Chapter-I

INTRODUCTION

The thesis entitled “Buddhism and its influence on Early Andhra Society and

Economy” aims at comprehensive study of the social, economic and political scenario

that dawned in Andhra Desa from early times to the B.C. to 3rd century A.D. which is an

important epoch in the history of Andhra Pradesh. Buddhism which entered into

Godavari and Krishna valley in the Deccan made an indelible mark on the social, cultural

and economic life of the people. In turn, it influenced the polity adopted by the ruling

class. The society and the administrative systems which were in fluid state were

crystallised incorporating the ideology of the Buddhist sanghas which established their

monasteries in length and breadth of the Andhra country. It is well known that Buddhism

in the Andhra Desa during the period under consideration saw an explosive growth under

royal, merchant and common people patronage. The evidence for this is seen most

clearly in the monumental remains of buildings that have survived till today. On many of

these buildings, the accompanying splendid sculptural art is available for systematic

study that has enabled us to locate the religion in its manifold social milieu. Most

importantly, during this period the Andhra Desa was ruled by strong royal family i.e.

Satavahanas, that coincided with the period of Buddhist expansion. It would be

appropriate to say that there was not a single Buddhism but several versions of it that

preached and practiced the religion. To some extent, there was co-existence of different

sects of Buddhism in the region as a whole. At the same time that Buddhism began to

flourish with occult tantric forms, yogic practices, magical chants and other iconographic

or ritual aids. All this brought about a changed atmosphere in which both the ideological

1
and social support to Buddhism continued. So far the studies were confined to theology

of Buddhism or its influence on the religions of the region. The influence of Buddhist

philosophy on society, economy and polity of the region is unexplored field which

provides a fertile and virgin ground for a comprehensive study.

The present study makes an attempt to evaluate the role played by the Buddhist

sanghas, monasteries and individual monks to promote the interests of the Buddhist

theology in the region under our consideration in particular and their contribution for the

evolution of a new system in Andhra region in general. However, the Buddhist sanghas

under the leadership of Mahasanghikas made the region pivotal for mass movement right

from the time of their entry.

IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

Regional history (political, social, economic and cultural), as sometimes

mistakenly interpreted, is not in contradiction with national history. It is indeed, a

necessary compliment to country’s history. A comprehensive study of different regions

in their totality social, economic, cultural, ecological and also political aspects including

popular movements would contribute to systematic reconstruction of history at the macro

level. Regional history viewed from this angle could give us a comprehensive

understanding in relation to national history.

It is possible that Buddhism entered Andhra Desa even during the life time of

Lord Buddha. It appears the Buddhist pilgrims travelled from North India to Andhra

along two ancient routes. Basing on our present knowledge of the existing Buddhist sites

in Andhra, we may conjecture that the Buddhists might have passed through the Pauni-

2
Paunar Buddhist sites in Madhya Bharat, then proceed through the jungles along the

Pranahita river which joins Godavari at Sirivancha then cross Godavari by boat or even

by carts during the dry season and reach Kaleshwaram, presently a celebrated Saivite

centre in Karimnagar district of Andhra Pradesh. From Kaleswaram, the pilgrims might

have travelled down the Godavari River to Dharmapuri, Kotilingala, Dhulikatta (all in

Karimnagar district) then to Phanigiri, Gajulabanda, Tirumalagiri, Nelakondapalli,

Jaggayyapet, thence reach the river Krishna probably near Vedadri and take a boat down-

stream to Amaravati or up-stream to Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapuri).

The coastal route might have passed from Dhavali near Bhuvaneswar (in Orissa)

to Kalingapatnam, Salihundam (on the river Vamsadhara) to Totlakonda, Bavikonda near

Visakapatnam, then to Bojjanakonda near Anakapalli, thence to Guntupalli, Gudiwada,

Ghantasala then crossed the river Krishna to reach Bhattiprolu and then proceed to

Amaravati.

Andhra Desa came under the influence of the vedic thought at least by the

beginning of the First Millennium B.C. During this time, a large part of Andhra was

inhabited by those who practiced Megalithism. It may thus be inferred that during the

periods of Rigveda and Atharva Veda, burial and burning of the dead were in practice.

From the time of Yajurveda down to Aranyakas and Srauta Sutras the burning of the

dead became common. During the post-Grihya period burning became the only method.

In Yajurveda, there is a description of a ceremony known as ‘Pitrumedha’ which

consisted of collecting of burnt bones of the dead and depositing them in an urn and

subsequently to be merged in the waters of the holy rivers. This may be explained as a

rite of compromise between the two opposite practices, the practice of burying and that of

3
burning the dead bodies. Keith believes that the idea of burning as a necessity to take the

soul to the heaven is not Vedic. In Rigveda, it is said that a bank or lump of earth was to

be raised between the village and the cemetery as a rampart that is, between the living

inhabitants and the dead. A circle of stones was to be erected around the burial for the

protection of the survivors. The above two injunctions were literally practiced by the

authors of Andhra megaliths.

After the Kalinga war, Andhra Desa in its entirely came under the suzerainty of

Asoka. In the 13th rock-edict of Asoka, it is stated that Andhras were following the

Dharma enunciated by Devanampiya (Asoka). During the post-Mauryan times, the

Satavahanas inspite of their staunch Brahmanical affiliation have liberally, patronized

Buddhism. The Satavahana period paved the way for the heterodox religion to

consolidate its position in the Deccan and emerged into a major force to be reckoned. It

asserted its influence both theologically and socially, roughly for 400 years, which is

enough time to transform the existing social and political structures in the region under

the study. The Satavahana rule was followed by Ikshavaku dynasty which wielded its

hegemony in the Andhra Desa too provided comfortable and congenial atmosphere for

the spread of Buddhist theology in the region. Monasteries and chaityas enjoyed the

same patronage, what was enjoyed during Satavahana period, extended by ruling class

and mercantile communities besides some sections in the society. Hence, the present

study.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Many writings on Buddhism in Andhra Pradesh have largely confined to the

history of its entry into the region, accounts of its influence on local polity and

4
programmes ideology art and architecture. Such writings have examined the Buddhist

philosophy from different academic and non-academic angles.

N. Dutt, in his works on “Early Monastic Buddhism” (1941) and “Mahayana

Buddhism” (1973) has dealt largely on sectarian aspects and life in monasteries. But it

hardly examined the influence on social and economic life in common.1

B.V. Krishna Rao, in his pioneering work on “History of the Early Dynasties of

Andhradesa” (1942) mainly discussed political history of Andhra Desa and early

dynasties of the Andhra Desa .2

D. Barrett’s scholarly work, “Sculptures from Amaravati” in the British Museum

(1954) refers to the question of sculptures and its embellishment and artistic values were

highlighted .3

Eliot, Sir Charles, “Hinduism and Buddhism” (1957) gave a clear picture of

Buddhist philosophy and its movement in to different parts of India and abroad and its

influence on Hinduism vice versa. 4

K.A.N Sastry, in his book “A History of South India” (1958) traced the early

history of all the regions upto the fall of Vijayanagara Empire. Some passages were

found only regarding the influence of Buddhism.5

Rao, G.V. Pre-Satavahana and Satavahana period (1960).6

E. Conze, in his book entitled, “Buddhist Thought in India” (1962) has discussed

the Buddhist theology and its influence on other religions.7

Bhandarkar, R.G.’s “Early History of the Deccan” (1962) is a pioneering work in

which political history and entry of Buddhism into the Deccan was dealt with but its

influence was not discussed.8

5
 Rama Rao, M. Studies in the Early History of Andhradesa (1971).9

Helmutt Hoffman in his work on “Buddha’s preaching of the Kalachakratantra at

the stupa of Dhanyakataka” (1973) discussed the religion of Buddhism and its theology

and the importance of Kalachakratantra around Dhanyakataka i.e., Amaravati of Guntur

district of Andhra Pradesh.10

B.S.L. Hanumantha Rao, in his scholarly works namely “Religion in Andhra”

(1973) and “Buddhist Inscriptions of Andhradesa” (1998) mainly dealt with religions

practiced in Andhra desa from early times and Buddhism and Jainism. However, his

work is a pioneering work as far as Andhra Pradesh is concerned.11

Subrahmanyam, R. has excavated Nagarjunakonda (1975) and brought to light lot

of historical information.12

Ramachndraiah, O., in his book discussed about Satavahanas and their Successors

(1978).13

Amita, Ray, has thrown light on the Society of the Early Andhra (1983).14

Margabhandu, C., Studied the Archaeology of the Satavahana and Kshatrapas

(1985).15

Himanshu P. Ray’s masterly work, “Monastery and Guild, Commerce Under The

Satavahanas”, (1986) elaborately discussed the development of Trade Guilds and their

connection with monasteries.16

Mala, Datta, Studied Satavahana Coinage (1990).17

Sivarama Murthy, C., Studied Amaravathi Sculptures in Chennai Museum

(1998).18

6
 Soma Sundararao, has given their details of Political History and Cultural History

of the Satavahanas, the Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri (2008).19

Parabrahma Sastry, P.V., has analysed the Society and Economy of the

Satavahana Age (2008).20

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The review of literature proved that their scholarly works were confined to certain

angles only. The present study makes an attempt to evaluate the role played by the

Buddhist sanghas, monasteries and individual monks to promote the interests of the

Buddhist theology in the region under our consideration in particular and their

contribution for the evolution of a new system in Andhra region in general. The

Satavahana period paved the way for the heterodox religion to consolidate its position in

the Deccan and emerged into a major force to be reckoned. It asserted its influence both

theologically and socially, roughly for 400 years, which is enough time to transform the

existing social, political and economical structures in the region under the study. The

Satavahana rule was followed by Ikshavaku dynasty which wielded its hegemony in the

Andhra desa too provided comfortable and congenial atmosphere for the spread of

Buddhist theology in the region. Monasteries and chaityas enjoyed the same patronage,

what was enjoyed during Satavahana period, extended by Ruling class and mercantile

communities besides some sections in the society.

Sources

The primary sources to be consulted are mainly the Archeological, Epigraphical

and Numismatic (both published and unpublished).writings of foreign travelers including

7
Chinese travelers (of later period) who recorded their experiences and feelings about

Andhra Desa and Sthala puranas too forms primary and an important source for

interpreting the certain social practices and customs that were evolved during the period

under consideration.

The secondary sources namely published books and research articles in different

research journals were consulted to collect the material and internet sources too consulted

for required data of the study.

METHODOLOGY

The method that is adopted in analysing and drafting of this thesis is as follows:

1. Restructuration of the political history of Satavahana and Ikshavakus in terms that

are valid for the understanding contextualisation and explanation of religious,

socio and economical legitimacies.

2. Codification of information culled out from the inscriptions, literary sources and

various other sources for a historic analysis of the events.

3. Reinterpretation of existing data to understand the Buddhism and its impact and

weight on social structure and economic structure in the early period of Andhra

Desa.

This study is carried out at three levels:

1. Qualitative analysis of historical data pertaining to the Buddhist philosophy in the

early period of Andhra history.

2. Polity of the Maurya dynasty who wielded their power in the region, Satavahana

dynasty and their successors. Ikshavakus is critically examined in relation to the

patronage extended to the Buddhist Sanghas and monasteries.

8
 3. Critical analysis of inscriptions, literature, and other sources and drew inference

based on the information culled out. Interpretation of the sources to attest the

inferences drawn by the scholar.

GEOGRAPHY

The Maurya, Satavahana and Ikshavaku period paved the way for the heterodox

religion to consolidate its position in the Deccan and emerged into a major force to be

reckoned. It asserted its influence both theologically and socially, roughly for 400 years,

which is enough time to transform the existing social and political structures in the region

under the study.

As a background to that of cultural and socio-economic development during the

period under consideration, knowledge in the natural geography of the Andhra Pradesh

and its impact on the course of the history, religion, culture, social life and economic

conditions, is indispensable. Hence a thorough investigation of the mountain ranges,

hilly regions, rivers and river valleys, coast line, forests and other geographical

potentialities is necessary.

Geography is the life-blood of every nation’s history. It determines decisively the

historical and cultural evolution of the people of an area. The internal policies and the

external relations of a country or a region are governed largely by their geographical

factors. It is said to be “an analysis of the whole natural equipment of a region of some

element of it, in terms of its resources and potentialities for human use.”21

A study of natural geography in terms of society, religion, economy and polity is

now gaining momentum in the world of scholars. Such a study naturally proves a solid

9
foundation for assessing precisely the importance of cultural or human geography, the

physiognomy of the land’s surface, rivers, hillocks, mountains and particular places on

the earth’s surface help us to a very great extent in this connection.

“There are physical and chemical processes developing the forms of the land’s

surface, the shapes of the ocean basin and differing characteristics of water and climate.

There are processes by which plants and animals are spread over the earth in complex

and real relation to the physical features and to each other. And there are economic,

social and political processes by which mankind occupies the world’s lands. As a result,

of all these processes the face of the earth is marked off into distinctive areas. Geography

seeks to interpret the significance of likeness and differences among places in terms of

causes and consequences.”22

Geography not only deals with the physical features of the earth-land and sea but

also atmosphere. Geology, Oceanography, Climatology and Meteorology are the other

facets of physical geography.23

It would thus appear from the above that geography occupied a position of

paramount importance. It conditions the evolution of civilisations. It shapes the socio-

economic patterns. It determines political policies, both internal and external. It moulds

the religious thinking of the people. Hence, special significance is attached to the study

of geography.

Andhra Pradesh is India’s fifth largest state (in terms of area) spreading over an

area of 2,76,754 Sq. kms. It is located between 12° 41 and 22° East longitude and

84° 40 and 77o North latitude. It shares common boundaries with Madhya Pradesh and

10
Orissa to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka to the south

and Maharashtra to the west.

Geographically, Andhra Pradesh is composed of most of the eastern half of the

Deccan plateau and the plains to the east of the Eastern Ghats. It is the fourth largest

state in India. The northern part of the plateau is the Telangana region and the southern

part is known as Rayalaseema. These two regions are separated by the River Krishna.

The plains to the east of Eastern Ghats form the Eastern coastal plains. The Eastern

Ghats are discontinuous and individual sections have local names.24

Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh is situated in the central stretch of the

eastern seaboard of the Indian Peninsula. Telangana lies west of the Eastern Ghats on the

Deccan plateau. The Sahyadri, Balaghat, and Satmala hill ranges are the chief hill ranges

in Telangana region. Major portions of Telangana consist of hills, hillocks and forests

run all along the length of the state, and the Bay of Bengal. Rayalaseema is situated in

the south east of the state on the Deccan plateau and is nestled in the basin of the Penner

River, it is separated from Telangana by the low Erramala hills and from Coastal Andhra

by the Eastern Ghats. 45 per cent of the forest area in the State is in Telangana region

spread across five districts. There are limestone deposits in the region.Telangana also has

got other resources like bauxite, and mica.25

The Kadapa Basin formed by two arching branches of the Eastern Ghats is a

mineral rich area. The coastal plains are for the most part delta regions formed by the

Godavari, Krishna, and Penner rivers. The Eastern Ghats are a major dividing line in the

state's geography. The Ghats become more pronounced towards the South and extreme

North of the coast. The Eastern Ghat region is home to dense tropical forests, while the

11
vegetation becomes sparse as the Ghats give way to the Deccan plateau, where shrub

vegetation is more common.26 The Eastern Ghats are referred to in the epigraphs and the

Markandeya purana as Mahendragiri or Mahendrachala.27

The Eastern Ghats run roughly parallel to the sea from the north-east to south-

west and join the Western Ghats at Nilagiri hills in the Tamilnadu. The Eastern Ghats are

not as high as the Western Ghats no do they form a continuous chain of hills like the

latter. There are several breaks and this resulted in the formation of independent hillocks

having local importance and manes. Further, the breaks provided big valleys, which

accorded fertile opportunity for the promotion of agrarian economy. Some of these

hillocks became flourishing religious centers for both heterodox and orthodox religions.

This is well attested by epigraphs found at Kalinganagara,28 Simhachalam, Vijayawada,

Mangalagiri, Srisailam,Tripurantakam, Kadapa, Tirumala and Tirupati.29

The Eastern Ghats are for the most part bare and rocky. “The Eastern Ghats are

not watershed and the of the Peninsula break through them. Their geological formation is

granite, and gneiss and mica slate; with clay slate, horn blende, and primitive limestone

overlying. These hills may from one point of view be regarded as the eastern cliff of the

Jeypore and Mysore plateaus, and not separable from thee. They do not exercise any

great effect on meteorology, but still to certain extent they break the force of the north-

east monsoon, preventing it from penetrating inland.”30 The Eastern Ghats divided the

Andhra Pradesh into two distinct regions, viz., the table land on the west and the coastal

strip on the east.

12
 The Telangana plateau, Sahyadri, Balaghat and Satmala hill ranges in Telangana

region, the Rayalaseema plateau and the Eastern Ghats and their surrounding regions, the

treasure houses for some minerals which promoted the trade and commerce. For eg.,

Khondalites (sillimanite-gneisses) in Srikakulam31 Manganese ores, Graphite,32

Alluminum and different sand stones for building construction, lime stone in

Visakhapatnam, Vizianagaram, Nalgonda, Warangal, Kurnool and Kadapa districts,

silicate rocks, crystalline, lime stone, sand stone, graphite, mica mineral pigments and

clay in East Godavari and Khammam districts.33 Building stones known as Lower

Gondwana rocks, sulphur, iron ore, chromate, china clay, hynite, gypsum and lime stone

are available in plenty in the Krishna, Nalgonda, Khammam, Kadapa and Nellore

districts. Thus be wildering variety of mineral wealth is available in the state of Andhra

Pradesh. It should be noted here that this mineral wealth is neither exploited in the

ancient and medieval nor in modern times for commercial purposes except for

construction of buildings and forts. There is sufficient evidence to show that this region

witness hectic building activity in ancient and medieval periods. The fine quality of sand

stone, lime stone and horn blend available in the Eastern Ghats and other areas were

exploited by the architects and sculptors for the construction of stupas, temples and

mandapas and for carving sculptured Buddhist and Brahnmanical structures. The ancient

and medieval monuments and sculptures that are sprinkled throughout the length and

breadth of Andhra Pradesh bear a testimony to this.

The geographical setting of South India is such that slopes down east-wards to the

sea board from the Western Ghats and the rivers, Godavari, Krishna and Pinakini which

13
originate there drain to the east piercing the Eastern Ghats and flow down to the Bay of

Bengal.

The Andhra Pradesh may be rightly styled as the land of rivers. The most notable

of them is the Godavari which is referred to as the river of the Dakshina Ganga.34 It

originates in the Western Ghats and runs across the Deccan Peninsula joined by several

sister streams. It forms part of the boundary line between the Maratha country and the

land of the Telugu people. From this point the river takes a marked south-easterly bend

dividing the ancient realm of Chakrakuta i.e., Bastar from Andhra Pradesh. About thirty

miles below the confluence of the Pranahita the Godavari receives the Indravati from the

Bastar region. It then passes by Bhadrachalam and now the rivers forces its way through

the Eastern Ghats i.e., Papikondalu. After passing this point the river Goadvari widens

out and flows by Polavaram, Gutala, the picturesque Mahanandisvaram and Pattissam in

the East. The course of the Godavari river is such that flowing past Rajahmundry, it

opens out and forms series of broad reaches studded with low alluvial islands styled

Lankas. The Brhamandapurana refers to this river and states that it reaches the sea by

seven branches. These branches are named after the great seven sages namely, Vasishtha,

Vamadeva, Gautama, Bharadvaja, Atreya, Kasyapa and Jamadagni. Thus it is called

Sapta Godavari.35 Out of these seven branches the Bharadvaja, Visvamitra and

Jamadagni no longer exist.36 The Hindu religion attach immeasurable religious

importance to this river.

The river Krishna is the other important one in Andhra desa. It is referred to in

the epigraphs as Kannabemnna,37 Krishnavernna,38 Krishnaveni,39 and Pereru.40 “The

Krishna, literally ‘of black hue’, probably derives its name from the black soil,

14
krishnabhumi, kare-nadu, which it moistens with its water. It takes its rise about forty

miles from the Arabian Sea on the eastern brow of the Mahabaleshwar plateau. The

source is situataed nearly thirty three miles north west of Satara on a spur of the Sahyadri.

Hence, it is often referred to in epigraphic records as Shayaja or Sahyaputri”.41 In length,

the river Krishna is shorter about 160 Kms than the Godavari river. But its catchments

area is about 1,56,160 Sq.Kms which includes its tributaries. After watering a

considerable are in Maharashtra and Karnataka it enters into Andhra Pradesh in

Mahaboobnagar district and flows down separating Guntur and Nalagonda districts. One

reaching the chain of the Eastern Ghats the river turns sharply south east and flows about

160 Kms, between Krishna and Guntur districts flowing through the classic land between

the cities of Dhanyakata - Amaravati and Vijayawada. It is largely utilised for irrigation.

It is reported that “the enormous mass of silt it carries which has been estimated to be

sufficient in flood time to cover daily and area of 8 Sq. Kms. to a depth of one foot.

Below Vijayawada to the sea, the fall of the river is only 0.66 foot per mile, and the bed

widens out to 3 or 4 miles, so that in the course of ages an extensive deltaic tract has

formed between Vijayawada and the coast. This delta slopes away on either side, with a

fall of about 18 inches per mile from the elevated river bed, hence all that is not protected

by embankments is submerged whenever a high flood occurs, and the deposition of

fluviatile alluvium still continues.”42

The Pennar is the third principal river in the state of Andhra Pradesh. It is also

known as Penneru and Pinakini, it rises in the Nandidurga hills of the Karnataka State

and enters into Andhra Pradesh in Anantapuram district and flows through Kadapa

district and enters into the Nellore district through a fine gorge in Veligondalu (Eastern

15
Ghats) at Somasila in the Atmakur taluk. It flows towards eastern direction and

debouches into the Bay of Bengal at Utukur, located at about 29 Kms. north east of the

town of Nellore.43

Besides the above referred major rivers there are several minor water resources in

the state. These water resources like the principal ones also played a vital role in shaping

the culture and economy of the Andhra Desa.

It is of considerable interest to note that there are important lakes in the region

under study. On the north eastern boundary of the Andhra Pradesh, i.e., at the northern

most tip of the Srikakulam district, there is a salt lake. It is separated by sea by sand

banks. This is known as the Chilaka–sarassu (Chilaka lake) or Chilaka samudra. This

forms natural boundary between the modern Orissa state and Andhra Pradesh. This was

the part and parcel of the Kalinga kingdom and witnessed the rule of many a dynasty

right from the ancient period. This is bounded on the east and the south by a low sandy

ridge, in some places a little more than 200 yards wide, which separates it from Bay of

Bengal and north east by the mountains which extend from the Mahanadi to Godavari.44

It covers an area of 640 Sq. Kms. This vast area with its deep fathom served for naval

anchorage and as a call of port.

The Kolleru lake is considered to be the largest fresh water lake in the country. It

covers an area of 901 Sq. Kms.45 This lake is formed by the natural depression of land

between the Godavari on the east and the Krishna on the west. One third of the lake is in

the Krishna district and the remaining part is in the West Godavari district. It receives

water through the Budameru, the Tammileru, the Pammileru and the Gunderu. This vast

lake with many inlets has only one outlet in the form of Upputeru to the Bay of Bengal.

16
This lake is referred to in the inscriptions by several names, like Kunala, Kolanu and

Sarassu. It was the part and parcel of the ancient Vengi-Mandalam.46

The Pulicat lake which is formed by the back waters of Bay of Bengal along the

Coromandal coast is the other prominent one located in the region under our survey. It is

a shallow salt water lagoon. It is 59 Kms. in extreme length and with a breadth varying

from 5 Kms. to 18 Kms. The greatest depth is about 14 to 16 feet. The Pulicat shoal

served as a trading port in the east coast. Towards the extreme south east of the coast is a

low sandy tract lying between Pulicat lake and sea (i.e. Sriharikota region) which is 56

Kms. long and 10 Kms. broad. The very back of this, region tracts of the area in this

region is used for the manufacture of salt and important economic commodity. In the

modern times, rich deposits of silica have been discovered and this has enhanced the

economic value of the lake. Further, is a paradise for fishermen for several varieties of

fishes are available in the lake.47

The vast and long line of the Coromandal coast is very well endowed with rich

soil resources which ultimately paved the way for the promotion and preservation of

socio-economic and cultural developments. The nature of the rocks, physical traits of the

land, climate, flora and different variety of soils played a very important part in shaping

the natural geography of the east coast of the Andhra Pradesh. Each soil has its own

physical properties like its colour texture, structure and fertility. The soil of the east

coastal strip is alluvial, the black cotton and red ferruginous series. Near the hill ranges

i.e., in Telangana region the red varieties derived from a large admixture of the peroxide

of iron are predominant but towards the coast the soil becomes finer and in the river

valleys of Godavari and Krishna. The west ward elevation and the nature of the slope of

17
the Andhra Pradesh state too influenced the formation of the fertile soil in the river

valleys.48.

The climate of Andhra Pradesh varies considerably, depending on the

geographical region. Monsoons play a major role in determining the climate of the state.

Summers last from March to June. In the coastal plain, the summer temperatures are

generally higher than the rest of the state, with temperature ranging between 20°C and

41°C. July to September is the season for tropical rains in Andhra Pradesh. The State

receives heavy rainfall during these months. About one third of the total rainfall in

Andhra Pradesh is brought by the North-East Monsoon. October and November see low-

pressure systems and tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal which, along with the

North-East Monsoon, bring rains to the southern and coastal regions of the state. South-

West and North East monsoons play an important part in the economy of the State. The

fertility of the upland districts and other regions are due to the South West monsoon. On

the east coast, it is the North-East Monsoon which brings the rain from the Bay of

Bengal. The rainfall of the east coast has therefore a distinctive character. November,

December, January and February are the winter months in Andhra Pradesh. Since the

State has a long coastal belt the winters are not very cold in the coast region but in

Telangana and Rayalaseema winter is colder. The range of winter temperature is

generally between 12°C and 30°C.49

Thus the climate and the rain fall exercise an all embracing and unifying influence

on the weather conditions of the state of Andhra Pradesh. It should be noted here that the

rain fall of this region is different from the other states of the peninsular India. Besides

two seasonal monsoons which give sufficient rain fall, some times cyclonic storms occur

18
during the later part of the year bringing with them a deluge of rain which goes to swell

the averages.

Climate, rainfall and the nature of the soil are the active agents for the distribution

of the flora and fauna. Large extent of vegetation is not only useful in preventing soil

erosion and in helping to stabilise the climatic conditions but it also serves as good

reserve for fuel, pasture and timber. Andhra Desa is entirely within the tropical zone.

The periodical winds and monsoons effectively influence the rain fall. The Andhra

Pradesh is within the rain fed region except the Rayalaseema. However, there is a

difference between the vegetation of the Telangana, Rayalaseema and Coastal regions of

the State.

In Andhra Pradesh, almost all the river valleys bear the evidence of the existence

of pre-historic man. The material remains in the shape of stone implements have been

recovered from different parts of Andhra Pradesh. The pre-historic investigations were

carried out first in Andhra Pradesh by a number of geologists, civil officers and

missionaries. It is only in the second quarter of the 20th century that trained

archaeologists carried the systematic investigations. Nevertheless the contributions by

Foote to the study of pre-historic culture of Andhra Pradesh stand a pioneering work.

The earliest record of pre-historic studies dates back as far as 1943 when Newbold

discovered ash mounds in this region.50 Then followed discoveries by W.King,51 Bruce

Foot,52 Henry Foot Oldham,53 Macleod Sewell,54 Moir,55 Brackienbury,56 Burkitt,57

Manley58 and Ayyappan.59 Bruce Foot has explored the lower and upper valleys of the

Manneru river in the Nellore district and collected Paleoliths comprising maily of broad,

oval and pointed implements. He has explored paleoliths and neoliths from the

Cuddapah, Kurnool and Anantapuram districts.

19
 It is only in the recent times that systematic regional studies have been undertaken

by Sankalia and his students and also the Department of Anthropology of Andhra

University, the Archaeological Survey of India and the Department of Archaeology,

Government of Andhra Pradesh. Especially the whole of Cuddapah, Chittoor, Nellore,

Guntur, Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts has been thoroughly explored. Traces of

Paleolithic cultures have been recorded in Mahaboobnagar, Medak, Karimnagar,

Adilabad, Krsihna, East Godavari and Visakhapatnam districts. All these works reveal

the earliest evidence of man’s existence in the form of stone tools, recovered from the

bouldery or pebbly gravel laid down on the tertiary rocks by different rivers and their

tributaries and several open air stations, belonging to Lower Paleolithic period. The

relics of the Middle Paleolithic or the Middle Stone Age in Andhra Pradesh have been

recovered in many places. River Gundlakamma and its tributaries (Prakasam district)

have stratified sections bearing tool types of this cultural phase. Yelesvaram in the

Krishna district has produced artifacts of this period from a gravel layer below the

Ikshavaku deposits.60 Traces of this phase are noticed in the Nagarjunakonda region of

the Krishna and Nalgonda districts apart from Kurnool and Chittoor districrts.

The discovery of cultural traits of Neolithic period was first made by Bruce Foote

in the region.61 The Neolithic phase is characterised by ground and polished stone

implements, the raw material being mostly ‘trap’ in the place of quartzite used in the

Paleolithic. The new technological innovation indicates a distinct cultural stage of food

production as opposed to food gathering which is the means of subsistence in pre-

Neolithic stages. The Neolithic cultural remains including pits, the plan of an oblong

20
house, blunt-butted axes, fabricators, pot shreds and crystal microfiches found at

Nagarjunkonda confirm the site to typically Neolithic in Nature.

It is thus evident from the above discussion that the Andhra Pradesh witnessed all

the phases of pre-history. Not like the peninsular India the Andhra Desa have a separate

socio-economic and cultural development in its long history. This is because the natural

geography of the region, as stated above, sharply differs from the other parts of the

country.

The State also forms a major link between the North and South of India.

Interposed thus between North and South, Andhra Desa had the advantage of contact

with both. The North-Indian Vedic culture has spread into Andhra Desa and influened

the local belief systems. This might have occurred in the first millennium B.C. The

reason is the geographical proximity of the Deccan to North India.

The sixth century B.C. the “Age of Buddha” further brought the Deccan and

South very close to North India. It is evident from the Buddhist work, Suttanipata that a

Kosala Brahmin by name Bavari migrated to Deccan and settled near the head waters of

the Godavri River. This was due to the missionary zeal and enthusiasm of Buddhist

monks to spread their religion.

The dark clouds covering over the historical horizons of North India were cleared

by the establishment of the Mauryan Empire in the fourth century B.C. by Chandragupta

Maurya. He was responsible for the realisation of the political unification of almost

entire India except Tamilnadu and Kerala regions. Gradually, the Mauryan sway

extended over the Deccan during the time of Chandragupta and his son Bindusara. It was

during the time of the Mauryan rule that the entire Andhra desa became part and parcel of

21
the Mauryan Empire. The Mauryans inaugurated a new phase in the realm of religion.

Brahmanical religion received a check and heterodox religions like Buddhism and

Jainism gained currency. It was during this period that Buddhism and Jainism penetrated

into the Andhra and Karnataka regions. The Mauryans disappeared from the political

map of Indian by the second century B.C.

The Satavahanas, the subordinates of the Mauryas rose to power and ruled the

Deccan and Andhra Desa for four hundred years. The Satavahanas took very keen

interest in developing agriculture. The cultivable land lying waste was brought under

plough. The inscriptions of the Satavahanas found in the Andhra Pradesh record of gifts

of villages to Buddhist Monasteries and Brahmans.62. It is known from the

Gathasaptasati that rice, wheat, pulses like the red gram, oil seeds like gingili, castor,

fodder seeds like hemp, cash crops like cotton and sugarcane were the main crops in the

Deccan.63 The Satavahanas not only brought the political unification of the Deccan and

Andhra Desa which received a set back with the collapse of the Mauryan Empire, but

also maintained hectic international trade with the Roman Empire. The Roman gold

freely flowed into the Satavahana Empire. The Buddhism and Brahmanical religions

received equal patronage from the Satavahanas. The numerous monuments in the form of

stupas, viharas, chaityas that are distributed throughout the length and breadth of the

Deccan and Andhra Desa speak volumes of their contribution to architecture and art.64

The fall of the Satavahanas saw the end of the political unification of the Deccan

in general and that of the Andhra Desa in particular. The Ikshavakus, the Pugiyas, the

Abhiras, the Salankayanas, the Brihatpalayanas, the Pallavas, and the Vikshnukundins

22
were amongst the local dynasties that rose to power in the post Satavahana period in

Andhra Desa. They literally divided the Andhra Desa into many small pockets and ruled

over them independently. Thus Andhra Desa was balkanised.

The rise of the Eastern Chalukyas to power in the 7th century A.D. and later the

Cholas restored political stability in the Coastal Andhra Pradesh. But the presence of the

powerful feudatories like the Velanadu Cholas, the Matsyas, the Kotas, the Kolanu

mandalikas, the Kondapadumnati chiefs, neither the Chalukyas nor the Cholas succeeded

in maintaining centralised administration. The extension of Rashtrakuta power in

Telangana region too short lived and could not restore the centralised political

administration in the region. However, the advent of the Kakatiyas heralded a new era in

the annals of medieval Andhra Desa. The Kakatiyas were the next after the Satavahanas

to realise the political unification of Andhra Desa.

The most important economic aspect of this period i.e. from the Satavahanas upto

the fall of the Kakatiyas (though the period under our study is limited to 3rd Century A.D.

for better understanding of the course of historical processes a brief account is given

depicting the historical process of the region) is the land grants. They are of two types.

In the first type, the King used to assign lands to the officials in lieu of the services

rendered and those going to be rendered to the state in future. In this case, there is an

element of liability. In the second type, the land was granted to a Bramhana or a group of

Bramhanas for their learning, knowledge and the services rendered to the state or

religion, religious institutions like sanghas, chaityas, temples or ghatikas and Jaina

Basadis. In this case, there is no liability. A large number of inscriptions under our

survey record land assignments and grants.65

23
 Expansion of the cultivation resulted in agricultural surplus, which improved the

material condition of the people of the region. Industries based on the agriculture like

weaving tantruvaya66 and perfumes flourished. It is known from the Bhimasena jataka67

that craftmen - Asvasenikas68 produced fine textiles and other goods in the Andhr Desa.

The artistic talent of these artisans was unsurpassed since the varieties of the gold flowers

and jewels found in the relic caskets at Bhattiprolu, Salihundam, Ghantasala,

Gummadidurru, Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda and a beautiful casket of pure gold in

the form of stupa found at Amaravati bear an evidence to it.

It is known from the epigraphs of the Satavahanas that all these industrial

craftsmen were organized into guilds.69 These guilds acted as corporate bodies protecting

the interests of its members. Towards the end of the first century A.D. the eastern

Deccan seems to have entered into a period of great industrial and commercial activity

which reached its climax towards the end of the second century A.D.70 These guilds

were stable enough to induce members of the royal family to invest their money in it.

These guilds were governed by sreni-dharma the laws of the guild. They enjoyed

judicial powers and were empowered to punish the members of the guild whenever they

violated sreni-dharma. They enjoyed full autonomy and generally showed least interest

in politics. The kings too never interfered in the internal affairs of the guilds as long as

these guilds paid their dues to the state and did not disturb the administration. This

congenial atmosphere paved the way for economic prosperity and stability.

The Andhra Desa experienced brisk internal and external trade during the period

under our survey. The development of trade depended upon trade routes, port cities,

24
transport facilities, agricultural surplus and goods, forests and mineral wealth, industries,

guilds and above all the patronage extended by the rulers.

Several trade routes radiated from the region and some of them are noted here.

The country of Vengi was great meeting place of several prominent trade routes. From

Vengi one trade route led to Kalinga, i.e., towards north-east. The second route led to

south cuts through Gudivada, Ghantasala, Bhattiprolu, Buddhani and Kanuparti. The

third one led to Karnataka via, Alluru, Ramireddipalli and Jaggayyapeta. The last one led

to Kosala. This started from Vengi and led to the Central India via Guntupalli and

Nagapur.71 Dubreuil who thoroughly studied the course and nature of these trade routes

concluded that the commerce of India with the Far East and South-East Asian countries

was carried from Vengi on the east coast but not from Tamralipti or from the ports of

orissa.72

The Andhra Desa was also endowed with flourishing sea ports in the ancient and

medieval periods. Referring to the ports the Periplus of the Erithrean Sea state that

Maisolos (Machilipatnam)73 “was the seaboard of country”. The Periplus refers to the

large stores of ordinary cottons, many sorts of muslins and mallow-colored cottons in the

markets of Tagara and Paithan whither they were carried by boats, carts or pack bullocks

from Maisolos.74 Ghantasala (Kantakasaila) was the other important port and it is located

20 Kms. from Maisolos, and at the mouth of the Krishna river. The river Krishna was

navigable enough to carry goods to great distances inland .Koddura75 i.e., present Gudur

in the Krishna district, was another trade centre and it is not far way from Ghantasala.

25
 Ptolemy gives more information regarding the ports of Andhra Desa. The mouth

of the Pinakini, Manarpha, i.e. the mouth of the Manneru in Prakasam district, Kottis i.e.,

Kottapatnam in Guntur district, Maisolos, the mouth of Krishna (Machilipatnam) Konta-

Kossyla i.e., Ghantasala in Krishna district, Koddura, i.e. Gudur near Machilipatnam,

Allosgyne, the point of departure for Chrysie i.e., the point Godavari.76 A large number

of inland cities are also mentioned by him but were yet to be properly identified.

The list of ports that were referred to by the foreign seamen proves that the

maritime trade was conducted through the river transport and over-seas from the east

coast. Further, this is attested by the discovery of Roman coins at Vinukonda in the

Guntur district, Nellore in the Nellore district, Nagarjunakonda in Nalgonda district and

Vijayawada in the Krishna district.77.

Dhanyakataka won considerable importance industrially and commercially

towards the beginning of the first century A.D. Textile industries in the west and central

India must have been served by the maritime trade districts of the east coast of Andhra.

Centering around Dhanyakataka from where there was easier transit by land routes.

There was a great sea board extending from the submerged Kalingapattanam to

Lake Pulicat. Rishikulya, Vamsadhara, Nagavalli, Sarada, Tandava, Gundlakamma,

Pinakini and Svarnamukhi offered safe anchorage at their mouths for the vessels bound to

the east and to crown it the Godavari and Krishna were navigable for a long distrance into

the inland.78 Fleet states that there was an early trade route which started either from

Vinukonda or from Masulipatnam and reached Broach via Golconda, Ter and Paithan.

The trade route from Masulipatnam took not only the local traffic from the coastal

26
districts of the north of the Krishna but also the sea borne traffic from the Far East. The

other route which started from Vinukonda in the southern part of the Guntur district

served admirably as a collecting centre for the local products of the sea side country on

the south of the Krishna. The roads from these two places, i.e., Vinukonda and

Masulipatnam joined each other at a point about 40 Kms. Further in the same direction,

and from theat point the single road ran in the most natural manner through the Deccan

via Hyderabad, Kalyan, Ter, Paithan and Daulatabad to Chadore and Markinda in the

west of Nasik District.79

The fertile alluvial lands, the perennial rivers, salubrious climate agricultural

surplus, trade routes, navigable rivers the lengthy coast line, port cities and flourishing

agrarian industries paved the way for the development of trade and commerce in the

Andhra Desa. Monetisation of economy also gave further stimulation for fostering

commercial activities of the region. The Satavahanas and Ikshavakus issued coins in

various metals. This does not mean that barter system was not favoured in the internal

and international trade.

The flourishing commercial activities paved the way for the urbanisation of the

Andhra Desa. This is very well supported by the rise of cities like Vengi, Ghantasala,

Dhanyakataka, Masulipatnam, Vinukonda, Salihundam, Kandanavolu, Jaggayyapeta,

Gollakonda, Pottalikanagara, Kandur, Vardhamanapura and Kollipaka. It is of interest to

state here that this shows that mercantile community evinced keen interest in patronising

religion and raising monuments of architectural and artistic excellence.

The flourishing agriculture, prosperous trade and commerce and the forest and

mineral wealth of the Andhra Desa became a bone of contention between kings. Many a

27
war was fought for the control over the region. This region not only made the ambitious

kings top cast their eyes on the region but also tempted many to migrate to the region.

The vedic migration was the first the Andhra Desa and South India witnessed. The vedic

people introduced new agricultural methods and iron technology which brought agrarian

revolution, and slowly spread into all over India. This caused ethnic, social, religious,

economic, and political changes. In the field of society it introduced the four fold

division of the society based on Varnashrama dharma. Family was organised on

patriarchal basis. Vedic political patterns and religious ideas gradually started influencing

the native believes and systems. The rise of Satavahanas gave a new direction and

momentum in this connection. The Satavahana kingdom lay in between the south and

north and hence it has been styled as the bridge kingdom. They were in active touch with

the north as well as the south. Thus became an active transmitters of vedic ideals and

institutions into south and vice versa. The Satavahana kings were the upholders of

Brahmanical religion and patronized Buddhist religion. It is interesting to note here that

Gautamiputra Satakarni boasts of having prevented the contamination of the four castes

and of having been the true supporter of Brahmanas. The non-vedic religious beliefs and

traditions were rationalised and accepted.

After the fall of the Satavahanas, the region lost political stability. The region

was divided into many watertight compartments and ruled over by petty dynasties like

Ikshavakus, Vishnukundins, Salankayanas, Anandagotrins and a host of the petty chiefs.

In the fourth century A.D., the Andhra Desa experienced the invasion of Samudragupta.

This invasion brought a radical revolution in the realms of society and religion. The

varna divided society was stabilised. Brahnanical religion overshadowed the heterodox

28
religions Buddhism and Jainism. It was during this time that several sthalapuranas were

composed. People from Magadha (Magadhakula) i.e., the people of Magadha were

settled in the coastal region of Andhra region to revive Brahmanical religion. It is of

importance to note that some of the Buddhist relics of the fourth century A.D. contain the

representation of fire altars and lingas. This clearly shows how gradually the

Brahmancial religion was penetrating to the strongholds of Buddhism.

Grierson, regarding the penetration of vedic culture into eastern Deccan and South

India remarks that “we have process before our eyes. Animism is discovered to be

orthodoxy. Local aboriginal deities are discovered to be identical with Siva or some

other member Brahmanical pantheon and the distinction of caste is conferred upon the

converts. In other respects, the aboriginal customs and beliefs are at first left untouched

and are allowed to develop themselves into one or the many branches of modern

Hinduism.80

The migration of Brahmnins and the vedic religion to the Andhra Desa from

North India is also supported by the Buddhist literary works. As already stated above,

the Suttanipata relates the story of migration of a Brahmin by name Bavari from Kosala

to the south of Godavari river. Even the Satavahana kings honored him by giving a large

amount of money and land for building his asrama and propagate vedic theology.81 The

merchants and the trade guilds from far south and west and the other parts of the

Peninsular India started migrating to the Andhra Desa on a mass exodus. The reason are

not far to seek. The rich alluvial deposits, the flourishing trade and commerce and the

relatively peaceful conditions that prevailed in the region during the period under our

survey were mainly responsible for the migration. The change of social structure,

29
religious practices and the economy attest amply to this impact. This aspect is discussed

in detail elsewhere in this thesis.

It is evident from the above discussion that the natural geography of Andhra Desa

has substantial significance. It shaped the society, conditioned the agrarian economy,

fostered agrarian industries, determined the internal and external policies of the rules and

finally promoted both internal and international trade and commerce. In fine the society,

economy, religion, polity and the cultural patterns of the Andhra Desa were determined

and directed by the natural geography of the region.

The Thesis is divided into Seven Chapters for detailed discussion and analysis.

Chapter-I

This chapter deals with the nature and scope of the work and central theme of the

work. The geographical features, its importance and influence to turn this region into a

rich fertile ground for the spread of Buddhist theology.

Chapter-II

In this chapter a brief survey of the political, social and economic conditions

prevailed during pre-Satavahana, Satavahana and post-Satavahana periods in Andhra

Desa will be made. During the Mauryan period that preceded the Satavahana rule,

applied a single unified administrative system and provided congenial atmosphere for a

systematic social structure in the region. Of course, the Satavahanas who succeeded the

Mauryas, though followed the same polity what was followed by Mauryas, but deviated

from the main system as and when the social and religious needs warranted. However,

Ikshavakus who were the successors of Satavahanas followed the system that was

prevalent in the region and they did not disturb it. To evaluate the influence of heterodox

30
religion on early social life, it is necessary to discuss the political and social history of the

region during the period in this chapter.

Chapter-III

This chapter is devoted to study the numerous ancient monuments of Andhra

which reveals not only the antiquity of her civilisation but also its exact nature, degree

and affinities. This area was linked to neolithic settlements and those of the megalithic

people and was therefore fairly closely settled before the arrival of the Mauryan

administration. The Mauryan administration would have had to face the problem of

governing societies that included a range of socio-economic forms, each with their own

requirements. The handling of the inter-relationship between the Mauryan administration

and these varied societies required a range of methods. Thus the nature of administration

in this area becomes a matter of interest and how the local people would have reacted to

the coming of a new authority is analysed.

Chapter-IV

In this chapter, an in depth analysis based on the inscriptions and Buddhist

monuments located in and around Andhra Desa under consideration. The period of

Satavahana rule in the Andhra Desa witnessed the growth of commercial and colonial

intercourse and the development of Buddhism and Buddhist art. Nowhere can be seen

today such a large number of ancient Buddhist foundations as in Andhra. They are the

relics of a culture which has gone to make up Andhra civilisation. All the earlier culture

of the Andhra came to a definite shape under Buddhist stimulus out of which emerged the

new Brahminical culture of the post Satavahana period. The third century A.D. was thus

31
the culmination of one epoch and the beginning of another in social, political and cultural

history of the region.

Chapter-V

This chapter deals with the growth of mercantile class which extended its

patronage to the spread of Buddhist monasteries and their theology. With an extensive

sea board stretching from Kalingapatnam to Pulicat Andhra Desa had convenient

facilities for adventure and foreign commerce. The products of the forests, the agrarian

products, the looms and the mines which formed the chief items of merchandise from

Andhra made merchant class a rich one and their contribution too is examined and

analysed in this chapter.

Chapter-VI

This chapter is devoted to examine the influence wielded by Buddhism in

transforming the culture, language, customs, rituals and traditions in the society.

Buddhist monasteries brought changes in the agrarian sector and polity of the state. This

aspect too will be discussed and examined.

Chapter-VII

This chapter is devoted to synthesise and analyse the findings in the above study

of the subject under consideration.

Selected Bibliography, Map and Plates are appended at the end of the thesis.

32
 Chapter-I : References

1. Dutt, N., Mahayana Buddhism, Culcutta, 1973 and Early Monastic Buddhism,

Calcutta, 1941.

2. Krishna Rao, B.V., History of the Early Dynasties of Andhra Desa, Madras, 1942.

3. Barret, D., Sculptures from Amaravathi in the British Museum, London, 1954.

4. Eliot, Sir Charles, Hinduism & Buddhism, London, 1957.

5. Sastry, K.A.N., A History of South India, London, 1958.

6. Rao, G.V., Chapters on the Pre Satavahana and Satavahana Periods in G.Yazdani

(Ed.) & Early History of Deccan, Vol.1, Oxford, 1960.

7. Conze, E., Buddhist thought in India, London, 1962.

8. Bhandarkar, R.G., Early History of Deccan, Culcutta, 1962.

9. Rama Rao, M., Satavahana and their Successors, 1971.

10. Helmutt Halfman, Buddha’s preaching of Kalachakratantra at stupa of

Dhanyakataka, German’s scholars in India, Varanasi, 1973.

11. Hanumanth Rao, B.S.L., Religion in Andhra, Guntur, 1973 and Buddhist Inscriptions

of Andhra Desa, Buddhavihara Trust, Secunderabad, 1998.

12. Subrahmanyam R, Nagarjuna konda (Ed.).,Vol.1, Archaeological Survey of India,

New Delhi, 1975.

13. Ramachandraiah, O., Satavahanas and their Successors, Chennai, 1978.

14. Amita Ray, Life and Art of Early Andhra Desa, New Delhi, 1983.

15. Margabandhu, C., Archaeology of the Satavahana - Kshatrapa time, Sundeep

Prakasan, New Delhi, 1985.

33
16. Himanshu Prabha Ray, Monastery and Guild, Commerce under the Satavahanas,

Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1986.

17. Mala Datta, A Study of Satavahana Coinage, Sundeep Prakasan, New Delhi, 1990.

18. Siva Rama Murthy, C.A., Amaravathi Sculptures in the Chennai Government

Museum, Chennai, 1998.

19. Somasundar Rao, The Satavahanas and the Ikshavakus of Vijayapuri in Early

Historic Andhra Pradesh 500 B.C. – A.D. 624, Sharma, I.K. (Ed,), Andhra Pradesh

History Congress & Telugu University, Hyderabad, 2008.

20. Parabrahma Satry, P.V., Society and Economy of the Satavahanas Age in Early

Historic Andhra Pradesh 500 B.C. – A.D. 624, Sharma, I.K, (Ed.), Andhra Pradesh

History Congress & Telugu University, Hyderabad, 2008.

21. Finch, V.C. and Trewartha, G.T., Elements of Geography, McGraw Hill, 1957, p.2.

22. Encyclopedia of Britannica (1973 Edn) under Geography, Vol. X, p.145.

23. Gordonstonewall (Ed), The Book of Knowledge, Vol. 4, London, 1965, p.1.

24. Census Report of Andhra Pradesh, under profile, Govt. of India, 1961, p.1.

25. Ibid.

26. Ibid.

27. E.I., Vol. XXXI, pp. 199 ff., S.I.I.., Vol. V, No. 135 and Markandeyapurana

Chapter 57, sloka 10, Parimal Publishers, 2004 (Edn.).

28. S.I.I., Vol. V, No. 1231.

29. E.A., Vol. IV, p.33 ff.

30. The Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Vol. II, Madras, 1885,

p.2.

34
31. Srikakulam District Census Hand Book of Census, Chapter-I, Governmet of India,

1961, p.V ff.

32. The Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Vol. II, Op.Cit., p.8.

33. Gazetters of Karimanagar, Nizamabad, Adilabad and Nalgonda, Government of

Andhra Pradesh, 1974.

34. I.A., Vol. XIV, S.I.I., Vol. V, No. 1133, pp. 48-55.

35. E.A., Vol. IV, p.103 ff.

36. District Census Report of East Godavari, Government of India, 1961, pp. A1 ff.

37. E.I., Vol. XX, p.71 ff.

38. Ibid., Vol.VI, p.208.

39. S.I.I., Vol. IV, No. 1127.

40. Ibid., No. 809.

41. Yazdani, G., The Early History of the Deccan, Vol. I, Hyderabad, 1961, p.10.

42. The Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1893,

Vol. III, p. 423.

43. Census Report of Nellore district, Govt. of India, 1961, p.2 ff.

44. Glossary of the Madras Presidency, Madras, 1885, p.169.

45. The Hindu, Madras dt. 16th October, 1987.

46. E.I., Vol.VI, p. 3, S.I.I., Vol. X, No. 177, and I.A., Vol. XIV, p. 57.

47. Besides, this island is now turned into a launching centre for space rockets by the

Government of India. Thus, the strategically importance of the region gained a new

momentum and direction. The Buckingham canal, the gift of the East India

35
 Company, skirts its whole length. This further increased the trade and commercial

value of the lake, Nellore District Census Report, 1961, p. I ff.

48. Census Report of Andhra Pradesh, 1961, Op.Cit.

49. Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Vol. II, Op.Cit., p.3 ff.

50. New Bold, Anthropological Studies, Vol. I, New Delhi, 1976, pp. 89 ff.

51. King, W., Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. VIII, Calcutta, 1872.

52. District Gazetteers of Kurnool, Cuddapah and Nellore Districts, Government of

Andhra Pradesh, 1974.

53. Oldham, Memoirs of the Kurnool, Cuddapah, Calcutta, 1883.

54. District Gazetteers of Kurnool, Cuddapah and Nellore Districts, Governement of

Andhra Pradesh, 1974.

55. Ibid.

56. Ibid.

57. Burkitt, M.C., Fresh light on the Stone ages in South-East India, I.A., Vol. IV, 1930.

58. District Gazetteers, Op.Cit.

59. Ayyappan, A., The Manley Collection of the Stone Age tools with Topographical and

other Notes, MASI, No. 68, 1942.

60. Anthropological Studies, Op.Cit., Vol. I, p. 90.

61. Ibid, p. 95.

62. Allur inscription, A.R.E.P., 1923-24.

63. Gathasaptasati, 1:81:9, II: 65, Prakasana Pratistan, 1965.

64. Balendu Sekharam, K., The Andhra through the Ages, Secunderabad, 1973,

pp .148 ff., and 187 ff.

36
65. E.I., Vol. I, pp. 7 ff., Vol. II, pp. 129 ff., Vol. XII, p. 136 ff.

66. Buchchireddipalem plates of Simhavarman II, Journal of Madras University, Vol.

XII, Madras, 1923, p.155.

67. Subramanian, Buddhist Remains In South India, Cosmo Publications, 1932, p.135.

68. E.I., Vol. XXXV, pp.13 ff.

69. Nasik Cave Inscriptions No. 12, E.I., Vol. VIII, p. 82.

70. Nila Kantasastry, K.A., A History of South India, (Reprint) Oxford University

Press, 1976, p.98.

71. Dubreuil, J., In his Foreword to the Buddhist Remains in south India, Op.Cit.,

pp. vi ff.

72. Ibid.

73. Schoff, Periplus of Erythrean Sea, (Reprint) Munshiram Manoharlal, 1995, p.51 ff.

74. Muzumdar, R.C., The Classical Accounts of India, Calcutta, 1960, p.307.

75. Crindle, Mc., Ancient India as described by Ptolemy, Thacker, Spink & Company,

1885, p.68.

76. Subramanian, Op.cit., p.134.

77. Robert Sewell, Roman Coins found in India, J.R.A.S., Calcutta,1904, p. 599.

78. Satyanarayana, K., Op.Cit., p. 217.

79. Fleet. J.F., Tagara-Ter-JRAS, Calcutta, 1901, p. 548.

80. Grierson, The Narayanaiya and Bhagavatas, I.A., Vol. XXXVII, p. 257.

81. I.A., Vol. XVI, p. 49.

*****

37