on its horizontal axis with the line unwinding from care so that the deadline clamps do not kink, flatten, or
beneath the reel drum (not from the top of the drum). otherwise crush or distort the rope.
3. Stringing of blocks: When leading the line from the reel 12.
Completing string-up: After anchoring the dead-line
to the first crown sheave use snatch blocks with large end, raise the traveling block and take off the supporting
diameter sheaves to guide the line and keep it from rub- line. The block, hook and elevators may then be lowered
bing on derrick members or other obstructions. through the V-door far enough to unreel the line on the
drum so that it can be re-reeled tightly.

WIRE ROPE WR–7
13. Break-in period: Whenever possible, a new rope should clamped to the drilling line when it is necessary to do
be run under a light load for a short period after it has considerable jarring in one place.
been installed. This will help to adjust the rope to work-
perating speed: Experience has indicated that wear in-
4. O
ing conditions. It is suggested that 15 cycles with 3 joints
creases with speed; economy results from moderately
of pipe would be sufficient break-in.
increasing the load and diminishing the speed.
14. New coring or swabbing line: If a new coring or swab-
5. Maximum rope speed: Excessive speeds when blocks are
bing line is excessively wavy when first installed, two to
running up light may injure wire rope. For most drums, a
four sinker bars may be added on the first few trips to
maximum rope speed of 4,000 ft of rope travel per min
straighten the line.
for hoisting or lowering is recommended.
C. Care of wire rope in service 6. Line fatigue: Fast line fatigue is also caused by line whip
and natural vibrations, therefore, a wire line stabiliz-
1. Handling: The recommendations or handling as given
er must be employed. Reverse bending at the deadline
under A and B inclusive, should be observed at all times
anchor or too small a diameter of the deadline sheave
during the life of the rope.
(crown block) may produce a set in the line which will
2. Design factor: The design factor should be determined cause excessive wear when a cut-off procedure is utilized.
by the following formula:
7. Sheave maintenance: Vibration causes drilling line fa-
B tigue and shortens line life. Failure due to vibration is
Design Factor = most serious at the deadline (crown block) sheave. This
W
all the excess energy caused by line whip and vibration.
Wherein:
Make certain the reeving system minimizes vibration.
B = Nominal catalog strength of the wire Rope - in Considerable line whip results from fast line movement
pounds in the spooling process unless wire line stabilizers are
used. As the line goes through sheaves, its momen-
W = Fast line load - in pounds
tum tends to throw it outward, much as a car rounding
a. When a wire rope is operated close to its minimum design a curve on the highway. It is prevented from doing this,
factor, care should be taken that the rope and related equip- however, by the tension on the line. This sudden angular
ment are in good operating condition. At all times, the op- acceleration and deceleration will produce vibrations,
erating personnel should use diligent care to minimize which in a long, unsupported, fast moving, flexible line,
shock, impact, and acceleration or deceleration of loads. can result in severe whipping, if a stabilizer is not used.
b. Successful field operations indicate that the following Wobbly sheaves can produce shimmying, which will
design factors should be regarded as minimum. induce vibration in the drilling line. This may lead to
whipping. The wobble may also cause the line to receive
Table WR-5: Wire rope life varies with design abnormal wear from the sides of the sheaves, which fur-
factor. Longer rope life generally results from ther reduces rope life.
maintaining high design factors.
8. Sheave alignment: All sheaves should be in proper align-
Minimum
ment. The last sheave should line up with the center of
design factor
the hoisting drum.
Cable-tool line 3
Sand line 3 9. Sheave grooves: On all sheaves, the arc of the bottom
Rotary drilling line 3 of the groove should be smooth and concentric with the
Rotary drilling line when setting casing 2 bore or shaft of the sheave. The centerline of the groove
should be in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the bore
Pulling on stuck pipe and similar 2
infrequent operations or shaft of the sheave.
Mast raising and lowering line 2.5 Sheave grooves that have been altered by prior ropes are
bound to shorten the life of new rope. From the stand-
c. Wire rope life varies with the design factor. Therefore,
point of wire rope life, the condition and contour of sheave
longer rope life can generally be expected when relative-
grooves are of material importance. Sheave grooves should
ly high design factors are maintained.
be checked periodically with the gauge for worn sheaves
3. Application of loads: Sudden, severe stresses are in- and dimensions in Table WR-6. The sheave grooves should
jurious to wire rope and such applications should be have a diameter of not less than that of the gauge; other-
reduced to a minimum. A jerk line may be rigged and wise the reduction in rope life can be expected. Recondi

WR–8 WIRE ROPE
Table WR-6: Worn, new and maximum tioned sheave grooves should conform to the recommend-
groove radii for wire rope. ed radii for new and reconditioned sheaves as given in
Nominal wire Groove radius Groove radius Groove radius Table WR-6. Each operator should establish the most eco-
rope diameter minimum worn minimum new maximum nomical point at which sheaves should be re-grooved by
In. Mm In. Mm In. Mm In. Mm considering the loss in rope life which results from worn
0.250 6.5 0.128 3.25 0.134 3.40 0.138 3.51 sheaves as compared to the cost involved in re-grooving.
0.313 8.0 0.160 4.06 0.167 4.24 0.172 4.37 10. Corrugated sheaves: If rope is operated very long with
0.375 9.5 0.192 4.88 0.199 5.05 0.206 5.23 heavy loads, or if the metal is too soft, scouring or cor-
0.438 11.0 0.224 5.69 0.232 5.89 0.241 6.12 rugation of drums and sheaves will occur. When radial
0.500 13.0 0.256 6.50 0.265 6.73 0.275 6.99 pressure causes corrugation in grooves, there is a filing
0.563 14.5 0.288 7.32 0.298 7.57 0.309 7.85
action during every stop and start. When new rope is
installed after such corrugations form, its lay will not fit
0.625 16.0 0.320 8.13 0.331 8.41 0.344 8.74
the imprints left by previous ropes and very rapid wear
0.750 19.0 0.384 9.75 0.398 10.11 0.413 10.49
will take place.
0.875 22.0 0.448 11.38 0.464 11.79 0.481 12.22
1.000 26.0 0.513 13.03 0.530 13.46 0.550 13.97
Table WR-7: Tangents of fleet angles.
1.125 29.0 0.577 4.66 0.596 15.14 0.619 15.72
Ratio of “A” to “B” Fleet angle,
1.250 32.0 0.641 16.28 0.663 16.84 0.688 17.48
Tangent of “W” degrees degrees
1.375 35.0 0.705 17.91 0.729 18.52 0.756 19.20
0.009 1/2
1.500 38.0 0.769 19.53 0.795 20.19 0.825 20.96
0.013 3/4
1.625 42.0 0.833 21.16 0.861 21.87 0.894 22.71
1.750 45.0 0.897 22.78 0.928 23.57 0.963 24.46
0.017 1
1.875 48.0 0.961 24.41 0.994 25.25 1.031 26.19 0.022 1 1/4
2.000 52.0 1.025 26.04 10.060 26.92 1.100 27.94 0.026 1 1/2
2.125 54.0 1.089 27.66 1.126 28.60 1.169 29.69 0.031 1 3/4
2.250 58.0 1.153 29.29 1.193 30.30 1.238 31.45 0.035 2
2.375 60.0 1.217 30.91 1.259 31.98 1.306 33.17
2.500 64.0 1.281 32.54 1.325 33.66 1.375 34.93 When these danger signs are found, it is economical
2.625 67.0 1.345 34.16 1.391 35.33 1.444 36.68 to have the grooves turned smooth. In most cases, the
2.750 71.0 1.409 35.79 1.458 37.03 1.513 38.43 sheaves should be replaced. In replacing the sheaves,
make sure the metal is sufficiently hard to take the ex-
2.875 74.0 1.473 37.41 1.524 38.71 1.581 40.16
pected loading. Cast steel can stand only about 900 psi
3.000 77.0 1.537 39.04 1.590 40.39 1.650 41.91
of pressure, but other alloy steels will take up to 2,000
3.125 80.0 1.602 40.69 1.656 42.06 1.719 13.66
psi and will stand wear much longer. If corrugations are
3.250 83.0 1.666 42.32 1.723 43.76 1.788 15.42 occurring even with the best steel, chances are that
3.375 86.0 1.730 43.94 1.789 45.44 1.856 17.14 the rope diameter is too small for the work load or not
3.500 90.0 1.794 45.57 1.855 47.12 1.925 48.89 enough lines are being used between the blocks, or the
3.750 96.0 1.922 48.82 1.988 50.50 2.063 52.40 sheave diameter is too small.
4.000 103. 2.050 52.07 2.120 53.85 2.200 55.88 11.
Rope inspection: Equipment that is not maintained
4.250 109.0 2.178 55.32 2.253 57.23 2.338 59.39 properly not only deteriorates itself, but also aids in de-
4.500 115.0 2.306 58.57 2.385 60.58 2.475 62.87 stroying wire rope ervice life in the process. Frequent
4.750 112.0 2.434 61.82 2.518 63.96 2.613 66.37 inspection of the equipment to determine its operating
5.000 128.0 2.563 65.10 2.650 67.31 2.750 69.85
condition and replacement of worn or broken parts is
good economics when operating a rig. This is preventa-
5.250 135.0 2.691 68.35 2.783 70.69 2.888 73.36
tive maintenance versus remedial maintenance.
5.500 141.0 2.819 71.60 2.915 74.04 3.025 76.84
5.750 148.0 2.947 74.85 3.048 77.42 3.163 80.34 12. Fleet angle: When a wire rope is led from the drum onto
the last sheave, it is parallel to the sheave groove only
6.000 154.0 3.075 78.11 3.180 80.77 3.300 83.82
when at one point on the drum, usually the center. As
Minimum worn groove radius = nominal rope radius + 2 1/2% the rope departs from this point either way, an angle is
Minimum new groove radius = nominal rope radius + 6%
created which starts wear on the side of the rope. This
Maximum groove radius = nominal rope radius + 10%
angle is called the fleet angle.

WIRE ROPE WR–9
The fleet angle, although necessary, should be held to Table WR-8: Clip attachment.
a minimum. Experience indicates that it should be held Courtesy the Crosby Group
to less than 1 1/2 degrees for smooth faced drums and to Rope diameter Minimum no. Amt of rope to Torque
less than 2 degrees for grooved drums. Any greater an- (in.) of clips turn back (in.) (ft-lb)
gle creates needless wear on the sides of the rope. This
1/8 2 3 1/4 4.5
holds true for either grooved or smooth drums. Poor
fleet angles cannot only cause excessive abrasive wear, 3/16 2 3 3/4 7.5
but also build-up excessive torque in a rope.
1/4 2 4 3/4 15
To check the fleet angle, Figure WR-13 can be used. The
5/16 2 5 1/4 30
fleet angle is the included angle between a line repre-
senting travel of the rope across the drum and a line 3/8 2 6 1/2 45
drawn through the center line of the lead sheave perpen-
7/16 2 7 65
dicular to the axis of the drum. Fleet angles for several
ratios of “A” & “B” are shown in Table WR-7. 12/2 3 11 1/2 65
9/16 3 12 95
5/8 3 12 95
3/4 4 18 130
7/8 4 19 225
1 5 26 225
1 1/8 6 34 225
1 1/4 7 44 360
1 3/8 7 44 360
Figure WR-13: Use in conjunction with 1 1/2 8 54 360
Table WR-8 to check fleet angle.
1 5/8 8 58 430
1 3/4 8 61 590
13. Lubrication of sheaves: In order to ensure a minimum turn-
ing effort, all sheaves should be kept properly lubricated. 2 8 71 750
14. Worn drums: Roughly worn drums may cause excessive 2 1/4 8 73 750
wear on the rope. Corrugations cause cutting of ropes.
2 1/2 9 84 750
15. Drum spooling: Heavy wear to a rotary line occurs while
2 3/4 10 100 750
spooling on the drum. Each succeeding layer causes
cross-over points and change of layer points. At the 3 10 106 1,200
cross-over points and change of layer points where the
3 1/2 12 149 1,200
rope climbs from one layer to the next, wear is usual-
ly severe. In the portion of the line that spools last and
On smooth face drums, where ropes operate on and off
when the blocks are raised and loaded, terrific cribbing
the first layer, right lay and left lay ropes are not inter-
and wear occur when the load of the drill string is sud-
changeable. The proper direction of rope lay is based on
denly lifted. In a portion of the line that lies next to the
the location of the drum attachment and whether or not
drum, which must withstand the loading of all the other
the spooling is under-wind or over-wind.
layers, crushing is considerable.
The advantage of using the proper lay rope on a smooth
16. Proper spooling: Smooth faced drums are sometimes
drum is that rotation of the rope as it spools on the drum
encountered and the biggest problem is to get the line
under tension will cause it to hug the preceding wrap. If
to spool evenly and snugly. Unless the rope is started
the improper lay is used, the rope will try to open spool.
correctly, the wraps in the first layer may tend to spread
apart. This can accelerate “cutting-in” of subsequent Care must be exercised to prevent over-run in paying out
layers and result in flattened, distorted or crushed rope rope to avoid slack rope on the drum which causes ex-
and a loss of thread lay. cess abrasion on drum and rope at take-up. Slack rope

WR–10 WIRE ROPE
has a tendency to slide across groove dividers which cuts An improvement in spooling methods is the controlled
the rope severely when loads are applied. Rope can be cross-over system. This is a grooving system where the
parted or severed with a quick take-up of slack. cross-over points are controlled thereby reducing wear
and vibration. Instead of being a helical shape like a coiled
Drum grooves should be checked with a sheave gauge
spring, most of the grooves are parallel to the drum flang-
for proper contour before installing a new rope.
es. Normally at the cross-over points, pitch changes rap-
17. Poor spooling: Poor spooling can sometimes be traced idly where the line is crossed from one groove to the next.
to the way the line leaves the dead end side of a smooth In controlled spooling, the change in pitch is less severe.
faced drum. If it leaves the flange at too great an angle, it In controlled pyramid spooling, wear and cutting-in is par-
maintains this angle all across the drums so that it leaves allel and there is no tendency for the line to slip over.
a big gap at the opposite flange. Thus successive layers
20. Counter-balanced pyramid spooling: Considerable vibra-
of line cross over that initial layer sharply and will tend
tion of the spooling drum and wire line at high speed results
to cut at the gaps—line crushing and shorter life result.
from the eccentricity of spooled line on the drum when
It is most important to get the first drum layer full and
one cross-over point is present. This makes the center of
tight without overcrowding so that it will support the
gravity slightly off center of the drum. Counter-balanced
succeeding layers. That is to say the first layer acts as a
spooling was developed to overcome this problem.
“grooving” for the following layers.

Counter-balanced spooling consists of 2 cross-over
One way to assist proper drum winding is by means of
points on opposite sides of the drum. This is achieved
a riser strip or wedge on the dead end side. These strips
by making the pitch at each cross-over point only half
are as high as the rope diameter and taper from 0 to
that of the single cross-over drum. The grooves are still
the diameter of the rope in width. The starter strip trav-
parallel, but those on one side of the drum are displaced
els flush around the dead end flange. It keeps the first
half a groove width from those on the other side. This
wrap straight and tends to eliminate the gap at the other
along with special pitch control bars at the flanges cause
flange. Piling up of wraps at the flange is prevented by
a line to move only 1/2 of the rope diameter at a time.
turn-back rollers or kick plates.
21. Block and hook weight: Slack line causes severe wear
18. Grooved drums: Wear due to cross-over points cannot
because of cutting and scrubbing of one layer of line
be completely avoided. It can be reduced by controlled
against the next. This condition is most likely to occur
spooling, which is provided by grooved drums.
when going back in the hole, where the traveling block
In any type of spooling there must necessarily be two is brought up fast with no load other than the weight of
crossover points with each wrap. As a lower layer pro- the block and hook to hold the line in tension. When the
ceeds in one direction across the spool, the next lay- full load of the drill string is picked up from this position,
er must proceed in the other direction. Along most the top layer from the drum may cut into the loosely
of the turn, the upper wrap rides in a groove between spooled layers. To keep this line tight and to minimize
two wraps of the lower layer. The rope must leave this the spooling damage to the line, it is important to use
groove in order to cross to the next groove and in doing a heavy traveling block and hook. See Table WR-9 for
so, crosses over a wrap of the line in the lower layer. Two theoretical weights of blocks, hooks, links and elevators.
ropes are crossed over in each drum revolution.
22. Seizing of wire rope: Before cutting, a wire rope should
With smooth faced drums, and where wire line slipping be securely seized on each side of the cut by serving
is employed, new rope is spooled onto worn rope. The with soft wire ties. For socketing, at least two addition-
worn rope has a smaller diameter and when it is wound al seizings should be placed at a distance from the end
tight, the new line will not track. The new line instead will equal to the length of the basket of the socket. For large
jump a wrap and leave a gap into which the line of the ropes, the seizing should be several inches long and se-
next layer will cut. Therefore, we suggest that slipping is curely wrapped. This is very important as it prevents the
only helping to temporarily relieve a wearing condition in rope untwisting and helps maintain equal tension in the
the drilling line between blocks. strands when the load is applied.
19. Pyramid spooling: Utilizing grooving allows an upper layer 23. Procedure for seizing wire rope:
of line to track a lower, despite the fact that the lower layers a. The seizing wire should be wound on the rope
may be worn. In this manner, cutting in is reduced. How- by hand. The coils should be kept together and
ever, it is necessary that the grooving includes filler plates considerable tension maintained on the wire.
at each end so that when the second and following layers
start, they start smoothly and leave no gap for cutting in.

WIRE ROPE WR–11
b. After the seizing wire has been wound on the rope, the
ends of the wire should be twisted together by hand
in a counterclockwise direction so that the twisted
portion of the wires is near the middle of the seizing.
c. Using “Carew” cullers, the twist should be tightened

just enough to take up the slack. Tightening the
seizing by twisting should not be attempted
Correct method of attaching clips to wire rope.

Correct Method of Attaching Clips to Wire Rope
Correct Method of Attaching Clips to Wire Rope
Incorrect methods of attaching clips to wire rope.

Incorrect Methods of Attaching Clips to Wire Rope
Figure WR-15: Correct and incorrect methods of seizing wire rope.
Incorrect Methods of Attaching Clips to Wire Rope
Socketing of wire rope

Zinc spelter and resin poured sockets are a common end
termination that can be expected to reach 100% efficiency
when poured and prepared properly. ISO 17558 should be
referenced when pouring sockets.
Attachment of wire rope clips to wire rope

A. Wire rope clips
Wire rope clips are widely used for making end termina-
tions. Clips are available in two basic designs; the U-bolt
and fist grip. The efficiency of both types is the same. When
using U-bolt clips, extreme care must be exercised to make
certain that they are attached correctly, i.e., the U-bolt must
be applied so that the “U” section is in contact with the dead
end of the rope (Figure WR-15). Also, the tightening and
retightening of the nuts must be accomplished as required.
B. How to apply clips

See U-Bolt Clips (Figure WR-15). Recommended method of
applying U-bolt clips to get maximum holding power of the clip:
1. Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble.

Apply the first clip one base width from the dead end of
Figure WR-14: The figure shows the relationship between the the wire rope (U-bolt over dead end - live end rests in clip
two critical dimensions used in calculating fleet angle. saddle). Tighten nuts evenly to recommended torque.

WR–12 WIRE ROPE
2. Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on 5. U

se of half hitch: Do not use a half hitch, either with or
nuts firm but do not tighten. without clips.
3. Space additional clips, if required, equally between the

first two. Turn on nuts - take up rope slack - tighten all Casing line and reeving line practice
nuts evenly on all clips to recommended torque.
A. Methods of reeving
NOTICE ! Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the
4.
recommended torque. Rope will stretch and be reduced
in diameter when loads are applied. Inspect periodically Vee Side of Derrick
Deadline Anchor (G) Deadline Anchor (H)
and retighten to recommended torque. (for Left-Hand Receiving) (for Right-Hand Receiving)
A termination made in accordance with the above instruc-

tions and using the number of clips shown has an approx- T 6 5 4 3 2 1
Drill Pipe
imate 80% efficiency rating. This rating is based upon the Fingers
nominal strength of wire rope. If a pulley is used in place of F E D C B A
a thimble for turning back the rope add one additional clip.
Ladder Side of Derrick

Pump Side of Derrick
The number of clips shown is based upon using right regular
or lang lay wire rope, 6×19 class or 6×36 class fiber core or Monkey
IWRC, IPS or EIP. If Seale construction or similar large outer Board
wire type construction in the 6×19 class is to be used for

sizes 1 inch and larger, add one additional clip.
The number of clips shown also applies to right regular lay

wire rope, 8×19 class, fiber core, IPS, sizes 1 1/2-in. and small-
Drawworks
er; and right regular lay wire rope, 18×7 class, fiber core, IPS Drum
or EIP, sizes 1 3/4-in. and smaller.
For other classes of wire rope not mentioned above, it may

Driller Side of Derrick
be necessary to add additional clips to the number shown. If
a greater number of clips are used than shown in the table,
Figure WR-16: Illustrates the generally acceptable methods
the amount of rope turnback should be increased propor- of reeving inline crown and traveling blocks.
tionately. Above based on use of clips on new rope.
IMPORTANT : Failure to make a termination in accordance

Figure WR-16 illustrates in a simplified form the generally
with aforementioned instructions, or failure to periodically
accepted methods of reeving (stringing up) inline crown and
check and retighten to the recommended torque, will cause
traveling blocks, along with the location of the drawworks
a reduction in efficiency rating.
drum, monkey board, drill pipe fingers, and deadline anchor
in relation to the various sides of the derrick. Ordinarily, the
C. Fist grip clips only two variables in reeving systems, as illustrated, are the
number of sheaves in the crown and traveling blocks or the
Recommended method of applying fist grip clips:
number required for handling the load, and the location of the
1. Turn back the specified amount of rope from the thimble. deadline anchor.
Apply the first clip one base width from the dead end of the
Figure WR-16 shows a typical reeving diagram for a 12-line
wire rope. Tighten nuts evenly to recommended torque.
string-up with 7-shear crown block and 6-sheave traveling
2. Apply the next clip as near the loop as possible. Turn on block (left-hand reeving). See arrangement 1 in Table WR-9.
nuts firmly but do not tighten.
Table WR-9 gives the various possible arrangements of reev-
3. Space additional clips if required equally between the ing patterns for 12-10-8 and 6-line string-ups using 7-sheave
first two. Turn on nuts-take up rope slack-tighten all nuts crown blocks with 6-sheave traveling blocks and 6-sheave
evenly on all clips to recommended torque. crown blocks with 5-sheave traveling blocks.
NOTICE ! Apply the initial load and retighten nuts to the
4. The most used practice is to use left-hand reeving and locate
recommended torque. Rope will stretch and be reduced the deadline anchor to the left of the derrick vee. In selecting
in diameter when loads are applied. Inspect periodically the best of the various possible methods for reeving casing or
and retighten to recommended torque. drilling lines, the following basic factors should be considered.

Table WR-9: Recommended reeving arrangmentes for 12, 10, 8 and 6-line string-ups using 7-sheave
crown blocks with 6-sheave traveling blocks and 6-sheave crown blocks with 5-sheave traveling blocks.
No. of Sheaves Type No.

Arrange- of of Reeving Sequence
ment Crown Trav. String- Lines (Read from Left to Right Starting with Crown Block and Dead Line
No. Block Block Up to Going Alternately from Crown to Traveling to Crown) Anchor
1 7 6 Lft Hand 12 Crn Blk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Trav Blk A B C D E F G
2 7 6 Rt Hand 12 Crn Blk 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Trav Blk F E D C B A H
3 7 6 Lft Hand 10 Crn Blk 1 2 3 5 6 7

Trav Blk A B D E F G
4 7 6 Rt Hand 10 Crn Blk 7 6 5 3 2 1
Trav Blk F E C B A H
5 6 5 Lft Hand 10 Crn Blk 1 2 3 4 5 6
Trav Blk A B C D E G
6 6 5 Rt Hand 10 Crn Blk 6 5 4 3 2 1
Copyright © 2015
Trav Blk E D C B A H
7 6 5 Lft Hand 8 Crn Blk 1 2 3 5 6
Trav Blk A B D E G
8 6 5 Rt Hand 8 Crn Blk 6 5 4 2 1
Trav Blk E D B A H
9 6 5 Lft Hand 8 Crn Blk 1 2 3 4 5
Trav Blk A B C D G
10 6 5 Rt Hand 8 Crn Blk 6 5 4 3 2
Trav Blk E D C B H
WIRE ROPE
11 6 5 Lft Hand 6 Crn Blk 2 3 4 5
Trav Blk B C D G
12 6 5 Rt Hand 6 Crn Blk 5 4 3 2
Trav Blk D C B H
13 6 5 Lft Hand 6 Crn Blk 1 3 4 6
Trav Blk A C E G
WR–13
14 6 5 Rt Hand 6 Crn Blk 6 4 3 1
Trav Blk E C A H
WR–14 WIRE ROPE
1. Minimum fleet angle from the drawworks drum to the 4. Determining maximum pull: The fast line during hoist-
first sheave of the crown block and from the crown block ing has a load greater than the total weight being lifted
sheaves to the traveling block sheaves. divided by the number of parts of line. The load is in-
creased by the friction of the sheave bearings and the
2. Proper balancing of crown and traveling blocks.
bending of the line around the sheaves.
3. Convenience in changing from smaller to larger number
Starting at the deadline sheave, each successive line
of lines, or from larger to smaller number of lines.
has, during hoisting, an extra load on it caused by the
4. Locating of deadline on monkey board side for “sum” of the frictional loads from all previous rotating
convenience and safety of derrickman. sheaves. Since the fast line experiences the accumula-
tion of frictional forces from all of the rotating sheaves,
5. Location of deadline anchor and its influence upon
its load is the greatest and should be used when calcu-
the maximum rated static hook load of derrick.
lating design factors.
The fast line load can be calculated by the following formula:

B. Function of reeving system
L = W × K s (K−1)
1. General: A hoisting system is a way of lifting heavy loads
with lighter lead line pulling loads. As with a simple pulley Kn− 1
system, the line strung through the blocks allows you a
Where:
mechanical lifting advantage. This mechanical advantage
L = fast line load, lb
is equal to the number of lines strung between the crown
W = total weight lifted, lb
and the traveling block, taking into consideration accu-
K = friction coefficient roller bearing sheaves
mulated friction. Thus for a 6-line system, without friction
= 1.04
you could lift a weight by pulling with a force of only 1/6 of
n = number of parts of line
the weight. With an 8-line system, the pull will be only 1/8
*s = number of rotating sheaves
of the weight; with 10 lines, 1/10, and so forth.
*NOTE: Deadline crown sheave does not rotate during
The reason for this mechanical advantage is that the
hoisting so for most rotary rigs s = n.
lines emerging from the traveling block divide the load
equally among themselves by pulling down on the line
as it leaves the traveling block. This is the load divided EXAMPLE
by the number of lines strung.
500,000 lb load
2. Work encountered in reeving system: By utilizing me- 10-line string up
chanical advantage of the pulley you are not decreasing 1 1/2 in. EIPS drilling line friction coefficient = 1.04
the work done. Work done is the load multiplied by the
distance moved. When the load is hoisted, each of the What is the lead line load and design factor?
lines shortens by the distance of the hoist, however, the
A. n = 10 s = 10 W = 500,000 K = 1.04
last line or fast line, coming onto the drum, must take
L = 500,000 × (1.04)10 (1.04 −1)
up all the extra line. This is, of course, the distance the
(1.04)10 − 1
load moves times the number of lines strung. Inasmuch
as the load on this line is the weight lifted divided by the
What is the lead line load and design?
number of lines, then the work done by the hoist is the
same as the work required to raise the load. = 500,000×0.123
Lead line load = 61,500 lb
3. Line speed: Since the movement of the drilling line be-
ing wound or unwound on the drum is greater than the B. Nominal Strength 1 1/2 in. EIPS = 114
movement of the traveling block, the speed with which it Tons = 228,000 lb
moves is also greater. Thus if the traveling block is being
Design Factor = 228,000 = 3.7 to 1
lowered at the rate of 10 ft/sec in a 6-line system, the
61,500
line is paying off the drum at 60 ft/sec or 3,600 ft/min.
Maximum recommended speed for movement of wire
ropes through the sheaves is 4,000 ft/min. If the block WARNING: The fhahaoregoing ignores acceleration forc-
of an 8-line system were moving at 10 ft/sec, the line es and shock loadings. These may greatly increase the
speed would exceed the recommended rate. load on the rope and lead to permanent deformation and
increased rate of deterioration.

WIRE ROPE WR–15
5. Fast line loads and design factors: Fast line loads and over” points on the drum and prevent line piling up at the
design factors for various hook loads with 6, 8, 10, and drum flanges. Weight box type stabilizers are considered
12 parts of line are shown in Table WR-10. This table is far superior as far as drum spooling is concerned. Dead-
based on the Extra Improved Plow and Improved Plow line stabilizers reduce vibration in the deadline adjacent to
with independent wire rope cores. the deadline anchor and deadline sheave.
8. Experience of crew: Affects wire line life in the manner

Factors affecting service in which they handle the rotary line. For example, how
Here are some critical factors that directly affect rotary drill- they un-spool the reel, how they reeve the string-up,
ing line service. When these elemental factors are consid- steps taken to keep the line out of mud and dirt, method
ered, it is then apparent why rotary line service programs used to spool new line on the drum and how the driller
must be tailored each individual rig. starts and stops the drum when making a “round trip.”
Remember, 6 inches of slack line jerked out on the load,
1. Mast or derrick height: Varies from approximately 65 ft to
doubles the load on the line.
185 ft or more. Governs the total amount of rotary line in
the string-up and determines whether “doubles”, “triples” 9. Depth of well: Governs total weight of drill pipe and drill
or “quadruples” of drill pipe will be handled during trips. collars, the number of connections required, the number
of bits and the number of round trips required.
2. Crown blocks sheaves: Sheave diameters should be large
enough to minimize the bending fatigue that occurs on a 10. Drilling conditions: Certain types of earth strata cause bit
rotary line. Worn grooves will not properly support the “chatter” or vibration, which is passed through the drill
rotary line and worn bearings set up undue wear on both pipe and traveling blocks to the rotary line. The intermit-
the sheaves and the line. tent shock loads must be absorbed by the drilling line and
are a source of undue wear, particularly at the dead line
3. Traveling block sheaves: The same conditions concerning
sheave. Also, certain strata cause crooked hole drilling,
the sheaves apply here as with the Crown Block. In ad-
which results in considerable excess strain on the drilling
dition, the traveling block must be of sufficient weight to
line when coming out of the hole during a round trip.
give tight spooling on the drum as the block assembly is
being raised or lowered when going into and coming out 11. Size of drill pipe: Determines the total load when figuring the
of the hole. ton-mile service per round trip and in making connections.
4. Draw works drum: The diameter and length of the drum 12. Size and number of drill collars: Is one of the variable fac-
is important. A drum of small diameter and length re- tors in determining the total excess weight when figuring
quires more drum wraps to raise the blocks. This leads ton-mile service per round trip.
to more layers of rope on the drum and therefore more
13. Drill stem tests: Means extra round trips over and above
“cross-over” wear points. A grooved drum increases
those necessary to change bits.
wire line service by supporting the rotary line and giv-
ing a tighter wrap. The condition of the drum clutch and 14. Coring: Also means extra round trips and more line wear.
brake greatly affects line life. If these are not properly
15. Stuck pipe: Jarring and manipulation to un-stick drill pipe
adjusted the resulting jerking and shock loads must be
causes extreme strain and wear on rotary line. No ton-mile
borne by the rotary line.
method of service wear can determine the damage here!
5. Types of string-up—6, 8, 10 or 12 lines: Governs the load Careful visual inspection should be made, and damaged
each part of the line must carry, determines the total line line removed from the system regardless of the length of
in the String-Up, and also determines the length of time cut required.
that wear points must remain in the system.
16. “Twist offs” and “fishing” jobs: Often mean several extra
6. Dead line anchor or clamp: The size, type and condition round trips to completely remove the “fish” or obstruc-
of the anchor has a direct effect on the rotary line. If it tion before normal drilling can be resumed.
is too small or otherwise distorts the line, it may form a
17. Setting casing: Length and size will vary, but it still means
“dog-leg” in the line which will set up a stress point. This
additional trips, connections, and line wear.
stress point will result in undue wear and early fatigue,
necessitating a long cut to get it out of the system.
18. Fleet angle: Taken into consideration with the proper
7. Wire line stabilizer and turn-back rollers: These two piec- wire line stabilizer can be the basis for solving many of
es of equipment help extend wire line life. The wire line the reasons for poor spooling on a rig. Therefore, the
stabilizer relieves vibration or “whip” on the “fast” line. proper fleet angle should be of paramount importance
The turn-back rollers help relieve shock at the “cross- when determining the excess laps.

WR–16 WIRE ROPE
Table WR-10 (continued on page WR-17)

1 in. 1 1/8-in. 1 1/4-in. 1 3/8-in. 1 1/2-in. 1 5/8-in.
Grade IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP
MBF (Short
Tons) 44.9 51.7 56.9 56.5 65 71.5 69.4 79.9 87.9 83.5 96 106 98.9 114 125 115 132 146
Hook- Parts Fast MBF (lb) 89,800 103,400 113,800 113,000 130,000 143,000 138,800 159,800 175,800 167,000 192,000 212,000 197,800 228,000 250,000 230,000 264,000 292,000
load of Line Fast Line
000 lb Line Factors Load lb
200 6 0.191 38,200 2.35 2.71 2.98 2.96 3.40 3.74 3.63 4.18 4.60
8 0.148 29,600 3.03 3.49 3.84 3.82 4.39 4.83 4.69 5.40 5.94
10 0.123 24,600 3.65 4.20 4.63 4.59 5.28 5.81 5.64 6.50 7.15
250 6 0.191 47,750 1.88 2.17 2.38 2.37 2.72 2.99 2.91 3.35 3.68 3.50 4.02 4.44
8 0.148 37,000 2.43 2.79 3.08 3.05 3.51 3.86 3.75 4.32 4.75 4.51 5.19 5.73
10 0.123 30,750 2.92 3.36 3.70 3.67 4.23 4.65 4.51 5.20 5.72 5.43 6.24 6.89
12 0.107 26,750 3.36 3.87 4.25 4.22 4.86 5.35 5.19 5.97 6.57 6.24 7.18 7.93
300 6 0.191 57,300 1.57 1.80 1.99 1.97 2.27 2.50 2.42 2.79 3.07 2.91 3.35 3.70 3.45 3.98 4.36
8 0.148 44,400 2.02 2.33 2.56 2.55 2.93 3.22 3.13 3.60 3.96 3.76 4.32 4.77 4.45 5.14 5.63
10 0.123 36,900 2.43 2.80 3.08 3.06 3.52 3.88 3.76 4.33 4.76 4.53 5.20 5.75 5.36 6.18 6.78
12 0.106 31,800 2.82 3.25 3.58 3.55 4.09 4.50 4.36 5.03 5.53 5.25 6.04 6.67 6.22 7.17 7.86
350 6 0.191 66,850 1.69 1.94 2.14 2.08 2.39 2.63 2.50 2.87 3.17 2.96 3.41 3.74 3.44 3.95 4.37
8 0.148 51,800 1.73 2.00 2.20 2.18 2.51 2.76 2.68 3.08 3.39 3.22 3.71 4.09 3.82 4.40 4.83 4.44 5.10 5.64
10 0.123 43,050 2.09 2.40 2.64 2.62 3.02 3.32 3.22 3.71 4.08 3.88 4.46 4.92 4.59 5.30 5.81 5.34 6.13 6.78
12 0.106 37,100 2.42 2.79 3.07 3.05 3.50 3.85 3.74 4.31 4.74 4.50 5.18 5.71 5.33 6.15 6.74 6.20 7.12 7.87
400 8 0.148 59,200 1.91 2.20 2.42 2.34 2.70 2.97 2.82 3.24 3.58 3.34 3.85 4.22 3.89 4.46 4.93
10 0.123 49,200 1.83 2.10 2.31 2.30 2.64 2.91 2.82 3.25 3.57 3.39 3.90 4.31 4.02 4.63 5.08 4.67 5.37 5.93
12 0.106 42,400 2.12 2.44 2.68 2.67 3.07 3.37 3.27 3.77 4.15 3.94 4.53 5.00 4.67 5.38 5.90 5.42 6.23 6.89
450 8 0.148 66,600 1.70 1.95 2.15 2.08 2.40 2.64 2.51 2.88 3.18 2.97 3.42 3.75 3.45 3.96 4.38
10 0.123 55,350 1.62 1.87 2.06 2.04 2.35 2.58 2.51 2.89 3.18 3.02 3.47 3.83 3.57 4.12 4.52 4.16 4.77 5.28
12 0.106 47,700 1.88 2.17 2.39 2.37 2.73 3.00 2.91 3.35 3.69 3.50 4.03 4.44 4.15 4.78 5.24 4.82 5.53 6.12
500 8 0.148 74,000 1.88 2.16 2.38 2.26 2.59 2.86 2.67 3.08 3.38 3.11 3.57 3.95
10 0.123 61,500 1.84 2.11 2.33 2.26 2.60 2.86 2.72 3.12 3.45 3.22 3.71 4.07 3.74 4.29 4.75
12 0.106 53,000 1.69 1.95 2.15 2.13 2.45 2.70 2.62 3.02 3.32 3.15 3.62 4.00 3.73 4.30 4.72 4.34 4.98 5.51
14 0.095 47,500 1.89 2.18 2.40 2.38 2.74 3.01 2.92 3.36 3.70 3.52 4.04 4.46 4.16 4.80 5.26 4.84 5.56 6.15
600 8 0.148 88,800 1.88 2.16 2.39 2.23 2.57 2.82 2.59 2.97 3.29
10 0.123 73,800 1.88 2.17 2.38 2.26 2.60 2.87 2.68 3.09 3.39 3.12 3.58 3.96
12 0.106 63,600 1.78 2.04 2.25 2.18 2.51 2.76 2.63 3.02 3.33 3.11 3.58 3.93 3.62 4.15 4.59
14 0.095 57,000 1.58 1.81 2.00 1.98 2.28 2.51 2.44 2.80 3.08 2.93 3.37 3.72 3.47 4.00 4.39 4.04 4.63 5.12
700 8 0.148 103,600 1.61 1.85 2.05 1.91 2.20 2.41 2.22 2.55 2.82
10 0.123 86,100 1.61 1.86 2.04 1.94 2.23 2.46 2.30 2.65 2.90 2.67 3.07 3.39
12 0.106 74,200 1.87 2.15 2.37 2.25 2.59 2.86 2.67 3.07 3.37 3.10 3.56 3.94
14 0.095 66,500 1.70 1.95 2.15 2.09 2.40 2.64 2.51 2.89 3.19 2.97 3.43 3.76 3.46 3.97 4.39
800 8 0.148 118,400 1.67 1.93 2.11 1.94 2.23 2.47
10 0.123 98,400 1.70 1.95 2.15 2.01 2.32 2.54 2.34 2.68 2.97
12 0.106 84,800 1.64 1.88 2.07 1.97 2.26 2.50 2.33 2.69 2.95 2.71 3.11 3.44
14 0.095 76,000 1.83 2.10 2.31 2.20 2.53 2.79 2.60 3.00 3.29 3.03 3.47 3.84
900 8 0.148 133,200 1.73 1.98 2.19
10 0.123 110,700 1.79 2.06 2.26 2.08 2.38 2.64
12 0.106 95,400 1.75 2.01 2.22 2.07 2.39 2.62 2.41 2.77 3.06
14 0.095 85,500 1.62 1.87 2.06 1.95 2.25 2.48 2.31 2.67 2.92 2.69 3.09 3.42
1,000 10 0.123 123,000 1.61 1.85 2.03 1.87 2.15 2.37
12 0.106 106,000 1.58 1.81 2.00 1.87 2.15 2.36 2.17 2.49 2.75
14 0.095 95,000 1.76 2.02 2.23 2.08 2.40 2.63 2.42 2.78 3.07
16 0.086 86,000 1.61 1.86 2.04 1.94 2.23 2.47 2.30 2.65 2.91 2.67 3.07 3.40
1,250 12 0.106 132,500 1.74 1.99 2.20
14 0.095 118,750 1.67 1.92 2.11 1.94 2.22 2.46
16 0.086 107,500 1.84 2.12 2.33 2.14 2.46 2.72
1,500 12 0.106 159,000
14 0.095 142,500 1.61 1.85 2.05
16 0.086 129,000 1.78 2.05 2.26

WIRE ROPE WR–17
Table WR-10 (continued from page WR-16)

1-3/4 in. 1-7/8 in. 2 in. 2-1/8-in. 2-1/4 in.
Grade IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP IPS EIP EEIP
MBF (Short
Tons) 133 153 169 152 174 192 172 198 217 192 221 244 215 247 272
Parts MBF (lb) 266,000 306,000 338,000 304,000 348,000 384,000 344,000 396,000 434,000 384,000 442,000 488,000 430,000 494,000 544,000
Hookload Fast Line
of Fast Line
000 lb Factors
Line Load lb
500 8 0.148 74,000 3.59 4.14 4.57

10 0.123 61,500 4.33 4.98 5.50
12 0.106 53,000 5.02 5.77 6.38
14 0.095 47,500 5.60 6.44 7.12
600 8 0.148 88,800 3.00 3.45 3.81 3.42 3.92 4.32
10 0.123 73,800 3.60 4.15 4.58 4.12 4.72 5.20
12 0.106 63,600 4.18 4.81 5.31 4.78 5.47 6.04
14 0.095 57,000 4.67 5.37 5.93 5.33 6.11 6.74
700 8 0.148 103,600 2.57 2.95 3.26 2.93 3.36 3.71 3.32 3.82 4.19
10 0.123 86,100 3.09 3.55 3.93 3.53 4.04 4.46 4.00 4.60 5.04
12 0.106 74,200 3.58 4.12 4.56 4.10 4.69 5.18 4.64 5.34 5.85
14 0.095 66,500 4.00 4.60 5.08 4.57 5.23 5.77 5.17 5.95 6.53
800 8 0.148 118,400 2.25 2.58 2.85 2.57 2.94 3.24 2.91 3.34 3.67 3.24 3.73 4.12
10 0.123 98,400 2.70 3.11 3.43 3.09 3.54 3.90 3.50 4.02 4.41 3.90 4.49 4.96
12 0.106 84,800 3.14 3.61 3.99 3.58 4.10 4.53 4.06 4.67 5.12 4.53 5.21 5.75
14 0.095 76,000 3.50 4.03 4.45 4.00 4.58 5.05 4.53 5.21 5.71 5.05 5.82 6.42
900 8 0.148 133,200 2.00 2.30 2.54 2.28 2.61 2.88 2.58 2.97 3.26 2.88 3.32 3.66 3.23 3.71 4.08
10 0.123 110,700 2.40 2.76 3.05 2.75 3.14 3.47 3.11 3.58 3.92 3.47 3.99 4.41 3.88 4.46 4.91
12 0.106 95,400 2.79 3.21 3.54 3.19 3.65 4.03 3.61 4.15 4.55 4.03 4.63 5.12 4.51 5.18 5.70
14 0.095 85,500 3.11 3.58 3.95 3.56 4.07 4.49 4.02 4.63 5.08 4.49 5.17 5.71 5.03 5.78 6.36
1,000 10 0.123 123,000 2.16 2.49 2.75 2.47 2.83 3.12 2.80 3.22 3.53 3.12 3.59 3.97 3.50 4.02 4.42
12 0.106 106,000 2.51 2.89 3.19 2.87 3.28 3.62 3.25 3.74 4.09 3.62 4.17 4.60 4.06 4.66 5.13
14 0.095 95,000 2.80 3.22 3.56 3.20 3.66 4.04 3.62 4.17 4.57 4.04 4.65 5.14 4.53 5.20 5.73
16 0.086 86,000 3.09 3.56 3.93 3.53 4.05 4.47 4.00 4.60 5.05 4.47 5.14 5.67 5.00 5.74 6.33
1,250 12 0.106 132,500 2.01 2.31 2.55 2.29 2.63 2.90 2.60 2.99 3.28 2.90 3.34 3.68 3.25 3.73 4.11
14 0.095 118,750 2.24 2.58 2.85 2.56 2.93 3.23 2.90 3.33 3.65 3.23 3.72 4.11 3.62 4.16 4.58
16 0.086 107,500 2.47 2.85 3.14 2.83 3.24 3.57 3.20 3.68 4.04 3.57 4.11 4.54 4.00 4.60 5.06
1,500 12 0.106 159,000 1.67 1.92 2.13 1.91 2.19 2.42 2.16 2.49 2.73 2.42 2.78 3.07 2.70 3.11 3.42
14 0.095 142,500 1.87 2.15 2.37 2.13 2.44 2.69 2.41 2.78 3.05 2.69 3.10 3.42 3.02 3.47 3.82
16 0.086 129,000 2.06 2.37 2.62 2.36 2.70 2.98 2.67 3.07 3.36 2.98 3.43 3.78 3.33 3.83 4.22
1,750 12 0.106 185,500 1.64 1.88 2.07 1.85 2.13 2.34 2.07 2.38 2.63 2.32 2.66 2.93
14 0.095 166,250 1.60 1.84 2.03 1.83 2.09 2.31 2.07 2.38 2.61 2.31 2.66 2.94 2.59 2.97 3.27
16 0.086 150,500 1.77 2.03 2.25 2.02 2.31 2.55 2.29 2.63 2.88 2.55 2.94 3.24 2.86 3.28 3.61
2,000 12 0.106 212,000 1.62 1.87 2.05 1.81 2.08 2.30 2.03 2.33 2.57
14 0.095 190,000 1.60 1.83 2.02 1.81 2.08 2.28 2.02 2.33 2.57 2.26 2.60 2.86
16 0.086 172,000 1.77 2.02 2.23 2.00 2.30 2.52 2.23 2.57 2.84 2.50 2.87 3.16
18 0.079 158,000 1.68 1.94 2.14 1.92 2.20 2.43 2.18 2.51 2.75 2.43 2.80 3.09 2.72 3.13 3.44
20 0.074 148,000 1.80 2.07 2.28 2.05 2.35 2.59 2.32 2.68 2.93 2.59 2.99 3.30 2.91 3.34 3.68
2,250 14 0.095 213,750 1.61 1.85 2.03 1.80 2.07 2.28 2.01 2.31 2.55
16 0.086 193,500 1.78 2.05 2.24 1.98 2.28 2.52 2.22 2.55 2.81
18 0.079 177,750 1.71 1.96 2.16 1.94 2.23 2.44 2.16 2.49 2.75 2.42 2.78 3.06
20 0.074 166,500 1.60 1.84 2.03 1.83 2.09 2.31 2.07 2.38 2.61 2.31 2.65 2.93 2.58 2.97 3.27
2,500 16 0.086 215,000 1.60 1.84 2.02 1.79 2.06 2.27 2.00 2.30 2.53
18 0.079 197,500 1.74 2.01 2.20 1.94 2.24 2.47 2.18 2.50 2.75
20 0.074 185,000 1.64 1.88 2.08 1.86 2.14 2.35 2.08 2.39 2.64 2.32 2.67 2.94

WR–18 WIRE ROPE
Table WR-11: E indicator—drill collar weight factor, drill collar dimensions (in.)
# of Drill 5 3/4 × 2 1/4 6 × 2 1/4 6 1/4 × 2 1/4
4 1/8 × 2 4 3/4 × 2 1/4 5 3/4 × 2 13/16
Collars 6 × 2 13/16 6 1/4 × 2 13/16 6 1/2 × 2 13/16
1 1 400 600 700 800 900
2 2 700 1,300 1,500 1,700 1,900
3 3 1,100 1,900 2,200 2,500 2,800
4 4 1,500 2,600 2,900 3,300 3,800
5 5 1,900 3,200 3,700 4,200 4,700
6 6 2,200 3,800 4,000 5,000 5,600
7 7 2,600 4,500 5,100 5,800 6,600
8 8 3,000 5,100 5,900 6,700 7,500
9 9 3,400 5,700 6,600 7,500 8,500
10 10 3,700 6,400 7,300 8,300 9,400
11 11 4,100 7,000 8,100 9,200 10,300

12 12 4,500 7,700 8,800 10,000 11,300
13 13 4,900 8,300 9,500 10,800 12,200
14 14 5,200 8,900 10,200 11,700 13,200
15 15 5,600 9,600 11,000 12,500 14,100
16 16 6,000 10,200 11,700 13,300 15,000
17 17 6,300 10,800 12,400 14,200 16,000
18 18 6,700 11,500 13,200 15,000 16,900
19 19 7,100 12,100 13,900 15,800 17,900
20 20 7,500 12,800 14,600 16,700 18,800
21 21 7,800 13,400 15,400 17,500 19,800

22 22 8,200 14,000 16,100 18,300 20,700
23 23 8,600 14,700 16,800 19,200 21,600
24 24 9,000 15,300 17,600 20,000 22,600
25 25 9,300 15,900 18,300 20,900 23,500
26 26 9,700 16,600 19,000 21,700 24,500
27 27 10,100 17,200 19,800 22,500 25,400
28 28 10,500 17,900 20,500 23,400 26,300
29 29 10,800 18,500 21,200 24,200 27,300
30 30 11,200 19,100 22,000 25,000 28,200

WIRE ROPE WR–19
Table WR-11 (continued): E indicator—drill collar weight factor, drill collar dimensions (in.)
# of Drill 6 × 2 1/4 6 3/4 × 2 1/4 7 1/4 × 2 13/16 7 3/4 × 3 8×3 9×3
Collars 63/4 × 2 13/16 7 × 2 13/16 7 3/4 × 2 13/16 8 × 2 13/16
1 1,000 1,200 1,300 1,500 1,700 2,200
2 2,100 2,300 2,600 3,100 3,300 4,400
3 3,100 3,500 3,900 4,600 5,000 6,500
4 4,200 4,600 5,200 6,100 6,700 8,700
5 5,200 5,800 6,500 7,700 8,300 10,900
6 6,300 7,000 7,800 9,200 10,000 13,100
7 7,300 8,100 9,100 10,700 11,700 15,300
8 8,400 9,300 10,400 12,300 13,300 17,400
9 9,400 10,400 11,700 13,800 15,000 19,600
10 10,500 11,600 13,000 15,300 16,700 21,800
11 11,500 12,800 14,300 16,900 18,300 24,000

12 12,600 13,900 15,600 18,400 20,000 26,200
13 13,600 15,100 16,900 19,900 21,700 28,300
14 14,700 16,200 18,200 21,500 23,300 30,500
15 15,700 17,400 19,500 23,000 25,000 32,700
16 16,800 18,600 20,800 24,600 26,700 34,900
17 17,800 19,700 22,100 26,100 28,300 37,100
18 18,900 20,900 23,400 27,600 30,000 39,200
19 19,900 22,000 24,700 29,200 31,700 41,400
20 21,000 23,200 26,000 30,700 33,300 43,600
21 22,000 24,300 27,200 32,200 35,000 45,800

22 23,100 25,500 28,500 33,800 36,700 48,000
23 24,100 26,700 29,800 35,300 38,300 50,100
24 25,200 27,800 31,100 36,800 40,000 52,300
25 26,200 29,000 32,400 38,400 41,700 54,500
26 27,300 30,100 33,700 39,900 43,300 56,700
27 28,300 31,300 35,000 41,400 45,000 58,900
28 29,400 32,500 36,300 43,000 46,700 61,000
29 30,400 33,600 37,600 44,500 48,300 63,200
30 31,500 34,800 38,900 46,000 50,000 65,400

WR–20 WIRE ROPE
Ton-mile calculations are available for any type or size of drill pipe in both mud and
air drilling. Contact a UNION WIRE ROPE representative for
A. Introduction the Indicator(s) you require.
In the early 1940s, a drilling contractor would have pur-
chased only enough rotary drilling line to string-up the B. Examples of ton-mile calculations
reeving system. Depending upon the height of the derrick
and the number of parts of line to be used, lengths would
EXAMPLE 1
vary from 650 ft to 1,750 ft. In working the line, heavy wear
would occur in a few localized sections: where the rope Round trip ton-miles
makes contact with the traveling block sheaves, and where
Situation: At a depth of 11,000 ft, a round trip is made to
the rope makes contact with the crown block sheaves when
change the bit.
the slips are pulled going in or coming out of the hole, and on
the drum where each wrap of rope crosses over the rope on Drill Pipe = 4 1/- in. (l6.6 lb/ft)
the layer below. Broken wires at these points of critical wear
Drill Collars = ten, 7-1/4 in. (119.2 lb/ft)
would result in the retirement of the entire string up, even
though the remainder of the rope was in good condition. Traveling block assembly weight (hook, elevators,
traveling block) = 27,000 lb
For these reasons, it is important that the drilling line be cut
off at the proper rate. The purpose of this Simplified Cut-Off Drilling Fluid = mud
Practice is to give the drilling contractor a method for keep-
Solution:
ing track of the amount of work done by the drilling line and
a systematic procedure for making cuts of the appropriate 1) Determine weight factor due to collars: On Table
length at the appropriate time. The objective is to obtain WR-11, locate proper drill collar number and read
maximum rope service without jeopardizing the safety of weight factor due to collars in appropriate column.
the rig operation.
Weight factor due to collars = 13,000 lb
In conjunction with the record keeping required for the cut-off
2) Determine total weight factor: Add together
procedure, daily visual inspection of the drilling line should be
Weight Factor due to Collars and weight of
made for broken wires and any other rope damage. It must be
Traveling Block assembly.
remembered that in all cases, visual inspection of the wire
rope by the drilling contractor must take precedence over Traveling Block Assembly Weight = 27,000 lb
any predetermined calculations. + Weight Factor due to Collars = 13,000 lb
Total Weight Factor = 40,000 lb
The only complicated part of a cut-off procedure is the de-
termination of how much work has been done by the wire rope. 3) Determine Ton-Miles Per Round Trip: On
Methods such as counting the number of wells drilled or keep- Table WR-10, locate depth and read round trip
ing track of days between cuts are not accurate because the ton-miles in appropriate column.
loads change with depth and with different drilling conditions.
Round Trip Ton-Miles = 337 T-M
The various operations performed (drilling, coring, fishing, set-
ting casing, etc.) subject the rope to different amounts of wear. Note: For laying down drill pipe at the end of well, figure
one-half of round trip ton-miles for drill string in question.
For an accurate record of the amount of work done by a drill-
ing line, it is necessary to calculate the weight being lifted
and the distance it is raised and lowered. In engineering
terms, work is measured in foot-pounds. On a drilling rig the
loads and distances are so great that we use “ton-miles.”
One ton-mile equals 10,560,000 ft-lb and is equivalent to
lifting 2,000 lb a distance of 5,280 ft.
To simplify the calculation of ton-miles, a Ton-Mile Indicator

has been developed. The following pages provide examples
of how this Indicator is used to determine the number of ton-
miles of work done by the drilling line for various operations
on the rig. Please refer to Tables WR-9 and WR-10 as you go
through the examples. These tables are taken from the Ton-
Mile Indicator developed by UNION WIRE ROPE. Indicators

WIRE ROPE WR–21
Table WR-12: Wire rope indicator

Ton-Mile per round trip 4 ½ in., 16.6 lb/ft drill pipe in mud—total weight factor
Depth 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000
1,000 5 9 13 17 20 24 28 32 36 39
1,200 7 11 16 20 25 29 34 39 43 48
1,400 8 14 19 24 29 35 40 45 51 56
1,600 10 16 22 28 34 40 46 52 58 64
1,800 12 18 25 32 39 46 52 59 66 73
2,000 13 21 29 36 44 51 59 66 74 82
2,200 15 24 32 40 49 57 65 74 82 90
2,400 17 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99
2,600 20 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 98 108
2,800 22 33 43 54 64 75 86 96 107 117
3,000 24 36 47 58 70 81 92 104 115 127

3,200 27 39 51 63 75 87 100 112 124 136
3,400 29 42 55 68 81 94 107 120 132 145
3,600 32 46 59 73 87 100 114 128 141 155
3,800 35 49 64 78 93 107 121 136 150 165
4,000 38 53 68 83 99 114 129 144 159 174

4,200 41 57 73 89 105 121 137 152 168 184
4,400 44 61 78 94 111 128 144 161 178 194
4,600 48 65 82 100 117 135 152 169 187 204
4,800 51 69 87 105 124 142 160 178 196 215
5,000 54 73 92 111 130 149 168 187 206 225

5,200 58 78 97 117 137 157 176 196 216 235
5,400 62 82 103 123 144 164 185 205 225 246
5,600 66 87 108 129 150 172 193 214 235 257
5,800 70 92 114 136 157 179 201 223 245 267
6,000 74 96 119 142 165 187 210 233 255 278

6,200 78 101 125 148 172 195 219 242 266 289
6,400 82 106 131 155 179 203 228 252 276 300
6,600 87 112 137 162 187 212 237 262 287 312
6,800 91 117 143 168 194 220 246 271 297 323
7,000 96 122 149 175 202 228 255 281 308 334

WR–22 WIRE ROPE
Table WR-13: Design factors

2 in. extra extra improved plow rotary drill line, 434,000 lb nominal strength*
Weight Indicator Reading (1000's Lbs.) Weight Indicator Reading (1000's Lbs.)
Design Design
12 Lines 14 Lines 16 Lines 12 Lines 14 Lines 16 Lines
Factor Factor
411 463 511 9.9 690 778 857 5.9
416 468 516 9.8 702 791 872 5.8
420 473 521 9.7 715 805 887 5.7
424 478 527 9.6 727 819 903 5.6
429 483 532 9.5 740 834 919 5.5
433 488 538 9.4 754 850 936 5.4
438 493 544 9.3 768 866 954 5.3
443 499 549 9.2 783 882 972 5.2
448 504 556 9.1 799 899 991 5.1
453 510 562 9 815 917 1011 5
458 515 568 8.9 831 936 1032 4.9
463 521 574 8.8 848 956 1053 4.8
468 527 581 8.7 867 976 1076 4.7
474 533 588 8.6 885 997 1099 4.6
479 540 595 8.5 905 1019 1123 4.5
485 546 602 8.4 926 1043 1149 4.4
491 553 609 8.3 947 1067 1176 4.3
497 559 616 8.2 970 1092 1204 4.2
503 566 624 8.1 993 1119 1233 4.1
509 573 632 8 1018 1147 1264 4
516 581 640 7.9 1044 1176 1296 3.9
522 588 648 7.8 1072 1207 1330 3.8
529 596 657 7.7 1101 1240 1366 3.7
536 604 665 7.6 1131 1274 1404 3.6
543 612 674 7.5 1164 1311 1444 3.5
550 620 683 7.4 1198 1349 1487 3.4
558 628 692 7.3 1234 1390 1532 3.3

566 637 702 7.2 1273 1434 1580 3.2
574 646 712 7.1 1314 1480 1631 3.1
582 655 722 7 1358 1529 1685 3
590 665 733 6.9 1404 1582 1743 2.9
599 675 743 6.8 1455 1638 1805 2.8
608 685 755 6.7 1508 1699 1872 2.7
617 695 766 6.6 1566 1764 1944 2.6
627 706 778 6.5 1629 1835 2022 2.5
636 717 790 6.4 1697 1911 2106 2.4
646 728 802 6.3 1771 1995 2198 2.3
657 740 815 6.2 1851 2085 2298 2.2
668 752 829 6.1 1939 2184 2407 2.1
679 765 843 6 2036 2294 2528 2
*The design factors were calculated using Case A from the API 9B formula with 4% sheave loss. They do not include shock loads or acceleration stresses.

WIRE ROPE WR–23

Design Design
Factor Factor
60 77 93 9.9 101 130 156 5.9
61 78 94 9.8 103 132 159 5.8
62 79 95 9.7 105 134 162 5.7
62 80 96 9.6 107 137 165 5.6
63 81 97 9.5 109 139 168 5.5
63 82 98 9.4 111 142 171 5.4
64 82 99 9.3 113 145 174 5.3
65 83 100 9.2 115 147 177 5.2
66 84 101 9.1 117 150 181 5.1
66 85 103 9 119 153 185 5
67 86 104 8.9 122 156 188 4.9
68 87 105 8.8 124 160 192 4.8
69 88 106 8.7 127 163 196 4.7
69 89 107 8.6 130 167 201 4.6
70 90 109 8.5 133 170 205 4.5
71 91 110 8.4 136 174 210 4.4
72 92 111 8.3 139 178 215 4.3
73 93 113 8.2 142 183 220 4.2
74 95 114 8.1 146 187 225 4.1
75 96 115 8 149 192 231 4
76 97 117 7.9 153 197 237 3.9
77 98 118 7.8 157 202 243 3.8
78 100 120 7.7 161 207 249 3.7
79 101 121 7.6 166 213 256 3.6
80 102 123 7.5 171 219 264 3.5
81 104 125 7.4 176 225 271 3.4
82 105 126 7.3 181 232 280 3.3

83 106 128 7.2 186 240 288 3.2
84 108 130 7.1 193 247 298 3.1
85 110 132 7 199 256 308 3
86 111 134 6.9 206 264 318 2.9
88 113 136 6.8 213 274 330 2.8
89 114 138 6.7 221 284 342 2.7
90 116 140 6.6 230 295 355 2.6
92 118 142 6.5 239 307 369 2.5
93 120 144 6.4 249 319 385 2.4
95 122 146 6.3 259 333 401 2.3
96 124 149 6.2 271 348 420 2.2
98 126 151 6.1 284 365 439 2.1
99 128 154 6 298 383 461 2

WR–24 WIRE ROPE

Weight Indicator Reading (1000's lbs.) Weight Indicator Reading (1000's Lbs.)
Design Design
Factor Factor
205 237 267 9.9 344 398 448 5.9
207 239 270 9.8 350 404 456 5.8
209 242 272 9.7 356 412 464 5.7
211 244 275 9.6 362 419 472 5.6
213 247 278 9.5 369 427 480 5.5
216 250 281 9.4 375 434 489 5.4
218 252 284 9.3 383 443 499 5.3
220 255 287 9.2 390 451 508 5.2
223 258 290 9.1 398 460 518 5.1
225 261 294 9 406 469 529 5
228 264 297 8.9 414 479 539 4.9
230 267 300 8.8 422 489 551 4.8
233 270 304 8.7 431 499 562 4.7
236 273 307 8.6 441 510 574 4.6
239 276 311 8.5 451 521 587 4.5
241 279 315 8.4 461 533 601 4.4
244 283 318 8.3 472 546 615 4.3
247 286 322 8.2 483 559 629 4.2
250 290 326 8.1 495 572 645 4.1
253 293 330 8 507 587 661 4
257 297 334 7.9 520 602 678 3.9
260 301 339 7.8 534 617 695 3.8
263 305 343 7.7 548 634 714 3.7
267 309 348 7.6 563 652 734 3.6
270 313 352 7.5 579 670 755 3.5
274 317 357 7.4 596 690 777 3.4
278 321 362 7.3 614 711 801 3.3

282 326 367 7.2 634 733 826 3.2
286 330 372 7.1 654 757 852 3.1
290 335 378 7 676 782 881 3
294 340 383 6.9 699 809 911 2.9
298 345 389 6.8 724 838 944 2.8
303 350 394 6.7 751 869 979 2.7
307 355 400 6.6 780 902 1016 2.6
312 361 407 6.5 811 938 1057 2.5
317 367 413 6.4 845 978 1101 2.4
322 372 419 6.3 882 1020 1149 2.3
327 378 426 6.2 922 1066 1201 2.2
332 385 433 6.1 965 1117 1258 2.1
338 391 440 6 1014 1173 1321 2

WIRE ROPE WR–25

1 5/8 in. extra, extra improved plow rotary drill line, 143,000 lb nominal strength*
Design Design
Factor Factor
76 97 117 9.9 127 163 197 5.9
77 98 118 9.8 129 166 200 5.8
77 99 120 9.7 132 169 203 5.7
78 100 121 9.6 134 172 207 5.6
79 101 122 9.5 136 175 211 5.5
80 102 123 9.4 139 178 215 5.4
81 104 125 9.3 141 182 219 5.3
82 105 126 9.2 144 185 223 5.2
82 106 127 9.1 147 189 227 5.1
83 107 129 9 150 193 232 5
84 108 130 8.9 153 197 237 4.9
85 109 132 8.8 156 201 242 4.8
86 111 133 8.7 160 205 247 4.7
87 112 135 8.6 163 209 252 4.6
88 113 136 8.5 167 214 258 4.5
89 115 138 8.4 170 219 264 4.4
90 116 140 8.3 174 224 270 4.3
91 117 141 8.2 179 229 276 4.2
93 119 143 8.1 183 235 283 4.1
94 120 145 8 187 241 290 4
95 122 147 7.9 192 247 297 3.9
96 123 149 7.8 197 253 305 3.8
97 125 151 7.7 203 260 313 3.7
99 127 153 7.6 208 268 322 3.6
100 128 155 7.5 214 275 331 3.5
101 130 157 7.4 221 283 341 3.4
103 132 159 7.3 227 292 351 3.3

104 134 161 7.2 234 301 362 3.2
106 136 163 7.1 242 311 374 3.1
107 138 166 7 250 321 387 3
109 140 168 6.9 259 332 400 2.9
110 142 171 6.8 268 344 414 2.8
112 144 173 6.7 278 357 430 2.7
114 146 176 6.6 288 370 446 2.6
115 148 178 6.5 300 385 464 2.5
117 151 181 6.4 312 401 483 2.4
119 153 184 6.3 326 419 504 2.3
121 155 187 6.2 341 438 527 2.2
123 158 190 6.1 357 459 552 2.1
125 161 193 6 375 482 580 2

WR–26 WIRE ROPE

1 3/8 in. extra-extra improved plow rotary drill line, 212,000 lb nominal strength*
Design Design
Factor Factor
174 201 226 9.9 291 337 380 5.9
175 203 229 9.8 296 343 386 5.8
177 205 231 9.7 302 349 393 5.7
179 207 233 9.6 307 355 400 5.6
181 209 236 9.5 313 362 407 5.5
183 212 238 9.4 318 368 415 5.4
185 214 241 9.3 324 375 423 5.3
187 216 244 9.2 331 383 431 5.2
189 219 246 9.1 337 390 439 5.1
191 221 249 9 344 398 448 5
193 224 252 8.9 351 406 457 4.9
195 226 255 8.8 358 414 467 4.8
198 229 258 8.7 366 423 477 4.7
200 231 261 8.6 374 432 487 4.6
202 234 264 8.5 382 442 498 4.5
205 237 267 8.4 391 452 509 4.4
207 240 270 8.3 400 463 521 4.3
210 243 273 8.2 409 474 534 4.2
212 246 277 8.1 419 485 547 4.1
215 249 280 8 430 497 560 4
218 252 284 7.9 441 510 575 3.9
220 255 287 7.8 452 524 590 3.8
223 258 291 7.7 465 538 606 3.7
226 262 295 7.6 478 553 622 3.6
229 265 299 7.5 491 568 640 3.5
232 269 303 7.4 506 585 659 3.4
236 273 307 7.3 521 603 679 3.3

239 276 311 7.2 537 622 700 3.2
242 280 316 7.1 555 642 723 3.1
246 284 320 7 573 663 747 3
249 288 325 6.9 593 686 773 2.9
253 293 330 6.8 614 711 800 2.8
257 297 334 6.7 637 737 830 2.7
261 301 340 6.6 661 765 862 2.6
265 306 345 6.5 688 796 896 2.5
269 311 350 6.4 716 829 934 2.4
273 316 356 6.3 748 865 974 2.3
277 321 361 6.2 782 904 1019 2.2
282 326 367 6.1 819 947 1067 2.1
287 332 373 6 860 995 1120 2

WIRE ROPE WR–27
Table WR-18: Design Factors

1 3/8 in. extra-extra improved plow rotary drill line, 212,000 lb nominal strength*
Design Design
Factor Factor
277 312 344 9.9 464 523 576 5.9
280 315 347 9.8 472 532 586 5.8
282 318 351 9.7 481 541 597 5.7
285 322 354 9.6 489 551 607 5.6
288 325 358 9.5 498 561 618 5.5
292 328 362 9.4 507 572 630 5.4
295 332 366 9.3 517 582 642 5.3
298 335 370 9.2 527 594 654 5.2
301 339 374 9.1 537 605 667 5.1
304 343 378 9 548 617 680 5
308 347 382 8.9 559 630 694 4.9
311 351 387 8.8 571 643 709 4.8
315 355 391 8.7 583 657 724 4.7
319 359 395 8.6 596 671 739 4.6
322 363 400 8.5 609 686 756 4.5
326 367 405 8.4 623 701 773 4.4
330 372 410 8.3 637 718 791 4.3
334 376 415 8.2 652 735 810 4.2
338 381 420 8.1 668 753 830 4.1
343 386 425 8 685 772 850 4
347 391 431 7.9 703 791 872 3.9
351 396 436 7.8 721 812 895 3.8
356 401 442 7.7 741 834 919 3.7
361 406 448 7.6 761 857 945 3.6
365 412 453 7.5 783 882 972 3.5
370 417 460 7.4 806 908 1000 3.4
375 423 466 7.3 830 935 1031 3.3

381 429 472 7.2 856 965 1063 3.2
386 435 479 7.1 884 996 1097 3.1
391 441 486 7 913 1029 1134 3
397 447 493 6.9 945 1064 1173 2.9
403 454 500 6.8 979 1102 1215 2.8
409 461 508 6.7 1015 1143 1260 2.7
415 468 515 6.6 1054 1187 1308 2.6
422 475 523 6.5 1096 1235 1360 2.5
428 482 531 6.4 1142 1286 1417 2.4
435 490 540 6.3 1191 1342 1479 2.3
442 498 549 6.2 1246 1403 1546 2.2
449 506 558 6.1 1305 1470 1620 2.1
457 514 567 6 1370 1543 1701 2

WR–28 WIRE ROPE
EXAMPLE 2 40.5 lb/ft = 2.44 16.6 lb/ft

16.6 lb/ft
Drilling ton-miles
2) Determine ton-miles for making a round trip with
Situation: Drilling continues from a depth of 11,000 ft
pipe:
to 12,000 ft.
Locate depth of 3,600 ft
Drill Pipe = 4 1/2 in. (l6.6 lb/ft)
Drill collars = ten, 7 1/4 in. (l19.2 lb/ft) Read under 20,000 lb column (No drill collars are
Traveling block assembly weight = 27,000 lb used, therefore, the Total Weight Factor is equal to
Drilling fluid = mud the traveling block assembly weight only.)
Top Drive
3) Determine ton-miles for making a round trip with
Solution: Ton-Miles for drilling from one depth to casing:
another when using a top drive are equal to the
Multiply by the weight ratio:
difference in round trip ton-miles for the two depths.
2.44×46 = 122 T-M
1) Determine ton-miles for a round trip where
drilling stopped: Round trip ton-miles for casing = 112 T-M.
Locate depth of 12,000 ft 4) Determine ton-miles for setting casing:
Read under 40,000 lb column
Divide by 2, since the casing is only set down and
Ton-Miles = 384 T-M
not pulled out.
2) Determine ton-miles for a round trip where
112 divided by 2 = 56 T-M
drilling started:
Ton-miles for setting casing = 56 T-M.
EXAMPLE 4
Ton-Miles = 337 T-M
Ton-miles for a short trip
3) Calculate difference in round trip ton-miles:
Situation: Having drilled to 13,000 ft, a short trip is
384 T-M
made back to 9,000 ft to condition the hole.
–337 T-M
47 T-M Drill Pipe = 4 1/2 in. (16.6 lb/ft)
Drill Collars = Twenty, 7 3/4 in. (138 lb/ft)
Ton-Miles for Drilling with a top drive from
Traveling Block Assembly Weight = 20,000 lb
11,000 ft to 12,000 ft = 47 T-M.
Drilling Fluid = Mud
* The ton-miles for drilling when using a convential drilling
Solution: The ton-miles of work done in making a short
rig without a top drive are equal to the difference in the
trip is equal to the round trip ton-miles at the deeper depth
round trip ton miles for the two depths multiplied by three.
minus the round trip ton-miles at the shallower depth.
(47 T-M * 3 = 141 T-M)
1) Determine ton-miles for a round trip at 13,000 ft:

EXAMPLE 3
Ton-miles for setting casing Round trip ton-miles at 9,000 ft = 483 T-M
Situation: Setting 10 3/4 in. (40.5 lb/ft) casing from 2) Determine ton-miles for a round trip at 9,000 ft:
surface to 3,600 ft
Traveling Block Assembly Weight = 20,000 lb Read under 50,000 lb column
Round trip ton-miles at 9,000 ft = 284 T-M
Solution: The ton-miles of work done in setting casing
would be one-half the ton-miles done in making a round 3) Determine ton-miles for the short trip
trip if the weight of the casing were the same as the 483 T-M
weight of the drill pipe. −284 T-M
199 T-M
1) Determine the ratio of casing weight to drill pipe
weight: Ton-miles for the short trip = 199 T-M

WIRE ROPE WR–29
EXAMPLE 5 Total excess weight

= (25.4) × (900 ft) = 22,860 lb
Ton-miles for round trip of mixed drill string
Buoyed excess weight
Situation: Having drilled to 13,000 ft with the drill string
= (22,860) × (.85) = 19,431 lb
shown on the left, a round trip is to be made:
1/2 Buoyed excess weight
Drilling Fluid = Mud
= (19,431) % (2) = 9,716 lb
Traveling Block Assembly Weight = 27,000 lb
Weight factor due to
Solution:
heavyweight pipe = 9,716 lb
1) Weight factor due to collars = 23,000 lb
3) Determine total weight factor:
2) Total weight factor = 23,000 lb
Traveling block assembly weight = 30,000 lb
+ 27,000 lb
Weight factor due to collars = 30,700 lb
50,000 lb
3) Ton-miles for round trips:

4 1/2 in.−13,000 ft = 483 T-M Weight factor due to = 9,716 lb
5 in.− 9,000 ft = + 303 T-M heavyweight pipe
786 T-M Total weight factor = 70,416 lb
4 1/2 in.− 9,000 ft = − 284 T-M 4) Determine ton-miles per round trip: Locate depth
502 T-M of 12,000 ft.
Ton-miles for a round trip with
the mixed drill string = 502 T-M.
Round trip ton-miles = 520 T-M
EXAMPLE 6 C. Ton-miles per foot cut
Ton-miles for round trip with heavy-wall drill pipe The purpose of calculating the amount of work done by
the drilling line is to give an accurate method for deter-
Situation: Having drilled to 12,000 ft with the drill string
mining when and how much drilling line to slip through
shown on the left, a round trip is to be made.
and cut off. The objective of spreading the rope wear
Drilling Fluid = mud along the length of the line can be accomplished best by
Traveling Block Assembly Weight = 30,000 lb cutting lengths proportional to the ton-miles of work ac-
cumulated. All that is necessary to maintain a consistent
Solution: Instead of trying to calculate the heavy-weight
number of ton-miles per foot of rope cut.
pipe as in a mixed drill string, treat it as additional drill
collars. Use the drill collar window on the back of the For a given rope size, any particular rig can get only so
Ton-Mile Indicator which is closest to the heavy weight many ton-miles of service. The key to a successful cut-
pipe weight or do the calculations by hand. off procedure is to spread these ton-miles uniformly
by using the optimum ton-mile per foot cut goal. A rig
1) Determine weight factor due to collars: On Table
which has been able to get about 66,000 T-M out of a
WR-11 locate proper drill collar number and read
1 3/8 in.×5,000 ft drilling line may have a string-up of
weight due to collars under appropriate column.
1,700 ft for 10 parts. The remaining 3,300 ft available
2) Determine weight factor due to heavy-wall drill to be cut off should be cut at a rate of one foot for every
pipe: Figure heavyweight pipe like drill collars. 20.0 ton-miles. (66,000 T-M %3,300 ft = 20.0 T-M/ft)
On Table WR-11 locate proper heavy-weight pipe The ton-mile goal would be 20.0.
number and read weight due to heavyweight pipe
The ton-mile goal for any rig with good past perfor-
from the window with the closest drill collar weight
mance records can be calculated in the same manner. If
is 46.7 lb/ft. An accurate value for Weight Factor
the rig is new, or if the records are unavailable, a ton-mile
due to heavy-weight pipe can also be figured
goal can be selected from Table WR-20. You will note
longhand as follows (more accurate):
that only the drilling line size and the drum diameter are
Excess weight per foot needed to determine a ton-mile goal. These are by far
= 42.0−16.6 = 25.4 the most important factors that influence ton-mile ser-
vice on a drilling rig.

WR–30 WIRE ROPE
D. Ton-mile calculations—drilling ton-miles for top drive

Table WR-20
(drilling with stands)
Ton-mile per foot cut goal for rigs
Ton-mile calculations for other operations tend to be un-
having no past performance records
affected by the addition of the top drive with the excep-
tion of the additional traveling equipment weight. Drum Rope diameter (in.)
diameter
Definition of terms: 1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 /8 1 1/2 1 5/8
(in.)
WDS = Buoyant weight of drill string 18 6.0 9.0
(drill pipe and BHA) 19 6.0 9.0
20 7.0 9.0
M = Weight of traveling equipment
21 7.0 10.0
LS = Length of a stand 22 7.0 10.0
Drilling Operation Cycle: 23 8.0 10.0 13.0
1. Drill down length of stand (LS) 24 8.0 11.0 13.0 17.0
2. Raise stand and ream back down full length 25 8.0 11.0 14.0 17.0
3. Set slips and break out at pipe handler
26 9.0 11.0 14.0 17.0
4. Raise traveling equipment: pick up next stand and make-up
27 9.0 12.0 15.0 18.0
5. Pick-up off slips and begin again
28 12.0 15.0 18.0
Ton-Miles Generated Per Cycle Segment:
29 12.0 15.0 18.0
1. ((WDS + M) × LS)/(2000 × 5280) 30 13.0 16.0 19.0
2. (2 × (WDS + M) × LS)/(2000 × 5280) 31 16.0 19.0
3. N/A
32 17.0 20.0
4. (M × LS)/(2000 × 5280)
33 17.0 20.0
5. N/A
34 18.0 21.0 24.0
If one cares to combine steps 1 through 5, the following will apply: 35 21.0 25.0
Ton-Miles Per Stand Drilled = 36 22.0 25.0 28.0
(LS × (3 WDS + 4 M)) / (2000 × 5280)
B. Suggestions for cut-off practice
Whatever program is being used, it should be followed
Cut-off program
throughout the life of one entire drilling line. If no long
cuts are required and it is believed that more service can
A. Cut-off program
be had from a line, the goal can be raised one ton-mile
Assuming that 1 3/8 in. drilling line is used on a NATIONAL per foot cut. This procedure should be followed until the
130 (30 in. drum) rig with no past performance records, optimum goal is found.
Table WR-20 gives a suggested ton-mile goal of 19.0.
Avoid accumulating more ton-miles between cuts than
Table WR-21 is the UNION WIRE ROPE Cut-Off Program
the maximum shown on the program for your rig even on
for a 19.0 ton-mile goal. Other programs are available for
the first cut of a new line.
the specific goal required for your rig.
It is best not to run up to the maximum permitted ton-miles
You will note the program is summarized by the state-
each time before making a cut, as some problem on the rig
ment: Length to Cut = T-M Since Last Cut ÷ 19.0
could prevent a cut being made at the proper time and
So long as the maximum ton-mile accumulation shown on lead to a ton-mile overrun. A better approach is to bounce
the program is not exceeded, a cut may be made when- around on your program, cutting with a low ton-mile accu-
ever it is convenient. It is only necessary to total the ton- mulation sometimes and alternating with medium or high-
miles accumulated since the last cut and divide by 19.0 to er ton-mile accumulations. This practice does not waste
determine what length to cut. This way the ton-miles per rope because you are always cutting lengths in proportion
foot cut will always be exactly 19.0 and the wear on the to the work accumulated.
drilling line will be uniformly spread along its length.
Accurate measurement of the length to cut is very important.
For convenience, the calculations have been made for a A steel tape should be used when making this measurement.
number of ton-mile accumulations and are presented in
When stringing back from 12 to 10 lines or from 10 to 8
tabular form on the program.
lines, make a cut of the appropriate length based upon

WIRE ROPE WR–31
Table WR-21 (example only)

UNION WIRE ROPE cut-off program for
UNION WIRE ROPE cut-off program for 1 in. rotary drilling line
1 3/8 in. rotary drilling line
Goal is 19.0 ton-miles per foot cut Goal is 6.0 ton-miles per foot cut
Length to cut = ton-miles since last cut ÷ 19.0 Length to cut = ton-miles since last cut ÷ 6.0
T-M Since Length T-M Since Length T-M Since Length T-M Since Length
Last Cut To Cut Last Cut To Cut Last Cut To Cut Last Cut To Cut
1150 61 1950 103 25 4 425 71
1200 63 2000 105 50 8 450 75
1250 66 2050 108 75 13 475 79
1300 68 2100 111 100 17 500 83
1350 71 2150 113
1400 74 2200 116 125 21 525 88
1450 76 2250 118 150 25 550 92
1500 79 2300 121 175 29 575 96
1550 82 200 33 600 100
1600 84
1650 87 225 38 625 104
1700 89 250 42 650 108
1750 92 275 46 675 113
1800 95 300 50 700 117
1850 97
1900 100 325 54 725 121
350 58
375 63
400 67
the ton-mile accumulation at that time. This procedure

will shift the critical wear points on the rope following
heavy operations such as setting casing. 1. Do not accumulate more than 725 ton-miles between
Cuts—even on the first cut of a new line.
Keep your wire rope History Sheets current, accurate
and complete. 2. So long as less than 725 ton-miles have been accumu-
lated, a cut may be made anytime it is convenient. To
Calculate ton-miles for drilling after each round trip.
determine the length to cut, refer to the above table or
Failure to record drilling ton-miles is probably the most
calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot cut” is con-
common mistake made in cut-off practice.
stant (length to cut = T-M since last cut ÷ 6.0).
The best cut-off program is the one with the most con-
3. This program is based upon a goal of 6.0. Any attempt to
sistent ton-mile per foot cut values. By staying as close
improve rope service by increasing the ton-mile goal should
as possible to the ton-mile goal you will avoid long cuts
not be made until one entire drilling line (requiring no long
and maintain the safest most economical use of your ro-
cuts) has been used following this particular program.
tary drilling line.
Daily visual inspection of the drilling line should be made

for broken wires and any other rope damage. It must be
remembered that in all cases visual inspection of the
wire rope by the drilling contractor must take prece-
dence over any predetermined calculations.

WR–32 WIRE ROPE
UNION WIRE ROPE cut-off program for UNION WIRE ROPE cut-off program for
1 in. rotary drilling line 1 in. rotary drilling line
225 32 625 89 325 41 725 91
250 36 650 93 350 44 750 94
275 39 675 96 375 47 775 97
300 43 700 100 400 50 800 100
325 46 725 104 425 53 825 103

350 50 750 107 450 56 850 106
375 54 775 111 475 59 875 109
400 57 800 114 500 63 900 113
425 61 825 118 525 66 925 116

450 64 850 121 550 69 950 119
475 68 575 72
500 71 600 75
525 75 625 78
550 79 650 81
575 82 675 84
600 86 700 88
1. Do not accumulate more than 850 ton-miles between 1. Do not accumulate more than 950 ton-miles between
Cuts—even on the first cut of a new line. Cuts—even on the first cut of a new line.
2. So long as less than 850 ton-miles have been accumu- 2. So long as less than 950 ton-miles have been accumu-
lated, a cut may be made anytime it is convenient. To lated, a cut may be made anytime it is convenient. To
determine the length to cut, refer to the above table or determine the length to cut, refer to the above table or
calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot” is constant calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot cut” is con-
(length to cut = T-M since last cut ÷ 7.0). stant (length to cut = T-M since last cut ÷ 8.0).
3. This program is based upon a goal of 7.0. Any attempt to 3. This program is based upon a goal of 8.0. Any attempt to
improve rope service by increasing the ton-mile goal should improve rope service by increasing the ton-mile goal should
not be made until one entire drilling line (requiring no long not be made until one entire drilling line (requiring no long
cuts) has been used following this particular program. cuts) has been used following this particular program.

WIRE ROPE WR–33
1 in. rotary drilling line 1 1/8 in. rotary drilling line
425 47 825 92 525 58 925 103
450 50 850 94 550 61 950 106
475 53 875 97 575 65 975 108
500 56 900 100 600 67 1000 111
525 58 925 103 625 69 1025 114

550 61 950 106 650 72 1050 117
575 64 975 108 675 75 1075 119
600 67 1000 111 700 78 1100 122
625 69 1025 114 725 81

650 72 1050 117 750 83
675 75 1075 119 775 86
700 78 1100 122 800 89
725 81 825 92
750 83 850 94
775 86 875 97
800 89 900 100
cuts—even on the first cut of a new line. cuts—even on the first cut of a new line.
calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot cut” is con- calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot cut” is con-
stant (length to cut = T-M since last cut ÷ 9.0). stant (length to cut = T-M since last cut ÷ 9.0).

WR–34 WIRE ROPE
1 1/8 in. rotary drilling line 1 1/8 in. rotary drilling line
Length to cut = ton-miles since last cut ÷10.0 Length to cut = ton-miles since last cut ÷ 11.0
625 63 1025 103 50 5 850 77
650 65 1050 105 100 9 900 82
675 68 1075 108 150 14 950 86
700 70 1100 110 200 18 1000 91
725 73 1125 113 250 23 1050 95

750 75 1150 115 300 27 1100 100
775 78 1175 118 350 32 1150 105
800 80 1200 120 400 36 1200 109
825 83 450 41 1250 114

850 85 500 45 1300 118
875 88 550 50
900 90 600 55
925 93 650 59
950 95 700 64
975 98 750 68
1000 100 800 73

WIRE ROPE WR–35
100 8 900 75 200 15 1000 77
150 13 950 79 250 19 1050 81
200 17 1000 83 300 23 1100 85
250 21 1050 88 350 27 1150 88
300 25 1100 92 400 31 1200 92

350 29 1150 96 450 35 1250 96
400 33 1200 100 500 38 1300 100
450 38 1250 104 550 42 1350 104
500 42 1300 108 600 46 1400 108

550 46 1350 113 650 50 1450 112
600 50 1400 117 700 54 1500 115
650 54 1450 121 750 58 1550 119
700 58 800 62
750 63 850 65
800 67 900 69
850 71 950 73

WR–36 WIRE ROPE
250 21 1050 88 350 27 1150 88
300 25 1100 92 400 31 1200 92
350 29 1150 96 450 35 1250 96
400 33 1200 100 500 38 1300 100
450 38 1250 104 550 42 1350 104

500 42 1300 108 600 46 1400 108
550 46 1350 113 650 50 1450 112
600 50 1400 117 700 54 1500 115
650 54 1450 121 750 58 1550 119

700 58 800 62
750 63 850 65
800 67 900 69
850 71 950 73
900 75 1000 77
950 79 1050 81
1000 83 1100 85

WIRE ROPE WR–37
450 32 1250 89 550 37 1350 90
500 36 1300 93 600 40 1400 93
550 39 1350 96 650 43 1450 97
600 43 1400 100 700 47 1500 100
650 46 1450 104 750 50 1550 103

700 50 1500 107 800 53 1600 107
750 54 1550 111 850 57 1650 110
800 57 1600 114 900 60 1700 113
850 61 1650 118 950 63 1750 117

900 64 1700 121 1000 67 1800 120
950 68 1050 70
1000 71 1100 73
1050 75 1150 77
1100 79 1200 80
1150 82 1250 83
1200 86 1300 87

WR–38 WIRE ROPE
650 41 1450 91 750 44 1550 91
700 44 1500 94 800 47 1600 94
750 47 1550 97 850 50 1650 97
800 50 1600 100 900 53 1700 100
850 53 1650 103 950 56 1750 103

900 56 1700 106 1000 59 1800 106
950 59 1750 109 1050 62 1850 109
1000 63 1800 113 1100 65 1900 112
1050 66 1850 116 1150 68 1950 115

1100 69 1900 119 1200 71 2000 118
1150 72 1250 74 2050 121
1200 75 1300 76
1250 78 1350 79
1300 81 1400 82
1350 84 1450 85
1400 88 1500 88

WIRE ROPE WR–39
850 47 1650 92 850 50 1650 97
900 50 1700 94 900 53 1700 100
950 53 1750 97 950 56 1750 103
1000 56 1800 100 1000 59 1800 106
1050 58 1850 103 1050 62 1850 109

1100 61 1900 106 1100 65 1900 112
1150 64 1950 108 1150 68 1950 115
1200 67 2000 111 1200 71 2000 118
1250 69 2050 114 1250 74 2050 121

1300 72 2100 117 1300 76
1350 75 2150 119 1350 79
1400 78 1400 82
1450 81 1450 85
1500 83 1500 88
1550 86 1550 91
1600 89 1600 94
calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot cut” is const calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot cut” is con-
stant (length to cut = T-M since last cut ÷ 17.0).
3. This program is based upon a goal of 18.0. Any attempt to
improve rope service by increasing the ton-mile goal should 3. This program is based upon a goal of 17.0. Any attempt to
not be made until one entire drilling line (requiring no long improve rope service by increasing the ton-mile goal should
cuts) has been used following this particular program not be made until one entire drilling line (requiring no long
cuts) has been used following this particular program.

WR–40 WIRE ROPE
1050 58 1850 103 1150 61 1950 103
1100 61 1900 106 1200 63 2000 105
1150 64 1950 108 1250 66 2050 108
1200 67 2000 111 1300 68 2100 111
1250 69 2050 114 1350 71 2150 113

1300 72 2100 117 1400 74 2200 116
1350 75 2150 119 1450 76 2250 118
1400 78 1500 79 2300 121
1450 81 1550 82
1500 83 1600 84
1550 86 1650 87
1600 89 1700 89
1650 92 1750 92
1700 94 1800 95
1750 97 1850 97
1800 100 1900 100

WIRE ROPE WR–41
1250 63 2050 103 1350 64 2150 102
1300 65 2100 105 1400 67 2200 105
1350 68 2150 108 1450 69 2250 107
1400 70 2200 110 1500 71 2300 110
1450 73 2250 113 1550 74 2350 112

1500 75 2300 115 1600 76 2400 114
1550 78 2350 118 1650 79 2450 117
1600 80 2400 120 1700 81 2500 119
1650 83 1750 83 2550 121

1700 85 1800 86
1750 88 1850 88
1800 90 1900 90
1850 93 1950 93
1900 95 2000 95
1950 98 2050 98
2000 100 2100 100
2. So long as less than 2400 ton-miles have been accu- 2. So long as less than 2550 ton-miles have been accumu-
mulated, a cut may be made anytime it is convenient. lated, a cut may be made anytime it is convenient. To
To determine the length to cut, refer to the above table determine the length to cut, refer to the above table or
or calculate so that your “ton-miles per foot cut” is con-

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IADC DRILLING MANUAL DM–3

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015

Copyright © 2015 International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Houston, Texas.

International Association of Drilling Contractors

Printed in the United States of America. 1st printing. March 2015.

ABOUT THE IADC DRILLING MANUAL, 12TH EDITION

IADC Drilling Manual Copyright © 2015