ABYDOS
tion that in many respects resembled that of Sahure; but
the normal, rectangular temple plan had to be abandoned
in favor of an L-shaped outline, for lack of space.
Newoserre Any's wife, Reputnub, does not appear to be
buried in the vicinity of her husbandt tomb. Her tomb
may be one of the pyramid complexes (marked ,,no.
XXry" and "no. XXV" on the Lepsius archaeological map)
that were demonstrably constructed in that time. Excava_
tions in pyramid 24 ("no. XXfV") have provided valuable
information about its mode of construction, but the name
of its owner remains unknown. Newoserre Any,s succes_
so4 Mekauho4 abandoned the Abusir necropolis.
Other members of the royal family and courtiers and
officials of that time were also buried in the vicinity of
the p1'ramids. The largest of their tombs belonged to the vi_
zier Ptahshepses, Newoserre Any,s son-in_law; that twice_
extended mastaba almost rivaled the royal complexes in
size, architectural plan, and quality of decorative relief.
Its eight-stemmed lotus-form columns of fine limestone
are unique. Not far from this is the mastaba of the pin_
cesses Khamerernebty and Meretites, two daughters of
Newoserre Any. Nearby are the mastabasof the princesses
Khekeretnebty and Hetjetnub, daughters of Isesi.
A large cemetery with tombs of dignitaries from the
third dynasty to the sixth was discovered on the southern
edge of Abusir; these include the partially intact tomb of
the vizier Kar and his family, from the time of pepy I. Also
situated in this part of Abusir is the tomb of Fetekti, built
at the end of the fifth dynasty. At the northern edge, there
is a fifth dynasty burial ground with tombs of those from
lower social ranks.
During the First Intermediate period, there were no
royal mortuary cults at Abusir. Although briefly revived at
the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, from this period to
the Late period, Abusir became increasingly a cemetery
for the common people. A cemetery in southwestern Abu_
sir was built to contain huge shaft tombs that were dated
to the end of the twenty-sixth dynasty and the beginning
of the twenty-seventh. Among them was the tomb of Udja_
horresnet, chancellor of Egypt's persian kings, Cambyses
and Darius I (of the First persian Occupation). His tomb
was constructed with a cunning system of linked shafts,
filled with sand; this was supposed to prevent access to
the burial chamber. The southwestern excavation also un_
covered the intact tomb of Iufaa, director of the palace.
The history of archaeological research in Abusiq in
which Germans, French, Swiss, Eglptians, and Czechs
have participated, began in the 1830s. yet only two expe_
ditions have carried out long-term and exlensive excava-
tions there-that of the German Oriental Society, headed
by Ludwig Borchardt, from the beginning of the twentieth
century and the ongoing expedition of the Czech Institute
of Eg54ptology, which began in the 1960s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Borchardt, Ludwig. Das Grabdenkmal des Konigs Ne_user-re,.2
vols.
Leipzig,1907 and 1908.
Borchardt, Ludvrtg. Das Grabdenlcmal des Kijnigs Sa3hu_re,
, vol. 7: Der
Bau.Leipzig, l9l0; vol. 2: DieWondbitder.Leipzig, 1913.
Verne4 Miroslav. Forgotten pharaohs, Lost pyramids: Abusir prague,
1994. A comprehensive, richly illustrated account of the
histor! of
Abusi4 its main features and artifacts, and the history of their
exca_
vation.
Verne! Miroslav. Abusir III: The pyramid Complex of K.tentkaus.
Prague, 1995.
MIROSLAV VERNER
ABYDOS, a site, ancient Sbdw, situated in the ancient
Thinite nome (eighth Upper Eglptian nome) in southern
Egypt (26'11'N 31o55,E). On the western side of the Nile,
the site is on the edge of the low desert, 15 kilometers
(9.5 miles) from the river. Greater Abydos spreads over
8 square kilometers (5 square miles) and is composed of
archaeological remains from all phases of ancient Egyp_
tian civilization. Abydos was significant in historical times
as the main cult center of Osiris, ancient Egypt,s primary
funerary god. Many cult structures were dedicated to
Osiris, and vast cemetery fields were developed, incorpo_
rating not only the regional population but also nonlocal
people who chose to build tombs and commemorative
monuments at Abydos. In the predynastic and Early Dy_
nastic periods, Abydos may have functioned primarily as
a satellite funerary center for the nome capital of Thinis,
which is perhaps to be located in the vicinity of the mod_
ern town of Girga or Balliana at the edge of the Nile. The
significance of Abydos, howeve4, exceeded that of a pro_
vincial burial center. It was the burial place of the first
kings of Early Dlmastic times (first and second dlmasties),
and during the subsequent Old and Middle Kingdoms Ab_
ydos evolved into a religious center of great importance.
The most striking buildings standing at Abydos are
the well-preserved New Kingdom temples of Sety I and
Ramesses II (nineteenth dynasty); the Early Dynastic fu_
nerary enclosure of King Khasekhemwy (second dynasty);
and the walled enclosure called the Kom es-Sultan, which
was the location of the early town and the main temple
dedicated to Osiris. The greater part of the site, howeve4
remains concealed beneath the sand, a fact recognized
in the Arabic name of the modern town: Arabah el_
Madfunah ("the buried Arabah"). Abydos can be dis_
cussed in terms of its major areas.
North Abydos. The area includes the Kom es_Sultan,
the temple precinct, Umm el-Gaab, funerary enclosures,
and cemeteries.
Kom es-Sultan and the templc precinct of Osiris_
Khentyamenfda. North Abydos was the major focal point
of early activity, and it was here that an early town and
 ABYDOS
ABYDoS. PlanofAbydos.
temple site developed in the predynastic period on the
desert fringe at the locale now called the Kom es-Sultan
("Mound of the Ruler" in Arabic). Meager remnants of the
Predlmastic and Early Dynastic settlement were exposed
in 1902-1903 byW. M. Flinders petrie, who conducted the
first extensive recorded excavation in the Kom es-Sultan.
Howeve4, most of the early town lies covered by remains
of later periods and beneath the level of modern ground-
water.
Petrie's work produced evidence for the existence of a
cult structure dedicated to the canid deity Khentyamentiu
("Foremost of the Westerners") during the Early Dynastic
period. A temple dedicated to that god is likely to have
formed the primary ritual center of Abydos in the pre_
dynastic and Early Dynastic periods. During the Old
Kingdom, Khentyamentiu was symcretized with the newly
important funerary deity, Osiris. A temple dedicated to
Osiris-Khentyamentiu existed from the time of the late
Old Kingdom and is referred to on many stelae and pri_
vate votive objects from the Old Kingdom and later peri_
ods. Petrie's work also exposed a series of royal cult build-
ings erected bykings from the Old Kingdom through New
Kingdom. These structures are probably royal cult build_
ings (ka-chapels) built in proximity to the main temple of
Osiris-Khentyamentiu, the remains of which are yet to be
exposed. Beginning in the Old Kingdom, the temple pre_
cinct and core town area was provided with a town wall,
which was modified and extended into the Late period,
creating the large walled temenos visible there today. Re-
search on the Kom es-Sultan has resumed under the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania-Yale-New york University Expe_
dition to Abydos. Work in 1979 and 1991 by D. O,Connor
and M. Adams examined parts of the late Old Kingdom
and First Intermediate Period town.
Umm el-Ganb. Atthe locale now called Umm el_Gaab
("Mother of Pots" in Arabic) excavation undertaken first
by E. Am6lineau (1895-1898) and then by petrie (1899_
1900) exposed an extensive royal cemetery dating to the
Predy'nastic and Early Dynastic periods. plundered in an_
tiquity but still preserving a significant sample of their
:,'E:

original contents, several large Early Dynastic tombs were
identified as the burial places of the earliest kings of the
historic period. Subsequent to Petrie's work at Abydos, ex-
cavations at North Saqqara by W. Emery exposed a ceme-
tery consisting of large mastabas of the first and second
d5masties. This led many scholars to interpret the Abydos
royal tombs as "cenotaphs," or s5rmbolic tombs built by
the early kings in an ancestral burial ground for religious
reasons. More recently, scholars have accepted Abydos as
the burial place of the earliest kings of dynastic times,
whose roots were in the Thinite nome.
Renewed archaeological work since 1973 by the Ger-
man Archaeological Institute, directed by G. Dreyeq, has
recorded in detail the development of a royal cemetery
beginning in the Naqada I period. The history of this cem-
etery at Umm el-Gaab (covering much of the fourth mil-
lennium ncr), provides evidence for the increasing wealth
and complexity of society in the late Predynastic period.
Umm el-Gaab is especially important because of the evi-
dence it provides for the emergence of political power
culminating in pharaonic kingship and the associated
centralized state around the beginning of dynastic times
(c.3100 nce). In a locality designated Cemetery U, royal
tombs of late Naqada II and Naqada III display the differ-
entiation associated with a stratified society and the exis-
tence of powerful kings who controlled considerable re-
sources. Inscribed labels from the largest Predlmastic
tomb (tomb U-J, dating to the Naqada IIIa period) pro-
vide the earliest evidence for use of the hieroglyphic writ-
ing system in Egypt.
In the Early Dynastic period, Umm el-Gaab was the
burial place of the first pharaohs of the historic dynasties
(as well as their immediate Dynasty "0" predecessors). All
the rulers of the first dlmasty, as well as two kings of the
second dynasty (Peribsen and Khasekhemwy), were bur-
ied at Abydos, a phenomenon which expresses the contin-
ued importance of dynastic associations between the first
kings of the historic period and their Predynastic fore-
bears. Tombs at Umm el-Gaab of the first and second dy-
nasties are much larger than those of the Predynastic
period and typically consist of a central burial chamber
surrounded by storerooms and subsidiary burials. The
tombs flom the Predynastic were subterranean, with little
more than a mound and upright stelae marking locations.
Early Dynastic funeraty enclosures. The primary
aboveground structures associated with the Early Dynas-
tic royal tombs were the funerary enclosures, which were
built not at Umm el-Gaab but rather adjacent to the Kom
es-Sultan. From the time of the early first dSmasty, these
structures consisted of large, rectangular mud-brick en-
closures employing the "palace-fagade" style of architec-
ture. Tr,vo still stand today: the enclosure of Khasekhemwy
and that of Qaa (now occupied by the Coptic village of
ABYDOS
Deir Sitt Damiana). After initial excavation by Petrie,
work in 1986-1991 by D. O'Connor reexamined parts of
the interiors of these structures and exposed twelve bur-
ied boats on the east side of the Khasekhemwy enclosure.
The specific functions of these funerary enclosures re-
main an issue of debate, but they probably played a role
in both the funerary ceremony itself and the long-term
maintenance of a royal cult. Architectural elements artic-
ulated in the funerary enclosure of Khasekhemwy suggest
continuity of form and religious function with the Step
Pyramid complex of Djoser (third dynasty) at Saqqara.
Developmcnt of the cult of Osiris. The burial place of
the first kings at Umm el-Gaab was of supreme impor-
tance in the later development of Abydos. By the time of
the Old Kingdom, Abydos was already understood as the
burial place of Osiris, ruler of the netherworld and per-
sonification of the deceased pharaoh reborn into ruler-
ship in the afterlife. During the Old Kingdom, Osiris
merged with Khentyamentiu. By the time of the early
Middle Kingdom, there is evidence that Umm el-Gaab
was understood as the burial place of Osiris himself; one
tomb in particula4, that of King Dje6 appears to have been
thought to be the deity's tomb. A yearly procession from
the temple of Osiris-Khentyamentiu in the Kom es-Sultan
reenacted the myth of the god's murder by Seth and his
burial and rebirth as ruler of the netherworld. This pro-
cession, in which the god's image was carried aboard the
sacred neshmet bark, progressed from the Kom es-Sultan
through a low desert wadi leading up to Umm el-Gaab.
The offerings presented to Osiris by pilgrims, especially
in the New Kingdom and later periods, created the vast
pottery-covered mounds that gave Umm el-Gaab its Ara-
bic name.
North and Midille cemeteries. From the time of
the late Old Kingdom, the temple and cult of Osiris-
Khentyamentiu created the impetus for the development
of large cemeteries immediately west of the Kom es-
Sultan and flanking the route of the Osiris procession to
Umm el-Gaab. Excavation of the Northern and Middle
cemeteries by a series of archaeologists-Mariette (1858),
Peet (1909-1913), Garstang (1898-1899), Petrie (early
1900s), and Frankforr (1925-1926), among others-pro-
duced a large volume of objects; material from the North
and Middle cemeteries constitutes an important body of
funerary material in collections throughout the world.
The North Cemetery developed on the northern side
of the wadi around the area of the Early Dynastic royal
funerary enclosures and extends westward for one-half
kilometer in the direction of Umm el-Gaab. Its develop-
ment is associated primarily with the Middle Kingdom
and later periods. An important area associated with the
cult of Osiris lies adjacent to the west side of the Kom es-
Sultan; there, large clusters of tombs as well as private
 10 ABYDOS
ABYD o s. central Hall of the osireion, viewed from
offering chapels (cenotaphs) were erected beginning in
the Middle Kingdom. These chapels were intended to pro_
vide an eternal association between the deceased and the
god Osiris, and the area of the North Cemetery closest to
the Kom es-Sultan was called rwd n ntr ] (.,Terrace of
the Great God"). This area has produced an immense num-
ber of inscribed stelae and statues, especially in the sec-
ond half of the nineteenth century through the work of
G. Maspero, A. Mariette, and antiquities dealers such as
Anastasi. More recent archaeological work was under_
taken by the Pennsylvania-yale Expedition codirected by
D. O'Connor and W. K. Simpson. The Middle Cemetery
extends along the southern side of the wadi, also running
nearly a kilometer toward Umm el-Gaab; it was developed
from the Old Kingdom onward.
Flanked on north and south by the extensive nonroyal
burial grounds of the North and Middle cemeteries, the
sacred processional route to Umm el-Gaab was protected
by royal decree from burials and other development. A
series of royal stelae set up at the terminal ends of the
processional route by the time of the Middle Kingdom de_
marcated this sacred area. Recent work in 1996 by M. A.
Pouls has discovered a limestone chapel of Thutmose III,
which may be part of the formalized layout of the proces_
sional route during the New Kingdom.
the west. (courtesy Dieter Arnold)
Middle Abydos. The area includes the Sety I temple
and the Osireion.
Temple of Sety I. Standing one kilometer to the south
of the Kom es-Sultan and at the northern edge of the area
often called "Middle Abydos," the temple of Sety I is the
largest well-preserved building of the New Kingdom at
Abydos. The L-shaped limestone temple was named ,,The
Mansion of Millions of years of King Menmaatre Who Is
Contented in Abydos." The building consists of the two
hypostyle halls that front seven sanctuaries, in sequence
from south to north dedicated to Sety, ptah, Re_Horakhty,
Amun-Re, Osiris, Isis, and Horus. The southern sanctuary,
dedicated to Sety himself, celebrates his deification as a
deceased king. To the south of the Sety sanctuary the
King's Gallery contains a list of Sety's predecessors on the
throne of Egypt. While including veneration of Egypt,s
principal deities, the Sety temple is most explicitly fo_
cused on the king's associations with Osiris and his deified
predecessors, fully within the tradition of New Kingdom
royal mortuary temples. The temple proper is set within
a large brick enclosure (220 X 350 meters 1700 x 102 feet)
containing two open forecourts, as well as rows of mud_
brick storage magazines on the south. A rear gateway set
within a brick pylon is oriented to the site of the archaic
royal cemetery at Umm el-Gaab; like the temple complex

in the Kom es-Sultan, the Sety temple was linked both
conceptually and through actual ritual processions with
the putative burial place of Osiris.
Osireion. In addition to the Sety temple's orientation
to Umm el-Gaab, behind the temple stands a subterra-
nean structure, the Osireion, which functioned as a sjryn-
bolic tomb or cenotaph of Osiris. The structure was exca-
vated primarily in 1902-1903 by M. Murray, working with
Petrie. The main central chamber contains a central plat-
form and ten monolithic red granite piers. The architec-
ture is intentionally archaizing in style (mimicking the
monolithic architecture of the fourth dynasty) and was
perhaps intended to provide a suitable burial structure for
Osiris. The central platform is surrounded by water chan-
nels meant to represent the primeval mound of creation
surrounded by the waters of Nun. Attached to the main
chamber are other chambers and passages containing
scenes and texts from the Book of Gates and Book of Going
Forth by Day (Book of the Dead), standard elements of
Ramessid royal tombs. Adjacent to the Sety temple was a
smaller one-room chapel dedicated to Sety's father Ram-
esses I, now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. Far-
ther north stand the well-preserved remains of a temple
built by Ramesses II. Remains of other Ramessid royal
buildings lie along the desert edge between the Sety temple
and the Kom es-Sultan.
The area of Middle Abydos south of the Sety temple is
the least-known area of the site because the modern town
of Arabah el-Madfunah covers most of the surface of
this part of Abydos. In all likelihood, this was the location
of the major concentration of settlement from the New
Kingdom onward. Remnants of architectural elements
and inscribed temple blocks from a number of periods
suggest that remnants of more cult buildings are yet to be
exposed south of the Sety temple.
South Abydos. South Abydos covers about 2 square
kilometers (1.25 square miles) of low desert in a strip ap-
proximately I kilometer (a half mile) wide between the
cultivation and high desert cliffs. In early times, the area
was used for Predynastic habitation and cemeteries; how-
eve4 the major development of this area of Abydos oc-
curred in the Middle Kingdom, when the first of a series
of royal cult complexes was established by Senwosret III.
Complex of Sertwosret III. Exlending between the
cliffs and cultivation, the Senwosret III mortuary complex
consists of a massive subterranean tomb with a royal
mortuary temple. It was initially examined by D. Randall-
Maclver and A. Weigall of the Egypt Exploration Fund be-
tween 1 899 and 1902, and renewed work during the I 990s
by the University of Pennsylvania, directed by J. Wegne4
has excavated the mortuary temple, which is dedicated to
the deceased Senwosret III and celebrates his unification
with Osiris. A large planned settlement just south of the
ABYDOS II
mortuary complex is similar in scale and organization to
the town at Illahun that is attached to the pyramid com-
plex of Senwosret II. Work in 1997 identified the name of
this temple-town foundation as "Enduring are the Places
of Khakaure Justified in Abydos."
Compl.ex of Ahmose. One-half kilometer south of the
Senwosret III complex stand the remains of a series of
monuments erected by the eighteenth dlmasty king Ah-
mose, which were initially examined by A. Mace and C. T.
Currelly for the Egypt Exploration Fund. A pyramid and
temple situated at the edge of cultivation are associated
with a subterranean tomb near the base of the desert
cliffs. This was the last royal pyramid to be erected in
Egypt. In 1993, S. Harvey reexamined the pyramid temple
and exposed remains of a small temple stamped with the
titulary of Queen Ahmose-Nefertari and possibly dedi-
cated to her cult. Between the Ahmose pyramid and un-
derground tomb is a small chapel dedicated to Ahmose's
grandmothe4 Queen Tetisheri. A well-preserved stela, now
in the Cairo Museum, was discovered in the Tetisheri
chapel. A final monument belonging to the Ahmose com-
plex is the terrace temple, on the lower part of the hill; it
appears to be incomplete, and its function remains un-
clear.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Calverley, A. M., and M. F. Broome. The Temple of King Sethos I at
Abydos.4 vols. London, 1933-1958.
David, Rosalie. A Guide to Religious Ritual at Abydos. Warminste6,
1981.
Dreyeg Grinte4 et al. Preliminary Reports on Work at Umm el-Gaab.
Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archtiologische Instituts Kairo (1986,
1990, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1998).
Dreyeq, Gtinter. Umm el-Qaab I. Main4 1998.
Griffiths, J. Gwyn. The Origins of Osiris. Leiden, 1980.
Harvey, Stephen. "The Monuments of Ahmose at Abydos." Egyptian
Archaeologt 4 (1995), 3-5.
Kemp, Barry. '?bydos and the Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty."
Joumal of Egyptinn Archaeology 52 (1966), 13-22.
Kemp, Barry. "The Egyptian First Dynasty Royal Cemetery." Antiquity
4t (1967),22-32.
Kemp, Barry. "The Osiris Temple at Abydos." Mitteilungen des
Deutsches Archaeologisches Institute Kairo 23 ( I 968), 1 38-1 55.
Murray, Margaret. Ihe Osireion. London, 1904.
O'Conno4 David. "The 'Cenotaphs' of the Middle Kingdom at Ab-
ydos." MAlnnges Gamal Eddin Mokhtar (1985), 161-178.
O'Conno!, David. "Boat Graves and Pyramid Origins." Expedition 33
(teer), 5-t7 .
Otto, Eberhard. Egtptian Art and the Cults of Osiris and Amun. Lon-
don,1968.
Petrie, W. M. F. The Royal Tombs of the First Dynasty. 2 vols. London,
1900-1901.
Petrie, W. M.F. Abydos.2 vols. London, 1902.
Simpson, WilliarnK. The Terace of the Great God at Abydos: The ffier-
ing Chapek of Dynasties 12 and 13. New Haven and Philadelphia,
1974.
Spiegel, Joachim. Die Gotter von Abydos: Studien 7um rigltptischen
Synkretismus, Gottinger Orientforschungen, 4. Wiesbaden, 197 3.
12 ABYDOS LIST
Wegne4 Josef. "Old and New Excavations at the Abydene Complex
of Senwosret lll." KM.T.: A Modem Journal of Ancient Egtpt 6.2
(1996), s9-71.
Wegner, Josef. "Excavations at the Town of Enduring-are-the-Plnces-
of-Khakaure-Maa-Kheru-in-Abydos." loumal of the American Re-
search Center in Egypt 35 (1998), 144.
JOSEF W. WEGNER
ABYDOS LIST. See King Lists.
ACACIA. See Flora.
ACHAEMENIDS. The last pharaoh of the twenty-sixth
dlmasty, Psamtik III (526-525 BcE), was conquered and
captured by the Persian king Cambyses, son of Cyrrs II,
after the Battle of Pelusium in 525 BcE. Egypt, together
with Cyprus and Phoenicia, then formed the sixth satrapy
of the Persian Empire. The satrap (Pers., "protector of
the reign"), who represented the king of Persia, resided
at Memphis with his chancellery. The garrison posts re-
mained at Mareotis, Daphnis, and Elephantine (where a
Jewish colony with a temple to Yahweh had existed on
the island since the time of Apries; it was destroyed in
410 ace).
Besides Cambyses, the First Persian domination
(Manetho's Dynasty 27) includes the rulers Darius I (521-
486 ece), Xerxes (486466 BcE), Artaxerxes I (465-424
ecn), Darius II (423405 nce), and Artaxerxes II (405-359
ncn). This regime was recognized in Egypt at least until
402 nce. According to an inscription on a stela from the
Serapeum, (from the sepulchre for the Apis bulls) dated
to the sixth year of Cambyses'reign, the king had assumed
the Egyptian royal epithet mswty R', as we know from the
autobiography of Wedjahorresene, court doctor during
the reigns of Cambyses and Darius I. Incised on Wedja-
horresene's naophorus (block) statue, now in the Vatican
Museum, is a depiction of him in Persian dress with
Persian-made bracelets; there is a depiction in the same
manner of another official, the treasurer Ptahhotep on
another Serapeum stela, now in the Brooklyn Museum
of Art. Eg5ptian hatred of Cambyses, referred to by the
Greeks (Herodotus 3.27-38; Diodorus Siculus 1.46; Strabo
107.27; Plutarch On Isis and Osiris 44), derived not only
from the impact of the military conquests but also from
the resentment of the Egyptian clergy to Cambyses' de-
cree limiting the royal concessions to the temples (De-
motic Pap5rn-rs 215, verso, Bibliothbque Nationale, Paris).
The three military expeditions on which he embarked
(against Carthage, the oasis of the Libyan desert, and
Nubia) were serious failures. Cambyses died in 522r,ce in
Syria on his way home. His successo(, Darius I, abrogated
Cambyses'unpopular decree. He constructed an immense
temple to Amun Re in the Kharga Oasis, and he suc-
ceeded in dredging the navigable route from the Nile to
the Red Sea (from Bubastis across the Wadi Tummilat to
Lake Timsah at the Bitter Lakes), which he marked with
large stelae bearing commemorative inscriptions in hiero-
glfphs and cuneiform. Diodorus lists Darius I as the sixth
and last legislator; he is better called a codifiec since (De-
motic Pap1.m s, 21 5, verso, Bibliothdque Nationale, Paris)
he had the laws that were in force transcribed on papyrus
in both Egyptian (Demotic) and Aramaic (the offrcial lan-
guage of the empire) until Amasis' final year.
Aryandes, the first satrap of Egypt, was executed for
being a rebel. He was followed by Pherendates and then
by Achemenes (one of Xerxes' brothers), who died in the
Battle of Papremis in the Nile Delta during the rebellion
of 460 scE, which was led by Inaros, son of Psamtik (Thu-
cydides 1.104). Arsames held the offrce of satrap during
the reign of Darius II.
Three indigenous dy.nasties (the twenty-eighth, twenty-
ninth, and thirtieth) existed in Egypt from 402 ece until
Artaxerxes conquered Nektanebo II. Egypt then endured
the Second Persian Occupation, from 343 to 332 ecp. The
ephemeral Pharaoh Khababash (known from the "stela of
the satrap Ptolomey'') was probably removed in 3441343
BcE. The satrap Sabace (Arrian Anabasis 2.11) died in the
Battle of Issus, where Sematauwrytefnakhte, an Eg5ptian
doctor from the court of Darius III, was also present; the
latter also survived the "battle of the Greeks" (as known
from his autobiography, inscribed in hieroglyphs on a
stela now in the Naples Museum). The last satrap, Ma-
zakes (Arrian Anabasis 3.102), handed Eg;4rt over to Alex-
ander the Great in 322 r,cg.
lSee also Late Period; ovewiew article and article on the
Thirry-first Dynasty; and Persia.f
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bresciani, E. "Persian Occupation of Eg1pt." In Cambridge History of
Iran," vol.2. Cambridge, 1985.
Briant, P. "Etnoclasse dominante et populations soumises: le cas de
l'Egypte." lnAchaemenidHistory vol.3, pp. 137-173. Leiden, 1988.
Dandamaev, M. A Political Hktory of the Achaemenid Empire.
Leiden,1989.
Lloyd, A. H. "Herodotus on Cambyses; Some Thoughts on Recent
Work." Achaemenid History, vol 3, pp. 55-66. Leiden, 1988.
Posener G. La premidre domination perse en Egypte. Cairo, 1936.
EDDA BRESCIANI
Translated from Italian by Jennifer Worth
ADMINISTRATION. This b a three-part article cov-
ering State Administration, Provincial Administration,
and T emple Administration.