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Plastic - Gears Kisssoft PDF
Plastic - Gears Kisssoft PDF
Abstract
The importance of plastic gears for modern industry is growing every year. The engineer sizing plastic gears has
a very difficult task. There is no international standard available for the strength analysis. The only method
publicly accepted is the German guideline VDI2545. In addition to a lack of calculation methods there is a need
for measuring material properties.
Estimation of lifetime for plastic gears
This paper shall give an overview over the current situation and will provide some guidelines how to rate plastic
gears, how to handle the lack of material data available and how to conduct measurements of material properties
to make them suitable for the available calculation methods.
Introduction
The number of gears produced out of plastic is getting dramatically larger. This is primarily due to the
improvement of plastic materials strength. The properties of plastic can be varied in a large range, especially
when compared to steel. It is now possible to select an optimal material for a specific task based on the
following properties: strength, wear, stiffness, damping and noise production.
In spite of the growing use of plastic gears the scientific research is astonishingly low, especially compared to
the resources used for research on metal gears. A mirror of this situation is the availability of standards. The
standard used for the strength analysis of cylindrical plastic gears is the German guideline VDI 2545 and is poor
compared to the respective standards AGMA 2001 and ISO 6336 for metal gears. AGMA 909-A06,
ANSI/AGMA 1006-A97 and ANSI/AGMA 1106-A97 address plastic gears, but only the geometry.
ANSI/AGMA 920-A01 offers much general information about the applicability of plastic material for gears and
presents the typical test procedures. The VDI 2545 is currently invalid and fits into the overall lack of research
into plastic gearing.
One of the major restrictions of the VDI 2545 is the availability of data for only three different materials (PA12,
PA66, POM). Currently several groups are attempting to produce reliable data for modern materials. These
experiments have proven to be expensive and are very time consuming. A design engineer therefore needs to
know how he can design new plastic gears successfully without the use of a valid standard and without
scientific materials research data. The engineer must rely on knowledge gained from past experience.
Usually metal gears are produced in a generating process. Plastic gears most often are injection molded. If the
insert for the mold is manufactured with EDM (e.g. wire erosion) the tooth form can be optimized without
additional costs. For generated gears this is only possible with special tools, which increases the costs. On the
other hand, typical injection molded gears have a relatively low quality (ISO 9-10), a problem, however, which
can be handled with special arrangements. Optimized plastic gear tooth forms are also designated “hybrid
toothing” in literature.
The method according to VDI 2545 [1] for the strength analysis of cylindrical gears made of plastic is the only
worldwide known method for the calculation solution. Even though it was cancelled some years ago it is still in
common use due to the lack of a replacement. Currently Prof. Werner Krause and Dr. Jürgen Wassermann in
Germany along with their associates have plans to develop a replacement for the guideline but it is in the very
early stages of development.
Today’s materials are much more numerous than the materials mentioned in the VDI 2545. Some of them show
a significantly higher strength, e.g. reinforced material. Typically, the producer of the material will only provide
values for the tensile strength, the aforementioned data for a gear calculation is not known and can not be
derived from the tensile strength. Changing the recipe of a plastic might lead to higher ultimate strength, thus
increasing the root strength, while the flank or wear resistance is decreasing at the same time due to tribological
effects.
A simple solution for the problem is not available. The material properties have to be verified using prototypes
or by means of a long term test on a test rig. In most cases it is not necessary to conduct hundreds of
measurements, to get enough data points for a diagram like in figure 1 but by determining some data points the
diagram can be generated by interpolation with good accuracy. These data points can be derived from
experience with produced gear boxes or experiments on test rigs. Still the effort is significant.
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dissipation of the heat, the final state of equilibrium must be searched. Figure 2 shows the general layout of the
calculation procedure (according to Erhard [2]).
Figure 2: General layout of the strength calculation procedure for plastic parts.
u + 1 17100 k2 k3
δ 1, 2 = δ a + 136 × P × µ + 6.3
z 2 + 5 b × z1, 2 (ν × m )κ
A
Where
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µ [-] is a coefficient taking friction into account (not the friction coefficient!),
zi [-] number of teeth of gear i, i=1,2,
u [-] transmission ratio z2/z1,
b [mm] face width,
ν [m/s] circumferential speed,
m [mm] normal module,
k2, κ [-] factors described in the VDI2545, see below,
k3 [-] takes the influence of the housing into account (none, open, partially open or closed),
A [m2] is the surface of the housing.
Comparison of the results of the temperature calculation according to Hachmann and Strickle and measured
temperatures in tests show slightly lower calculated temperatures in the root area, and significantly higher
calculated temperature of the flank surface. Frequently, the calculated temperature exceeds the melting
temperature of the material, although the test showed no melting of the flank. Erhard and Weiss [6] proposed a
modified calculation of the temperature, taking the ratio of the power-on-time into account. Based on
measurements, they defined continuous power-on-time of 75 minutes to be permanent running. For all cases
with shorter periods they introduced a factor fED to reduce the calculated temperature. Since this work was done
after the publication of the VDI guideline, this correction factor is not included in the calculation formula of the
temperature in the VDI 2545.
The factors k2 and κ show up during the derivation of the formula. They take the material combinations and
lubrication type into account. The factor k2 also determines whether the calculated temperature is the body or
the surface temperature. For k2, k3, κ and µ tables are provided in the guideline.
The temperature calculation is one of the critical points not only in the VDI 2545, but in the calculation of
plastic parts in general. Due to the problems mentioned above it is recommended to use a fixed temperature
whenever possible to supersede these problems. For slow running gears (circumferential speed <5m/s) the
guideline recommends the use of ambient temperature.
Most plastic gears are used for very short running period (less then 1% operating time per hour), so that for all
these cases the ambient temperature equals to the operating temperature. However, for the ambient temperature
a large range might be defined, for example for car applications from –20°C to 80°C.
ZH [-] is the zone factor, transferring the tangential force from reference diameter to operational pitch
diameter,
ZM [-] is the material factor, to take the two Youngs moduli into account,
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Zε [-] is the overlap factor,
d [mm] is the reference diameter,
u [-] is the transmission ratio,
The influence of the temperature is not seen directly in these formulae. It is included in the values of Youngs
modulus Ei=Ei(δi), and the permissible stresses σHN(δi), σFN(δi).
3Ft Ψ Ψ
fK = ϕ 1 + 2 ,
2b × cos α t E1 E 2
The VDI 2545 sets a limit of 0.1 times module for the deformation. This of course is not a firm limit as it is in
contrast to the permissible stress. It is important to check the deformation carefully if the teeth remain loaded for
a certain time period. If the product of deformation and time period gets to large, permanent deformation might
be the result, which can cause severe problems.
Flank Calculation:
Zε 1.0 fixed DIN 3990 DIN 3990
One of the major disadvantages of the guideline VDI 2545 is the lack of the stress correction factor YS, or
equivalent the constant value of YS =1 in the formula. This factor describes the notch effect in the trochoid part
of the root area. It is likely, that the same notch will have a slightly different effect on a steel part than on a
plastic part. In either case there will be an increase of the local stress depending on the form of the notch.
In Niemann the contact ratio factor Yε is set to one. The argument in the textbook for this is the typically low
quality of the plastic gears (ISO 10 or 11), so that only one pair of teeth will have contact. This is not fully
correct since plastic teeth will bend much larger than steel teeth (lower Youngs modulus) compromising the
pitch errors. In addition the quality of plastic gears has greatly improved since the printing of the textbook
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mentioned. Based on the available data we propose a method “VDI2545 modified”, which combines the
advantages of both methods. With the modified method it is possible, to quantify more accurately the behaviour
of variants of gears.
Steel material properties can be determined comparably easy (e.g. according to ISO 6336, part 5). One must be
very careful in determining the plastic material properties. The nominal safety factors derived by the procedure
described are only valid for the material used in the existing designs. When using a material with significantly
different properties the safety factors have to be adjusted!
The described method has proven to be very successful in practical use. It is important to build up
systematically the base of own know how, experience, and to maintain it. Typically, each gearbox with plastic
gears is tested before the manufacturing is released. This test data has to be used!
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For the static analysis, the calculation of flank and wear resistance can be omitted. The relevant limit is the
check of the root stress versus the ultimate strength. For the calculation the effective root stress is calculated
according to VDI 2545 (or ISO 6336) and compared with the ultimate strength. The ultimate strength for non-
notched bars is typically found in the documentation from the manufacturer of the plastic material. This
calculation can be carried out much easier and can also be applied to material which is not documented in the
VDI 2545.
It is very important to decide when and which method to apply. As a rule by thumb it can be stated:
Applying the formula for YS as defined in the DIN or the ISO standard as proposed by Obsieger exceeds the
defined limits for the formula. It is valid only for the point of the 30 degrees tangent, should not be used for a
graphical method and is only for involute tooth forms. However, comparing YS in a graphical method and FEA
results showed a very good match, so that in most cases the accuracy of both methods should be the same. In
addition, the described method is a “worst-case” method, i.e. the calculated safety factors are by definition
always smaller than those calculated by the standard: the one point treated in the standard calculation is included
in the list of points to be checked according to Obsieger. In contrast to the standard method different root forms
can be compared and the benefit or negatives of a root modification can be evaluated.
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Figure 4: Graphical method for the determination of the worst case in the root area.
Following the approach of Obsieger it is possible to locate the critical cross section of the tooth. As an option,
the force can be applied at the tip as in ISO 6336 Method C, or at the point of single tooth contact – method B.
The strength analysis according to VDI 2545 can be carried out later with this specific data. In addition, it is
possible to visualize the geometrical course of the stress in the root area and the course of the maximum stress
in the root area during the meshing of the gears (figure 5).
Figure 6: Course of stresses in flank and root during meshing of the gears.
The calculation of the Hertzian stress can also be conducted along the tooth flank based on the real tooth form.
Here for each point of contact the respective radii of both gears are determined and with this the Hertzian stress
is calculated. The same data allows the calculation of the sliding velocity, the local heating, the efficiency and
the heat production of these tooth forms. With these additional information it is much easier to optimize the
tooth form than only with the standard calculation that only gives information about one point of contact.
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with a cycloid profile. The Hertzian stress and the sliding velocity were reduced due to the optimal curvature of
cycloids (figure 6) by nearly 50%, especially in the critical areas at tip and root circle.
Figure 6: Comparison of an involute design with a cycloid design. Above: stresses during the meshing. Below:
sliding velocities.
The following are typical actions for the optimization of the geometry and give suggestions to which calculation
methods should be applied:
In order to find an optimum solution for the before mentioned parameters, a large number of variants have to be
checked. Therefore this task should be delegated to a computer program which searches possible solutions,
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filters them according to diverse criteria, and sorts the remaining solutions to classify each solution with respect
to the design specifications.
Since the solutions found by this are so called “standard geometries”, usually the standard calculation according
to VDI 2545 (preferably the modified version) is sufficient for rating the gears.
Except the engineering effort, which is small when using appropriate software, all these actions do not cause
any further costs for the manufacturing of net shaped gears like injection molded gears (at least if the insert for
the tool is produced by wire erosion). The graphical method is tailored to rate the effect of the root rounding. So
this method should be applied. For the flank, the standard method can be applied, but a careful check of the SAP
versus root form diameter (TIF) is necessary to avoid contact interference.
The sizing of the geometry of such a pair is not simple since often contact interference, undercut and other
problems occur. For the strength analysis, however, the standard method usually is enough. The critical point
might be the very different operational pressure angle versus the nominal pressure angle, or the necessity of a
modified root rounding due to the reduced space in the root area. Then the calculation of Hertzian stress and the
root stress should be carried out based on the real tooth form.
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Determination of material data for strength analysis
As mentioned only limited data is available for plastic material concerning strength analysis of gears. The
relevant tests where carried out between 1970 and 1980 by Höchst in Germany (now Ticona) and other German
companies. Since then a large number of new materials have been developed, especially for higher
temperatures. For all of these new materials there is not a complete set of characteristics for the rating of gears.
If the nominal safety factors are chosen carefully it is possible to make suitable estimation of lifetime even for
these modern plastic materials. A systematic measuring of the characteristics for a set of new plastic materials
would be very helpful to make the right choice. The following guidelines are presented for a practical
measuring procedure.
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Figure 7: Test rig of company Scholz GmbH & Co. KG, Kronach, Germany
One of the final goals of the measurements is to have absolute data available for the sizing of PEEK gears. With
the current set of results, however, it is better to use the data for PEEK relative to the measured permissible
stress of PA66, and then scale the calculated results. This is an approach which is comparable to the method
described before, how to apply calculation methods in general (see figure 3).
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Input unit
Test gears
Output unit
X-tables
25
20
15
10
5
0
1,E+04 1,E+05 1,E+06 1,E+07
Cycles
Figure 9: First results of the Victrex measurements, comparing PEEK with PA66.
General task
The properties of plastic material is highly dependant on temperature. Therefore it is not enough – like it is for
steel – to determine one Wöhler curve, but several Wöhler curves are needed for different temperatures (e.g. 40,
60, 80, 100°C). In addition the strength of the flank is dependant on the type of lubrication (oil, grease or dry
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running), which means that the characteristics for the strength of the flank have to be determined for three
different types of lubricant!
In principal the measurement can be done with some arbitrary pair of gears, for which for instance an injecting
mold is available. The module (DP) should be in a typical range. The calculation method can map the measured
values quite good to other modules. Nowadays most of the plastic gears are with module 1.0mm or smaller (DP
>= 25 in-1). The measurements for the VDI, however, where done with gears with module in the range of
3…5mm. We recommend using gears with module 1.0mm for the tests.
All the other gear parameters like number of teeth, width, profile shift can be chosen arbitrarily, e.g. using
existing molds. The centre distance of course has to fit to the test rig. The parameters of the gear are taken into
account when evaluating the results of the measurement.
The measurement is done on one tooth (typically the other teeth are taken away) by applying a well defined
pulsating normal force (going from 0 to Fmax and backwards) at the tip of the tooth in the direction of the
pressure angle αn.
It is very important to scan the temperature of the tooth (in the root area) during the test, and if necessary control
it. This can be done the easiest by heating the gear up.
To measure the wear, a test rig is necessary that can run gears with given torque and speed at controlled
temperature. So the configuration is usually motor -> torque measurement -> pair of gears -> torque
measurement ->brake. The flank temperature must be measured continuously and if necessary must be
controlled by heating up the test rig. The test rig from Scholz is equipped with a pyrometer for this, scanning the
flank. In addition, the tooth thickness is measured continuously, either automatically or manually, by stopping
the gears and measuring the backlash of the gear set.
For a new material a first test should be done to check if, after a first running in phase, the wear is really linear
over the load cycles . So a first gear must be tested until the tooth thickness is reduced to the limit (e.g. 50%).
To reduce the test time for this test it is carried out with a relatively high load. After verifying that the wear is
really linear, further tests can be carried out on a reduced basis, for instance until the loss of tooth thickness is
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5%. As soon as the slope of the wear can be extracted from the measured points, the rest of the associated wear
over load cycles curve can be extrapolated.
To get a Wöhler curve for a given temperature, several tests are done on different torque levels. Other
parameters, like speed for instance, can have an influence. Our experience has shown that in most cases it can be
neglected. However, all the parameters should be in the typical range. Varying all parameters that might have an
influence would cause the effort to become unmanageable in size. A general problem is that the behavior of the
material is strongly dependant on the combination of both gear materials. In principal, all combinations should
be treated individually. This is usually not possible. For the VDI 2545, all measurements were done against a
steel gear. For the interpretation of the results, the fact that steel was one of the gears has to be taken into
account.
For some materials, for instance PEEK, the assumption that the Wöhler curves for different temperatures are all
of the same shape is not true. According to AGMA 920-A01 “a primary thermal transitional common to all
thermoplastic resins is the glass transition temperature, or Tg. For crystalline resins, this is the temperature at
which the amorphous regions of the polymer begin to soften […]. Mechanically, crystalline polymers begin to
lose a major portion of their modulus through this transition. Amorphous resins, which contain no crystalline
regions, very quickly lose all modulus at the Tg, becoming unusable for mechanical purposes.”
If used for gears at a temperature level below the glass transition temperature PEEK shows pitting. Above this
temperature the failure mode of the flank is wear. Due to this, PEEK shows a significantly higher permissible
stress for higher temperature than for lower in a wide range of applications. This example show, that for a new
plastic material the behavior can be different from what is known from other materials, so all assumptions have
to be done carefully.
For the determination of the load for the tests, a first test should be done with an intermediate value: Based on a
first calculation with a data set for a similar material (as similar as possible, if nothing else is available use the
data from the VDI 2545) a torque level is determined that leads to a test time of some hours, two days
maximum. A very high load often leads to failures which are not well defined, and the time until failure might
be hard to determine. One limit that should be avoided in the beginning is the failure mode by melting teeth. On
the other hand, a low load would lead to a very long test time (for instance 108 load cycles mean one or two
months of measurement). Although these tests have to be carried out anyway to get a full Wöhler curve, it is
better to postpone this long running test until the end of the test program. Often during the first few tests some
assumptions will be proven to be too far off from reality, and the test procedure has to be modified. Usually all
the tests have to be repeated. When the test results are approximately 106 load cycles, the load is increased with
a factor of for instance 1.5 and the next test is run. This is done until the gear fails within less then 104 load
cycles.
Later, tests with a reduced torque, for instance by dividing the first torque value by 1.5, are carried out, reducing
the load until the wear is so small, that due to the uncertainties of the measurement, the progress of the wear can
not be measured any more (or the budget for the tests is exceeded).
Floating diagram for the evaluation of the test results for wear
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Figure 10: Floating diagram for the measurement wear and the interpretation of the results
Conclusion
Sizing and rating plastic gears is not a simple task, mainly due to two reasons: first the available literature is
poor compared to the level for metal gears and second for the only available method, the VDI2545, there is a
severe lack of current data for material properties. To supersede the problems the engineer has to apply the
calculation method in a careful way. Often material properties have to be measured. Following the guidelines
presented in this paper leads to acceptable results.
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the companies Victrex and Scholz for the data and pictures provided.
Furthermore the author wants to thank Dr. Ulrich Kissling, KISSsoft AG and Dan Kondritz, KISSsoft, USA,
LLC for their contribution to this paper.
References
[2] Gunter Erhard, Konstruieren mit Kunststoffen, 2nd edition, Carl Hanser, 1999
[4] Takanashi, S. and A. Shoji: On the Temperature Risc in the Teeth of Plastic Gears, International Power
Transmission & Gearing Conference, San Francisco, 1980
[5] Hachmann H. and E. Strickle: Polyamide als Zahnradwerkstoffe, Konstruktion 18 (1966) 3, S. 81-94
[6] Erhard G. and Ch. Weiss: Zur Berechnung der Zahn- und Flankentemperatur von Zahnrädern aus
Polymerwerkstoffen, Konstruktion 39 (1987) 11 S. 423-430
[8] Obsieger: Zahnformfaktoren von Aussen- und Innenverzahnungen. Konstruktion 32 (1980), S. 443-447.
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