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Field Manual *FM 100-5
No.100-5 Headquarters
Department of the Army
Washington, DC, 5 May 1986
Preface
FM 100-5, Operations, is the Army's keystone warfighting
manual. It explains how Army forces plan and conduct
campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements in con
junction with other services and allied forces. It furnishes the
authoritative foundation for subordinate doctrine, force design,
materiel acquisition, professional education, and individual and
unit training. It applies to Army forces worldwide, but must be
adapted to the specific strategic and operational requirements of
each theater. While emphasizing conventional military opera
tions, it recognizes that Army forces must be capable of operat
ing effectively in any battlefield environment, including low
intensity conflict and on the nuclear and chemical battlefield.
Employment of nuclear and chemical weapons by US forces is
governed by US national policy.
FM 100-5 is compatible with and will serve as the US imple
menting document for NATO land forces tactical doctrine (Allied
Tactical Publication 35A), but is both more theoretical and
more general so as to meet US needs in other theaters. US
troops operating in the framework of FM 100-5 will execute
NATO's forward defense plans in compliance with ATP 35A.
As the Army's principal tool of professional self-education in
the science and art of war, FM 100-5 presents a stable body of
operational and tactical principles rooted in actual military
experience and capable of providing a long-term foundation for
the development of more transitory tactics, techniques, and pro
cedures. It provides operational guidance for use by commanders
and trainers at all echelons and forms the foundation for Army
service school curricula. FM 100-5 emphasizes flexibility and
speed, mission type orders, initiative among commanders at all
levels, and the spirit of the offense.
This edition reaffirms the Army's doctrinal thrust introduced
in 1982. It reflects the lessons learned since that time from
combat operations, teachings, exercises, wargames, and comments
ii
Table of Contents
Page
Operations........ ........................ 33
Sustainment Challenge..........................60
Operational Sustainment....................... 65
Tactical Sustainment.............................71
Weapons. ................................. 85
Battlefield Stress................................ 88
eee
FM 100-5
Page
Chapter 8.
Fundamentals of the Defense ................... 129
Chapter 9.
Conducting Defensive Operations .............. 139
Chapter 10.
Retrograde Operations .......................... 153
iv
FM 100-5
Page
-
OPERATIONS
Employment1.............................171
Appendixes
A. Principles of War .................................... 173
V
PART ONE
CHAPTER 1
Challenges for the US Army
he overriding mission of US
forces is to deter war. The US Army sup
ports that mission by providing combat
ready units to the unified and specified
commands which are charged with execut
ing the military policies of the United
States and waging war should deterrence Nonlner OperaUin
fail.
All military operations pursue and are
governed by political objectives. Today, the Nzldear Warfa
translation of success in battle to desired
political outcomes is more complicated lolgical ara
than ever before. At one extreme of the CommandndCaner
spectrum of conflict, the risk of nuclear Ar DAnVin
war imposes unprecedented limitations on A stere upport
operational flexibility. At the other end, Urban Combat
terrorist activities resist conventional
military solutions. Between these extremes
lies a wide range of possible conflicts
which may escalate toward nuclear war
and which will almost always involve
counterterrorist operations.
Despite this complexity, the ability of
Army units to fight in high-, mid-, and low
intensity conflicts in concert with other
services and with allies remains critical to
the nation's survival. Success in battle
may not alone assure the achievement of Army leaders at all levels with doctrinal
national security goals, but defeat will guidance for conducting campaigns and
guarantee failure. This manual does not major operations and for fighting battles
address the formulation of US strategies and engagements within the broader frame
for deterrence or warfighting. It provides work of military strategy.
Chapter 1 1
FM 100-5
battles will routinely involve cooperation Operations in the foreseeable future will
with other services and allies and could be be fought in one of two basic environ
fought with or under the threat of nuclear ments. One environment may be an antici
or chemical weapons. pated theater of war with an existing sup
port structure of communications, air
The skill and courage of leaders at all defense, logistic facilities, and ports. The
levels will be critical to success in opera other may be a relatively immature theater
tions across the spectrum of conflict. As where Army leaders within a joint or com
in the past, the chaos of combat will place bined context will have to choose between
a premium on the initiative, spirit, cohe creating such a support base in the theater
sion, and mental and physical prepared or fighting with only external support.
ness of soldiers and their units. While the
importance of winning the first battle is HIGH- AND MID-INTENSITY
2 Chapter 1
FM 100-5
the battle area in great depth as well as Nuclear Warfare. Even though the pri
the defeat of enemy forces in deeply eche mary purpose of nuclear weapons is to
loned defensive areas. Successful defense deter their use by others, the threat of
will require early detection of attacking nuclear escalation pervades any military
forces, prompt massing of fires, interdic operation involving the armies of nuclear
tion of follow-on forces, and the contain powers, imposing limitations on the scope
ment and defeat of large formations by fire and objectives even of conventional opera
and maneuver. Throughout the battle area, tions. US nuclear weapons may of course
attack and defense will often take place si only be used following specific directives
multaneously as each combatant attempts by the National Command Authorities
to mass, economize locally, and maneuver (NCAs) after appropriate consultation with
against his opponent. allies. Even were such authority granted,
however, the employment of nuclear weap
Fluidity will also characterize operations ons would be guided more by political and
in the rear of forward deployed committed strategic objectives than by the tactical
forces. Guerrillas, SOF, and terrorists will effect a particular authorized employment
seek to avoid set-piece battles and to strike might produce. Even so, any battlefield
at scattered points of vulnerability. Defend employment of nuclear weapons would cer
ing forces will try to preempt such attacks tainly magnify the destructiveness of opera
with sweeps and raids throughout the bat tions and could sharply alter their tempo.
tle area and will mass rapidly in response Beside the effects of physical damage, the
to guerrilla, SOF, or terrorist attacks wher psychological stress on soldiers would be
ever they occur. severe. As a consequence, battles or even
campaigns could last hours instead of
Lethal Systems. Potential enemies of the days or weeks and could cripple both
United States can be expected to field large combatants.
quantities of high quality weapons systems
whose range and lethality equal or exceed _Chemical Warfare. Chemical warfare has
our own. Potent ground and air systems, been practiced sporadically throughout this
complemented by closely coordinated preci century, and US forces maintain a capabil
sion guided munitions, will be able to con ity in this area primarily for deterrence.
centrate enormous combat power, especially Chemical warfare presents many of the
at decisive points. same complications as nuclear operations.
However, because chemical weapons are
Sensors and Communications. Wide more widespread and the inhibition against
ranging surveillance, target acquisition their use is lower for some nations, US
sensors, and communications that provide forces are even more likely to face a chemi
information almost immediately will in cal than a nuclear threat.
crease the range and scope of battle. Sen
sors offer the commander more than just Biological Warfare. The US has re
timely information on deep enemy loca nounced the use of biological weapons. How
tions and activity. They also serve as the ever, this unilateral renunciation does not
basis for attacking enemy follow-on forces free our own forces from the threat of
with missiles (ASM and SSM), MLRS, tube enemy biological warfare. Army forces
artillery, fixed-wing aircraft, attack helicop must therefore continue to train to fight
ters, SOF, and nonlethal means such as an enemy who could use biological
electronic combat and deception. Since weapons.
Chapter 1 3
FM 100-5
and to focus combat power there. Under as minefields and others natural such as
such conditions, it is imperative that the rivers, mountains, and other hindering ter
overall commander's intent and concept of rain. Such obstacles often favor the defense
operations be understood throughout the and permit economies of force but they
force. Communications will be interrupted also pose special challenges of force com
by enemy action at critical times and units position, task organization, maneuver, and
will frequently have to fight while out of timing.
contact with higher headquarters and adja
cent units. Subordinate leaders will be Unconventional Warfare and Terror
expected to act on their own initiative ism. In almost all conflicts, the Army will
within the framework of the commander's encounter terrorists, guerrillas, and sabo
intent. teurs. Operating throughout the theater of
Air Dimension. The airspace of a theater war, they will threaten the security and
continuity of our operations. They will
is as important a dimension of ground op usually be present even in high- and mid-
erations as the terrain itself. This airspace intensity conflicts where their suppression
is used for various purposes including will involve passive and active measures
maneuver, delivery of fires, reconnaissance including the commitment of forces.
and surveillance, transportation, and com
mand and control. The control and use of
the air will always affect operations; the LOW INTENSITY CONFLICT
effectiveness of air operations in fact can
decide the Outcome of campaigns and bat The growing incidence of war at the
tles. Commanders must Consider the air low end of the conflict spectrum demands
space to include the apportionment of air Army action on the unique battlefields of
power in planning and supporting their low intensity-conflict (LIC). This form of
operations. They must protect their own warfare falls below the level of high- and
forces from observation, attack, and inter mid-intensity operations and will pit Army
diction by the enemy and expect the enemy forces against irregular or unconventional
to contest use of the airspace. forces, enemy special operations forces,
and terrorists. LIC poses a threat to US
Austere Support. Army forces must be pre interests at all times, not just in periods
pared to fight their battles at the end of of active hostilities.
long, vulnerable lines of logistical support
and must anticipate high consumption Fighting in the low end of the conflict
rates for all types of supplies. They may spectrum requires special force composition
have to fight outnumbered against an and task organization, rapid deployment,
enemy with significantly shorter supply and restraint in the execution of military
lines. Logistical support may be austere in operation. Army actions in LIC must be
such situations and thereby markedly fully coordinated with national strategy
affect the design of campaigns and the and fused at the operational level into a
planning and conduct of battles. coherent effort which will usually include
Urban Combat. Combat in built-up areas economic and political actions as well as
will be unavoidable in most theaters of military activities.
war. Divisions and larger units will have
to plan for attack and defense in urban In countering an insurgency, the Army
may employ specially trained forces or
areas and for fluid battles around them. training teams. This sort of activity,
Obstacles. Mid-.to high-intensity opera termed Foreign Internal Defense, may in
tions also will have to contend with sub clude the transfer of defense equipment,
stantial obstacles, some man made such the training of foreign soldiers, advisory
4 Chapter 1
FM 100-5
assistance, or even the commitment of com unit and individual discipline in the forces
bat forces. All military efforts in a counter committed. Units of peacekeeping forces
insurgency campaign will be made in use force only in cases of self defense.
concert with the initiatives of other US
government agencies involved to ensure a Independent and state-supported ter
synchronized national effort. The forces rorists employ violence in attempting to
selected for Foreign Internal' Defense will influence the policies of governments. In a
depend on the threat to be countered. Light very real sense, terrorists pursue strategic
and heavy forces, aviation units, logistical objectives through LIC. Army doctrine
support, and a variety of training teams calls for preventive action-antiterrorism
may be used for counterinsurgency efforts. along with reactive measures-counterter
rorism-to meet the terrorist threat to US
There are also peacetime contingency forces, representatives, and agencies and
operations which require the employment to the security of American citizens and
of Army forces. These can include demon property.
strations of force, raids, or rescue missions,
and larger operations undertaken to protect Terrorism constitutes a threat which
US interests, lives, and property. These must be dealt with within the Army's daily.
contingency operations require intensive operations and which will continue to be
intelligence collection, thorough planning, of concern in high--and mid-intensity con
and rapid deployment of light forces at the flicts. Awareness of the threat and recogni
decisive time and place. tion that the indicators of terrorist activity
As in the past, the Army will also par differ from those of the enemy on the con
ticipate in peacekeeping operations which ventional battlefield are essential to coun
support diplomatic efforts to achieve, tering terrorism. Leaders at all levels must
restore, or maintain peace in an area of develop a broad view of this conflict which
armed conflict. Such operations may be will guide them in securing their opera
unilaterally or internationally manned and tions and in protecting their soldiers from
directed. Whatever the case, they will be terrorists as well as from conventional
sensitive and will require a high degree of enemy military forces.
Chapter 1 5
FM 100-5
when they know and respect their leaders TRAINING AND READINESS
and believe that they are part of a good
unit. How to develop effective leaders is Clausewitz stated the purpose of peace
addressed in FM 22-100 and FM 22-999. time armies very clearly. He said: "The
whole of military activity must relate
DOCTRINE directly or indirectly to the engagement.
The end for which a soldier is recruited,
An army's fundamental doctrine is the clothed, armed, and trained, the whole
condensed expression of its approach to object of his sleeping, eating, drinking, and
fighting campaigns, major operations, bat marching is simply that he should fight
tles, and engagements. Tactics, techniques, at the right place and the right time."
procedures, organizations, support struc
ture, equipment and training must all Forward deployed forces may have to
derive from it. It must be rooted in time- fight on a few hours' notice. Other compo
tested theories and principles, yet forward- nents of the force may have only days or
looking and adaptable to changing technol weeks to make final preparations for war.
ogies, threats, and missions. It must be Commanders must have effective plans for
definitive enough to guide operations, yet those important days or weeks and must
versatile enough to accommodate a wide train for the specific missions they antici
variety of worldwide situations. Finally, to pate. They must ensure that each officer,
be useful, doctrine must be uniformly noncommissioned officer (NCO), and sol
known and understood. dier is prepared for battle and is equipped
The doctrine presented in the following to perform his job as part of the unit.
chapters seeks to develop the full potential Training is the cornerstone of success.
of the Army. It takes into account the chal It is a full-time job for commanders in
lenges outlined on the previous pages and peacetime, and it continues in wartime
is applicable to joint, combined, and tacti combat zones as well. On the day of battle,
cal operations worldwide. The principles of soldiers and units will fight as well or as
AirLand Battle doctrine reflect past usages poorly as they were trained in preceding
in the US Army and the tested ideas of days.
past and modern theorists of war. The
nine principles of war are fundamental to Soldiers receive most of their training
US Army doctrine. They are elaborated in in their units. There they can best train
FM 100-1 The Army and reprinted here in as individuals and as members of teams
Appendix A, for convenient reference. under conditions that approximate battle.
Recent studies have also been used to gain Unit training aims at developing maxi
insights into the likely nature of contem mum effectiveness with combined and sup
porary operations. While AirLand Battle porting arms in specific, mission-essential
doctrine focuses primarily on mid- to high- tasks. This means ensuring that standard
intensity warfare, the tenets of AirLand ized procedures and battle drills are used
Battle apply equally to the military opera to gain the greatest possible coordination
tions characteristic of low intensity war. and speed. Once basic standards have been
Such operations of course pose a different achieved, commanders should attempt to per
challenge than those of high- and mid- form the same tasks under more difficult
intensity conflict. That challenge must be conditions. Unit training should simulate
met with initiative in leaders, special prep as closely as possible the battlefield's
aration in training, and flexibility and tempo, scope, and uncertainty. Units and
restraint in operations. FM 100-20, Low headquarters that will fight together in
Intensity Conflict, addresses this subject teams, task forces, or larger units should
in detail. train together routinely. Such combined
6 Chapter 1
FM 100-5
arms training is far more effective and decisions based on broad guidance and
realistic than the training of units in mission orders. Such practices enhance the
isolation from their routine attachments morale, confidence, and effectiveness of
and support. small units and improve the performance
of higher levels of command as well.
The complexities of combat make it
increasingly important to concentrate on Unit readiness cannot be achieved with
training programs for leaders and teams. out logistical readiness-the availability
Those who direct the employment of and proper functioning of materiel,
weapons and small units must be compe resources, and systems to maintain and
tent in their use. Commanders must also sustain operations on a fluid, destructive,
take time to train subordinate leaders and and resource-hungry battlefield. Training
staff members, building their confidence support units is as important as training
and requiring them to exercise initiative. tactical units. Support units should also
This is best done by training them to react be rigorously trained under realistic
to changes which require fast, independent conditions.
Chapter 1 7
CHAPTER 2
Fundamentals of AirLand: Battle Doctrine
of operatins.
assets, and imposes conditions on the use o odes ntadLa
Chapter 2 9
FM 100-5
the scope of this manual, strategy derived relationship of means to ends, and effective
from policy must be clearly understood to joint and combined cooperation. Reduced to
be the sole authoritative basis of all its essentials, operational art requires the
operations. commander to answer three questions:
OPERATIONAL ART (1) What military condition must be
produced in the theater of war- or opera
Operational art is the employment of tions to achieve the strategic goal?
military forces to attain strategic goals in
,a theater of war or theater Of operations (2) What sequence of actions is most
through the design, organization, and con likely to produce that condition?
duct of campaigns and major operations., (3) How should the resources of the
A campaign is a series of joint actions
force be applied to accomplish that se
designed to attain a strategic objective in quence of actions?
a theater of war. Simultaneous campaigns
may take place when the theater of war TACTICS
contains more than one theater of opera
tions. Sequential campaigns in a single While operational art sets the objectives
theater occur when a large force changes and pattern of military activities, tactics'
or secures its original goal or when the is the art by which corps and smaller unit
conditions of the conflict change. An offen commanders translate potential combat
sive campaign may follow a successful power into victorious battles and engage
defensive campaign, for example, as it did ments. Engagements are small conflicts
in Korea in 1950. Or a new offensive cam between opposed maneuver forces. Covering
paign may have to be undertaken if stra forces, guard forces, patrols, units in
tegic goals change or are not secured in defense and units moving to contact fight
the initial campaign. A major operation engagements when they encounter the
comprises the coordinated actions of large enemy. Engagements are normally conflicts
forces in a single phase of a campaign or of a few hours' duration fought between
in a critical battle. Major operations decide divisions and smaller forces. Such engage
the course of campaigns. ments may or may not bring on battle.
Operational art thus involves funda Battles consist of a series of related
mental decisions about when and where to engagements. Battles last longer, involve
fight and whether to accept or decline larger forces, and often produce decisions
battle. Its essence is the identification of that affect the subsequent course of the
the enemy's operational center-of-gravity campaign. Battles occur when large
his source of strength or balance-and the forces-divisions, corps, and armies-
concentration of superior combat power commit themselves to fight for significant
against that point to achieve a decisive goals. They are often fought when the
success (See Appendix B for a discussion deliberate attack of one force meets deter
of center of gravity). No particular echelon mined resistance from the defender. Battles
of command is solely or uniquely con can also result from meeting engagements
cerned with operational art, but theater between forces contesting the initiative.
commanders and their chief subordinates These battles may result from the determin
usually plan and direct campaigns. Army ation of opposed commanders to impose
groups and armies normally design the their will on their enemy. Battles can also
major ground operations of a campaign. arise without strong direction when large
And corps and divisions normally execute forces meet and neither withdraws. Such
those major ground operations. Operational actions may not even be recognized as
art requires broad vision, the ability to battles until they have gone on for some
anticipate, a careful understanding of the time.
10 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
Battles may be short and intense and to force an attacker to assume the defen
fought in a relatively small area (as on the sive or allow the defender to take the
Golan Heights in 1973), or they may vary operational offensive. Kursk, El Alamein,
in intensity over a period of days and and the battle of the 'Chinese Farm" in
weeks and extend over a wide area (as in the Sinai are examples of such watershed
the battle of the Bulge). In either case the battles. More commonly, tactical success by
battles of committed divisions, corps, or the attacker leads to a fluid operational
armies will be surrounded by a larger area interlude which lasts until the defender
in which both combatants try to concen reestablishes a tenable resistance or the
trate forces and support for the battle. attacker overextends himself. Similarly,
Action in this surrounding area can tactical success by the defender is more
strongly affect the outcome of the battle. likely to defer a decision or reduce the
attacker's advantage than permit an im
Battles may not take place at all if the mediate shift to the offensive.
enemy can be rapidly overwhelmed in a
series of minor engagements and prevented Sound tactics win battles and engage
from mounting a coherent defense. On the ments by moving forces on the battlefield
other hand, battles can ' also produce stale to gain positional advantage over the
mates which favor neither side. enemy; by applying fire support to facili
Battles or significant tactical gains tate and exploit that advantage; and by
made without battle determine the course assuring the sustainment of friendly forces
of campaigns. Though battles often decided before, during, and after engagement with
wars in the last century, recent experience the enemy. Sound tactics employ all avail
suggests that battles between competent able combat, combat support, and combat
forces are more likely to decide phases of service support where they will make the
campaigns. They may be important enough greatest contribution to victory.
The dynamics of combat power decide bear, and the ability of the leader to avoid
opera-,
campaigns, majorCombat
the outcome ofand the enemy's efforts to degrade his own
tions, battles, engagements. capabilities before or during battle may be
power is the ability to fight. It measures equally or more important. This explains
the effect created by combining maneuver, why the larger or stronger force does not
firepower, protection, and leadership in always win.
combat actions against an enemy in war.
Leaders combine maneuver, firepower, and In the course of campaigns, major opera
protection capabilities available to them in tions, battles, and engagements, the bal
countless combinations appropriate to the ance of combat power may shift back and
situation. They also attempt to interfere forth between opponents. This is especially
with the enemy leader's ability to generate likely when engaged forces are roughly
the greatest effect against them by interfer equal in capabilities. When physical
ing with the enemy's ability to effectively strengths are nearly equal, the moral quali
maneuver, apply firepower, or provide pro ties of skill, courage, character, perse
tection. Therefore, while quantitative verance, innovativeness, and strength of
measures of available capability are impor will of\ both soldiers and leaders are
tant, the quality of available capabilities, always decisive. There are also many cases
the ability of the leader to bring them to in history where forces inferior in physical
Chapter 2 11
FM 100-5
12 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
naval fires, and substituting massed fires positions, conduct rapid movements, sup
for massed troops. Commanders must press enemy weapons, provide air defense,
understand the techniques of integrating conceal positions, deceive the enemy, and
Air Force, Naval, and Army firepower effec take other measures to prevent unnecessary
tively in the conduct of campaigns and combat losses. Operational commanders
major operations. take similar measures on a larger scale.
They protect the force from operational
Firepower supports friendly operational level maneuver and concentrated enemy
maneuver by damaging key enemy forces air support. Air superiority operations,
or facilities, creating delays in enemy theater wide air defense systems and pro
movement, complicating the enemy's com tection of air bases are important activities
mand and control, and degrading his artil associated with maximizing combat power
lery, air defense, and air support. At the at the operational level.
operational level, firepower can also dis
rupt the movement, fire support, command The second component of protection in
and control, and sustainment of enemy cludes actions to keep soldiers healthy and
forces. to maintain their fighting morale. It also
means guarding their equipment and sup
Maximum effective firepower against plies from loss or damage. Tactical com
the enemy requires that many functions be manders take care of their soldier's basic
coordinated and performed well. Systems health needs and prevent unnecessary expo
and procedures for allocating priorities sure to debilitating conditions. They con
must be effective. Targets must be effi sider the welfare and morale of soldiers
ciently located and identified. Gunnery and try to build cohesion and esprit in
must be rapid and accurate. Firing systems units. In addition they supervise preventive
and supporting equipment must be mobile maintenance and expeditious repair, and
and moved to advantageous positions. practice supply economy. Operationalt com
There must be a steady supply of the manders ensure systems are in place for
proper munitions in adequate quantities. adequate medical care, expeditious return
Hardware must be maintained and replaced of minor casualties to duty, and preventive
as necessary. The various components of medicine. They protect stocks of supplies
the firing system must be protected from and ensure their proper distribution. They
enemy action. And most importantly, provide effective systems for maintenance
effective firepower depends on well-trained evacuation and rapid'replacement or repair
crews, observers, and fire direction of hardware. At times, they husband and
personnel. ration supplies or enforce strict controls
PROTECTION and priorities to ensuie strength at the
decisive time and place.S
Protection is the conservation of the
fighting potential of a force so that it can
be applied at the decisive time and place.
Protection has two components. The first
'n1 ofco
mat
includes all actions that are taken to The most essent ementofcma
counter the enemy's firepower and maneu power is competent and confident leader
ver by making soldiers, systems, and units ship. Leadership provides purpose, direc
difficult to locate, strike, and destroy. tion, and motivation in combat. It is the
Among those actions are security, air leader who will determine the degree to
defense, dispersal, cover, camouflage, decep which maneuver, firepower, and protection
enemy weapons, and are maximized; who will ensure these ele
tion,
mobility. Tacticalof commanders provide
suppression ments are effectively balanced; and who
security against surprise maneuver, main will decide how to bring them to bear
tain camouflage discipline, fortify fighting against the enemy. There are no ready
Chapter 2 13
FM 100-5
formulas to govern this process. Only excel leaders have differed in style and tech
lence in the art and science of war will nique but all have been accomplished,
enable the commander to generate and effective soldiers.
apply combat power successfully. Thus no Leaders develop potential combat power
peacetime duty is more important for in their units through preparation prior to
leaders than studying their profession and battle. Preparation includes many matters
preparing for war. The regular study of of long-term concern to the Army-force
military history and biography is invalu design, equipment design, and procure
able in this regard. ment, to name only a few. The tactical
unit commander has a more immediate per
In the current conditions of combat, no spective. To him, preparation means plan
challenge exceeds leadership in impor ning, logistical readiness, training, and
tance. The personal influence of large joint motivation. These factors affect unit poten
and combined force, field army, corps, and tial until the moment of engagement. Suc
division commanders will have a major cessful commanders have always continued
bearing on the outcomes of battles and training programs throughout campaigns
campaigns. Leaders at lower levels will on and near the battlefield. They recog
play equally important parts in winning nized that every endeavor causes the unit
the smaller engagements that make up to learn either good or bad habits. Con
battles. tinuous training under all conditions
ensures that what is learned is positive
The skill and personality of a strong and will contribute to success in battle.
commander represent a significant part of Commanders must demand excellence in
his unit's combat power. While leadership execution under all conditions and must
requirements differ with unit size and type, strive to make it habitual.
all leaders must be men of character; they
must know and understand soldiers and In the final analysis and once the force
the material tools of war. They must act is engaged, superior combat power derives
with courage and conviction in the uncer from the courage and competence of sol
tainty and confusion of battle. The primary diers, the excellence of their training, the
function of tactical leaders is to induce capability of their equipment, the sound
soldiers to do difficult things in dangerous, ness of their combined arms doctrine, and
stressful circumstances. Successful combat above all the quality of their leadership.
AirLanid Battle doctrine describes the are struck against critical units or areas
Army's approach to generating and apply whose loss will degrade the coherence of
ing combat power at the operational and enemy operations in depth, and thus most
tactical levels. It is based on securing or rapidly and economically accomplish the
retaining the initiative and exercising it mission. From the enemy's point of view,
aggressively to accomplish the mission. these operations must be rapid, unpredict
The object of all operations is to impose able, violent, and disorienting. The pace
our will upon the enemy-to achieve our must be fast enough to prevent him from
purposes. To do this we must throw the taking effective counteractions.
enemy off balance with a powerful blow
from an unexpected direction, follow up Our operational planning must orient
rapidly to prevent his recovery and con on decisive objectives. It must stress flexi
tinue operations aggressively to achieve bility, the creation of opportunities to fight
the higher commander's goals. The best on favorable terms by capitalizing on en
results are obtained when powerful blows emy vulnerabilities, concentration against
14 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
enemy centers of gravity, synchronized This will cause the initiative to pass to the
joint operations, and aggressive exploita defender. Tactical successes in seizing the
tion of tactical gains to achieve operational initiative are used as leverage to seize the
results. Our tactical planning must be pre initiative at the operational level.
cise enough to preserve synchronization
throughout the battle. At the same time, I'the--attack-intiaive implies never
it must be flexible enough to respond to a llWiing the enemy to recover from the ini
changes or to capitalize on fleeting oppor tilshock-of the attack This requires sur
tunities to damage the enemy. Success on prise in selecting the time and place of
the battlefield will depend on the Army's attack; concentration, speed, audacity, and
ability to fight in accordance with four violence in execution; the seeking of soft
4basic tenets: initiative, agility, depth, and spots; flexible shifting of the main effort;
synchronization. and prompt transition to exploitation. The'
goal is the creation of a fluid situation in
INITIATIVE which the enemy steadily loses'track of
Initiative means setting or changing events and thus coherencejThe defender
the terms of battle by action. It implies an ,is-not given the time To identify and mass
offensive spirit in the conduct of all opera Shis forces or supporting fires against the
tions. Applied to the force as a whole, ini attack because of the ambiguity of the
tiative requires a constant effort to force situation presented to him andnn~g~t~
•w'ith-w~hich--it.changes.,-Re4 the rapidity:..
the enemy to conform to our operational iaii the -ini
purpose and tempo while ,retaining our tiative over time requires thinking ahead,
own freedom of action. pplied to indivi planning beyond the initial operation, and
dualI soldiers ain leaders, it requires a will anticipating key events on the battlefield
4,ingness and ability to act independently hours, days, and weeks ahead.
t within the framework..othel-g~he o
Sm~ander's intent. Ibothsenses, initiative . In nthecha6s of battle, it is essential to
rrequires audacity which may involve risk idecentralize decision authority to the low--
_taking and an atmosphere.Itht supportt est practicatlev-elbecas eve¥centraiiza
There are at least two kinds of risk in tion slows action and leads to inertia. At
combat. One is the risk of losing men and
the same time, decentralization risks some
equipment-om i-0-M loss of precision in execution. The com
is that a chosen course of actionmay_nqt mander must constantly bal'ance these
besm ft, evenjLouccessful, fail to competing risks, recognizing that loss of
Hcl ethre ffect. All leaders must precision is usually preferable to inaction.
take prudent risks of both types indepen tUecentralization demands subordinates
dently, based on their own judgment. who are willing and able to take risks and
superiors who nurture that willingness and
In the defense, initiative implies quickly -ability in their subordinates. If subordi
turning the tables on the attacker. The nates are to exercise initiative without
defender must act rapidly to negate the endangering the overall success of the
attacker's initial advantage of choice of force, they must thoroughly understand the
time and place of attack. Intelligence
operations seek advance warning. Planning assumptions on which it was based. In
anticipates likely enemy courses of action turn, the force commander must encourage
setting the tempo and conditions of enemy the overall mission, and give them the free
operations-and in making adjustments. dom and responsibility to develop oppor
Once the attacker is committed to a par tunities which the force as a whole can
ticular course of action the defender must exploit to accomplish the mission more
frustrate it, then preempt any adjustments. effectively. Force commanders must then
Chapter 2 15
-'----rn--I
FM 100-5
16 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
enemy's freedom of action, reduce his flexi with maneuver, for example, or the shift
bility and endurance, and upset his plans ing of reserves with the rearrangement of
and coordination. Commanders retain air defense-must occur before the decisive
reserves and adjust their main efforts to moment, and may take place at locations
exploit tactical opportunities and carry the far distant from each other. While them
fight into the depths of the enemy's forma selves separated in time and space, how
tions or defenses. At the same time, they ever, these activities are synchronized if
guard their own freedom of action by pro their combined consequences are felt at the
tecting their rear areas and support forces. decisive time and place.
In pursuit of operational objectives,
Thus in an attack, supporting fires are
large unit commanders observe enemy
synchronized with maneuver if, as attack
movements in depth and protect their own
ing forces break out of defilade, supporting
vulnerabilities throughout the theater. In
fires are shifted from counterfire against
conjunction with air and naval operations,
enemy artillery to suppression of enemy
they employ maneuver, fires, and special
direct fire systems. Or on a larger scale,
operations to attack enemy units, facilities,
main and supporting attacks are synchron
and communications throughout the the ized if the latter takes place at precisely
ater and to force the enemy to fight battles
the right time and place to divert enemy
on their terms. Following battle, theater
forces and fires from the main effort as it
operations in depth are used to extend the
strikes the enemy. At the operational level,
advantages gained by tactical success or
two major operations arefsnchroniz
to limit losses.
Vft7 y attracti-ng.,.the...bu.1k--oenemy
Exploitation of depth in operati-ons forc, uncovers a key objective for decisive
demands imagination, boldne resight, Att:aick by Th76_other.
an d =en-isiveness-inColeader.Comman ders
/must see beyond the requirements of the So defined, synchronization may and
moment, actively seek information on the usually will require explicit coordination
area and the enemy in depth, and employ among, the various units and activities par
every asset available to extedhpnera-n ticipating in any operation. By itself, how
tiosn'me and spac .They must-also ever, such coordination is no guarantee of
capitalize on natural and man made ob synchronization, unless the commander
stacles by using less mobile forces to first visualizes the consequences to be pro
exploit these obstacles, thereby freeing duced and how activities must be se
mobile forces to maneuver over more favor quenced to produce them. Synchronization
able terrain. thus takes place first in the mind of the
commander and then in the actual plan
~~~SYCHRNIATON ning and coordination of movements, fires,
Synchronization is the arrangement of and supporting activities.
battlefield activities in time, space and pur
pose to produce maximum relative combat Synchronization need not depend on
-power at the deci Synchroni explicit coordination if all forces involved
fully understand t e intent of the comman
zaon i --both a process and a result.
der, and if they have eve ope and
Commanders syncfronize activities.-tiiey hearsed well-conceived standard7responses
thereby produce synchronized operations. to anticipated contingencies. In the chaos
Synchronization includes but is not
of battle, when communications fail and
limited to the actual concentration of
face-to-face coordination is impossible, such
forces and fires at the point of decision.
implicit coordination may make the differ-]
Some of the activities which must be syn ence between victory and defeat. The
chronized in an operation-interdiction enemy for his part will do everything in
Chapter 2 17
/ I
< (~
7 ,J . $ ' j/
(
WI
FM 100-5
SYNCHRONIZATION
his power to disrupt the synchronization it will make the greatest contribution to
of friendly operations. The less that syn success and nothing wasted or overlooked.
chronization depends on active communica To achieve this requires anticipation,
tion, the less vulnerable it will be. mastery of time-space relationships, and a
complete understanding of the ways in
In the end, the product of effective syn which friendly and enemy capabilities
chronization is maximum economy of force, interact. Most of all, it requires unambigu
with every resource used where and when ous unity of purpose throughout the force.
18 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
Close, deep, and rear operations com Among the activities typically compris
prise a special and continuous synchroni ing close operations are
zation requirement. For commanders at
division and above, synchronization of * Maneuver (including deep maneuver).
close, deep, and rear operations will nor
mally require deliberate planning and staff * Close combat (including close air sup
coordination, and such operations will fre port).
quently employ different assets. At brigade
and below, close, deep, and rear activities * Indirect fire support (including counter-
are practically indistinguishable and will fire).
usually be conducted with the same assets. * Combat support/combat service support
At every level, however, commanders must
understand the relationship among these of committed units.
three arenas and their combined impact on
the course of battle. " Command and control.
Chapter 2 19
FM 100-5
and command and control systems, and to more true when-as will frequently be the
prevent, delay, or disrupt the closure of case-seizure and retention of the initiative
uncommitted enemy formations. The princi depend on successful prosecution of deep
pal difference in such operations today is operations.
the increasing*availability of means to con
duct them at the tactical as well as the REAR OPERATIONS
operational level.
Rear operations at any echelon com
At both levels, the principal targets of prise activities rearward of elements in
deep operations are the freedom of action contact designed to assure freedom of
of the opposing commander and the coher maneuver and continuity of operations,
ence and tempo of his operations. As with including continuity of sustainment and
close operations, not all activities focused command and control. Rear operations
forward of the line of contact are deep opera may have little immediate impact on close
tions. Counterfire, for example, is intended ground operations, but are critical to sub
primarily to support the current fight, even sequent operations, whether in exploiting
though the targets attacked in the counter- success or recouping failure. At the opera
fire effort may be located at great dis tional level, rear operations focus on pre
tances from the forward line of own troops paring for the next phase of the campaign
(FLOT). Similarly, electronic warfare or major operation. At the tactical level,
efforts to disrupt the enemy's control of rear operations underwrite the tempo of
engaged forces are part of close operations, combat, assuring the commander the agil-'
even though the targeted emitters may be ity to take advantage of any opportunity
well to the enemy's rear. without hesitation or delay.
Among the activities typically con Four rearward activities in particular
ducted as part of deep operations are must be conducted as part of rear opera
tions: assembly and movement of reserves,
* Deception. redeployment of fire support, maintenance
and protection of sustainment effort", and
* Deep surveillance and target acquisition. maintenance of command and control.
Reserves must be positioned to support
* Interdiction (by ground or air fires, their anticipated commitment and secured
ground or aerial maneuver, special oper from observation and attack. Probable
ating forces (SOF), or any combination deployment routes must be free of obstruc
of these). tion, and the actual movement of reserves
protected from enemy observation and
* Command, control, and communications interdiction. Fire support assets likewise
countermeasures. must be redeployed to support future opera
tions, and that redeployment protected
* Command and control. from enemy detection and interference.
Sustainment facilities and supplies must be
Because of the relative scarcity of re secured against ground, air, and missile
sources with which to perform these activ attack, and stocks to support projected
ities, deep operations must be focused operations accumulated without decreasing
against those enemy capabilities which the support to currently engaged units.
most directly threaten the success of pro And command posts and communications
jected friendly operations. These must be networks must be deployed where they can
attacked decisively, with enough power to continue the fight without a break in
assure the desired impact. That will be the operating tempo.
20 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
Common to all operations-close, deep, orders that specify what must be done
and rear-is the necessity for superior without prescribing how it must be done
command and control.. The command and should be used in most cases. Control mea
control system which supports the execu sures should secure cooperation between
tion of AirLand Battle doctrine must facili forces without imposing unnecessary re
tate freedom to operate, delegation of strictions on the freedom of junior leaders.
authority, and leadership from any critical The larger force should remain alert to
point on the battlefield. Plans are the ini and be prepared for exploitation of advan
tial basis of action, but commanders must tages developed by subordinate units
expect considerable variation from plans through the course of any operation.
in the course of combat. Ideally, the initial
plan for an operation will establish the com A command and control system seeking
mander's intent and concept of operations to promote such flexibility and freedom to
and the responsibilities of subordinate operate independently must emphasize cer
units. It will, however, leave the greatest tain specific operational techniques and
possible operational and tactical freedom command practices. First, it must optimize
to subordinate leaders. The plan must the use of time by routine use of warning
therefore be flexible enough to permit orders, situation updates, and anticipatory
variation by subordinates in pursuit of the planning and positioning of forces.
commander's goals.
The command and control system must
Whenever possible, subordinate leaders also stress standardized training in opera
should receive their orders face-to-face tions and staff practices to assure mutual
from their commanders on the ground understanding-between leaders and units.
chosen for the operation. Commanders In turn, this requires both military educa
should restrict the operations of their tion throughout the Army and its sister
subordinates as little as necessary. Mission services and reinforcing training within
Chapter 2 21
FM 100-5
units. War gaming, rehearsals, and realis freely and boldly to accomplish his mis
tic training promote initiative and flexibil sion without further orders.
ity by preparing units and their leaders for If an unanticipated situation arises,
cooperation in the chaos of combat without committed maneuver unit commanders
time-consuming coordination. should understand the purpose of the op
Further, the command and control sys eration well enough to act decisively, con
tem must permit tactical leaders to position fident that they are doing what their
themselves wherever the situation calls for superior commander would order done were
their personal presence without depriving he present. The 9th Armored Division's
them of the ability to respond to opportun seizure of the Remagen bridge epitomizes
ities or changing circumstances with the the freedom of action and initiative re
whole force. If, for example, a division quired in combat. In that instance, an in
commander operating forward with a lead fantry platoon leader who understood the
ing brigade decides to shift his main effort goal of his division commander acted
to capitalize on the unexpected success of promptly and without orders to secure an
a supporting attack, his command and con advantage that altered the course of the
trol system must assure rapid execution of Army's whole campaign.
his order without sacrificing momentum or
coordination. This requires solid staff work The same principles apply at the opera
and strongly developed skills of tactical tional level of war. Lead times are longer
anticipation. Leaders throughout the force and forces are slower to move, but mission-
must be ready to change directions of orders, anticipation of requirements, and
movement, bases of fire, support arrange initiative are equally important. The inher
ments, and task organizations without hesi ently joint nature of campaign planning
tation during operations. Succession of and direction makes mutual understanding
command when a leader is killed or dis and practiced cooperation all the more im
abled must be provided for in advance and portant in theater operations.
accomplished without disruption of the Staffing, equipment, and organizational
operation. concerns vary among levels of command.
This need for flexibility in command In every case, however, the only purpose
and control is greater for the committed of command and control is to implement
maneuver unit commander than for any the commander's will in pursuit of the
one else. He cannot depend on constant unit's objective. The system must be reli
direction, but must fight independently able, secure, fast, and durable. It must col
even when he cannot communicate outside lect, analyze, and present information
his own zone or sector. He must know the rapidly. It must communicate orders, coor
intention of the commander two levels dinate support, and provide direction to
above him, understand the concept of op the force in spite of enemy interference,
eration of his immediate commander, and destruction of command posts, or loss and
know the responsibilities of the units on replacement of commanders. The ultimate
his flanks and in support of his operations. measure of command and control effective
If he understands these things, the com ness is whether the force functions more
mitted commander can conduct his opera effectively and more quickly than the
tion confidently, anticipate events, and act enemy.
22 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
combat, combat support, and combat ser build teamwork, promote sound values,
vice support doctrine are derived directly accept responsibility, delegate authority,
from, and must support, these fundamental anticipate developments, take decisive
tenets. actions, and accept risks. Command and
While initiative, agility, depth, and control systems emphasize implicit coordi
synchronization characterize successful nation measures such as sound training in
AirLand Battle operations, the imperatives a common doctrine, standing operating pro
listed below prescribe key operating require cedures, methods, and techniques, and well-
ments. These provide more specific guid rehearsed battle drills. Missions are clear
ance than the principles of war and the and concise. Plans are simple. Control
AirLand Battle tenets, and apply to all mechanisms are easy to apply, understand,
operations. They are historically valid and and communicate. Habitual relationships
fundamentally necessary are
for success on the effortused to maximize teamwork. A main
is always clearly designated and
modern battlefield. The ten imperatives of
AirLand Battle are ground plans are thoroughly coordinated
with plans for air support. All actions
* Ensure unity of effort.
throughout the force are performed so as
" Anticipate events on the battlefield.
to ensure the success of the main effort.
Liaison among units must be automatic
" Concentrate combat power against
and effective.
enemy vulnerabilities.
ANTICIPATE EVENTS ON
* Designate, sustain, and shift the main THE BATTLEFIELD
effort.
The commander must anticipate the
* Press the fight. enemy's actions and reactions and must be
* Move fast, strike hard, and finish able to foresee how operations may de
rapidly. velop. Predictions about the enemy and
even our own troops can never be relied
" Use terrain, weather, deception, and on with certainty, but it is nevertheless
OPSEC. essential to anticipate what is possible and
* Conserve strength for decisive action. likely and prepare for those possibilities.
Anticipating events and foreseeing the
* Combine arms and sister services to
shape of possibilities hours, days, or weeks
complement and reinforce. in the future are two of the most difficult
* Understand the effects of battle on sol skills to develop, yet among the most impor
diers, units, and leaders. tant. They require wisdom, experience, and
understanding of the enemy's methods, capa
ENSURE UNITY OF EFFORT bilities, and inclinations, outstanding intel
ligence, and confidence in the knowledge
Commands must not only ensure unity of how one's own forces will perform. Antici
of effort within their own organizations, pation and foresight are critical to turning
but must also promote it with supporting inside the enemy's decision cycle and main
and supported elements as well as with taining the initiative.
sister services and allies. The fundamental
prerequisite for unity of effort within Army CONCENTRATE COMBAT
Chapter 2 23
FM 100-5
strengths, find his inherent vulnerabilities, tenaciously press soldiers and systems to
and know how to create new vulnerabil the limits of endurance for as long as
ities which can be exploited to decisive necessary.
effect. Having identified or created enemy
vulnerabilities, the commander must have MOVE FAST, STRIKE HARD,
shift his main effort as necessary to gain Speed has always been important to
the greatest possible advantage. Combat combat operations, but it will be even more
power must be concentrated to reach important on the next battlefield because
points of enemy vulnerability quickly with of the increasing sophistication of sensors
out loss of synchronization. and the increasing lethality of conven
tional, nuclear, and chemical fires. To
DESIGNATE, SUSTAIN, AND
avoid detection, our force concentrations
SHIFT THE MAIN EFFORT
must be disguised. To avoid effective coun
In operations characterized by initia terstrikes, they must be brief. Engagements
tive, agility, depth, and synchronization, it must be violent to shock, paralyze, and
is imperative that commanders designate, overwhelm the enemy force quickly. They
sustain and shift the main effort as neces must be terminated rapidly to allow the
sary during operations. The main effort is force to disperse and avoid effective enemy
assigned to the element with the most counterstrikes.
important task to accomplish within the
commander's concept. The commander USE TERRAIN, WEATHER,
concentrates his support to ensure quick DECEPTION, AND OPSEC
success by this element. The commander Terrain and weather affect coribat
identifies the main effort when he states more significantly than any other physical
his concept of the operation. This provides factors. Battles are won or lost by the way
a focus of effort that each subordinate com in which combatants use the terrain to
mander uses to link his actions to the protect their own forces and to destroy
actions of those around him. The main those of the enemy. The ground and the
effort assures synchronization in the op airspace immediately above it have an
eration while leaving the greatest possible immense influence on how the battle will
scope for initiative. During operations, the be fought. They provide opportunities and
main effort is sustained with supporting impose limitations, giving a decisive edge
forces and assets. If conditions change to the commander who uses them best.
and success of the overall mission can be The impact of weather on ground and air
obtained more cheaply or quickly another mobility and the effect both have on weap
way, the commander shifts his main effort ons will affect tactics and the timing and
to another force. Priorities of support also course of operations. One of the best
change to assure the success of the newly investments of the commander's time
designated main effort. before battle is an intensive, personal
reconnaissance of the terrain. Similarly,
PRESS THE FIGHT effective deception and tight operations
Commanders must press the fight tena security can enhance combat power by
ciously and aggressively. Campaigns or confusing the enemy and reducing his fore
battles are won by the force that is most knowledge of friendly actions.
successful in pressing its main effort to a
conclusion. To sustain the momentum of CONSERVE STRENGTH FOR
and continuous combat support and com Successful commanders conserve the
bat service support at the outset of opera strength of their forces .to be stronger at
tions. Then, they must accept risks and the decisive time and place. Commanders
24 Chapter 2
FM 100-5
must minimize the diversion of resources operational level, an example would be Air
to nonessential tasks and retain a reserve Force Air Superiority operations and
for commitment when needed most. Com ground maneuver, or employing light in
manders must also keep troops secure, pro fantry formations in highly mountainous
tected, healthy, disciplined, and in a high regions to free armor and mechanized
state of morale. In addition they must keep forces for use in less restricted areas.
equipment ready and stocks of supplies
available for commitment when needed. Arms and services reinforce each other
Finally, units must be maintained in a when one increases the effectiveness of
high state of training. Dispersed and rapid another or several combine to achieve
movement, proper formations, covered and mass. Some examples at the technical level
concealed fighting positions, aggressive would be engineers helping to develop an
patrolling, good operations security, pro infantry strong point which greatly en
tection of troops and equipment from hances the combat power of the infantry,
adverse weather and disease, and good the scout helicopter spotting targets for the
supply and maintenance discipline are all attack helicopter, artillery suppression of
examples of measures which conserve a enemy fires during an assault, or the mas
force's strength. sing of all antitank fires against an
armored threat. Tactically, reinforcement
might involve concentrating all types of
maneuver forces or fires to create mass. It
COMBINE ARMS AND SISTER
might also involve heliborne lift of light
SERVICES TO COMPLEMENT AND
infantry. Operationally, it could mean us
REINFORCE
ing Naval amphibious shipping or Air
The greatest combat power results when Force tactical airlift to deliver soldiers to
the battlefield, intelligence support to Army
weapons and other hardware, combat and units from Air Force, Naval, or national
supporting arms, Army units, and other sources, Air Force interdiction to support
service elements of different capabilities maneuver on the ground, or US Army
are employed together to complement and units protecting air bases from ground
reinforce each other. Arms and services
complement each other by posing a attack.
dilemma for the enemy. As he evades the
Ideally, both effects are combined in
effects of one weapon, arm, or service, he one action as when mines, artillery, and
exposes himself to attack by another. At tanks combine to defeat an attack. All
the level of weapons systems, one good three reinforce to damage the enemy simul
example of complementary combined arms
employment would be the use of guns and taneously to some degree. The mines and
artillery fire slow the enemy and comple
missiles in the air defense of a key instal ment the tank fire which can obtain more
lation. Another would be using mines,
mortars, or grenade launchers to cover the hits against the stalled enemy.
dead space of a machine gun's field of fire.
A tactical example of complementary com UNDERSTAND THE EFFECT OF
Chapter 2 25
FM 100-5
well of courage only so many times before in cohesive units retain the qualities of
tenacity and aggressiveness longer than
the well runs dry." Even before that
Marshall De Saxe, writing in the 18th cen those which are not. I
tury, pointed out that "A soldier's courage .Good leadership makes the vital differ-
must be reborn daily," and went on to say ence in the staying power and effectiveness
that the most important task of leaders of units. Although all units experience
was to understand this, to care for and peaks and valleys in combat effectiveness,
prepare soldiers before battle, and to use well-trained, cohesive units under good
tactics during battle which take this into leadership sustain far higher average effec
account. tiveness. Staffs and commanders need "to
take this variance in performance into
Commanders must understand that in account in their planning by matching
battle, men and units are more likely to units to missions, rotating units through
fail catastrophically than gradually. Com- difficult tasks to permit recuperation to the
manders and staffs must be alert to small extent possible, and by basing their expec
indicators of fatigue, fear, indiscipline, tations of a unit's performance on a full
and reduced morale, and take measures to knowledge of its current capabilities.
deal with these before their cumulative
effects drive a unit to the threshold of col Because modern combat requires greater
lapse. Staffs and commanders at higher dispersal of units, the quality and effec
levels must take into account the impact
tiveness of junior leaders has a proportion-
of prolonged combat on subordinate units. ately greater impact. Prior to combat,
Military organizations can fight at peak senior leaders must place great emphasis
efficiency for only so long. Prolonged on junior leader development. During
demands of combat cause efficiency to combat, commanders must monitor and
drop even when physical losses are not take measures to sustain the effectiveness
great. Well trained, physically fit soldiers of leaders to the extent possible.
to extend the battlefield and thus hold at risk all enemy forces, har
nessing advanced technologies to provide synchronized reconnaissance,
better than the skill with which they are brought to bear on the enemy.
26 Chapter 2
CHAPTER 3
Operational and Tactical Planning and Execution
PLANNING AND
096
CONDUCTING CAMPAIGNSA900Mir0 af Artler
.0 00
Chapter 3 27
FM 100-5
28 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
Each joint or combined commander re terrain to force him to fight under unfa
sponsible for a theater of operations makes vorable conditions; or carrying the war into
a campaign plan to implement the joint or his homeland.
combined strategic guidance and to give
direction to his subordinate component Strategic guidance will constrain opera
commands. Ground operations planning tional methods by ruling out some otherwise
must be coordinated with air and naval attractive alternatives. Withholding of nu
operations plans to assure mutual support. clear weapons, prohibiting the unopposed
surrender of territory or cities, exempting
Campaign plans set long-term goals- the territory of certain nations from opera
strategic aims such as control of a geo tions, and limiting the use of aerial bomb
graphical area, reestablishment of political ing are examples of the curbs that strategy
boundaries, or the defeat of an enemy force may impose on operations.
in the theater of operations. These must Strategic aims and guidance, reasonable
be accomplished in phases in most cases. assumptions about enemy intentions and
Accordingly, the campaign plan normally capabilities, available resources, and the
provides both a general concept of opera geography of theater, together form the
tions for the entire campaign and a specific starting point of campaign planning. Staff
plan for the campaign's first phase. estimates are thus broader in campaign
planning than in tactical operations.
Initially, the commander must specify
how the enemy is to be defeated. The Units with operational responsibilities
method chosen must, of course, be attain perform intelligence operations and analyses
able with the means at hand. It should also for the campaign, its major operations, as
aim for the fastest possible solution at the well as its battles. These actions take a
lowest possible cost in lives*and materiel. larger view of the theater and of the enemy.
They are oriented on larger enemy units,
Above all else, the method selected must to include air and naval formations, and
be effective. A protracted campaign rarely units with specialized operational capabili
serves strategic purposes well and usually ties. They cover the entire theater of op
increases the force's exposure to damage erations, its airspace as well as contiguous
or defeat. An effective campaign plan ori waters.
ents on what Clausewitz called As in tactical level analysis, numbers,
"centers of gravity," his sources the enemy's
of physical types, mobility, morale, and equipment of
strength or psychological balance. If such enemy forces are considered. Additionally,
a center of gravity is attacked (or occa operational level commanders take into ac
sionally merely threatened), the enemy's po count the enemy's doctrine and patterns of
sition becomes untenable. large unit operations, the personalities and
idiosyncrasies of his senior commanders,
There are a number of general ways to and his air and naval capabilities. Cam
defeat a large enemy force in a theater. paign planners also review the influences
Each has historical precedents and can be of alliances on enemy courses of actions,
used either singly or in combination. These the differences in quality and capabilities
begin with physical destruction of the en of troops of different nationalities, the atti
emy force, the most costly albeit direct way tudes of the civilian population in areas
of winning. They extend to less direct controlled by the enemy, and the enemy's
methods such as reducing the enemy's dependence on external support and par
strength by defeating or otherwise depriving ticular facilities. Finally, they advise the
him of his allies; separating his armies in commander on the enemy's capacity for
the field to confront him with piecemeal and vulnerability to nuclear or chemical
defeat; preventing his deployment; destroy weapons, unconventional warfare, and psy
ing his logistic support; occupying decisive chological operations.
Chapter 3 29
FM 100-5
Most important, because of the scope and logistics support, ease of interoperability,
duration of campaigns and major opera and personalities and abilities of individual
tions, and the consequently broad range of allied commanders all merit consideration.
enemy options, operational intelligence must Capabilities for long distance movement,
attempt to probe the mind of the enemy interoperability of ground, air, and naval
commander. It must see the theater through forces, and allied forces' freedom to operate
his eyes, visualize which courses of action outside their own national territories should
are open to him, and estimate which he is also be reviewed.
most likely to adopt. Once he has determined the enemy's
center of gravity and analyzed the major
Operational considerations of terrain also factors which affect the campaign, the
differ. Most theaters of operations are sepa commander in a theater of operations se
rated from others by considerable distances lects a course of action. He elaborates this
or major physical features such as mountain in his concept of operation for the cam
ranges, large rivers, or even oceans. Terrain paign. Ideally, the concept embodies an
within a theater possesses an inherent geo indirect approach that preserves the strength
logical structure which aids operational of the force for decisive battles. While ar
analysis. River valleys or basins, plateaus, ticulating the long-range goal of the force,
river deltas, peninsulas, mountain or high it should also lay out the conduct of the
land regions, plains, and islands all have first phase of the campaign in some detail.
operational significance. And facilities impor In almost all cases, deception will be vital
tant to movement, air support, and combat to operational success. The commander must
service support-ports, highways, rail lines, attempt to mislead the enemy concerning
and sources of food, fuel, and water-will when, where, and how he will concentrate
.affect the operations of both combatants. for battle and what his ultimate aims are.
Large unit commanders and their staffs Ground operations must be fully synchro
must be able to visualize the theater of nized with air and sea operations; air
operations in the rough terms of localities. interdiction should complement ground
The intelligence estimate must set those maneuver in both the short and long terms.
localities in their proper relationship to The plan for the first phase of the cam
permit the commander to direct operations paign states the commander's intent, dis
far beyond his field of view and to plan tributes forces to major subordinate units,
well into the future. disposes the force for operations, and co
In preparing the campaign intelligence ordinates air and naval support of ground
estimate, staff officers make use of the re maneuver. The general object of the plan
connaissance and surveillance assets of all is to set the terms for the next battle to
services, allies, and national agencies. They the greatest advantage of the friendly force.
also use all available human sources from Good campaign plans also provide op
agents to guerrillas and long-range recon tions for the operation underway and for
naissance units and the meteorological and the period following the coming battle.
geographical references on the area. ""Branches" to the plan-options for chang
ing dispositions, orientation, or direction of'
Factors affecting friendly capabilities
and courses of action include the relative movement and accepting or declining bat
strength, composition, dispositions, and tle-preserve the commander's freedom of
general readiness of ground, air, and naval action. Such provisions for flexibility an
forces. Campaign planners normally have ticipate the enemy's likely actions and give
to take allied strengths into account as the commander a means of dealing with
well. The arms and equipment of these forces them quickly. Expressed as contingency
are considered as .well as their special capa plans, such branches from the plan can be
abilities and limitations. Quality of staffs, of decisive importance since they shorten
30 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
the friendly decision cycle and may allow a particular phase of a campaign. For ex
the large unit commander to act faster than ample, two successive major operations were
his opponent. conducted during the breakout phase of the
WWII campaign which began with the
Actions after battle ,or sequels are also landing of allied forces in Normandy and
an important means of anticipating the ended with link-up with Russian forces on
course of action and accelerating the deci the Elbe River. "Operation Goodwood,"
sion cycle. Sequels to a future battle are
launched by British forces under Mont
based on possible outcomes-victory, defeat, gomery, attracted the bulk of German re
or stalemate. They establish general dispo serves to the northern part of the Normandy
sitions, objectives, and missions for sub beachhead. US forces under Bradley then
ordinate units after the battle. They then
launched "Operation Cobra" in the south,
can be amended as necessary and ordered
resulting in a successful breakout. The land
into effect. ings at Inchon by X Corps and the sup
Such plans are crucial to operational porting breakout of the balance of Eighth
success because they determine how tactical Army from Pusan in the Korean war are
success will be exploited or the operational another example of complementary major
consequences of tactical setbacks minimized. operations.
Transition to exploitation, counteroffensive,
withdrawal, retreat, or reorientation of the While major operations are usually joint
main effort should be addressed as possible operations, they may also occasionally be
sequels to the planned battle. All of these independent operations. Even then, however,
actions depend on timely execution. They joint planning will be required. Normally,
can only be carried out effectively if they one major ground operation will receive
have been planned in advance. In most priority and constitute the main effort. This
cases, they will require the retention of an decision at the level of campaign planning
operational reserve. will affect various aspects of air and naval
planning by outlining priorities and effects
MAJOR OPERATIONS PLANNING desired to complement large scale ground
action. In general, operational planning
Much of what has been said about commits forces and support to corps and
campaign planning applies to the planning armies for an extended period. Commanders
of major operations within the campaign. of corps and armies receive long-range ob
Major operations are planned well in ad jectives and great freedom in design of their
vance. Major operations planning may be own operations. Operational plans also pro
gin before war or as "branches" and vide for close integration of psychological
"sequels" to a campaign plan which identify operations, unconventional warfare, and
missions, forces, and resources. Operational civil-military operations in support of the
commanders must also anticipate shifts in campaign.
the direction of operations. In December of
1944, Patton was able to wheel much of
Third US Army 90 degrees in less than CONDUCTING CAMPAIGNS AND
72 hours to respond to the crisis which MAJOR OPERATIONS
resulted in the Battle of the Bulge because
his staff had conducted the necessary pre At the operational level of war, large
liminary planning even before Third Army unit commanders mass or maneuver tactical
received the mission to do so. formations to bring the enemy to battle
under the best terms possible. Attacks in
Major operations are the coordinated depth with air-delivered weapons, missiles,
elements of phases of a campaign. The and airmobile troops isolate portions of the
success or failure of a major operation will enemy's force for attack or break up the
have a decisive impact on the conduct of continuity of his operation.
Chapter 3 31
FM 100-5
The operational situation may be static formations must be able to modify direc
and positional or it may be fought in the tions of movement or orientation of defenses
fluid circumstances of open warfare in during operations.
which large units move rather freely. The During battle, the larger operation con
defender commonly tries to stabilize opera tinues. Tactical formations may have to be
tions until he can assume the offensive moved in response to the operational situ
himself. The attacker tries to promote the ation or the battle itself may have to be
conditions of open warfare in which enemy shaped to meet operational objectives. The
forces can be separated and defeated piece greatest concern of the large unit com
meal and large operational gains can be mander during battle will be to defeat the
made. enemy's operational reserves and commit
his own at the decisive time and place.
In small theaters or where force densities Friendly operational reserves-corps or di
are high, static conditions are likely to visions held in reserve by the large unit
arise. When the campaign is fought over commander-are used to exploit the results
a large area or between relatively small of battle by penetrating enemy defenses
forces, open warfare may predominate. In completely. In defense, such reserves execute
most cases, the two conditions are likely the commander's counterstroke to defeat the
to alternate with periods of stability fol attack or initiate the counteroffensive. In
lowing large operational gains. The mobility case of a reverse, the operational reserve
of modern armies, however, makes open can limit the enemy's success or cover the
warfare possible even in small theaters of force's withdrawal.
operations.
A vital consideration for operational com
In static situations, operational com manders during a campaign is sensing
manders attempt to seize the initiative by culminating points. Culminating points are
defeating enemy attacks or rupturing enemy reached when the balance of strength shifts
defenses. Only by producing a fluid situ from the attacking force to its opponent.
ation can they make large gains and gain This happens when an attacker has pushed
the advantages of maneuver on a large as far as he can without losing his ad
scale. vantage over the defender. Overextension,
In open warfare, large unit commanders lengthening lines of support, and the cumu
lative effects of battle losses and rear area
conduct aggressive reconnaissance and em protection efforts can sap the attacker's
ploy advance security forces to preserve strength and compel him to assume the
their freedom of action. In trying to mass defense if he has been unable to defeat the
decisive strength at the decisive point, com defender. (See Appendix B for a more de
manders maintain contact with the enemy tailed discussion of culminating points).
and adjust their movements to conceal their
intentions and to bring their forces to bear In the attack, operational commanders
against an enemy vulnerability. design their campaigns to defeat the enemy
prior to reaching their culminating point.
This requires the coordinated movement Defending commanders try to avoid a de
of large forces to preserve mutual support, cision until the attacker has to assume the
sufficient air defense, adequate service sup defense himself. The attacker must sense
port, and ready access to operational re his own culminating point and avoid over
serves. Original plans for concentration may extension. Since all offensive operations end
demand modification as the enemy situation in defensive dispositions, this phase of the
changes or becomes clear. Therefore, tactical campaign should be foreseen and planned.
32 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
Tactical operations are the conduct of weapons, and of electronic warfare opera
battles and engagements within the context tions. Most importantly, tactical operations
of campaigns and major operations. They are influenced by the nonquantifiable ele
are the domain of corps and smaller units. ments of combat power: courageous, well-
They are supported by higher echelons of trained soldiers, and skillful, effective leaders.
command who set the terms of battle and
provide support for it. Brigades and smaller To ensure success, tacticians concentrate
units may fight engagements-smaller, on
separate actions-either as part of a battle " Anticipating the enemy.
or as separate actions. Tactical success is
" Indirect approaches.
measured by the success or failure to achieve
aims set by higher commanders. " Deception and effective OPSEC.
Battles are large engagements involving " Speed and violence.
brigades and larger forces. They may be * Flexibility and reliance on the initiative
localized, brief and intense or they may of junior leaders.
involve numerous engagements over a large
area that take days to resolve. In any case, " Rapid decision-making.
their effects are felt over a large area, and " Clearly defined objectives and operational
actions outside of the area of direct, sus concepts.
tained combat can greatly influence their " A clearly designated main effort.
outcome.
* Actions throughout the depth of the battle
The conduct of battles differs from that area.
of campaigns and major operations in some
important respects. Speed of response, abil " Joint operations with our sister services.
ity to change direction, and sensitivity to
short-term events are among these differ TACTICAL PLANNING
ences. Conduct of both depends on initia Tactical planning centers on preparation
tive, agility, depth, and synchronization, for battles and engagements. Like opera
however, and, in both, leaders should ob tional planning, tactical planning begins
serve the imperatives of modern combat. with the assignment of a mission or with
the commander's recognition of a require
In conducting battles and engagements, ment. It continues until the mission is
commanders must act vigorously and boldly. complete. The planning process is described
They must follow the course of the fight in detail in FM 101-5. In essence it requires
throughout the contested area to seize op full definition of the mission, collection of
portunities for decisive action. They must all pertinent information, development and
also be willing to take risks in order to analysis of options, and, finally, a decision
inflict heavy losses on the enemy and to which forms the basis for a plan or order.
retain the initiative. This process is a continuous cycle. Planning
Corps and divisions conduct mutually is as thorough as time allows. The key to
supporting operations simultaneously in successful planning is anticipation of future
three areas-close, deep, and rear. All tac events and being prepared for contingencies.
tical operations require overall unity of ef After the mission has been analyzed, the
fort throughout the battle, using every most important task of a staff is collecting
available element of combat power. Tactical information. This normally amounts to up
operations must consider the effects of en dating existing estimates and analyzing the
emy air power, of nuclear and chemical facts in the light of the unit's new mission.
Chapter 3 33
FM 100-5
All primary staff officers have respon encounters with his deployed forces. Instead
sibilities for collecting information and they should operate on his flanks and rear,
making estimates before and during opera where direct fire is most effective, psycho
tions. Not only do they collect information, logical shock is the greatest, and the enemy
they also supervise operations to bring is least prepared to fight. Maneuver in de
strength, readiness, training, and supply fensive counterattacks is particularly im
stocks to the highest levels possible prior portant and must be planned in detail. By
to the operation. The aim of all these ac coordinating attacks on the enemy in depth
tivities is to provide the commander with with attacks on his forward units, the com
the greatest strength possible and a clear mander
understanding of the situation. Planning for
* Preserves or secures the initiative.
combat service support is discussed in
Chapter 4. " Upsets the enemy's plan.
Preparing the intelligence estimate differs V Disrupts his coordination.
from other planning. It concentrates on
physical phenomena-terrain and weather- * Destroys his most sensitive forces-
which cannot be significantly modified. It reserves, artillery, command and control,
also demands the acquisition of information and logistic support.
about the enemy that the opposing com
mander tries to withhold and misrepresent. The tactical plan should gain surprise.
In tactical planning, the scheme of ma It should use indirect approaches and flank
neuver is the central expression of the com positions which do not attract immediate
mander's concept for close operations. The attention. Subordinate commanders should
scheme of maneuver have the greatest possible freedom to
maneuver.
* Outlines the movements of the force.
The tactical plan should include supple
" Identifies objectives or areas to be re
tained.
mentary control measures such as routes,
axes, objectives, and battle positions for
" Assigns reponsibilities for zones, sectors, implementation on order. Such measures
or areas. provide the necessary flexibility for respond
" Prescribes formations or dispositions ing to changes in the situation. Their use
when necessary. gives the commander a substantial advan
tage by allowing him to implement changes
" Identifies maneuver options which may quickly.
develop during an operation.
The plan should also designate axes of
The commander's scheme of maneuver
advance and routes for the commitment or
usually determines the subsequent allocation movement of reserves or for the forward
of forces and governs the design of sup or rearward passage of one unit through
porting plans or annexes. Fires, barriers, another. It should also identify air axes for
air defense priorities, electronic warfare the maneuver of attack helicopter and air
(EW), deception efforts, combat support, and
cavalry units or for the helicopter movement
combat service support (CSS) arrangements of air assault units and other forces.
are normally guided by and coordinated
with the scheme of maneuver. Movement of supporting units is also
Whenever possible, commanders design critical to the success of the tactical plan.
their tactical plans to avoid the enemy's Commanders must assure the uninterrupted
strength and strike at his weaknesses. air
support of field artillery, air defense, and
Maneuver units can inflict the greatest support, engineer, military intelligence,
damage on the enemy by avoiding head-on logistic units. To do so, they must plan
34 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
multiple routes throughout the area of op violence-the commander must rely on his
erations and closely control their use. Mili initial estimate and resist the temptation
tary police must be prepared to facilitate to change his plan at the first difficulty.
these movements, to prevent congestion,
and to respond to changes in the maneuver At the'same time, even the most far
plan. sighted plan will have to be adjusted to
accommodate changes at some point. The
When planning operations, the com
commander must be able to recognize that
manders must take into account the effects
critical point. He must also be well-informed
of nuclear and chemical weapons. Com
manders must avoid creating lucrative tar
about the situation to make this judgment
gets as they maneuver. They should also
and have the means to react to opportunities
or threats without losing synchronization.
avoid positions which can be isolated by
the obstacles that nuclear weapons create.
Commanders must constantly seek to mini CONDUCTING TACTICAL
mize the overall risk by dispersing their OPERATIONS
commands into small units that are not
worthwhile targets. Yet they must concen Air-land battle tactical offensives are
trate sufficient combat power to accomplish rapid, violent operations that seek enemy
the mission. soft spots, rapidly shift the main effort,
This dilemma is dynamic. The degree and exploit successes promptly. The attacker
of risk changes as the distance between creates a fluid situation, maintains the ini
opposing forces changes. Initially, maneuver tiative, and destroys the coherence of the
forces will disperse to avoid presenting lu enemy defense. Using supporting and re
crative targets. As the distance from the serve units flexibly, the attack continues
enemy decreases, maneuver units will con for as long as it takes to achieve objectives.
centrate over multiple routes at the decisive
Air-land battle tactical defenses combine
time and place, then disperse again after
static and dynamic elements. Fires, obsta
defeating the enemy. cles, and static elements of the defense stop
The tactical plan must also consider the or contain enemy movement. Delays and
airspace over a unit's area of responsibility. counterattacks slow and defeat segments of
Air and ground movements in support of the attacking force. Deep and rear opera
the commander's scheme of maneuver must tions extend tactical opportunities and pre
be coordinated with the Air Force, Army serve freedom of action. These actions allow
aviation, air defense units, and ground the defender to break the attacker's momen
maneuver units. tum, to present him with the unexpected,
Effective tactical planning is the best to defeat his combined arms cooperation,
way to assure synchronization in execution. and to gain the initiative and win.
Usually, the more effective the plan, the
less synchronization will be hostage to ac Tactical commanders will fight the en
tive command and control once operations emy in an area of operations, a specific
begin. zone or sector assigned to them. But they
must also identify and monitor enemy ac
Once committed to combat, however, tivities outside their areas of operation
commanders must be prepared to modify which could affect their future operations.
their actions to fit the situation. This re This larger area of interest will vary in
quires balance and judgment. The com size and shape from operation to operation.
mander should not abandon his plan too It should include all enemy activities which
readily, thus forfeiting the coordination it might affect the friendly force throughout
represents. Under the pressures of combat- the durationof the operation in question,
uncertainty, unexpected events, and great and may therefore extend forward, to the
Chapter 3 35
FM 100-5
flanks, and to the rear of the area of opera tactical commander fights a unified battle
tions. Commanders plan actions against against the enemy's committed forces and
enemy forces behind and beyond their for his forces in depth and preserves his own
ward line of own troops (FLOT) as part of freedom of action in the rear area.
tactical operations. Both deep and rear
operations may require the reconnaissance CLOSE OPERATIONS
and strike support of higher echelons of Close operations involve the fight be
command and, frequently, of their support tween the committed forces and the readily
ing aerial forces. available tactical reserves of both combat
At the tactical level, the commander ants. Its principal elements are the coor
structures close operations with maneuver, dinated plans for maneuver and fire sup
fires, and obstacles to concentrate superior port. These elements, however, rely on the
combat power on the enemy's flanks and integrated suppport of all other arms and
rear. Whether attacking or defending, the services.
PLANNING AREAS
/
I
AREA
OF
INTEREST
I
I N
I
Ik -an-
36 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
Chapter 3 37
FM 100-5
which enemy forces may be capable of separate brigades, and regiments must de
affecting a particular friendly forces' oper pend more heavily on intelligence obtained
ation. Commanders develop areas of interest by higher levels of command for their op
to support their specific operations. A di erations in depth.
vision commander, for example, should
anticipate the enemy's ability to influence Commanders attack critical targets in
his operation and his divisions' own re depth with organic and supporting weapons.
quirements for future operations in order Long-range weapons will be relatively
to define his area of interest. scarce. Consequently, they should be used
against targets whose loss or disruption will
Named areas of interest (NAI), covering yield the greatest benefit to current and
routes or avenues of approach, directions anticipated close operations. The primary
of enemy movement, and specific-enemy strike assets for deep attack are aerial, ar
units are the critical points in an area of tillery, and missile weapons. However, con
interest. They focus the intelligence collec ventional and unconventional ground and
tion effort and the fires of a unit during air maneuver units can also interdict enemy
the battle. Corps or divisions may restrict movement and neutralize key facilities in
the fires of adjacent, supporting, or subor depth. Tactical electronic warfare systems
dinate units by a variety of control mea can be used in lieu of fire support to attack
sures. Close coordination between levels of enemy command and control of follow-on
command is necessary to assure that deep forces. If their use were authorized, nuclear
operations plans support the overall concept weapons would be particularly effective in
of operations and neither duplicate nor im engaging follow-on formations or forces in
pede each other. depth because of their inherent power and
because of reduced risk to friendly troops.
The corps area of interest overlaps those Deception also plays a part in delaying,
of its divisions just as the division's area disrupting, and diverting an enemy and in
of interest and deep actions overlay those frustrating his plans for committing follow-on
of its brigades. Each level of command forces.
38 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
Intelligence officers develop basic target The commander's concept for rear op
information, then employ intelligence, sur erations stresses security of all rear area
veillance, and target-acquisition assets to activities and facilities. The demands of the
locate targets accurately enough for attack. overall battle determine the priorities for
Following such attacks, intelligence officers the rear operations. Routes needed by re
assess their effects and monitor the target serves and the reserves themselves, airbases
to assure that the commander's intention and fire support, and combat support and
has been accomplished. combat service support units whose assis
Only in rare cases will commanders be tance to the main effort is vital should
able to destroy enemy forces in depth. receive the highest priority for protection
However, they will often be able to delay, in the rear area. Certain key facilities or
disrupt, or divert selected enemy forces by features such as traffic choke points, tun
destroying portions of those forces, by in nels and bridges, ammunition and fuel stor
terrupting their support, or by creating age points, and dams may also require
obstacles in depth. To obtain the desired special protection. Air defense and security
tactical result, these efforts must be syn against ground attack are equally impor
chronized with the overall operation. tant; both must be carefully planned. Most
crucial will be the establishment of a reli
In the offense, deep operations initially able system for gauging and monitoring
isolate, immobilize, and weaken defenders the true situation in the rear.
in depth. As the attack continues, actions To concentrate protective efforts on key
against deep targets sustain momentum by units, features, and facilities, the com
preventing the reorganization of coherent mander will have to accept risks elsewhere.
defenses, by blocking the movement of en Rear area installations that do not con
emy reserves, and by preventing the escape tribute immediate or continuous support to
of defending units. In the defense, the tactical operations should be expected to
commander uses deep actions to prevent defend themselves against all but the great
the enemy from concentrating overwhelming est threats during the critical period of the
combat power at the time and place of his battle.
choice. The major objectives may be to
separate and disrupt attacking echelons, to Rearward security will require the com
protect the defender's maneuver, or to de mander to balance a variety of competing
grade the enemy's fire support, command risks. For example, clustering of support
and control, communications, combat sup activities reduces their vulnerability to
port, and combat service support. ground attack, but can increase their vul
nerability to air, missile, or nuclear/
Deep operations open opportunities for
chemical attack. Likewise, locating key
decisive action by reducing the enemy's facilities away from high-speed routes min
closure rate or coordination. They create imizes their vulnerability to enemy ground
periods of friendly local superiority in which penetrations, but may also reduce their ac
to win battles or engagements. If the enemy cessibility to units requiring support. And
is prevented from reinforcing his committed dispersal of critical stocks-fuel, ammuni
forces at a critical time, he may be defeated
tion, and spares-reduces the risks of loss,
in detail. but also reduces the ease and speed of
distribution. The commander must therefore
REAR OPERATIONS continually reassess the enemy threat to
his rear, and adjust his rear operations
Operations in the rear area contribute as
to the unified battle plan by-preserving the that threat and his own tactical situation
commander's freedom of action and assur change.
ing uninterrupted support of the battle. Because of the threats of air strikes, air
They are, in effect, the defense against the assault, guerrilla action, the interference of
enemy's deep operations. infiltrators, or penetrating enemy forces, all
Chapter 3 39
FM 100-5
units in the rear area should have plans landings and penetrations of high speed
to defend themselves and to move if neces forward detachments. However, commitment
sary. Scatterable mines, fires, and tree of aviation units, artillery forces, or the re
blow-down will impede the movement of serve forces to the rear battle will almost
reserves, artillery units, and engineers un invariably come at the expense of the main
less key routes are scouted periodically. effort. The intent of enemy deep operations
Alternate routes should be planned for units may be precisely to divert attention and
whose movement is vital to the com effort away from the point of decision at
mander's plan. a crucial time. Accordingly, as much as
possible, other forces, especially MPs, should
The placement of reserves, air defense be used in preference to forces committed
artillery (ADA) units, engineers, cavalry, to or projected for use in the close fight.
military police (MP), field artillery, and
command posts all require special attention. Dangerous approaches to the rear and
All may have key roles in the battle to potential landing zones can be obstructed
retain freedom of action in the rear area. prior to battle. They can also be observed
Army aviation units as the most mobile and guarded by small forces during battle
forces available may have to be used to or avoided when the rear area is organized.
counter rear area threats-particularly air See FM 90-14 for details.
* Joint suppression of enemy air defense. This section describes the major func
tional activities which must be synchronized
* Engineer support. in time, space, and aim. It also describes
" Air defense. the general capabilities of the combat and
combat support arms. Full discussion of
" Communications.
each is found in the appropriate branch
" Airspace coordination. manual. Specific treatments of combined
" Deception. arms action at each level of command can
be found in field manuals for tactical units.
* Electronic warfare. Combat service support functions apart
" Reconstitution. from reconstitution are described in the next
chapter. The characteristics of CSS units
" Psychological operations. and more details about support of opera
" Amphibious operations. tions are treated in FM 100-10.
40 Chapter 3.
FM 100-5
fight combined arms battles and engage " Follow and support exploiting heavy forces
ments employing every tactical means when augmented with transportation.
available. Different kinds of maneuver bat
talions, field artillery, aviation, engineers, " Conduct rear area operations, capitalizing
ADA, tactical air support and sometimes on air mobility.
naval fire support are integrated in support
of brigade and division actions. Thus, or In operations in which light forces pre
ganic and supporting combat, combat dominate, airborne, airmobile, or other light
support, and combat service support units infantry lead the combined arms attack,
all combine to make vital complementary and all other arms support the infantry.
and supplementary contributions to these Mechanized Infantry. Mechanized infan
operations. try complements armor through its ability
to seize and hold ground. It provides over-
Corps combine arms in a similar fashion. watching antitank fires and suppresses en
They employ different types of divisions, emy infantry and antitank guided missile
separate brigades, and cavalry regiments elements. Infantrymen can dismount
in complementary ways. They arrange
combat support and combat service support * To patrol difficult terrain.
and integrate the support of other services * To clear or to emplace obstacles and
to accomplish their missions. minefields.
Chapter 3 41
FM 100-5
* To infiltrate and attack enemy positions. Armor. In mounted warfare, the tank is
the primary offensive weapon. Its firepower,
" To protect tanks in urban and wooded protection from enemy fire, and speed create
areas and in limited-visibility conditions. the shock effect necessary to disrupt the
enemy's operations and to defeat him.
Mechanized infantrymen have the same Tanks can destroy enemy armored vehicles,
mobility as tankers but less firepower and infantry, and antitank guided missile units.
protection. Armor and mechanized infantry Tanks can break through suppressed de
must perform as a team to defeat enemy fenses, exploit the success of an attack by
armored forces. When equipped with infan striking deep into the enemy's rear areas,
try fighting vehicles, the mechanized infan and pursue defeated enemy forces. Armored
try can accompany tanks in mounted units can also blunt enemy attacks and
assault, although care must be taken in launch counterattacks as part of a defense.
determining when and where infantry must Armored units have several significant
dismount to accomplish their mission. In limitations. They are vulnerable in close
the attack, such infantrymen can act as terrain, such as forests and cities, and in
fixing forces. In the defense, they act as limited-visibility conditions. They cannot
pivot points for maneuvering tank-heavy
forces.
cross most rivers and swamps without
bridging, and they require substantiel lo
gistical support. Armor units are also s.ow
Motorized Infantry. Motorized infantry is to deploy strategically because their weight
more rapidly deployable than mechanized and amount of equipment require deploy
infantry, but more capable than light infan ment by sea.
try of meeting and defeating heavy forces
in open terrain. Motorized infantry derives Cavalry. The basic tasks of cavalry units
its combat power from rapid ground mobil are reconnaissance and security. The ability
ity, heavy firepower, and superior command of armored cavalry units to find the enemy,
and control. It lacks the armor protection to develop the situation, and to provide the
to survive against heavy forces in conditions commander with reaction time and security
where the terrain precludes rapid maneuver also make them ideal for economy-of-force
and affords little cover and concealment. missions. Cavalry forces can delay an
attacking enemy as well as assist in a with
In conditions favoring its employment, drawal. When they are equipped or rein
motorized infantry can forced with tanks, cavalry units are also
capable of attacking and defending, al
* Attack and destroy enemy forces in open though these are not their normal missions.
terrain. Aviation. Three types of Army aviation
" Envelop or infiltrate weakly held enemy units participate in combined arms opera
positions and attack vital assets in their tions: attack helicopters, air cavalry, and
rear. combat support aviation. Speed of move
ment, freedom from the effects of ground
" Exploit penetrations of stronger positions obstacles, and sensitivity to weather condi
by heavier forces. tions characterize all aviation operations.
In today's Army, while aviation is rele
" Pursue and destroy retreating enemy forces. gated largely to support of ground ma
neuver, it increasingly offers opportunities
* React rapidly to locate and destroy enemy for actual maneuver by air. Thus, attack
forces operating in friendly rear areas. helicopter units provide highly maneuver
* Dismount and fight as light infantry if able antiarmor firepower. They use natural
cover and speed to compensate for their
necessary.
42 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
vulnerabilities. They are ideally suited for forward areas in the-defense and to at
situations in which rapid reaction time is tacking formations when ground lines of
important or terrain restricts ground forces. communication have been interdicted or
Attack helicopters are best suited for at overloaded.
tacking moving enemy armor formations.
Attack helicopter units CONVENTIONAL, NUCLEAR, AND
CHEMICAL FIRES
" Overwatch ground maneuver forces with
antitank fires. Fire support includes mortars, field ar
tillery, naval gunfire, army aviation, and
" Attack the flanks and rear of attacking air-delivered weapons. The long range and
or withdrawing enemy formations. great flexibility of the fire support system
* Counterattack enemy penetrations alone make it possible to shift the focus and
or in support of ground maneuver units. concentration of fire support rapidly over
wide ranges. The commander can use it to
" Conduct raids in enemy-held territory. support his scheme of maneuver, to mass
firepower rapidly without shifting maneuver
* Dominate key terrain by fire in support forces, and to delay, to disrupt, or to destroy
of ground maneuver forces. enemy forces in depth. Commanders use the
fire support system to destroy, neutralize,
* Engage enemy helicopters and close sup or suppress surface targets including enemy
port aircraft. weapons, formations or facilities, and fires
from the enemy's rear. They also employ
Working alone or in conjunction with it to suppress enemy air defense and, upon
tactical aircraft, attack helicopters can de approval by National Command Authorities,
feat enemy armored formations. To be most to execute nuclear packages as indicated
effective, however, such missions require by higher headquarters. In a large-scale
other combined arms elements to suppress nuclear conflict, fire support could become
enemy air defense. the principal means of destroying enemy
Air cavalry units perform the same mis forces. The scheme of maneuver would then
sions of reconnaissance and security as be designed specifically to exploit the effects
of the fire support.
ground cavalry and are organic to all cav
alry units. Because of their greater mobil Field Artillery. The principal fire support
ity, air cavalry troops can reconnoiter and element in fire and maneuver is the field
maintain surveillance over a much larger artillery. It not only provides conventional,
area in a shorter period of time than ground nuclear, or chemical fires with cannon,
troops can. During security operations, air rocket, and missile systems; but it also
cavalry reconnoiters, screens forward and integrates all means of fire support avail
to the flanks of moving ground forces, and able to the commander. Field artillery is
acts as a rapid reaction force. capable of suppressing enemy direct fire
forces, attacking enemy artillery and mor
Combat support aviation gives dis tars, and delivering scatterable mines to
mounted infantry and ground antitank units isolate and to interdict enemy forces or to
an air assault capability, enabling them to protect friendly operations. It contributes to
move rapidly to the enemy's flanks or rear deep operations by delaying or disrupting
or by repositioning them rapidly in the de enemy forces in depth and by suppressing
fense. Combat support aviation can quickly enemy air defense systems to facilitate
move towed field artillery units and other Army and Air Force air operations. The
lighter elements of the combined arms team artillery can also screen operations with
as the commander dictates. It can also smoke or illuminate the battlefield. Nor
provide critical combat service support to mally as mobile as the maneuver force it
Chapter 3 43
FM 100-5
supports, field artillery can provide con supporting distance of the main body,
tinuous fire in support of the commander's commanders must make special provision
scheme of maneuver. for their fire support. This may be provided
by direct support field artillery battalions,
The commander exercises overall direc dedicated batteries, or mortar support, de
tion of the fire support system. Its weapons- pending on the size of the force and its
mortars, guns, howitzers, rockets, guided mission.
missiles, and applicable tactical aircraft-
are coordinated through a network of fire Commanders must also make special
provisions for foreseeable contingencies or
support teams, liaison parties, fire direction
centers, and fire support elements. The phases of a maneuver operation. These may
include
commander uses this network to mass fires
against area targets or to direct fires * Time-on-target attacks of ambush areas
against point targets. in coordination with direct fires and a
particular obstacle.
Fire support must be integrated with the
unit's scheme of maneuver and its surveil " Obscuration of open areas with smoke to
lance and target-acquisition efforts. The fire facilitate ground maneuver.
support system must be flexible enough to
" Suppression of enemy air defense (SEAD)
supply conventional fires without interrup
fires in conjunction with attack helicopter,
tion as the tactical situation changes.
close air support, or joint air attack team
Commanders at all levels are responsible operations.
for integrating fire support into their plans. " Final protective fires around a defensive
Corps and division commanders who com position.
mand their own artillery employ their artil
lery commanders as fire support coordinators. " Interdiction of a specific follow-on unit
Supporting artillery units provide com to complete an attack in progress.
manders below division level with fire sup Commanders also ensure flexibility by
port officers. At all levels, fire support
elements are capable of coordinating all the * Holding some of their artillery in general
fire support necessary to the commander's support.
plans. Air Force and Navy liaison teams " Giving artillery units on-order missions
at all levels down to battalion assist in which orient them on likely contingencies.
coordinating fires provided by their respec
tive services. " Reserving some of the distributed CAS
missions for the force commander's use.
In integrating fire support into opera
tions, the most important considerations are Commanders ensure continuous support
adequacy, flexibility, and continuity. In of by designating routes for artillery units and
fensive operations, the main attack gets by planning air movement of weapons and
priority fire support while long-range sys ammunition. When rapid offensive progress
tems strike defenses in depth, enemy re occurs or defensive counterstrokes are plan
serves, or targets such as command posts, ned beyond the FLOT, commanders must
bridges, and defiles. In the defense, a ensure that artillery units are in position
broader balance of fire support is necessary, to support the maneuver.
but the main effort is still allocated stronger The large number of targets acquired
fire support. Priority of support should during combat requires *that commanders
change automatically when the commander establish priorities. They can express these
shifts his main effort. priorities in allocating assets, in positioning
When maneuver forces have missions fire support units, in constraining ammu
such as raids, deep attacks, or covering nition expenditure, or in focusing the attack
force operations, which take them beyond on specified types of targets.
44 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
The commander will also control fires that all supporting activities-target acqui
by using standard control measures. Specific sition, special ammunition distribution, nu
details of fire support planning and coor clear control personnel and equipment, and
dination are in FM 6-20. operational security-are maintained con
tinuously in a high state of readiness to
Fire support of offensive maneuver using
execute on relatively short notice. This must
Army aviation assets poses unique planning
be accomplished with minimum degradation
and control problems. Because of the tempo of conventional fire support and without an
of such operations, special provision must
abrupt and detectable shift in operating
be made to assure artillery coverage of air pattern.
assault targets. Typically, close air support
and attack helicopters will have to furnish Finally, nuclear planning must of course
initial fire support until surface artillery is reflect the constraints and directives of
able to move into range. Even then, artil higher authority to include procedures for
lery coverage is apt to be limited, and con warning friendly units, restrictions on col
trol measures must allow for the effective lateral damage, and responsibilities for
integration of ground and air fires. post-strike analysis. Special care must be
taken not to create obstacles to friendly
Nuclear Weapons. Nuclear fires may be maneuver through the use of nuclear fire.
delivered by aircraft, missiles, or cannon. Friendly aircraft of all services must be
A decision to use nuclear weapons would warned to avoid areas scheduled for nuclear
be based on strategic considerations at the strikes. The echelon which requests nuclear
highest policy levels. The authority to use weapons should coordinate warning proce
nuclear weapons will be conveyed from the dures to friendly forces through the theater
National Command Authority (NCA) through Commander in Chief (CINC) or joint force
the operational chain of command. Even commander (JFC).
after authority is granted for employment
of nuclear weapons, employment will be In general, preferred targets might be
guided by strategic purposes more than by * Enemy nuclear delivery systems.
tactical effect. Accordingly, nuclear fire
planning is subject to unique considerations. " Key command and control elements.
First, far more than conventional fire " Support forces in the rear of committed
planning, nuclear fire planning will require elements.
a high level of anticipation. Typically, nu " Follow-on or deep-echeloned forces.
clear packages grouping a*specified number * Reserves.
of weapons having specified delivery system/
yield characteristics will be preplanned for Divisions and corps will develop pack
use against specified target categories. Such ages for possible use in their areas of op
packages are designed to achieve varying erations based on the above criteria and
military effects, and thereby furnish NCAs their particular situations. Each echelon of
and theater commanders with a range of command will review its subordinate eche
options through which to accomplish desired lons nuclear fire plans and will integrate
strategic results. them into its own plans. Plans at all eche
lons will be developed to permit but not
Because of this high degree of preplan
depend upon nuclear weapons employment.
ning, effective weapons employment will
require continuous refinement of package Chemical Weapons. US policy prohibits
targeting before and after release of weap the first use of lethal or incapacit-ating
ons. Release will be predicated on a high chemical munitions. However, because the
confidence that the effects achieved will be United States has reserved the right to re
precisely those intended-no more, no less. taliate if enemies use chemical weapons,
Commanders of delivery units must ensure Army units must be prepared to conduct
Chapter 3 45
FM 100-5
46 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
The G2 or the S2 converts the com because of the inherent momentum of forces
mander's PIR and IR into specific missions actively engaged in combat and those re
for available collection resources. He directs serve forces ready to enter the action. Con
the evaluation and interpretation of infor sequently, an air commander must exploit
mation collected from all sources, and he the devastating firepower of airpower to
directs the timely dissemination of intelli disrupt that momentum and place an en-
gence and combat information to the con emy's land forces at risk. Air forces must
cerned units. attack not only those enemy forces in con
Tactical commanders focus their intelli tact, but enemy forces held in reserve or
gence operations within both their areas of rear echelons as well.
operation and their larger area of interest. The strengths of the enemy in terms of
The IPB should start well before combat forces, battle sustaining supplies, and com
operations begin. It is a continuous, inte bat'reserves are most vulnerable to air at
grated, and comprehensive analysis of the tack when concentrated, but these targets
effects of enemy capabilities, terrain, ' and may be relatively secure when dispersed in
weather on operations. The IPB should ex their battle areas. While the urgency of
tend throughout a unit's entire area of in enemy actions may require direct attacks
terest, focusing on specific units or NAI against forces in contact, air forces .. are
designated by the commander. It includes normally more efficiently used to attack\in
forward and rear areas as well as adjacent depth those targets whose destruction, dis
terrain. Using overlays, graphic displays, ruption, or delay will deny the enemy the
and templating techniques, the IPB process time and space to employ forces effectively.
increases the accuracy and timeliness of The effect of these attacks is greatest when
the intelligence available to the commander. the enemy is engaged in a highly mobile,
maneuver scheme of operation dependent
TACTICAL AIR OPERATIONS on urgent resupply of combat reserves and
The first consideration in employing air consumables. A systematic and persistent
forces is gaining and maintaining the free plan of attack produces a connected series
dom of action to conduct operations against of actions and reactions that are closely
the enemy. Control of the air environment coordinated between air and land com
gives commanders the freedom to conduct manders. Although battlefield situations
successful attacks which can neutralize or may interrupt this plan of attack, air and
destroy an enemy's warfighting potential. land commanders must remain committed
This campaign for control is a continuous to their coordinated actions and must not
attempt to gain and maintain the capability allow the impact of airpower to be diverted
to use the enemy's airspace to perform away from the main objective.
combat missions and to deny the enemy
the use of friendly airspace. Control of the The success of both offensive and defen
air environment enables land forces to carry sive operations can depend greatly on
out a plan of action without interference massing airpower at decisive points. Effec
from an enemy's air forces. Without this tive actions to gain air superiority and to
control, tactical flexibility is lost. interdict an enemy can limit the flexibility
of his forces, deny him reinforcements, and
Integrated strategic, operational, and enhance opportunities for friendly com
tactical actions produce a cumulative effect manders to seize the initiative through
on the enemy's ability to wage war. Suc counteroffensive action. Close air support
cessful strategic attacks directed against can enhance counteroffensive actions by
the heartland will normally produce direct creating opportunities to break through
effects on an enemy nation or alliance. enemy lines, protecting the flanks of a
Their impact on the military forces engaged penetration, or preventing the counter-
in tactical action, however, may be delayed maneuver of enemy surface forces. Defensive
Chapter 3 47
FM 100-5
48 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
importantly, the timing of interdiction at sensitive territories and may complement
tacks can provide friendly forces the time general purpose force operations. Virtually
or opportunity to seize the initiative and all air forces have the potential for em
deny that same opportunity to an enemy. ployment in special operations. To execute
Air interdiction attacks against targets special operations, forces are normally or
which have a near term effect on the op ganized and employed in small formations
erations or scheme of maneuver of friendly capable of both supporting actions and in
forces, but are not in close proximity to dependent operations, with the purpose of
friendly forces, are referred to as battlefield providing timely and tailored responses
air interdiction (BAI). The primary differ throughout the spectrum of conflict. Special
ence between BAI and the remainder of the operating forces may conduct/support con
air interdiction effort is the near term effect ventional operations, unconventional war
and influence produced against the enemy fare, counterterrorist operations, collective
in support of the land component com security, psychological operations, certain
mander's scheme of maneuver. BAI attacks rescue operations, and other mission areas
require joint coordination at the component such as interdiction or offensive counter air
level during planning and may require co operations.
ordination during execution. BAI is executed Airlift missions deploy, employ, and/or
by the air component commander as an support conventional operations and un
integral part of a total air interdiction conventional warfare, and sustain military
effort. forces. Airlift is performed in peace and
war. In combat, airlift projects power
Close air support missions support land through airdrop, extraction, and airlanding
operations by attacking hostile targets in of ground forces and supplies. Through
close proximity to friendly surface forces. mobility operations, the joint or combined
Close air support can support offensive, force commander can manuever fighting
counteroffensive, and defensive surface force forces to exploit an enemy's weaknesses.
operations with preplanned or immediate In combat support missions, airlift provides
attacks. All preplanned and immediate close logistics support through the transportation
air support missions require access to the of personnel and equipment. In peacetime,
battlefield, timely intelligence information, airlift provides the opportunity to enhance
and accurate weapons delivery. national objectives by providing military
Close air support enhances land force assistance and supporting civilian relief
operations by providing the capability to programs.
deliver a wide range of weapons and massed Airlift may be performed from a strategic
firepower at decisive points. Close air sup or operational/tactical perspective. Strategic
port can surprise the enemy, create oppor (intertheater) airlift transcends the boundary
tunities for the maneuver or advance of of any one theater and is executed under
friendly forces through shock action and the central direction of higher authority. In
concentrated attacks, protect the flanks of contrast, operational/tactical (intratheater)
friendly forces, blunt enemy offensives, and airlift is performed within a theater of op
protect the rear of land forces during retro erations and supports theater objectives
grade operations. through the rapid and responsive movement
Special operations influence the accom of personnel and supplies.
plishment of strategic, operational, or tac Surveillance and reconnaissancemissions
tical objectives through the conduct of low collect information from airborne, orbital,
visibility, covert, or clandestine military and surface-based sensors. Air Force and
actions. Special operations are usually con Navy surveillance and reconnaissance ef
ducted in enemy controlled or politically forts are a part of national intelligence
Chapter 3 49
FM 100-5
gathering and systematic observation pro J-SEAD operations to protect friendly air
cess. These operations provide a wide variety craft and to maximize the effect of air
of information necessary to the development support. Such operations normally involve
of national security policy, force postures, jammers, suppressive fires, and passive
planning actions, force employment, and measures such as camouflage or deception
informed responses in times of crisis. to degrade the effects of enemy air defenses.
Localized J-SEAD operations can use field
Surveillance operations collect infor artillery, attack helicopters, direct fire weap
mation continuously from the air, land, and ons, and electronic warfare.
sea. Reconnaissance operations are directed
toward specific targets. Through surveillance ENGINEER SUPPORT
and reconnaissance, varied data can be The engineer system has three basic
collected such as meteorological, hydro purposes: it preserves the freedom of ma
graphic, geographic, electronic, and com neuver of friendly forces; it obstructs the
munications characteristics, on any given maneuver of the enemy in areas where fire
area of the Earth's surface. The products and maneuver can be used to destroy him;
of reconnaissance and surveillance opera and it enhances the survivability of friendly
tions have strategic, operational, and tac forces with protective construction. Engineer
tical applications in both peace and war. plans must be fully coordinated with the
Strategic and operational/tactical surveil scheme of maneuver and fire support plans.
lance and reconnaissance provide timely They must allocate units and furnish a
notification of hostile intent and actions as clear list of mission priorities. Engineer
well as other information vital to the NCA operations are time and labor intensive.
and combat commanders. These operations They must begin as early as possible and
are instrumental in identifying the compo be flexible enough to change as the battle
sition and capability of hostile and poten develops.
tially hostile forces. As a result, the total
capability of foreign nations to conduct war Combat engineers contribute to the
can be assessed and our forces can be combined arms team by performing mobil
tailored to effectively counter the threat. ity, countermobility, and survivability mis
sions. Mobility missions include breaching
JOINT SUPPRESSION OF ENEMY
enemy minefields and obstacles, improving
AIR DEFENSES
existing routes or building new ones, and
providing bridge and raft support for cross
Joint suppression of enemy air defenses ing major water obstacles. Countermobility
(J-SEAD) increases the overall effectiveness efforts limit the maneuver of enemy forces
of friendly air-land operations. The two and enhance the effectiveness of US fires.
types of J-SEAD are "campaign" and Engineers improve the survivability of the
"localized." friendly force by hardening command and
The Theater Air Commander conducts control facilities and key logistic instal
the theaterwide J-SEAD operation against lations and by fortifying battle positions
specific surface-to-air defense systems. The in the defense. In addition, combat engi
locations of most campaign targets will neers are organized, equipped, and trained
dictate this. However, Army surface-to to fight as infantry in tactical emergencies.
surface weapons will complement these ef The engineer plan must be coordinated
forts. More than one J-SEAD operation may with the plans for maneuver and fires. At
be necessary during a campaign. maneuver brigades and battalions, the S3
Localized J-SEAD operations attack prepares the engineer plan. In divisions and
specific targets or support airborne, air corps, the engineer prepares the engineer
mobile, or other air operations. Battalions plan under the direction of the G3. At all
and larger Army units plan localized levels, engineer planning must consider the
50 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
requirements not only for current operations, units destroy or emplace bridges at the
but for future operations as well. For in proper time, emplace and report flank ob
stance, obstacles should be planned not only stacles, and close gaps left open for friendly
with current needs in mind but also with maneuver at the right time. All engineer,
regard for the options they provide for artillery, and aviation units are responsible
future close operations. for emplacing scatterable mines. Plans must
Time, equipment, and materials may provide for the timely recording of installed
restrict the amount of engineer work ac obstacles, and key information must be
complished before and during battle. Engi promptly disseminated to all affected units.
neer plans must reflect these limitations
realistically. They must provide the desired COUNTER AIR OPERATIONS
balance between survivability, mobility, and
countermobility tasks and assign priorities. US forces cannot count on unchallenged
Normally, they should be concentrated in air superiority. Enemy air forces will contest
support of the main effort rather than being control of the air, and our operations are
distributed evenly throughout the force. likely to be conducted under temporary or
In offensive operations, engineers nor local air superiority, air parity, or even
mally concentrate their efforts in supporting enemy domination.
maneuver by All counter air systems must be inte
* Improving and maintaining routes. grated to preclude the attack of friendly
aircraft and to engage hostile aircraft. The
* Laying bridges, theater air commander is normally the area
* Breaching and removing obstacles. counter air operations commander. He in
tegrates all units pertaining to counter air
* Installing protective obstacles to the operations and establishes counter air rules
flanks of the attacking forces. of engagement and procedures for the the
ater. Control of theater counter air opera
Some corps engineer units may be at tions will usually be exercised through a
tached to or placed under operational con control and reporting center (CRC).
trol of divisions. Others will operate in
direct or general support. Air Defense Artillery. Air defense units
In the defense, engineers reinforce the provide the commander with security from
terrain to anchor the defense in critical enemy air attack by destroying or driving
areas, to maximize the effects of the defend off enemy close air support aircraft and
er's fires, and to facilitate the movement helicopters. Their fires can degrade the
of counterattack forces. They also prepare effectiveness of enemy strike and recon
positions and roads or trails for moving naissance aircraft by forcing them to evade
reserve, artillery, logistical, and other units. friendly air defenses. Short-range air de
fense (SHORAD) systems normally provide
Denial plans are included in the engineer forward air defense protection for manuever
plan when the commander wishes to pre units whether they are attacking, delaying,
vent or hinder the enemy from occupying withdrawing, or repositioning in the defense.
or using areas or objects of strategic or Air defense secures critical facilities, such
tactical value. To the maximum extent as command posts, logistic installations,
possible, all materials of military value to and special ammunition supply points. It
the enemy will be removed or destroyed also protects convoys and lines of commu
before retrograde movements. nication. In conjunction with Air Force
Maneuver commanders must coordinate elements, Army air defense plays a signifi
their obstacle plans in detail They must cant role in protecting friendly air maneuver
assure that engineers or other designated and in attacking enemy air maneuver units.
Chapter 3 51
FM 100-5
Corps and divisions have organic general but only communications can make
SHORAD units. High-to-medium altitude air him a commander." It has long been Army
defense (HIMAD) units may also be as doctrine that communications responsibili
signed or attached to corps when higher ties go from "higher to lower" from "sup
echelons are not providing them. porting to supported," and from "left to
right."
Commanders locate their air defense
units to protect high priority assets, units, Commanders should comply with this to
the extent possible, but also do what they
and facilities. Priorities must be assessed
first in terms of the operational significance can to ensure communications are adequate
in the other directions. This is essential
of the functions performed by assets, units,
when working with allies and with sister
and facilities and then by their tactical services.
52 Chapter 3
FM 100-5
Each' service is free to operate its aircraft the landings until too late. Every successful
within the theater airspace. Army aircraft operation in WWII devoted a significant
at low altitudes operate under the control effort to deception. As the war progressed,
of the Army Airspace Command and Con the Russians became masters of operational
trol (A 2C 2) System. Air Force aircraft at deception.
medium and high altitudes operate under
control of the Tactical Air Control System. Deception is a vital part of tactical
Navy and Marine Corps aircraft may also operations as well. It masks the real ob
provide mission support to the force. The jectives of tactical operations and delays
boundary between low- and medium-altitude effective enemy reaction by misleading the
regimes is flexible and situation-dependent. enemy about friendly intentions, capabili
Coordination between services is continuous ties, objectives, and the locations of vul
but it is especially important when aircraft nerable units and facilities. Tactical level
pass from one regime to another. Generally, deceptions must be coordinated with opera
Army aircraft operate with fewer restrictions tional level deception plans so they reinforce
below coordinating altitudes forward of the rather than cancel each other.
division rear boundary. Passing information A sound deception plan is simple, be
about major movements or high concen lievable, and not so costly that it diverts
trations of fire helps to avoid conflicts. resources from the main effort. Because
In practice, Air Force support of strategic deception seeks an enemy response, it must
and operational plans is flown within air be targeted against that enemy commander
space procedures established by theater or who has the freedom of action to respond
joint force commanders. These may include appropriately.
aircraft of any service or ally, all using
rules and procedures appropriate to opera Generally speaking, the most costly, dif
tional plans. Aircraft supporting tactical ficult, and least promising form of deception
plans (usually Army aviation) will adhere is convincing an opponent to alter his in
to theater-wide procedures as augmented by tended course of action. It is far easier to
the tactical commander being supported. convince an opponent to believe what he
All airspace management rules and proce wants to believe anyway-that his current
dures will be standardized to the extent course of action is correct. Easiest of all
possible, but will ultimately be applied in is the creation of ambiguity concerning the
a particular theater in accordance with friendly force's own intentions-and fre
operational direction. quently, that will suffice to create an ex
ploitable weakness.
The G3 or S3 is responsible for the unit's
operation in the A 2C 2 system. The G3 Air The G3 assembles the deception plan,
or S3 Air ensures that staff elements in making use of every unit and asset avail
the A 2 C 2 cell conduct the necessary able to protect a plausible deception story
coordination. designed to elicit a specific enemy reaction.
He may use combat units; CEWI units;
DECEPTION elements of the signal, support, command,
and aviation units, as well as civil affairs
Any operational plan must seek to staff and other forces. The deception effort
achieve surprise. An integral part of any may include demonstrations and ruses as
plan of campaign or major operation is the part of offensive or defensive maneuver
deception plan. During the Normandy op plans.
erations of WWII, the Germans believed
that a large allied force under General A demonstration is a show of force in
Patton would land in the Pas de Calais an area where a decision is not sought;
area long after the beachheads were con unlike a feint, a demonstration avoids con
solidated on the Normandy coast and re tact with the enemy. Ruses are tricks de
fused to move significant reserves to counter signed to deceive the enemy by deliberately
Chapter 3 53
FM 100-5
exposing false information to his collection When developing his concept of opera
means. FM 90-2 provides additional details tion, the tactical commander should treat
on deception operations. EW assets much as he treats artillery as
sets. He should deploy EW assets to com
ELECTRONIC WARFARE mitted units in the light of their missions,
the capabilities of available systems, and
Electronic warfare uses the electronic potential enemy actions. Plans should reflect
spectrum to deceive the enemy, locate his the relative scarcity of EW weapons, their
units and facilities, intercept his communi limitations, and the transient nature of their
cations, and disrupt his command, control, effects.
and target acquisition systems at critical
moments. EW is conducted concurrently at Enemy nets which routinely pass infor
both the operational and tactical levels, mation of intelligence value should be iden
and these efforts must be synchronized with tified and monitored. Those which have
each other and with other activities- high tactical value to the enemy but little
maneuver, fire, and air support-to obtain or no intelligence value should be attacked
maximum benefit. with jammers or with fire. Enemy jammers
and radars should be located, reported, and
Staff officers have specific responsibilities destroyed. Guidance for jamming, destroy
for EW. The G3 or the S3 has the overall ing, or exploiting enemy electronic emitters
responsibility for EW, but focuses his pri should be reviewed before each tactical
mary effort on offensive EW. He imple operation.
ments the commander's guidance by inte Jamming should interrupt or disrupt the
grating EW with the rest of the plan. The enemy's communications at decisive mo
G2 or the S2 develops targets for inter ments in the battle-when key information
ception, jamming, or destruction. The com needs to be passed or new instructions are
munications-electronics officer manages required. Jamming may be effective only
defensive electronic warfare. for the short periods of time the enemy
needs to take evasive action or to execute
The supporting military intelligence unit countermeasures.
provides an electronic warfare support ele
ment (EWSE) to assist the G3 or the S3 Jammers support other combat actions-
in coordinating EW. The EWSE usually By disrupting key command and control
collocates with the fire support element nets, thus slowing or disorganizing the
(FSE) to facilitate target acquisition, fire enemy in critical sections.
planning, and coordination.
By denying the enemy the ability to react
Military intelligence units (combat elec to changes on the battlefield.
tronic warfare intelligence (CEWI)) detect * By reducing the effectiveness of enemy
and identify important enemy communica fire support and air control nets.
tions nets and intercept their traffic to pro
vide the commander with intelligence. They * By denying the enemy the use of his air
also direct electronic countermeasures, pri defense fire control nets.
marily jamming, against enemy fire direction * By disrupting the enemy's flow of critical
and command and control communications, supplies, such as ammunition and POL.
air defense radar, and electronic guidance
systems. This capability to locate the enemy, Jammers should be used judiciously and
to intercept his messages, and to hamper moved often enough to avoid destruction.
his operations at critical periods contributes The G3 ' or the S3 coordinates the position
both directly and indirectly to the effec ing of jammers and other electronic warfare
tiveness of combined arms operations. assets.
54 Chapter 3
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The G3 or the S3 is also responsible for command priorities, and resources and time
electronic deception activities. These must available. Reconstitution does not auto
be a coordinated part of the overall de matically require unit withdrawal. However,
ception plan and may include imitative a reconstituted unit should ideally be al
communication deception (ICD) and ma lowed time to stabilize and begin rees
nipulative electronic deception (MED). ICD tablishing internal cohesion before it is
is the controlled entry of an enemy net by committed to battle again.
operators posing as enemy stations to dis The commander's decision to reconstitute
rupt the enemy's operations by passing false
reports or by confusing the transmission a unit is normally based on
of information and orders. MED is the trans " The unit's personnel losses, including
mission of false information on friendly MOS shortages or shortages in leadership
communications nets to deceive the enemy. structure.
RECONSTITUTION " The unit's equipment status including
shortages of mission-essential items, low
Sustained combat, heavy casualties, and operational ready rates of major items,
massive destruction of equipment will re or lack of maintenance and repair parts.
quire commanders to rebuild units during
operations. Reconstitution is focused action " The unit's psychological condition, includ
to restore ineffective units to a specified ing its internal cohesion and the physical
level of combat effectiveness. Reconstitution and mental condition of its soldiers.
may include replacement of personnel, sup " The impact of releasing the unit on the
plies, and equipment; reestablishment or operations of the parent force, including
reinforcement of command and control; and the time and resources available to re
conduct of mission-essential training. When constitute it.
the responsible commander determines that Based on an analysis of these consider
a unit is not sufficiently effective to meet ations and any others which may be rele
operational requirements, reconstitution of vant, the staff determines a unit's level of
that unit should begin as soon as feasible. combat effectiveness and recommends to the
Reconstitution requires coordinated planning
commander measures to correct identified
by G3/S3, G1/S1, and G4/S4 staffs. problems. No single report will provide the
Commanders have two options available commander and staff with the necessary
for reconstituting units: reorganization and level of detail to determine relative combat
regeneration. Reorganization is action taken effectiveness. Commanders must determine
to shift resources within an attrited unit their unit's capabilities, taking into consid
to increase its level of combat effectiveness. eration both objective and subjective combat
Reorganization consists of measures such effectiveness indicators. Objective indicators
as internal redistribution of equipment and include a comparison of personnel and
personnel and the formation of composite equipment authorizations with on-hand
units. Regeneration is the rebuilding of a strengths. Subjective indicators include
unit through large-scale replacement of per evaluations of the levels of leadership, co
sonnel, equipment and supplies; the re hesion, training, and morale.
establishment of command and control; and
the conduct of mission-essential training for PSYCHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS
replacement personnel. Usually a unit under Psychological operations (PSYOP) are an
going regeneration must be withdrawn from
important component of the political, mili
contact with the enemy. tary, economic, and ideological actions that
These options can be used separately or support both long-term and immediate ob
in combination. Their application depends jectives. Propaganda and other PSYOP
upon current and anticipated situations, techniques for changing the attitudes and
Chapter 3. 55
FM 100-5
behavior of target groups provide the com Effective integration of PSYOP is based
mander with his primary means of commu on the following fundamental principles:
nication with opposing military forces and " Planning should begin early, concurrently
civilian groups. When effectively integrated with operational planning.
with other operations, PSYOP contribute
significantly to combat power. They can * PSYOP must begin early in an operation.
" Reduce the combat effectiveness of enemy * Scarce resources for conducting PSYOP
forces. should be targeted against groups most
critical to success.
" Promote support for friendly forces among
local populations and external groups " Divisive and consolidative PSYOP con
(including in some cases the enemy's own ducted at the strategic, operational, and
population). tactical levels of war must be thoroughly
coordinated and mutually supportive.
" Reduce the effectiveness of enemy PSYOP PSYOP should also be integrated with
directed toward friendly forces and sup operational deception effort.
porting civilian groups.
* All PSYOP units are part of a PSYOP
PSYOP must be coordinated from the command to ensure integration and con
theater to the division level. Based on levels sistency of operations.
of employment, objectives, and targeted " PSYOP must respond to the changing
groups, each of the following categories is requirements of the battlefield.
part of an integrated theater PSYOP effort:
* Strategic PSYOP, conducted to advance AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONS
broad or long-term objectives and to create
a psychological environment favorable to An amphibious operation is an attack
military operations. launched from the sea by naval and landing
forces against a hostile shore. It may be
" Operational PSYOP, conducted to achieve conducted to
mid-term objectives in support of cam
paigns and major operations. " Prosecute further land combat operations.
* Tactical PSYOP, conducted to achieve * Obtain a site for advanced bases.
relatively immediate and short-term ob * Deny the use of an area or facilities to
jectives in support of tactical commanders. the enemy.
At any level, PSYOP may be consoli An amphibious operation constitutes one
dative, conducted to facilitate military of the more potent capabilities available to
operations, to reduce interference by non a theater commander, as the invasions of
combatants, and to obtain the cooperation Normandy and Inchon demonstrated. Its
of the civilian population in the area of usefulness stems from the mobility and
operations. Or it may be divisive, intended flexibility of the amphibious task force and
to lower the efficiency and fragment the its potential to achieve surprise. The US
loyalty of military forces which directly Army has a collateral responsibility for
oppose the objectives of a command. planning and executing joint amphibious
operations.
The G3 is responsible for integrating
psychological and combat operations. The An amphibious operation confronts dif
supporting PSYOP unit commander plans ficulties not normally encountered in land
and executes PSYOP. He normally provides combat operations. These include natural
a small PSYOP staff element to the sup forces, such as unfavorable weather, seas,
ported G3. surf, and features of hydrography; technical
56 Chapter 3
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Chapter 3 57
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58 Chapter 3
CHAPTER 4
Sustainment Planning and Execution
Chapter 4 59
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rely heavily on its sustainment system. The or interdiction at critical junctures, train
differences in firepower, agility, and en their combat service support (CSS) units to
durance which can decide battles all derive the same standards of toughness and com
as much from the combat service support petence as the rest of the force, and operate
system as they do from any of the other their CSS systems effectively before, during,
systems that support fighting forces. and after battle.
To realize their units' full potential, This chapter describes the principles of
commanders must support their operations sustainment planning and operations and
with rugged, flexible, self-sufficient combat provides general guidance for the applica
service support forces. They must protect tion of those principles at the operational
their sustainment systems from disruption and tactical levels of war.
SUSTAINMENT CHALLENGE
Sustaining large forces in combat has consume over 600,000 gallons of fuel per
become an extraordinary challenge. Even day, more than twice the consumption of
in World War II, the challenge was con Patton's entire army.
siderable. During its August 1944 pursuit
across France, for example, the US Third The sole measurement of successful sus
Army consumed 350,000 gallons of gasoline tainment has always been the generation of
every day. To fulfill this requirement and combat power at the decisive time and place.
to meet similar demands from First Army, As the environment for this has never been
the Communication Zone organized the more demanding, today's units must be as
famous "Red Ball Express," a conveyor belt simple and as rugged as possible. They
of trucks connecting the Normandy depots must also use complex weapons and con
with the field armies. At its peak, the Red sume large stocks of materiel to fight a
Ball Express ran 6,000 trucks day and night sophisticated enemy. High- and mid-intensity
in an operation that became more difficult operations will therefore be characterized
with every mile the armies advanced. To by high consumption of military materiel;
meet the demands of logistics, three newly by a great diversity of equipment types; by
arrived infantry divisions were stripped of the expansion of the battle area resulting
their trucks and left immobile in Normandy. from both sides employing sophisticated
weapons, communications, and sensors; and
The Red Ball Express itself consumed by extended lines of support within and
300,000 gallons of precious gasoline every outside the theater of operations. Sustain
day-nearly as much as a Field Army. ment on this enlarged, material-intensive,
Today, it is estimated that one armored electronically sensitive, and lethal battlefield
division equipped with M1 tanks will presents an unprecedented challenge.
60 Chapter 4
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Chapter 4 61
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forces will attack the support system as protection in dispersion, concealment, and
part of a coordinated battle or campaign self-defense. Nevertheless, commanders may
plan. Passive and active measures must frequently have to take active steps to de
therefore be combined to protect the sustain fend their sustainment system and prevent
ment effort. To the greatest degree possible, disruption of support functions, especially
combat service support forces must seek at decisive stages of combat.
SUSTAINMENT IMPERATIVES
To meet these challenges, sustainment operations; for example, a shift from high
of AirLand Battle operations confronts ammunition to high petroleum consumption
five fundamental imperatives: anticipation, as exploitation begins.
integration, continuity, responsiveness, and
improvision. INTEGRATION
Neither tactical nor operational plans
ANTICIPATION can succeed without fully integrated combat
The agility of a force, its ability to seize service support. The commander must as
and retain the initiative, and its ability to sure that his overall operation is support
synchronize its activities in depth all de able at every stage of its execution. Support
pend to a great extent on how well its unit commanders must plan their own ac
support operations anticipate requirements. tivities to give the operational or tactical
Neither sustainment nor operations planners commander the greatest possible freedom
can predict the exact course of events, but of action throughout the campaign or battle.
both must foresee future operations and They must be bold and innovative in their
demands as accurately as possible. support operations to contribute to surprise
by allowing the supported force to do more
For sustainment planners, anticipation than the enemy thinks possible. In this
means maintaining or accumulating the regard, sustainment operations must also
assets necessary to support the commander's be thoroughly integrated into any deception
operation at decisive times and places. plan.
Anticipation also demands that sustainment
operations be flexible enough to accom CONTINUITY
modate any likely operational or tactical Sustainment cannot be interrupted for
contingency. At the tactical level, this may long without directly diminishing the com
mean rapid readjustment of basic loads, bat power of a force. During operations,
prescribed loads, and expenditure rates to committed forces-combat, combat support,
assure that shortages of fuel, ammunition, and combat service support-must receive
and parts do not limit the force's conduct continuous supply and service to sustain
of battle. At the operational level, antici their fighting strength. If the commander
pation requires that sustainment planners expects units to be isolated by enemy action
visualize the entire course of a major oper as a result of his own tactical plan, he must
ation or campaign while planning specifi arrange for those units to be sustained
cally for the phase that is under way. throughout the operation either by accom
Planners must assure that base facilities, panying CSS forces or through specially
priorities of support, lines of communication, planned replenishment operations.
and troop movements in the theater can
effectively support the main line of opera While operations and sustainment both
tions, yet adjust rapidly to any branches vary in intensity, operations may enter
or variations that are likely to be developed. inactive periods; sustainment does not. In
Planners must also anticipate shifts in de fact, periods of operational inactivity
mand based on the changing nature of usually coincide with efforts by both
62 Chapter 4
FM 100-5
combatants to rebuild their units and bases major redirection of supply flows, reallo
of support. Sustainment planners and com cation of transportation means, or short
manders must take advantage of every notice transfer of units from one part of
opportunity to increase sustaining capabili the theater to another. The mental and
ties. When the pace of combat activity di physical agility to cope with such require
minishes, they must redirect their efforts ments must be built into the sustainment
to replenish the sustainment base while con system ahead of time by effective organi
tinuing support to combat units. Since such zation, careful planning, and solid training.
efforts require CSS units to operate con
stantly, commanders must make special IMPROVISATION
provisions for resting, retraining, and re No matter how carefully commanders
equipping them. and planners try to anticipate events, un
Finally, continuity requires that the sus foreseen contingencies arise in every con
flict. Enemy action, interruption of sealift
tainment effort never become hostage to a
single line or mode of support. Temporary or airlift, and natural disasters can all up
set plans and require improvisation. In
or permanent losses of key ports, airheads,
and LOC nodes must be expected and hedged cases such as the Battle of the Bulge of
1944 and the Tet Offensive of 1968, CSS
through forward stockage, alternate facili
ties, or a combination of both. Since the planners and operators have had to im
price of such hedging is a reduction in provise to meet unanticipated emergencies.
current consumption, the commander must In such situations, normal operating pro
cedures must be suspended, unusual sources
constantly balance that cost against the
risk of interruption. of supplies and transportation exploited,
and exceptional risks accepted. Tactical ve
RESPONSIVENESS hicles may have to be pressed into service
as supply transporters, equipment in un
In crises or when fleeting opportunities committed units cannibalized for parts, or
arise, the sustainment system must react emergency supply points established.
rapidly. Such quick reaction to increased
demand is only possible if CSS units are Less dramatic emergencies, such as un
trained to respond on short notice and to expected maintenance failures in a partic
"surge" their support for brief periods. Such ular type of equipment, loss of support
efforts may temporarily upset the support equipment, or unanticipated peaks in work
system, but are often necessary to winning. load also require improvised solutions. Such
At the operational level of war, the sus improvisation has long been one of the
tainment system must be able to meet simi American soldier's greatest strengths and
lar extraordinary demands on an even should be viewed as an advantage in meet
greater scale. Efforts to reestablish a rup ing emergencies. It should be seen not as
tured defense or to exploit a tactical success a substitute for anticipation, but rather as
may call for relocation of support bases, a necessary complement to it.
Because future conflicts will most likely influencing theater sustainment organization
be some distance from the United States, and planning are the following:
organization and planning for sustainment
of operations will be strongly influenced by * Forces available. The forces available for
the nature of the theater and the circum sustainment operations will critically in
stances in which US forces are committed. fluence the time needed to create a sus
Among the most important considerations tainment base in the theater and the
Chapter 4 63
FM 100-5
64 Chapter 4
FM 100-5
can include operation, maintenance, and both natural hazards and enemy action.
security of ports and airheads; manage Most importantly, their location should
ment of routes, railways, petroleum pipe give the operational commander the
lines, inland waterways, and bulk storage greatest possible freedom of action. They
facilities; and operation of existing com must therefore be able to support more
munications networks. HNS can also sup than a single line of operation.
ply transportation, civilian labor, and
local security and police forces in some In practice, these features may not all
cases. be attainable. The base locations most
accessible to sealift, for example, may be
Establishment of the sustainment base. poorly sited to support the preferred line
Even in a developed theater, operational of operations or may be excessively vul
and logistical planners will have to make nerable to enemy action. Campaign plan
early but far-reaching decisions about ners may have to make difficult choices
their principal and supplementary bases as they organize a theater for operations
of support. Whether sustainment facilities and sustainment. The dominant consid
are available or must be developed from erations should be responsive of support
scratch, the choice of where to establish to the fighting units and maximum flexi
the initial support base or bases may in bility for the operational commander.
fluence the course of the entire campaign.
Such bases should allow easy access to 0 Major sustainment systems. Wherever it
strategic sealift and airlift, offer adequate is established, the theater sustainment
space for storage, facilitate transshipment base must be capable of supporting the
of supplies, and be accessible to multiple five functional systems of the sustainment
lines of communication. They should pro effort: transportation, maintenance, sup
vide the greatest possible protection from ply, personnel, and health services.
OPERATIONAL SUSTAINMENT
Operational sustainment comprises those for operational sustainment will involve
logistical and support activities required to several critical decisions concerning the in
sustain campaigns and major operations terface of combat and sustainment activities.
within a theater of operations. Operational
sustainment extends from the theater sus LINES OF SUPPORT
taining base or bases which link strategic
to theater support functions, to the forward
Maintenance of uninterrupted sustaining
CSS units and facilities organic to major
support throughout all phases of the opera
tactical formations.
tion or campaign is the central challenge
of operational sustainment. Such continuity
The central organizational framework for is provided in large part by establishing
operational sustainment is the theater army, lines of communication linking the theater
described more fully in FM 100-16. However, base or bases to the forward tactical for
depending on the nature of the contingency mations. Depending on the geography of
and the organization of the theater, field the theater, the availability of transpor
armies, corps, and even divisions may find tation assets, and the threat, ground lines
themselves responsible for planning and of communication (LOC) may be supple
conducting sustainment at the operational mented by air lines of communication
level. At whatever level conducted, planning (ALOC), sea lines of communication (SLOC),
Chapter 4 65
FM 100-5
or both. More usually, ALOC and SLOC Such interior lines of support permit col
will serve as strategic LOC, linking with location of key sustaining facilities at
a predominantly land LOC network at the central points, maximizing the capacity of
theater base. the support system at minimum cost in
resources. Interior lines of support also
Whatever the composition of theater allow the rapid shift of support priorities
LOC, their relation to intended lines of op from one zone of action to another, allow
eration will be crucial to the quality and ing the operational commander maximum
continuity of sustainment. Generally speak flexibility.
ing, the fewer the sustaining assets and
the less certain the forecast of future op On the other hand, since interior lines
erations, the more advantageous it will be of support originate from central points,
to sustain along lines of communication in they art more vulnerable to enemy dis
terior to projected lines of action, that is, ruption, especially in the early phases of
behind and centered on the supported force. an operation or campaign. Such enemy
66 Chapter 4
FM 100-5
Chapter 4 67
FM 100-5
68 Chapter 4
FM 100-5
Chapter 4 69
FM 100-5
major shift in direction. With little warning Once support priorities are established,
and in less than 3 days, priority of sustain they must be disseminated as quickly as
ment was shifted from an eastward direc possible. At this point, it becomes the re
tion along existing LOC to a northward sponsibility of the CSS planners and opera
axis involving the establishment of an en tors to develop and implement a support
tirely new support network. Eastward move plan. The support plan- must provide the
ment was curtailed. Temporary depots were mobility and flexibility that will enable the
established from which stocks could be re commander to change priorities to take
directed northward. Routes were reallocated advantage of the situation.
and priorities for their use ruthlessly en Priorities may shift between units or to
forced. Maintenance, supply, transportation, a different area. When priorities are shifted
and service units were reallocated across to a new operational area, the ports of
corps without regard for habitual support debarkation (POD) within the area must be
relationships. And all this was accomplished evaluated and analyzed to ensure they are
in adverse weather and under enormous capable of providing the necessary support
time pressure. to the operational area.
On an air-land battlefield, such altera Any shifting of priorities may require
tions are more apt to be the rule than the the relocation of certain supply, service,
exception. To accomplish them with mini maintenance, or personnel units to ensure
mum confusion and delay, versatility must full support. While relocating, the opera
be built in the sustaining system. Terrain tional capability of the force will be tem
and route reconnaissance, assignment and porarily reduced. Also transportation and
reconnaissance of alternate transshipment other CSS assets will have to be diverted
and supply point areas, development and from support of combat units to move the
rehearsal of rapid relocation procedures, support base.
and continuous contingency planning can Priorities may be altered to exploit an
all help to diminish the risks associated operational situation, to conduct reconsti
with shifting LOC. Careful integration of tution efforts, to prepare for future battles,
intratheater airlift, use of host nation sup or to continue current operations. When the
port, and temporary expropriation of tactical commander changes a support priority, it
support assets can all be used to prevent is important that the operational and CSS
sustainment shortfalls during the actual planner alike review the affected support
relocation of facilities and traffic. relationships.
Most important, commanders and plan
FORCE EXPANSION
ners must attempt to anticipate those events-
intended and otherwise-which could require As the force in a theater is enlarged,
significant adjustment of lines of support. the commander must assure an appropriate
They must estimate the time required to balance of combat, combat support, and
make those adjustments and begin the re CSS forces at all stages of the expansion.
location process early. In the effort to maximize combat effective
ness by introducing the greatest possible
SUSTAINMENT PRIORITIES number of combat forces, he must take care
not to exceed the support capacity of his
In all operations, commanders will have logistics base. Any necessary acclimati
to conserve sustaining resources and estab zation, reequipping, or in-theater training
lish priorities for support. These priorities must be reflected in plans to build up forces
in a theater. CSS units require the same
will normally be given to the most ofvital
units for successful accomplishment the time as any other units to organize for
mission. operations.
70 Chapter 4
FM 100-5
While each newly assigned unit is being planners must also be prepared to meet the
integrated into the force, a detailed analysis increased demand for terrain on the battle
of the CSS system must be completed. This field. Units to be relocated will have to be
analysis should result in a revised CSS given adequate terrain to enable them to
support plan which assigns missions to prepare for the accomplishment of future
newly assigned CSS units, adjusts the mis missions.
sions of CSS units already in operation,
and cross-levels supplies as necessary. With the integration of each new unit,
the commander must reevaluate his sustain
Using information provided in the lo ment priorities and adjust them if neces
gistics estimate, the CSS planners must sary. Each time the force is expanded, the
ensure that appropriate measures are taken requirement for new facilities and lines of
to meet the increased demands for supplies communication must be reviewed to ensure
and services resulting from the expansion that they are adequate to accomplish the
of the force. Both CSS and operational mission.
TACTICAL SUSTAINMENT
Tactical sustainment includes all the CSS changes in the tactical situation. As a mini
activities necessary to support battles and mum, they must be capable of responding
engagements and the tactical activities to the major tactical contingencies foreseen
which precede and follow them. Tactical by the commander. They must also be able
units from corps to battalion are sustained to react to logistical contingencies which
by organic or supporting CSS which provide could affect support of an operation.
for their routine requirements and which
can be reinforced to give them additional CSS planners advise commanders and
strength for operations. tactical planners on the status, capabilities,
Tactical commanders can only realize the and limitations of the sustainment system
full combat potential of their units and supporting the force. They assist in for
achieve synchronization in their operations mulating courses of action in an operation.
by effective use of their sustainment system. After the commander's decision, they adjust
They must assure that their tactical plans support operations to conform with his con
realistically reflect logistic limitations and cept of operation. CSS staff officers and
fully exploit their CSS capabilities. Ammu commanders assist in preparing the force
nition, fuel, food and water, maintenance, for operations, support it during battles and
transportation, personnel services, and medi engagements, and play a leading role in
cal support must all be provided to support rebuilding its strength following combat.
the operations.
Among the critical factors to be con
Commanders must strike a balance in sidered in planning support for tactical
their tactical sustainment operations. While operations are
assuring adequate support to the force, so
that nothing needed for combat is lacking,
they must simultaneously conserve all the * Number and types of support units and
assets possible for future operations. They quantities of resources available.
must make specific provisions for the sup
port of their main effort and for the asso * The commander's priorities for support.
ciated close, deep, and rear operations. Like
all supporting operations, CSS operations * Consumption factors for the type of op
must be capable of rapid adjustment to eration being planned.
Chapter 4 71
FM 100-5
SUSTAINMENT CONTROLS
72 Chapter 4
FM 100-5
Chapter 4 73
FM 100-5
highlighted to the commander and to opera * The availability of field services such as
tional or tactical planners, together with showers, laundry, and graves registration
recommended options to compensate. units.
* The impact of the field service capabilities
Effective support of the soldier also af
on the fighting capacity of units.
fects combat power. CSS planners must
monitor such aspects of field service as The final expression of operational sus
tainability by the CSS planner or operator
* The health, morale, and welfare of sol must be a judgment regarding the extent
diers. to which the mission can be supported.
CSS elements must be integrated into Close or give the appearance of closing
"
74 Chapter 4
CHAPTER 5
Environment of Combat
Chapter 5 75
FM 100-5
EFFECTS OF TERRAIN
76 Chapter 5
FM 100-5
ranges, marshlands, and river deltas, must or commander specifies named areas of
be considered as obstacles and avenues of interest (NAI) as a means of focusing the
movement for armies. surveillance and interdiction efforts of the
Commanders perform terrain analysis unit.
in the light of their units' missions. They The key elements of terrain analysis are
evaluate the terrain's potential for cover summarized in the traditional mnemonic
and concealment, its impact on their own OCOKA: Observation and fields of fires,
and enemy mobility, and its use for obser Cover and concealment, Obstacles and
vation and direct fire effect. The able movement, Key terrain, and Avenues of
commander recognizes the battlefield's approach.
Chapter 5 77
FM 100-5
Obstacles and Movement. There are few Obstacles vary in their effect on differ
truly impassable areas. The cliffs at ent types of forces. Rail lines, small
Quebec, the tides of Inchon, and the streams, and villages along roads do not
Ardennes forest all appeared impassable to significantly impede dismounted opera
their defenders. Enterprising commanders tions, but can significantly slow the pace
have often won decisive victories by strik of a mounted operation. Adequately
ing suddenly over unlikely routes. We guarded forests and marshes which are dif
should actively seek such "impassable" ficult for unassisted armored forces to
approaches in our offensive operations and penetrate can be traversed by dismounted
protect difficult approaches into our own infantry or enveloped by air assault forces.
positions against surprise enemy attacks. The most promising approaches are
Roads, ridgelines, river valleys, and often those which appear unlikely. Often
plains are high speed approaches on which it is possible to gain access to a high-
fluid battles may develop rapidly. Combat speed, ridge approach by crossing difficult
78 Chapter 5
FM 100-5
TERRAIN ANALYSIS
Chapter 5 79
FM 100-5
terrain immediately to its front. Old road If the enemy has air superiority, the
beds also offer good movement potential avenue should provide maximum conceal
because they follow solid ground and are ment from the air.
usually not as well defended as improved Air avenues for attack helicopters, air
routes. assault forces, and close air support differ
Key Terrain. Key terrain is any feature, from ground avenues. A good air approach
locality, or area which affords a marked of any type provides rapid access to the
advantage to the combatant who controls target area, together with terrain-masking
it. Since this advantage is situational, the from air defense radar and direct-fire air
commander designates key terrain only defense weapons.
after he has analyzed his mission. The com Analyzing avenues of approach is as
mander may designate certain key terrain important to the defender as to the
as "decisive terrain" if accomplishment of attacker. The defender must accurately
his mission depends on seizing or retaining determine the main approaches to his sec
it. Many battlefields will not have decisive tor and identify the internal avenues
terrain. The commander designates deci which will permit him to maneuver against
sive terrain in his concept of operation to the attacker.
communicate its importance to his staff
and to subordinate commanders. TERRAIN REINFORCEMENT
Avenues of Approach. Avenues of The proper use of natural obstacles and
approach are evaluated in terms of their the reinforcement of terrain must be an
integral part of the commander's plan.
* Potential to accommodate maneuver Artillery fires, direct fire engagement
units of a specified size and type. areas, and obstacles must all be completely
" Access to important areas and adjacent meshed in the tactical plan. At the opera
avenues. ional level, routes must be built or im
proved and obstacles and interdiction
* Degree of canalization.
planned in depth to support the campaign
" Cover and concealment. or major operation.
" Effect on line-of-sight communications. Although the attacker determines the
" Obstacles. time and place of attack, the defender has
A good avenue of approach must allow a clear advantage in the preparation of
the battlefield. He must make the most of
rapid movement along its entire length. his opportunity to study, to organize, and
Obstacles should be avoidable or reducible to improve the terrain. The attacker must
in reasonable time. The obstacle-producing
bear this advantage of the defender in
effects of mines, barriers, and conven mind and must allow the defender as little
tional, nuclear, and chemical interdiction time as possible to dig in, to obstruct
must also be taken into account. Ideally,
routes, to prepare counterattack ap
an avenue should be broad enough to per proaches, and to establish solid communi
mit lateral maneuver along its course and
cations. Once the defense has occupied a
afford parallel spurs or branches which strong position and improved it, successful
can be used to bypass strong defenses. attack becomes far more difficult.
Enough covering terrain should be avail
able to permit part of the force to over- Terrain reinforcement and mobility and
watch the rest. Combat support units and countermobility improvements are the
combat service support units must be able responsibility of the maneuver commander.
to move along the avenue in support of the Generally, a commander should concen
attacking force. This may also be done trate his engineer effort in two directions.
over parallel routes or along routes which In one direction, he should develop an
are uncovered as the attack gains ground. obstacle system in depth which enhances
80 Chapter 5
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when heavily constructed multistory struc advantage of urban cover and concealment
tures are present, they add a vertical to position command posts, supplies, and
dimension to urban combat. combat service support units. Both forces
will be affected by the presence of the
The cover and concealment available in population and its sympathies in the
urban areas normally work to the tactical conflict.
advantage of the defender. Mutually sup Urban areas impede the operations of
porting strongpoints in an urban area or
village can slow or impede the attacker armored and mechanized forces, restricting
and provide islands of resistance around their mobility, maneuverability, and the
which to maneuver and counterattack. effectiveness of their long-range weapons.
They can also create opportunities for Infantry forces including light forces are
offensive maneuver against an attacker best suited to combat in built-up areas. In
who has been halted and lies exposed at such areas, they can hold well-protected
the edge of an urban area. positions while minimizing their vulner
abilities to heavy weapons.
For his part, the attacker will attempt
to isolate and bypass most built-up areas. For details of how to fight on urbanized
Like the defender. the attacker can take terrain, see FM 90-10.
SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTS
82 Chapter 5
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effective in the mountains and can be forces in the close terrain of jungles. This
accomplished by smaller-than-ordinary produces frequent engagements between
forces. Nonetheless, an aggressive attacker small forces fighting for control of the
can sometimes traverse mountains rapidly, security area. When security forces succeed
as the US campaign through the Eifel and in making contact with a larger force, they
the German attack through the Balkans may be reinforced as their commander
demonstrated. A detailed discussion on tries to bring on decisive battle.
how to fight in mountains is in FM 90-6.
Air operations are also highly impor
JUNGLES tant in the jungle because of the difficul
Jungle warfare has been common ties of ground movement. Reconnaissance,
throughout the world in this century. maneuver, fire support, and CSS can all
Central Africa, Southeast Asia, the Pacific be greatly assisted by air operations. A
Islands, and Central and South America force without effective air support may
have all seen jungle combat at varying make its major operational effort in the
levels of intensity. area's rainy season and concentrate on
night tactical operations throughout the
Jungles vary from tropical rain forests year to nullify its disadvantage. When the
and secondary growth forests to swamps area of operations lies in a coastal or
and tropical savannas. The dominating island area, naval support can be used for
features of jungle areas are thick vegeta many of the same purposes as air support.
tion, constant high temperature, heavy
rainfall, and humidity. These features
combine to restrict movement, observation, Short fields of observation and fire and
fields of fire, communications, battlefield thick vegetation make maintaining contact
surveillance, and target acquisition. How with the enemy difficult. The same factors
ever, they also provide excellent cover and reduce the effectiveness of indirect fire
concealment. and make jungle combat primarily a fight
between infantry forces. Support by air
Operations in jungles tend to be isolated and mechanized forces can be decisive in
actions because of the difficulties of move jungle battles or engagements, but it will
ment and of maintaining contact between not always be available or effective. A
forces. Divisions can move cross-country detailed discussion of how to fight in
slowly, but aggressive reconnaissance, jungles is found in FM 90-5.
meticulous intelligence collection, and
detailed coordination are required to con
centrate forces in this way. More com DESERTS
monly, large forces operate along roads or Forces of all types can be employed in
natural avenues of movement and, as in the desert. Armor and mechanized infantry
the mountains, this is where decisive forces are especially suitable to desert com
battles will occur for the most part. Both bat except in rough mountainous terrain
combatants normally try to support or where light infantry may be required. Air
reinforce their committed forces by air assault and motorized forces can also be
and ground once fighting begins, and advantageously employed to exploit the
jungle combat has historically seen active vast distances characteristic of desert war
deep operations of interdiction by air and fare. Amphibious and airborne forces may
ambush. be valuable to secure a lodgement in desert
Large unit actions are usually sur areas, but the former will normally be un
rounded by very active security areas in able to operate far inland while the latter
jungle operations. Patrolling and other will require additional tactical mobility to
surveillance operations are especially conduct operations outside the lodgment
important to assure security of larger area.
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Deserts are semiarid and arid regions The desert environment has a debilitat
that contain a wide variety of soils in ing effect on troops who have not been
varying relief. Weather conditions can properly acclimatized or trained. Continu
change rapidly. Temperatures may range ous exposure to the sun causes profuse
from 30 to 130 degrees Fahrenheit in a 24 sweating, sunburn, dehydration, cramps,
hour period. A clear day with unequaled heat exhaustion, and even heat stroke. The
visibility and flight conditions may quickly environment induces mental fatigue,
change to a raging sandstorm that can impaired perception, and depression which,
halt all military operations. Long periods coupled with the pressures of combat, can
of drought can be interrupted by sudden overwhelm unprepared soldiers.
rains that bring flash floods and mud but
little relief from water shortages. Large The desert has an even more adverse
areas of excellent trafficability are often effect on machines. Intense supervision is
interspersed with rugged mountains, dunes, required to ensure continuous availability
deep ravines, bogs, and sand seas. The of clean air, fuel, and lubricants. Vehicle
availability of water will be a prime factor cooling and electrical systems are vulner
in planning and executing desert opera able to extremes of temperature. Tracks,
tions. The selection of locations for sup tires, and suspension systems wear out
porting logistics facilities and selection of rapidly in the desert. The intense desert
objectives will frequently be based on heat can also cause communication equip
water supply. ment to overheat and malfunction. A
detailed discussion of how to fight in
Flat desert areas alter the conduct of desert areas is in FM 90-3.
military operations. Because the terrain
does not canalize large forces, large scale WINTER ZONES
use of mines and obstacles becomes neces
In regions such as the polar ice cap,
sary. The lack of prominent features com survival of forces requires so many re
plicates land navigation and requires the sources that few may remain to accomplish
use of dead-reckoning and celestial naviga anything militarily useful. Therefore, the
tion. Although the lack of relief diminishes likelihood is small that large forces will
the influence of key terrain, small inden be committed to such an extreme environ
tations and folds in the ground can pro ment. Nevertheless, the Army must be able
vide cover for small units and individual to employ small combined arms forces in
vehicles. Because of the sparse vegetation, the arctic regions if required.
concealment in the desert is more difficult
than in many other environments. Con Larger forces, however, might well have
cealment, however, is not only possible, it to operate in a number of less severely
is absolutely necessary. To survive, forces cold environments worldwide. In areas
must use camouflage nets, pattern and which experience extremely cold winters,
mud painting, covers for reflective sur troops will have to be specially trained and
faces, and similar techniques. In general, equipped if they are to fight on equal
easy observation makes undetected ad terms with a well prepared enemy. Com
vances and withdrawals difficult. manders in such areas will have to pay
Deception measures of all types (feints, special attention to the protection, mobil
ruses, decoy equipment, for example) thus ity, and tactics of their units.
become mandatory for success. Movement When the temperature remains below
at night or during sandstorms while main zero for an extended period of time, troops
taining strict communication security will require special clothing, larger than
assumes enormous importance in position usual rations, and more rest. They will
ing units. Engagements are often fought have to be trained and acclimated to
at long ranges, and this places a premium move, fight, and maintain themselves and
on accurate gunnery at maximum range. their equipment in a hostile environment.
84 Chapter 5
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pulse (EMP). These effects can cause signi Together, these conditions could radi
ficant personnel and materiel losses. cally alter the tempo and structure of bat
Nuclear weapons can also cause tree blow- tle. Accordingly, when fighting an enemy
down, urban destruction, fires, radiological with a nuclear or chemical capability, our
contamination and, in some cases, flood forces must operate in full awareness that
ing. The EMP from a nuclear explosion such weapons could be used at any time.
can burn out unshielded electronic equip Commanders must act to accomplish the
ment. Long-term residual radiation from mission with the least risk; the enemy can
fallout or rainout can injure or kill sol not be allowed to win through the surprise
diers. It may also contaminate supplies, use of nuclear or chemical weapons.
facilities, equipment, terrain, and un
covered food or water. Units survive by anticipating nuclear or
chemical attacks. They must take the fol
Chemical weapons also produce immedi lowing measures to avoid becoming lucra
ate and delayed effects. They contaminate tive targets:
individuals, terrain, equipment, and sup
plies. Prompt use of protective equipment * Maintain alertness. Commanders at all
and shelters will significantly reduce levels must be continually alert to nuc
casualties, but it also reduces individual lear or chemical attack. They have to
and unit efficiency. balance the risk to their units against
mission requirements, adjusting their
On a nuclear or chemical battlefield, dispersion and MOPP without losing
heavy casualties could occur very quickly. momentum.
Such heavy and sudden losses are likely
to shock and confuse inadequately trained " Instill discipline. Units must continue
or psychologically unprepared troops. their missions in spite of nuclear or
chemical attacks. Troops should be phy
In addition to taking immediate casual sically conditioned by frequent training
ties, units suffering such attacks will be in protective clothing and psychologi
weakened by long lasting effects. Soldiers cally prepared for the effects of nuclear
exposed to different levels of radiation and chemical weapons.
will lose varying effectiveness. Wearing
chemical protective clothing or operating " Avoid detection. Units must use active
for long times in contaminated environ and passive measures to defeat enemy
ments will also degrade performance. target acquisition capabilities.
Commanders must apply the proper
mission-oriented protective posture * Retain mobility. Tactical mobility gives
(MOPP) to balance protection with mission the commander the best chance for survi
accomplishment. val. Commanders must consider displac
ing whenever they suspect that their
The use of chemical and nuclear weap units have been detected.
ons will dramatically affect the control of
forces. Command posts will be prime " Disperse forces and installations to limit
targets for attack. Even within small units, damage. Units and facilities must be
control will be difficult. Soldiers and kept dispersed to the maximum degree
leaders who are wearing protective equip consistent with mission performance.
ment will be difficult to recognize. Leaders Proper dispersal is based on the charac
will have to cope with the additional bur teristics of enemy weapons and must
den of their protective equipment while include provisions for massing on short
they perform their duties. Only cohesive, notice. The degree of acceptable dispersal
disciplined, and well-trained units can will depend on the tactical situation,
function in such an environment. enemy capabilities, and available terrain.
86 Chapter 5
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* Seek terrain shielding and cover. Natural clothing, decontamination, and medical
terrain shields troops from the effects of supplies to fight without immediate
nuclear and chemical weapons. Foxholes support.
with overhead cover and simple shelters
are usually preferable to elaborate shel * Plan for rapid reconstitution. Com
ters which take a long time to construct manders must be prepared to continue
and are easily detected. the mission after a nuclear or chemical
attack. The commander who can recon
* Ensure logistical preparedness. The logis stitute or replace lost units rapidly will
tical system must continue to function in have the advantage in the continuing
a nuclear or chemical environment. Logis battle. Prompt damage assessment fol
tical facilities should be dispersed, con lowing an enemy strike and early imple
cealed, and redundant. Units must have mentation of contingency plans are the
sufficient combat supplies, protective keys to rapid reconstitution.
Chapter 5 87
FM 100-5
must coordinate with adjacent, higher, and Smoke employed with other munitions
lower headquarters to avoid disrupting impedes and disrupts the movement of
their operations. During darkness and enemy formations. It obscures suspected
other periods of reduced visibility, smoke enemy observers, conceals defensive posi
can degrade enemy observation capability tions, screens disengaging forces, or con
further, particularly the capability of ceals counterattacking forces. Smoke
enemy electro-optical devices. It can screens can silhouette assaulting forces
increase the effectiveness of conventional and prevent enemy aerial surveillance of
and scatterable mines and chemical muni assembly, marshaling, staging, and logistic
tions. Similarly, smoke can intensify the areas. Smoke operations should not inter
effects of electronic warfare on enemy com fere with friendly target acquisition, adjust
mand and control. ment of fires, or maneuver.
BATTLEFIELD STRESS
Commanders must bear in mind the The lethality of modern weapons, the
stressful effects of combat as they plan disruption of control through enemy use of
and conduct operations, for the pressures EW, the physical expansion of the danger
that battlefield chaos and destruction place area around battlefields, and the threat or
on soldiers have always been very great. use of nuclear and chemical weapons are
Unit discipline, realistic field training, de all mentally corrosive, and commanders
liberately fostered unit cohesion, and solid must act to protect their units accordingly.
bonding between leader and lead can di Leaders at all levels must be able to recog
minish the effects of this stress in part, nize the signs of battlefield stress and deal
but nothing can wholly eliminate it. The with it quickly and effectively. Prompt
commander who understands this and pro treatment of stress casualties in forward
tects his soldiers through strong, positive, areas can rapidly return most soldiers to
and caring leadership, proper mental, duty. Further, constant effort to protect the
physical, and training preparation, and force and an observable concern for the
simple decisive plans will win. soldier's personal welfare will help troops
88 Chapter 5
FM 100-5
cope with stress, and thus maintain fight psychological warfare, and special opera
ing effectiveness. Finally, deliberate tions forces, stress-creating actions can
actions to maintain and enhance unit hasten the destruction of his combat
cohesion through effective integration of capability.
replacements, shared responsibilities
among the leadership, and sustainment of Historically, even the psychological
small unit teams will pay handsome stress of victory has been considerable.
dividends. Much of the difficulty of initiating or
While shielding their own troops from sustaining exploitations or pursuit has
stress, commanders should attempt to pro been connected with overcoming the ex
mote terror and disintegration in the haustion of troops and junior leaders. In
opposing force. Aggressive patrolling, such cases, commanders must make a real
raids, and sudden, violent actions which istic appraisal of their soldiers' actual
catch the enemy by surprise and do not capabilities and drive them on even in the
permit him to recover should be commonly face of great resistance to gain the full
used as tools to magnify his battlefield advantage of their success. Such determi
stress. Coupled with attacks on his com nation is even more critical with defeated
mand structure, the use of artillery, air- or retreating troops, who -are harder to
delivered weapons, EW, smoke, deception, rally.
Chapter 5 89
PART II
OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 6
Fundamentals of the Offense
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92 Chapter 6
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Chapter 6--93
FM 100-5
the opponent from recovering from the ini As hard as you can,
tial shock, regaining his equilibrium, and Where it hurts him most,
94 Chapter 6
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While most attacks seek the outright identification of and reaction to the main
defeat of the opposing force, offensive op effort, and may actually induce him to shift
erations may also be conducted for related forces away from critical areas. Alterna
purposes. Attacks may be mounted to seize tively, an attack may be designed to fix
key terrain for use in defense or subsequent an enemy force in position, thereby pre
attack, or to secure or protect vital lines venting its interference with a friendly
of communication. The Israelis' capture of maneuver elsewhere. Feints and demon
the Mitla Pass in 1967, for example, pro strations are special forms of diversionary
vided the springboard for their subsequent attack.
drive to the Suez Canal. Attacks may also Finally, once hostilities have begun,
be conducted to secure critical war-support attacks may be used by a defending force
ing resources, as in Germany's effort in
1941 to seize Great Britain's oil fields in to disrupt an expected enemy attack,
upsetting its preparation and thus buying
the near east. time and information. As in the case of
Sometimes an attack may be launched the reconnaissance in force, such a spoiling
simply to force the enemy to disclose his attack may develop into a major offensive
strength, dispositions, or intentions. Such operation if the attack reveals an exploit
a reconnaissance in force may develop into able weakness. Raids are a special form
a major attack if the inital probe discloses of spoiling attack, designed to destroy in
an exploitable weakness in the enemy's de stallations or facilities critical to the
fenses. Attacks may also be used to deceive enemy's operations. Raids may also be
or distract the enemy. Used in conjunction mounted prior to or in conjunction with
with other deception measures, such diver other offensive operations to confuse the
sionary attacks can delay the enemy's enemy or divert his attention.
Chapter 6 95
FM 100-5
can achieve surprise simply through the deep exploitations. Germany's attack
rapidity with which they move, by con through France in 1940, the Soviet attack
fronting rearward enemy forces with a into Manchuria in 1945, MacArthur's
wholly unanticipated threat. The Israeli at counteroffensive in Korea in 1950, and
tack in the Sinai in June, 1967, illustrated Israel's seizure of the Sinai in 1967 all
such surprise-gaining agility. illustrate the rapid concentration of combat
power to penetrate or envelop, then shatter
Finally, surprise can be achieved by the enemy's defenses. In all but the Man
manipulating the enemy's expectations churian case, the attacker enjoyed little
through deception, feints, and ruses. Egypt's overall numerical advantage. Rather, each
attack across the Suez Canal in 1973 owed succeeded by achieving overwhelming local
its success in part to a succession of dem superiority, then preserving that initial
onstrations and maneuvers conducted in the advantage by rapid and relentless
months prior to the attack-actions which exploitation.
led Israeli commanders to believe that
Modern technology has made the process
preparations for the actual attack were
of concentration both more difficult and
merely part of the same pattern. More re
more dangerous. While advances in ground
cently, British forces in the Falkland
and air mobility enable the attacker to
Islands used deception effectively to surprise
concentrate more rapidly, they also enable
Argentine forces defending Port Stanley.
the defender to react more quickly. More
While surprise can radically degrade over, the lethality of modern weaponry-
enemy combat power, the effect is usually especially nuclear weapons-radically
only temporary, as the events of the Battle increases the threat to concentrated
of the Bulge demonstrated. Unless enemy formations.
forces or their leaders are inherently fragile,
To overcome these difficulties, the
they will sooner or later recover from the
initial shock. History affords countless ex attacking commander must manipulate both
his own and the enemy's concentration, first
amples of armies including our own which
recovered from initial surprise to achieve dispersing to stretch the enemy's defenses
final victory. To reap the benefits of sur and to avoid presenting lucrative targets
prise, therefore, the attacking commander for the enemy's deep fires, then concentrat
must exploit its-fnitial shock ruthlessly, ing rapidly along converging axes to
allowing the enemy no time to regain his overwhelm enemy forces at the point of at
equilibrium. tack, then dispersing once again to exploit
initial success and shatter the enemy's
To sum up, surprise can be a vital defenses in depth.
ingredient of successful offensive operations. Achieving/this pattern of rapid
But it can never be guaranteed, and, even concentration and dispersal requires flexible
when achieved, rarely lasts. While always leaders, agile units, and careful synchroni
seeking surprise, therefore, the commander zation of combat, combat support, and
must also hedge against the loss of surprise combat service support activities.
and plan for the aggressive exploitation of Commanders at all levels must designate
surprise whenever it is achieved. a main effort, focus resources to support
it, and be prepared to shift it rapidly with
CONCENTRATION out losing synchronization as the attack
While surprise may often contribute to unfolds. Units making the main attack
offensive success, concentration of effort is must be allocated enough combat support
invariably essential to both achieving and and combat service support to adjust to
exploiting it. Virtually all modern offensive changing circumstances without time con
operations have been characterized by suming and potentially confusing reorgani
sudden concentrations followed by rapid, zations. At the same time, the commander
96 Chapter 6
FM 100-5
must retain control of sufficient assets to shift their strength quickly to widen pene
shift his main effort to a supporting attack trations, roll up exposed flanks, and rein
if the latter appears more promising. force successes. The attacker tries to carry
At every level, but especially at division the battle deep into the enemy rear to break
and higher, special effort must be devoted down the enemy's defenses before he can
to concealing concentration until it is too react. The enemy must never be permitted
late for the enemy to react to it effectively. to recover from the shock of the initial
Units must avoid or mask patterns of assault, never be given the time to identify
movement and preparatory activity which the main effort, and above all, never be
might reveal the direction or timing of afforded the opportunity to mass his forces
attack. Logistical build-ups, patrolling or supporting fire against the main offen
activities, communications, and indirect fires sive effort.
must be monitored to preclude a visible Speed is built into operations through
change in the attacking force's operating careful planning. Commanders must identify
pattern. Speed, security, and deception are the best avenues for attack, plan the battle
essential to successful concentration for in depth, provide for quick transitions to
attack. exploitation and pursuit, and concentrate
On an air-land battlefield, concentration and combine forces effectively. Speed
will require the careful prior coordination depends on the violent execution of the plan
of other service support-especially air by fire and maneuver units, but it will also
support. Tactical air operations will be vital depend on
at every stage of the attack-offensive and
defensive counter air to protect the concen * Full understanding of the commander's
tration from detection and attack, recon intent.
naissance and interdiction to delay and
disrupt enemy counterconcentration, and * Availability and positioning of engineers.
close air support to weight the main effort * Use of air and ground cavalry.
and especially, sustain the momentum of
the attack. The flexibility of airpower makes " Maintenance of effective air defense.
it a powerful instrument of rapid concen
tration, but its full advantages cannot be * Responsive logistic support of the force.
realized unless ground and air operations
are effectively synchronized. * Effective use of military intelligence
(MI) and electronic warfare (EW) assets.
SPEED
The attack must move rapidly. Speed is * Effective command and control.
absolutely essential to success; it promotes
surprise, keeps the enemy off balance, con * Effective air support.
tributes to the security of the attacking
force, and prevents the defender from taking FLEXIBILITY
effective countermeasures. Properly ex
ploited, speed can confuse and immobilize The attack must be flexible. The
the defender until the attack becomes commander must foresee developments as
unstoppable. Finally, speed can compensate far ahead as possible. However, he must
for a lack of mass and provide the momen also expect uncertainties and be ready to
tum necessary for attacks to achieve their exploit opportunities. To preserve syn
aims. chronization on a fluid battlefield, initial
Attacking forces move fast and follow planning must be detailed. Subordinates
must understand the higher commander's
reconnaissance units or successful probes aimS so well that they can properly exploit
through gaps in enemy defenses. They must battlefield opportunities even when
Chapter 6 97
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98 Chapter 6
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assiduously practice rapid attack from the At higher echelons, hasty attacks are
march. More frequently, movement to con often anticipated through the use of con
tact occurs when a defending enemy has tingency plans. Large formations attack
disengaged or is attempting to do so. Here from the march using hasty attacks by
the objective of the movement to contact subordinate units or covering forces.
is to force the enemy to battle before he
can reestablish a cohesive defense. Regardless of its purpose or the echelon
at which it is conducted, a hasty attack
Even in less fluid conditions, movement purchases agility at the risk of losing syn
to contact will be necessary whenever chronization. To minimize this risk, units
opposing forces are beyond immediate conducting hasty attacks must make maxi
observation. In a division attack, for mum use of standard formations and well
example, battalions or even brigades may understood and rehearsed battle drills, and
need to conduct a movement to contact supporting arms and Services must be able
prior to deploying for attack if the situation to react quickly using prearranged proce
to their front is ambiguous and enemy posi dures. The more closely combat and
tions have not been clearly located. Such supporting units have worked together prior
situations are especially characteristic of to the attack, the easier and more successful
wide envelopments. such implicit coordination will be. Hasty
attacks accordingly place a premium on
In either case, the critical elements of habitual relationships among supported and
the movement to contact will be security supporting units at every level.
to the front and flanks, smooth and rapid In contrast to hasty attacks, deliberate
deployment into the attack when contact
attacks are fully synchronized operations
is made, and prior coordination of support which employ every available asset against
ing fires, both ground and air, to produce
the enemy defense. Because such syn
the fastest possible buildup of combat power
superiority at the point of contact. Seizure chronization requires careful planning and
extensive coordination, deliberate attacks
of the initiative is the overriding imperative, take time to prepare. During this time, the
and will require aggressive action by
enemy can improve his defenses, disengage,
leaders at every level without waiting for
or launch a spoiling attack of his own.
detailed orders. Deliberate attacks should therefore be
reserved for those situations where the
ATTACK
defense can neither be outflanked nor
Unless contact reveals an overwhelm overcome with a hasty attack.
ingly superior enemy force, movement to
contact will normally be followed imme Whether hasty or deliberate, successful
diately by a hasty attack, launched with attack depends on concentrating the maxi
the forces at hand and with minimum mum possible shock and violence against
preparation to destroy the enemy before the enemy force. The objective is to shatter
he is able either to concentrate or to estab
the enemy's nerve, ruin his combined arms
lish a defense. Such an attack may also
synchronization, and destroy his units'
be employed to seize a fleeting opportu cohesion and the willingness of his soldiers
nity or regain the initiative quickly after
to fight. The most successful attacks leave
a successful defense. In the defense, hasty
defending units incapable of further
counterattacks may recapture lost posi resistance.
tions before the enemy has had time to
consolidate his success. In World War II, EXPLOITATION
German units down to platoon level were Attacks which succeed in annihilating
renowned for the rapidity and effectiveness a defending enemy are rare. More often,
with which they could mount such hasty the enemy will attempt to disengage, with
counterattacks. draw what he can, and reconstitute an
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effective defense as rapidly as possible. In units will have suffered losses of men and
large-scale operations, he may attempt to materiel, and as the exploitation or pursuit
draw forces from less active areas, or bring unfolds, lines of communication will become
forward reserves heretofore uncommitted. increasingly tenuous. Extraordinary effort
Every attack not restricted by higher will be required to sustain the momentum
authority or lack of resources should there of the attack and thus translate tactical
fore be followed without delay by bold success into operational or even strategic
exploitation designed to keep the enemy victory.
under pressure, compound his disorganiza Although history reveals offensive
tion, and erode his will to resist. The operations in which all four phases occurred
ultimate object of the exploitation is disin in the sequence just described, most offen
tegration of enemy forces to the point where sive operations deviate from this pattern
they have no alternative but surrender or in one way or another. Attacks-especially
flight.
counterattacks-may take place with little
While exploitation is integral to every preparation, or following the unintended
attack, it is especially important in a collison of forces at a time and place
deliberate attack in which concentration for neither had foreseen. The battle of Gettys
the attack may require accepting risk else burg resulted from just such an unintended
where. Failure to exploit success aggres collision. Successful attack may give way
sively may permit the enemy time to detect directly to pursuit, bypassing exploitation
and exploit that weakness, and thus regain altogether. Such a pattern was typical of
both initiative and advantage. engagements in Vietnam, in which enemy
forces attacked by US forces simply sought
sanctuary in Laos or Cambodia. In conven
PURSUIT tional war, in contrast, pursuits are rare,
If it becomes apparent that enemy and exploitation is more than likely to end
resistance has broken down entirely, either short of annihiltion, curtailed either by
attack or exploitation may give way to insufficient sustaining capability or by
deliberate strategic restriction.
pursuit. The object of the pursuit is anni
hilation of the opposing force. It is Some offensive operations intentionally
conducted as a series of encirclements in
which successive portions of the fleeing exclude one or more phases. Spoiling at
enemy are intercepted and captured or tacks and feints, for example, rarely
destroyed. Large-scale pursuits are rare in envision full exploitation, although unusual
modern war, but they occur, as in the US circumstances may convert either into a
Eighth Army's pursuit to the Yalu River full-scale attack. Demonstrations seek no
in 1950. Like the exploitation, the pursuit real contact whatever, and are in effect no
is normally characterized by broad decen more than an elaborate preparatory phase
tralization of control and rapid movement. designed to deceive the enemy into expect
ing an attack.
Unlike the exploitation, however, the pursuit
rarely can be anticipated, and forces are Finally, phases may run into each other
not normally reserved for it.
with no abrupt and discernible break. This
Exploitations and pursuits test the is especially true of the exploitation and
audacity and endurance of soldiers and pursuit. Nevertheless, these phases consti
leaders alike. Typically, an attack will tute significantly different problems, and
disorganize the attacker nearly as much as each must be dealt with differently in
the defender. Attacking forces will be tired, planning and execution.
100 Chapter 6
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FORMS OF MANEUVER
Just as similar phases are common to forces are most protected and his fires most
all offensive operations, so similar forms easily concentrated. Instead, while fixing
of maneuver are common to all attacks. the defender's attention forward by support
These forms of maneuver include envelop ing or diversionary attacks, the attacker
ment, the turning movement, infiltration, maneuvers his main effort around or over
penetration, and frontal attack. While fre the enemy's defenses to strike at his flanks
quently used in combination, each attacks and rear. Flank attacks are a variant of
the enemy in a different way, and each the envelopment, in which access to the
poses different challenges to the attacking enemy's flank and rear is furnished by the
commander. enemy's own forward movement. Single
envelopments are directed against only one
ENVELOPMENT flank of the defending forces, while double
envelopments attack both flanks. Either
Envelopment is the basic form of variant can develop into an encirclement
maneuver in any doctrine which seeks to if the attacking force is able to sever the
apply strength against weakness. Envelop defender's lines of communications (LOCs)
ment avoids the enemy's front, where his and prevent his reinforcement or escape.
ENVELOPMENT
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TURNING MOVEMENT
1~
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)
I)
I
102 Chapter 6
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MacArthur's invasion at Inchon was a of all or part of the attacking force through
classic turning movement. Amphibious, air enemy lines to a favorable position in their
borne, and air assault forces are uniquely rear. Successful infiltration requires above
valuable for conducting turning movements. all the avoidance of detection and engage
However, because they will have to fight ment. Since that requirement limits the size
beyond supporting distance of other ground and strength of the infiltrating force, infil
forces, they will require heavy and contin tration can rarely defeat the defense by
uous air and/or naval support. itself, but rather is normally used in con
junction with some other form of maneuver.
INFILTRATION Infiltration is most feasible in rough
terrain and reduced visibility, or in areas
Infiltration is another means of reaching poorly covered by observation and fire. It
the enemy's rear without fighting through may be used to attack lightly defended
prepared defenses. It is the covert movement positions, or stronger positions from flank
INFILTRATION
U LZ
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PENETRATION
Penetration is used when enemy flanks
are not assailable and when time does not
permit some other form of maneuver. It at
tempts to rupture enemy defenses on a
narrow front and thereby create both as
sailable flanks and access to the enemy's
PENETRATION
I~mm.~I
[OBJ\
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11 112j II&I ,
z /"%t*110N
to"N t"N
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104 Chapter 6
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FRONTAL ATTACK
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Chapter 6 105
FM 100-5
least economical form of maneuver, since fires. Frontal attack may also be used
it exposes the attacker to the concentrated during exploitation or pursuit, and by sub
fire of the defender while simultaneously ordinate elements of a large formation
limiting the effectiveness of the attacker's conducting an envelopment or penetration.
own fires. Like many aspects of war, the forms of
As the simplest form of maneuver, maneuver have seen little change in modern
however, the frontal attack is useful for history. They are understood by potential
overwhelming light defenses, covering adversaries as well as by American soldiers.
forces, or disorganized enemy forces. It is Offensive success will therefore depend less
often the best form of maneuver for a hasty on the choice of forms than on their cre
attack or meeting engagement in which ative combination and, especially, on the
speed and simplicity are paramount, or for skill and audacity with which they are
executed.
exploiting the effects of nuclear or chemical
OFFENSIVE FRAMEWORK
A simple, complete concept of operation mission. They also provide all around secu
is the basis of all tactical offensive actions.
rity to include protection of logistic trains
in the rear.
The concept should permit rapid transition
between offensive phases. The commander organizes elements of
Corps and divisions make use of five the offensive framework for complementary
complementary elements in fighting their
functions in the conduct of his attack. In
offensive battles: the close operation, reconnaissance and
security forces-covering forces and ad
" A main attack with supporting attacks vance, flank, or rear guards-locate the
as required. enemy and find gaps in his defenses, pro
tect the force from surprise, develop the
* Reserve operations in support of the situation, and give the commander time and
attack. space in which to react to-the enemy. The
main and supporting efforts maneuver
" A reconnaissance and security operation around or through enemy defenses to
forward and to the flanks and rear of occupy objectives that permit the defeat of
main and supporting attacks. defending forces.
" A continuous deep operation in vital parts Reserves are positioned to weight the
of the zone of attack. main effort. They exploit success, reinforce
" Rear area operations necessary to main
or maintain momentum, deal with enemy
tain offensive momentum. counterattacks, provide security, complete
the destruction of enemy forces, secure deep
While some deep and rear activities objectives, or open the next phase of a
conducted by higher echelons affect, and campaign or major operation by seizing
must therefore be coordinated with, brigade objectives beyond the defended area.
and subordinate units, the latter normally
not conduct separate deep and rear op
Deep operations isolate enemy defenses,
do
erations. These echelons, however, look for disorganize enemy reserves, disrupt enemy
and anticipate enemy uncommitted forces
support, and complicate the reconstitution
of the defense during withdrawal.
which may affect accomplishment of the
106 Chapter-6
FM 100-5
Rear operations assure freedom of action their parent unit's operation. They form
of committed and uncommitted forces and their own security elements and reserves
protect necessary combat support and as necessary.
combat service support from disruption.
Corps, divisions, and maneuver brigades All elements of an attacking force must
can perform any type of tactical offensive be able to move quickly, change orientation
operation. Divisions, brigades, and battal rapidly, mass and disperse on the move,
ions may also be employed as security and accept new missions without loss of
forces, as elements of main or supporting time or momentum. Synchronization must
attacks, as reserves, or, in some cases, as be preserved in spite of rapid movement,
elements of deep or rear operations. battle losses, and changes in the main
effort. Units in all elements of offensive
Maneuver battalions and companies tactical operations must be prepared to
attack, defend, delay, or move as part of defend when they are finally halted.
Chapter 6 107
CHAPTER 7
Conducting Offensive Operations
to the attack.
EnemY a 60 a0 O
OFFENSIVE CAMPAIGNS
Troops,.
AND MAJOR OPERATIONS
The key to success in an offensive cam-Paifrt
paign is to defeat the enemy before the of- Pf
fensive reaches what Clausewitz called its
"culminating point." This culminating point Othetactica Cnsi
is achieved when a force on the offensive Flak Sacurit
expends so much of its strength that it Smoke Oer ins
ceases to hold a significant advantage over ProtionfrmAir
the enemy. At that point the attacker either
halts to avoid operating at a disadvantage
or goes on and risks becoming weaker thanA Uriiimi
the defender.
Culminating points occur because the
attacker must consume resources and com
mit forces as he moves into enemy territory
fighting successive battles and engage
ments. He must protect his flanks and rear
area, sustain his momentum with reserves,
and extend his line of supply. Constant
actions are likely to occur in his rear areas and the space to be defended contracts.
and to draw resources away from his main Finally, the natural friction of war acts to
effort. The defense is apt to become harder slow the attacker and bring him to the
to defeat as its own lines of supply shorten culminating point of his operation.
Chapter 7 109
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110 Chapter 7
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early in World War II and the Soviet Man to keep his own forces united while giving
churian campaign of 1945 illustrate this him an opportunity to isolate and defeat
type of campaign. separated enemy forces before they can join
In larger areas and when the defense to organize a stronger defense. The attack
is organized in depth, offensive campaigns ing commander's campaign plan should be
will halt periodically for logistical reasons designed to defeat the enemy's apparent
or because of effective defense. In these center of gravity-that portion of the de
cases, static and dynamic conditions alter fending force which, if defeated, will cause
nate. The attacker may then have to shift the overall.defense to fail. Manstein's cam
his main effort, re-mass against vulnerable paign in the Crimea exemplifies the use of
areas, and fight deliberate battles to restore interior lines to defeat an enemy force in
fluidity to the theater. In World War II, detail. Appendix B discusses lines of op
operations in North Africa, Eastern and eration in greater detail.
Western Europe, and the Pacific followed In each phase of the campaign, large
this pattern. The Persian Gulf war of the unit commanders anticipate battle of a
1980's suggests that linear stalemate is still general type-an envelopment, for instance-
possible if the attacker fails initially to and dispose their forces accordingly. To
disrupt the defense in depth. attack effectively, a large force should de
Whatever its design and objective, the ploy its divisions or corps in ways which
campaign plan must be flexible enough to facilitate the most likely type of maneuver
accommodate change. In particular, the com in battle. Some forces must be held in depth
mander should be capable of shifting his as reserves during operational maneuver.
main effort or lines of operation in response The force as a whole moves in zones of
to change or opportunity. The initiative is attack orienting on enemy forces or major
of vital importance in offensives. Large geographical features.
unit commanders should be sufficiently flexi
ble to avoid unprofitable battles or to ini Because of the enemy's reconnaissance
tiate unanticipated battles that contribute and the length of time which may pass
to the attainment of the objective. before battle, Army and corps formations
Offensive campaigns may be fought should mask the commander's intention as
against either concentrated or dispersed well as possible. Friendly intentions can be
enemy forces. Facing a concentrated enemy, concealed by adopting flexible dispositions
large unit commanders should attempt which do not limit the force to a single
through maneuver to force the enemy to form of maneuver. Active deception and
abandon his position or fight at a dis security operations also help to conceal
advantage. In practice, this means directing friendly intentions.
operations against the enemy's flanks or
rear or penetrating his defenses through Covering forces should operate well for
weak areas. It also implies operating on ward during operational maneuver to give
converging lines of action, a technique that the force notice of the enemy's presence and
requires close coordination and can expose time and space in which to act. As battle
the separated forces to defeat in detail. is joined, large unit commanders adjust the
Sherman's Atlanta campaign epitomizes a final movement of their forces and look for
successful campaign against a concentrated opportunities to defeat the enemy's defense
enemy force. in depth. In particular they seek ways to
employ operational reserves decisively.
When enemy forces are widely separated,
the attacker
fighting eachcan operate
enemy forceon
in interior lines,
turn. Operat The choices
visions held infor employing corps or di
reserve will be between
ing on interior lines permits the attacker using it to annihilate the enemy in the
Chapter 7 111
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battle area or pushing it through the de the operational commitment of reserves to
fended area to secure deep objectives. Seizing move beyond the defended area into the
objectives in operational depth is preferable depth of the theater of operations.
since that will set the terms for the cam In an offensive campaign, the com
paign's next phase or may even gain the mander must take care to preserve syn
objectives of the campaign. chronization and the strength of his force.
In a meeting engagement between large If his force becomes dispersed or over
units, the commander will be closely in extended, or if his activities become unsyn
volved in the battle. His options for em chronized, he may have to assume the
ploying operational reserves will also be defensive temporarily, especially if the
more numerous. enemy remains capable of offensive action.
All offensive campaigns end in a defense
In a deliberate attack against an estab of either the theater of operations or that
lished defense, the commander will have part of it under the attacker's control when
to position operational forces where they he reaches his culminating point. This de
can exploit tactical success. In such actions, fensive phase must be foreseen and planned
a large battle-a tactical action-precedes for.
TACTICAL OFFENSE
. As part of either offensive or defensive to deploy and attack rapidly in any di
campaigns or major operations, corps, di rection with the support of accompanying
visions, and smaller tactical level units may air and artillery.
be given missions requiring movement to
contact, hasty attack, deliberate attack, * The formation must provide for all-around
exploitation, or pursuit. security-that isl to the flanks and rear
and against air attack, as well as to the
MOVEMENT TO CONTACT front.
The purposes of the movement to contact " The force must move aggressively and
are to gain contact with the enemy and to with maximum speed. A slow or overly
develop the situation. Movements to contact cautious advance will be dangerous, be
should be conducted in such a manner as cause slow-moving forces are easy to out
to maintain the commander's freedom of flank or to target.
action once contact is made. This flexibility
is essential to maintaining the initiative " The commander must decentralize exe
and is based on the following principles: cution of the movement to leaders on the
front and flanks. However, he should
* The commander must lead with a mobile,
self-contained covering force to locate and maintain sufficient control to assure that
fix the enemy, but he must also hold the long-range supporting fires are effective
and that forces in depth can be employed
bulk of his force back far enough so that
he can maneuver without inadvertently promptly when the unit makes contact.
becoming decisively engaged. He fights Organization and Planning. A corps and
through light resistance with lead units its divisions usually organize a covering
whenever possible to maintain the mo force, an advance guard, and a main body
mentum of the operation. for movements to contact. The main body
* The commander must organize his unit normally provides flank and rear security
into combined arms forces that are ready forces.
112 Chapter 7
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The composition, size, and operation of missions assigned the covering force are to
the covering force may influence the entire reconnoiter the zone ahead of the main
course of the battle. It must include the body, develop the enemy situation, and pro
fire support, combat support, and combat vide security for the main body to deploy
service support (CSS) necessary to enable and fight on the best possible terms. Cov
it to fight independently. It must especially ering force operations may include attacking
include engineer assets-bridging for hasty to destroy enemy resistance, securing or
gap crossing and dozers and plows to re controlling key terrain, and containing large
duce obstacles. enemy units.
The covering force should be mobile and The advance guard is a security force
well balanced, and it should be employed provided by the main body. It operates
far enough forward of the main body to forward of the main body to ensure its
give the overall commander space and time uninterrupted advance and protect it from
in which to react to enemy contact. The surprise attack. The advance guard protects
Chapter 7 113
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the deployment of the main body when it under division and corps control until con
is committed to action and facilitates its tact is made. Air reconnaissance, close air
advance by removing obstacles, repairing support (CAS), battlefield air interdiction
roads and bridges, or locating bypasses. (BAI), and counter air operations are es
sential to the success of large-scale move
The advance guard moves as fast as ments to contact. Local air superiority, or
possible, but unlike the covering force, re at a minimum, air parity will be vital to
mains within supporting distance of the success.
main body. It performs continuous recon
naissance to the front and flanks and Combat service support must be decen
pushes back or destroys small enemy groups tralized and readily available to sustain the
before they can hinder the advance of the elements of the main body without inter
main body. When the advance guard en ruption. Aerial resupply may also be nec
counters large enemy forces or heavily de essary to support large-scale movements to
fended areas, it takes prompt and aggressive contact or to maintain their momentum.
action to develop the situation and, within
its capability, to defeat the enemy. Its com Brigades, divisions, and corps move over
mander reports the location, strength, dis multiple parallel routes with numerous lat
position, and composition of the enemy and eral branches to remain flexible and to
tries to find the enemy's flanks and gaps reduce the time needed to initiate maneuver.
in his position. The main body may then The speed, momentum, and dispersal of the
have to join in the attack. The advance formation and its limited electromagnetic
guard must be far enough in front of the emissions make targeting by the enemy
main body to ensure that the commander
of the protected force has freedom of action. difficult. However, once the force makes
contact and concentrates to overcome the
However, it must not be so far in front enemy, it becomes vulnerable to nuclear and
that it can be destroyed before assistance
can reach it. The force commander usually chemical strikes. It must concentrate, attack
rapidly, and disperse again as soon as it
specifies how far in front of his force the overcomes resistance.
advance guard is to operate. At night, in
close terrain and under conditions of low
visibility, those distances are reduced. Main body units normally provide flank
and rear security elements. Air cavalry can
The advance guard normally advances be used to assist the covering force, advance
in column until it makes contact. It may guard, and the flank and rear guards.
move continuously or by bounds. It moves
by bounds when contact with the enemy In a movement to contact, maneuver unit
is imminent and the terrain is favorable. commanders must be well forward. The
Mechanized infantry, cavalry, and armored force commander must be able to move
units are most suitable for use in the ad quickly to the area of contact. There, he
vance guard. Engineers should move with must size up the situation promptly, act
the advance guard, but other support can quickly and aggressively, and report the
normally be provided by the main body. situation accurately.
The main body consists of combined To provide the commander with the
arms elements prepared for immediate ac earliest possible warning of enemy move
tion on contact. Companies prepare by cross ment in his area of interest, long range
attaching. Battalions and brigades prepare surveillance should support a force that is
by cross attachment and the direct support moving to contact. The information-
of artillery, engineers, air defense, and other gathering system, especially at corps and
units necessary to maintain momentum. division levels, should provide current infor
Attack helicopter units will normally remain mation as continuously as possible.
114 Chapter 7
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Chapter 7 115
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Attacks are of two basic types: hasty Deliberate attacks are usually necessary
and deliberate. The two are distinguished when the defender is well organized and
chiefly by the extent of preparation. cannot be turned or bypassed. Deliberate
attacks are thoroughly planned. They are
characterized by
Hasty attacks result from meeting en
gagements or successful defenses. In a hasty * High volumes of fire.
116 Chapter 7
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Chapter 7 117
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118 Chapter 7
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brigades. When their use has been autho anticipate the transition to pursuit and con
rized, nuclear or chemical weapons may be sider the new courses of action that become
employed to destroy enemy artillery and available as enemy cohesion and resistance
reserves and close routes of escape. break down.
In the pursuit, the commander attempts
The exploiting force depends primarily to annihilate the fleeing enemy force. Suc
on its speed and enemy disorganization for cessful pursuit requires unrelenting pressure
security. Overextension is a risk inherent against the enemy to prevent his recon
in the aggressive conduct of the exploi stitution or evasion. A terrain objective may
tation. Commanders must rely on aggressive be designated, but the enemy force is the
reconnaissance by air cavalry units and primary objective. Occasionally, the attacker
supporting aerial systems. In addition, elec may be able to launch the pursuit directly
tronic warfare (EW) units can seek out after his initial assault if the latter causes
enemy counterattack forces and jam enemy massive enemy disintegration. Such a situ
command and control and intelligence nets. ation could well occur following an attack
supported by nuclear or chemical weapons.
Exploiting forces should be accompanied
by mobile air defense units. Air defense To ensure that the momentum of the
arrangements for the initial attack should pursuit continues, commanders position them
remain effective for the exploitation. As selves well forward. Because of the enemy's
formations are extended, air defense cover disintegration, pursuit allows greater risks
age becomes less effective. Thus, it is par than other types of offensive operations.
ticularly important during an exploitation Pursuit operations are aggressive and de
that supporting counter air operations estab centralized. Troops and equipment are
lish and retain local air superiority. pushed to the utmost limits of their en
durance during both daylight and darkness.
Engineers are integrated into exploiting In the pursuit, direct pressure against
maneuver forces to help breach obstacles retreating forces is maintained relentlessly
and keep forces moving forward. Engineers while an encircling force cuts the enemy
also keep supply routes open and unimpeded. line of retreat. The pursuing force attempts
encirclement of retreating enemy forces
Combat support and combat service sup whenever conditions permit. It makes maxi
mum use of air assault and air maneuver
port arrangements must be extremely flexi
ble. In deep or diverging exploitations, some units in the encircling forces. As in the
combat support and combat service support exploitation, artillery, engineers, and combat
units will be attached to maneuver forces. service support troops are often attached
to the maneuver units they support. Pursuit
Because troops are frequently tired when operations require
the opportunity for exploitation occurs, com * A direct-pressureforce that keeps enemy
manders must exercise aggressive and de units in flight, denying them any chance
manding leadership to keep units advancing. to rest, regroup, or resupply.
When fatigue, disorganization, and attrition " An encircling force to envelop the fleeing
have weakened the force or when it must
hold ground or resupply, the commander force, cut its escape route, and, in con
continues the exploitation with a fresh force. junction with the direct-pressure force,
destroy or capture it.
As the enemy becomes demoralized and The direct-pressure force conducts hasty
his formations begin to disintegrate, ex attacks to maintain contact and forward
ploitation may develop into pursuit. Com momentum until the enemy force is com
manders of all units in exploitation must pletely destroyed. The direct-pressure force
Chapter 7 119
FM 100-5
prevents enemy disengagement and sub encirclement closed, ward off breakout at
sequent reconstitution of the defense and tempts, and weaken the enemy by fire
inflicts maximum casualties. It should pref alone.
erably consist of armor-heavy forces. Its
leading elements move rapidly along all PLANNING, PREPARING, AND
available roads and contain or bypass small CONDUCTING ATTACKS
enemy pockets of resistance which follow
and support units reduce. At every oppor When the force receives a mission, the
tunity, the direct-pressure force envelops, commander issues a warning order to his
cuts off, and destroys or captures enemy subordinates and makes an estimate of the
elements, provided such actions do not in situation. He identifies tasks required to
terfere with its primary mission. accomplish the mission and in most cases
translates the mission into specific objec
The encircling force moves as swiftly as tives which when seized will permit him
possible by the most advantageous routes to control the area or to defeat the enemy.
to cut off enemy retreat. If necessary, it
organizes a hasty defense behind the enemy Considerations.As he makes his estimate
to block his retreat so that he can be de of the situation for an attack, the com
stroyed between the direct-pressure and en mander considers the factors of mission,
circling forces. enemy, terrain and weather, troops, and
time.
The encircling force must be at least as Mission. Commonly, offensive operations
mobile as the enemy. It must be organized allow subordinate commanders the greatest
for semi-independent operations. Air assault possible freedom. Whenever possible, sub
and airborne forces are ideally suited for ordinates should be assigned an objective
this role. The encircling force advances and a zone without further restrictions.
along or flies over routes that parallel the Some operations require greater control and
enemy's line of retreat to reach defiles, coordination, however, and it will sometimes
communications centers, bridges, and other be necessary to give subordinates more de
key terrain ahead of enemy forces. If the tailed orders for attacks.
encircling force cannot outdistance the en
emy, it attacks his main groupings on one In all cases, commanders need to antici
or both of their flanks. If an attempt to pate likely developments during an attack.
cut the enemy's escape routes fails, a new They must bear their superior's mission and
encircling force is immediately dispatched. intentions in mind and make preparations
to continue beyond their objectives or as
An encirclement resulting from a pursuit sume additional responsibilities.
can completely destroy an enemy force.
Pursuing forces that successfully encircle Enemy. Planners must also consider the
an enemy must prevent his attempts to dispositions, equipment, doctrine, capa
break out. If sufficient troops are not avail bilities, and probable intentions of the ene
able, gaps may be blocked temporarily by my. Because of the strength of established
fire or with barriers. Maneuver and fires defenses, commanders should aggressively
of all forces involved in the encirclement seek gaps or weaknesses in the enemy's
must be coordinated. The enemy must be defenses. Enemy defensive preparations
kept under constant pressure and denied should be studied, obstructed, and frustrated.
the time to reorganize a cohesive defense. Commanders plan to penetrate enemy se
If he is able to form a perimeter, it must curity areas, overcome obstacles, avoid the
be reduced in size by repeatedly splitting destroy the ofcoherence
strengths of thedefenses,
established and
defense. This
it into smaller elements until the encircled
force is destroyed or it capitulates. If time requires active intelligence collection oriented
is not critical, the commander can keep the on critical units and areas. Enemy reserves
120 Chapter 7
FM 100-5
in particular must be identified and located Key terrain along the axis of advance
as accurately as possible. Enemy air capa must be either seized or controlled by fire.
bilities and air defenses are also vital When present, decisive terrain becomes the
aspects of the intelligence estimate since focal point of the attack.
they affect friendly freedom of maneuver.
Weather and visibility conditions can
Terrain (and weather). Attacking forces have significant effects on offensive opera
should select avenues of approach that per tions. Concealment and protection from air
mit rapid advance, allow for maneuver by attack afforded by weather or light con
the attacking force, provide cover and con ditions will sometimes be critical to success.
cealment, permit lateral shifting of reserves, Ground conditions will increase or reduce
allow good communications, resist obstruc the number of avenues available for ma
tion by enemy obstacles, and orient on key neuver and will affect speed of movement
terrain. Weather conditions that affect for all forces. Maintenance and logistic sup
mobility, concealment, and air support port of heavy forces and limitations on
should be exploited whenever possible. aviation operations also increase with in
clement weather.
Chapter 7 121
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General Patton, who stressed the efficient In designating objectives, the commander
use of time in all his operations, carefully must consider the mission, the enemy sit
distinguished haste from speed. uation (including enemy dispositions in
depth), troops available and their combat
"Haste exits," he wrote, "when troops effectiveness, the terrain, the weather, and
are committed without proper reconnais the time-space relationships. After selecting
sance, without the arrangement for proper objectives, he develops the scheme of ma
supporting fire, and before every available neuver, allocates available forces, and plans
man has been brought up. The result of for fire support, combat support, and combat
such an attack will be to get the troops service support.
into action early, but to complete the
action very slowly.
The scheme of maneuver seeks to gain
Speed is acquired by making the neces an advantage of position over the enemy,
sary reconnaissance, providing the proper to close with him rapidly, to overrun him
artillery and other tactical support, includ if possible, and to destroy his ability to
ing air support, bringing up every man resist. The attack may strike the enemy's
and then launching the attack with a pre front, flank, or rear and may come from
determined plan so that the time under the ground or the air or a combination of
fire will be reduced to the minimum. At both. The commander determines the spe
the battalion level four hours spent in cific form of maneuver or the combination
preparation for an attack will probably en of forms as part of his estimate of the
sure the time spent under fire not exceed situation. He selects a scheme of maneuver
ing thirty minutes. One hour spent in ... that facilitates seizing the objective rapidly
preparation ... will most certainly ensure and positioning the force for subsequent
time under fire lasting many hours with operations.
bloody casualties."
Surprise and an indirect approach are
Once an attack is underway, time re desirable characteristics of any scheme of
mains critical. The attack can succeed only maneuver. When a geographically indirect
if it achieves its objective before the enemy approach is not available, the commander
recovers his balance, identifies the threat, can achieve a similar effect by doing the
and masses forces and fires against it. Time unexpected-striking earlier, in greater force,
is therefore vital to the attacker; he must with unexpected weapons, or at an unlikely
prolong the enemy's surprise, confusion, and place.
disorganization for as long as possible.
Planning for Attacks. Commanders use The scheme of maneuver identifies where
mission orders to describe the overall mis the main effort is to be made. All of the
sion of the force, their own intent, the con force's available resources must operate in
cept of operation, and the missions of their concert to- assure the success of the main
subordinates. Restrictions on subordinates' effort. The plan of attack must also contain
freedom of action must be minimized. provisions for exploiting success whenever
it occurs. Commanders must avoid becoming
To avoid pausing or losing momentum so committed to the initial main effort that
after seizing his initial objective, the com they neglect other opportunities. They must
mander must always anticipate an exploi be prepared to abandon failed attacks and
tation. Commanders must~plan to overcome to exploit any unanticipated successes or
the enemy's resistance completely and to enemy errors. In some cases, the situation
exploit successes relentlessly. The plan may be so obscure. that the commander will
should facilitate rapid dispersal of concen not designate a main attack initially.
In
trated units and the introduction of fresh most cases, however, a main attack will
forces to exploit success. be identified.
122 Chapter 7
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When authorized for such use, nuclear Commanders develop a fire support plan
or chemical weapons employment may per that assists and complements the maneuver
mit small forces attacking at high speeds plan. The fire support plan provides fires
to achieve the same success as larger forces in direct support of committed maneuver
supported with conventional fires. Nuclear elements and in general support of the
or chemical fires may so reduce the enemy's entire force. It also provides for support of
strength that multiple simultaneous attacks the reserve when it is committed. Com
are possible. manders must decide whether or not to fire
a preparation. That decision is based on
The commander influences the action by the likelihood of surprising the enemy; knowl
shifting air, artillery, engineer, and EW edge of the enemy's strength and dispo
assets during the attack. The reserve, how sitions; nuclear, biological, and chemical
ever, is the commander's principal means protection; available ammunition; and the
of influencing the action decisively once the results desired. When use of nuclear or
operation is under way. chemical weapons has been authorized, the
fire support plan assigns such weapons and
The reserve reinforces success in the fires to appropriate executing units.
attack or maintains attack momentum. The
reserve prepares for a number of specific Deep operations must be synchronized
contingencies which may arise during the with the scheme of maneuver. Deep oper
attack. It is positioned near the area in ations support tactical offensive operations
which it is most likely to be employed and by isolating the battlefield from reinforcing
is re-positioned as necessary to assure it or counterattacking reserves, disrupting the
can react promptly. enemy's combined arms cooperation and
operational command and control, and de
The reserve's strength and composition stroying or degrading his sustaining sup
vary with the contemplated mission, the port. Enemy reserves, fire support elements,
forces available, the type of offensive op command and control facilities, and other
eration, the form of maneuver, the terrain, high value assets beyond the line of contact
the possible hostile reaction, and the situ are potential targets for attack. The primary
ation. When the situation is relatively clear tools of deep operations are
and enemy capabilities are limited, the re
serve may be small. If the situation is * Tactical air support.
vague, the attacker should lead with prob
ing forces and retain his freedom of ma * Long-range artillery.
neuver until a gap, a flank, or a weakness * Attack helicopter units.
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When the plan calls for the attacking the briefest possible period Of reorgani
unit to pass through a defending unit, CSS zation, consolidation, planning, and
planners should seek assistance from the coordination.
defending unit. It may be able to assist
by providing POL, medical aid, or other Both attack and exploitation often begin
support. with a forward passage of lines, an oper
ation in which one friendly unit moves
Just prior to the attack, units move rap forward through positions held by another.
idly into attack positions. This movement Such a passage must be well planned and
must be thoroughly coordinated and planned coordinated to ensure minimum congestion
in detail to avoid confusion and delay. Con and confusion. When possible, passage
centration of the force should take place should be through elements that are not
quickly and should make maximum use of in contact.
cover and concealment, signal security, and
deception. Actions that would alert the Specific details of the passage are coor
enemy to the coming attack must be avoided dinated between the respective subordinate
or masked to preserve surprise. unit commanders. Normally, the overall
commander assigns boundaries to designate
The attacking force organizes to cope areas through which subordinate elements
with the environment-to attack across ob will move. Such boundaries usually corre
stacles and rivers, during snow or rain, at spond to those of the passed force. The
night, or to exploit nuclear or chemical passed force mans contact and passage
strikes. Engineers, nuclear, chemical, and points; provides information concerning the
biological reconnaissance units, and air de enemy, minefields, and obstacles; and
fense artillery and aviation assets must be provides guides.
employed to support maneuver throughout
the attack. To ensure continuous support without
increasing battlefield clutter, the passed
ConductingAttacks. The attack must be unit may provide the passing unit initial
violent and rapid to shock the enemy and logistical support. Once started, the passage
to prevent his recovery until the defense is completed as quickly as possible to min
has been destroyed. The attacker must mini imize the vulnerability of the two forces.
mize his exposure to enemy fires by using The passing force must assume control of
maneuver and counterfire, avoiding ob the battle as soon as its lead elements have
stacles, maintaining security, ensuring com moved through the passed force. Artillery
mand and control, and remaining organized supporting the passed force and its own
for the fight on the objective. direct fires should be integrated into the
fire support plan of the passing unit.
When a hasty attack fails and the com
mander decides to resort to a deliberate The attack culminates in a powerful and
attack, he must ensure that the force does violent assault on the objective. The purpose
not become disorganized or vulnerable to of the assault is to destroy an enemy force
counterattack or nuclear and chemical at or to seize the ground it has occupied.
tack during the preparatory period. Positive Synchronized fires, maneuver, and combat
command and control is imperative. Por support are imperative to achieve superior
tions of the force must take up hasty de combat power at the point of the assault.
fensive positions; other parts of the force Artillery preparation, suppressive fire, iso
are directed to assembly areas. Rapid dis lation of the enemy force, concentration of
persal is essential, but it must be orderly combat power, and overrunning the enemy
enough to allow the attack to continue after all combine to destroy the defending force.
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PART DOM
CHAPTER 8
Fundamentals of the Defense
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
A successful defense consists of reactive vulnerabilities and to confuse or disorganize
and offensive elements working together to his force. When the attacker exposes him-
deprive the enemy of the initiative. An self, the defender's reserves or uncommitted
effective defense is never purely passive. forces counterattack. The defense that suc-
The defender resists and contains the cessfully destroys the coherence of enemy
enemy where he must but seeks every op- operations can ultimately defeat his uncoor
portunity to go over to the offensive. Early dinated forces.
in a campaign or defensive battle, such
opportunities will be local and limited. As While reactive measures may halt the
the situation develops, they will become enemy, early counterattacks improve the
more numerous. This is especially true when chances for success. The defense can
the defender takes steps to uncover enemy greatly damage the enemy only when early
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command that he intended to evacuate the near Tannenberg. Samsonov's army broke
province to the Vistula River. He was up in panic, losing 125,000 men and 500
thereupon relieved and replaced by General guns from 26 to 31 August.
Paul von Hindenburg.
Turning back to the north, the Germans
Upon their arrival in East Prussia, then concentrated against the Russian
Hindenburg and his Chief of Staff, Gen First Army, defeating it and driving it out
eral Erich von Ludendorff, adopted a plan of East Prussia. In this defensive cam
conceived by Prittwitz's Chief of Opera paign, the Germans lost some 10,000 men
tions, Lieutenant Colonel Max Hoffmann, while imposing losses of over 250,000 men
to entrap and destroy Samsonov's Second on their opponents and effectively ending
Army. Leaving only a cavalry screen to con the Russian threat to their eastern prov
front Rennenkampf's army, Hindenburg inces. The Tannenberg operation achieved
began to concentrate his forces in the the German theater goal in East Prussia
south. Five days later he first halted, then through a defensive campaign character
encircled and destroyed the Second Army ized by aggressive offensive tactics.
Defensive operations are conducted to In some instances, a force may defend
" Defeat an enemy attack. because it is unable to attack. The defender
then uses his advantages of position and
" Gain time. superior knowledge of the terrain to cause
* Concentrate forces elsewhere. the enemy to overextend himself. Once the
enemy has committed himself against the
" Control key or decisive terrain. defense and has been weakened by losses,
* Wear down enemy forces as a prelude to the defender maneuvers to destroy him
offensive operations. with fires or counterattacks.
* Retain strategic, operational, or tactical
objectives. In other cases, portions of a force may
The immediate purpose of any defense be required to retain key or decisive ter
is to defeat the attack. Other purposes, rain or essential strategic, operational, or
while important, are ancillary from an tactical objectives. Even in offensive opera
operational perspective (they may, tions, air assault, airborne, or amphibious
however, be overriding from a strategic forces may need to defend deep objectives
perspective). until a larger force can link up with them.
Whatever its larger purpose, the immediate
Defense is used to gain time for rein challenge of any defensive operation is to
forcements to arrive or to economize forces recapture the initiative and thus create the
in one sector while concentrating forces for opportunity to shift to the offensive. All
attack in another. In either case, a defense activities of the defense must contribute to
or a delay may achieve these purposes. that aim.
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(and, when necessary, reconstitute) a re where and when combat will take place.
serve, and maneuver to gain local superior The defender must be agile enough to
ity elsewhere. Generally, the defender will counter or evade the attacker's blow, then
have to surrender some ground to gain the strike back effectively.
time necessary to concentrate forces and
fires. Defensive campaigns depend on
branches and sequels to defensive battles
In defensive campaigns, large unit com for their flexibility. Large unit comanders
manders mass against separated enemy must be prepared to fight the enemy effec
forces or concentrate their defenses in the tively no matter what the form of the at
areas of greatest risk. They may concen tack. They must anticipate the enemy's
trate by throwing reserves against the offensive moves and prepare counterac
enemy early in the campaign to bring on tions for the likely outcomes of battles.
a quick decision or they may defer concen Retention of operational reserves is indis
tration for decisive battle until favorable pensable to flexibility at the operational
terms of combat can be obtained. level. These forces are usually positioned
Operational concentration can also be in depth and assigned contingency mis
obtained by organizing defenses of great sions that they may be called on to per
depth which force the attacker to fight a form before, during, or after battle.
series of battles against echeloned de Once the campaign is under way, plans
fenses. Theater commanders and their must be adjusted to conform to the situa
chief subordinates use aerial, cannon, and tion and the commander must be prepared
missile fires to assist and complement the to react quickly to the enemy. The defen
concentration of land forces. sive campaign plan should allow the great
est possible freedom of action. It should
Tactical commanders have less time to preserve balance by disposing forces so
respond and will normally have to concen that the commander can respond to crisis
trate combat power repeatedly during bat and pass quickly to the attack whenever
tle. Effective reconnaissance and security the opportunity arises.
forces are vital to give the tactical com
mander time to discern the form of the Tactical flexibility rests on detailed
attack and to concentrate forces and fires planning, organization in depth, and re
against it. taining reserves. The plan must enable the
Periods in which the defender can de commander to shift his main effort quickly
velop superior combat power will be brief, without losing synchronization. Tactical
so concentration will have to be rapid and commanders organize their defenses to de
violent. Commanders will have to accept feat any approach the enemy might make.
risks in some areas to concentrate for deci They add flexibility to their basic plans by
sive action elsewhere. Obstacles, security designating supplementary positions in
forces, and fires can assist reducing these depth and counterattack plans which can
risks. Since concentration increases the be ordered into effect during battle.
threat of large losses from nuclear fires, Static elements of the defense organize
the massing of forces must be masked by for all-around security and plan alternate
concealment and deception. As quickly as and supplementary positions which allow
the attacking force has been defeated or them to move forward, laterally, or to the
halted, defending forces must disperse. rear if required. Fire planning covers all
approaches and is organized to accommo
FLEXIBILITY date changes in priority. Deep operation
Defensive operations require flexible options are developed for all likely varia
tions on the basic concept of operation.
planning and execution. In exercising the Engineer, aviation, EW, and combat ser
initiative, the attacker initially decides vice support are concentrated in support of
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the main effort, but provisions are also set the terms of battle. Once the attacker
made for shifting that support if neces has committed himself, the defender
sary. Reserves prepare to move anywhere should adjust his own operation. to con
in sector and make counterattack plans to centrate all his efforts toward containing,
cover all likely contingencies. isolating, and defeating the committed
enemy force. By interdicting enemy
Once the attacker has been controlled, movement in depth and concentrating
the defender can operate against his repeatedly to develop local advantages
exposed flanks and rear. The defender, against the attacker, the defender can
under the cover of his own field artillery win the battle by defeating the enemy
and air defense, can then maneuver over piecemeal.
ground he has reconnoitered and prepared
against extended elements of the attacking * Fight the enemy throughout the depth of
force. his formations to delay him, to disorga
nize him, and to create opportunities for
The tenets of AirLand Battle doctrine- offensive action. The defender must or
initiative, agility, depth, and synchroniza ganize forces and resources in depth to
tion-apply to any successful defense. gain time and space for flexibility and
Whatever their specific form, defensive responsive maneuver.
operations
* Seize the tactical initiative locally and * Synchronize all available combat capa
then generally as the entire force shifts bility. Violent execution of flexible plans
from defense to offense. and aggressive exploitation of enemy
vulnerabilities can halt the attacking
* Maintain agility and flexibility in using force and offset or overcome the at
fire, maneuver, and electronic warfare to tacker's numerical advantage.
While defensive operations may take a as necessary, and are available to counter
wide variety of forms, traditional usage di attack key defensive positions should they
vides defensive arrangements into two be lost to the enemy. Typically, defending
broad categories. Mobile defenses focus on commanders will combine both patterns,
the destruction of the attacking force by using static elements to delay, canalize,
permitting the enemy to advance into a attrit, and ultimately halt the attacker,
position which exposes him to counter and dynamic elements- spoiling attacks
attack and envelopment by a mobile re and counterattacks-to strike and destroy
serve. Area defenses focus on the retention his committed forces. The balance among
of terrain by absorbing the enemy into an these elements will depend on the unit's
interlocked series of positions from which mission, composition, mobility, and rela
he can be destroyed largely by fire. tive combat power, and on the character
of the battlefield.
Although these descriptions convey the
general pattern of each type of defense, MOBILE DEFENSE
both forms of defense employ both static
and dynamic elements. In mobile defenses, Mobile defenses employ a combination
static defensive positions help control the of offensive, defensive, and delaying action
depth and breadth of enemy penetration, to defeat the enemy attack. Their exact
and assure retention of ground from which design varies from case to case and must
to launch counterattacks. In area defenses, be described in detail in each instance.
mobile reserves cover the gaps among de Commanders conducting mobile defense
fensive positions, reinforce those positions deploy relatively small forces forward and
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MOBILE DEFENSE
use maneuver supported by fire and ob regiments may be able to conduct this
stacles to wrest the initiative from the form of defense in some circumstances. In
attacker after he has entered the defended any case, heavy forces are required for the
area. reserve, and may also be used as security
A force conducting a mobile defense forces or to contain anticipated penetra
must have mobility equal to or greater tions. Light forces in a mobile defense are
than the enemy's. It must also be able to usually employed to hold strongpoints in
suitable terrain within or adjacent to the
form the large reserve which will conduct area of the enemy's penetration, or in
the decisive counterattack. Since doing so
will almost invariably require thinning com some cases, to stop the enemy during the
mitted forces, a mobile defense cannot be counterattack.
conducted unless the temporary loss of
some terrain is acceptable.
AREA DEFENSE
Because of the requirement to form a
large reserve, mobile defense is normally An area defense is usually conducted to
conducted by division and larger forma deny the enemy access to specific terrain
tions. However, large brigades and cavalry for a specified time. Since, unlike the
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AREA DEFENSE
mobile defense, area defense does not Unlike mobile defense, for which consid
promise outright destruction of the attack erable depth is essential, area defense may
ing force, area defense presumes some be conducted in varying depth, depending
other simultaneous or subsequent operation on the mission, forces available, and the
to achieve decisive defeat of the enemy. nature of the terrain. Where necessary, the
commander may make his main effort well
In an area defense, the bulk of defend forward, committing most of his combat
ing forces are deployed to retain ground, power to the forward edge of the battle
using a combination of defensive positions area (FEBA) and planning to counter
and small mobile reserves. Commanders attack early, when enemy forces are still
organize the defense around the static along the FEBA or even beyond it. While
framework provided by the defensive posi such a forward defense may often be
tions, seeking to destroy enemy forces by necessary, it is more difficult to execute
interlocking fires or by local counterattack than a defense in greater depth. This is
of enemy units penetrating between defen because its early commitment to decisive
sive positions. Both light and heavy forces combat makes it less flexible, hence more
may conduct area defense. When a defend dependent on rapid identification of and
ing force is predominantly light, such a concentration against the enemy main
defense is usually required. effort.
136 Chapter 8
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When the mission is less restrictive, therefore, an area defense in depth begins
forces are available, and advantageous ter to look much like a mobile defense.
rain extends deep into his defensive sector,
the commander may organize his defense In organization and execution, both
in greater depth. In extremely wide sectors, defensive patterns vary considerably from
divisions and corps may need to defend in the pure form. Each can be visualized as
depth in order to gain the time to concen extending across a portion of the defensive
trate against the enemy. continuum. Each uses the same five ele
ments of the defensive framework described
When area defense is conducted in below. And each must be fought in the
depth, elements in the security area fluid, nonlinear conditions of contemporary
identify and control the enemy's main combat. Tactical commanders must there
effort while holding off secondary thrusts. fore adapt their defensive arrangements to
Counterattacks on the flanks of the main the requirements of each situation and
attack then seal off, isolate, and destroy avoid becoming wedded to rigid patterns
penetrating enemy forces. In the extreme, in the design of their defensives.
DEFENSIVE FRAMEWORK
A simple, complete concept of opera Defensive operations slow, canalize, and
tions is the basis of all defenses. Field defeat the enemy's major units. The de
armies, corps, and divisions fight a unified fending commander may do this in a
defensive battle consisting of complemen number of ways. In most cases, however,
tary deep, close, and rear operations. he will have to fight a series of engage
Defenses are organized into five comple ments to halt or defeat enemy forces. This
mentary elements: will require him to designate a main effort,
" Security force operations forward and to concentrate in support of it, then shift it
the flanks of the defending force. to concentrate against another threat, and
do so repeatedly. Maneuver units will
* Defensive operations in the main battle defend, delay, attack, and screen as part
area (MBA). of the defensive battle.
" Reserve operations in support of the Reserves will be committed throughout
main defensive effort. the defense and will have to be continually
" Deep operations in the area forward of reconstituted as previous reserves enter the
the forward line of own troops (FLOT). battle. Reserves give the commander the
means to seize the initiative and preserve
" Rear operations to retain freedom of his flexibility. Reserves are best employed
action in the rear area. to strike a decisive blow against the at
The commander must synchronize all tacker, but they must be prepared to per
five of these elements in the execution of form other missions as well.
his defensive plan. If only a screening Deep operations will disrupt the
force is employed, it gives warning of the enemy's movement in depth, destroy high
enemy's approach and harasses advancing value targets vital to the attacker, and
enemy forces. If a covering force is used, interrupt enemy command and control at
it meets the enemy's leading forces, strips critical times. Forward security elements
away enemy reconnaissance and security not forced back by the enemy hold their
elements, reports the attacker's strength positions to provide deep observation and
and locations, and gives the commander target acquisition, and to retain ground
time and space in which to react to the from which to launch future counterattacks
enemy. by maneuver and fire.
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p NAI
FA1 rDE PERATIONS
6
NAI
NAI
3
lX2
10 X 2 0
RPERATIN
Operations in the rear area protect and protect the commander's freedom of action
sustain command and control and combat by preventing disruption of command and
service support operations. Their chief control, fire support, logistical support, and
function during battle in the MBA is to movement of reserves.
138 Chapter 9
CHAPTER 9
Conducting Defensive Operations
DEFENSIVE CAMPAIGNS
AND MAJOR OPERATIONS
Generally, commanders undertake the
defense only when the strategic, opera
tional, or tactical situation makes it impos
sible to conduct offensive operations or to
economize forces to permit an attack else
where. To win, they must preserve their
own force through successful defense,
weaken the enemy, and then take the ini
tiative. In some cases, commanders can
secure theater objectives through the tacti
cal offensive actions of a defensive cam
paign. More commonly, success will require
following a successful operational defense
with an offensive campaign.
Defensive campaigns are fought to de minor battles, withdrawing into friendly
feat a large attacking force, to retain terri territory, or absorbing the enemy's initial
tory, or to gain time for operations in impetus in one area while attacking his
another theater of operations to succeed or lines of communications and bases of sup
for reinforcements to arrive. Strategic con port. When strategic direction requires the
siderations, numerical disadvantage, or the retention of territory near a political border
enemy's exercise of the initiative may all or the control of vital areas such as politi
require a theater commander to assume the cal capitals, industrial regions, or popula
defense. tion centers, the campaign may have to be
fought well forward in the theater. In
When possible, a commander conduct other cases, a theater may be defended
ing a defensive campaign attempts to defer through a series of offensive blows deliv
decisive battles until he can win. This may ered as the enemy masses or approaches
entail exhausting the enemy in protracted a defended area.
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made carefully to support the concept of Montgomery and General Bradley counter
the operation and to allow for the greatest attacked into the salient formed by the
possible operational flexibility. enemy advance to defeat the attacking
forces and establish positions from which
The campaign plan itself should set to resume the offensive.
clear objectives for the major ground and
air forces in the theater. Long-term objec Whatever its overall concept, the first
tives should be stated and specific objec
phase of a defensive campaign plan must
tives should be assigned for the current control the enemy's attack while preserv
phase of the campaign. The theater com ing the defending force. In particular, the
mander should anticipate when and where attacker's operational reserves must be
battles are likely to take place and
contained or defeated. The commander
organize his forces accordingly. Although
may disrupt its progress in the enemy's
he will not hold the initiative early in the
rear, contain it as part of the defensive
campaign, he should define for himself
battle or fight it in a separate battle using
and his major subordinates the conditions
his own operational reserve.
under which he will accept decisive battle If he is to succeed, the operational level
willingly. commander must also take risks. This
commonly means that he must economize
The overall concept of operation may in areas of low immediate danger to con
take a number of forms, depending on the centrate forces against the more dangerous
circumstances of each case. It may exploit threats. He will also have to risk offensive
a central position to prevent dispersed actions when the enemy presents him with
enemy forces from concentrating by fight opportunities to defeat isolated forces.
ing a series of separated battles. Or it In assessing risks, the commander
may call for an extended period of defen should take the long view to determine
sive action to reduce the enemy's numeri whether the risk is justified. In some
cal strength or contain his initial impetus. cases, the defender benefits more from
As an example, Allied defensive operations delaying offensive actions until his
in the Bulge consisted of a single concept strength has improved; just as often, how
of operations implemented in several ever, the defender reaches a point at
phases. Initially, the Twelfth Army Group which he must act or lose the opportunity
fought to stabilize the situation by deny to take the initiative for an extended
ing key road intersections necessary to period or even permanently. In the latter
the German attack. In the next phase, the case, he may face a choice between a slim
allies concentrated on holding the shoul chance for immediate success at great risk
ders of the Bulge and generating opera or a prolonged defense with no prospect of
tional reserves. Finally, Field Marshal winning.
TACTICAL DEFENSE
Tactical defenses will occur in both of Defensive doctrine is not prescriptive. It
fensive and defensive campaigns. Subordi describes two general forms of defense at
nate units of a defending force may be tactical levels-area and mobile--but it
ordered to attack, delay, withdraw, screen, leaves the commander great freedom in
or defend in execution of the overall com formulating and conducting his defense.
mander's plan. The purpose of the force's He may elect to defend well forward by
operations, however, will remain to stop or striking the enemy as he approaches. He
to defeat the attacker. may opt to fight the decisive battle within
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the main battle area. Or, if he does not Defending broad frontages forces the com
have to hold a specified area or position, mander to accept gaps. Defending shallow
he may draw the enemy deep into the area sectors or positions reduces flexibility and
of operations and then strike his flanks requires the commander to fight well for
and rear. He may even choose to preempt ward. Narrow frontages and deep sectors
the enemy with spoiling attacks if condi increase the elasticity of the defense and
tions favor such tactics. In the past, all the number of options available. In plan
four methods have proven effective. ning his defense, the commander also con
siders possible subsequent missions.
Brigades and divisions perform major Enemy. The enemy's doctrine, habits,
defensive tasks for their superior head equipment, and probable courses of action
quarters. They are normally responsible for must also be considered in planning the
substantial sectors of a defense or serve as defense. Defending commanders must look
reserves. Brigades, like cavalry regiments,
may also serve as covering forces or secu at themselves and their sectors through
rity elements forward or to the rear of the the enemy commander's eyes. They must
MBA. Maneuver battalions defend as part look for vulnerabilities that the enemy
may exploit and must act to counter them.
of a larger force. They perform a single They should also identify probable enemy
task as part of their brigade's mission. objectives and approaches to them. In a
They defend, delay, attack, or screen. defense against an echeloned enemy, they
While battalions provide for their own must know how soon follow-on forces can
security and support in any operation and join the attack. If enemy follow-on forces
may retain reserves, their main role is to can be delayed, the attack may be defeated
cooperate with other battalions in the bri in detail-one echelon at a time. If the
gade's defense.
defender can force the enemy to commit
A simple concept of operations, flexible follow-on echelons sooner than planned,
enough to meet the enemy wherever he the attacker's timetable can be upset,
chooses to attack, is essential to success. creating exploitable gaps between the com
The commander tailors his defensive con mitted and subsequent echelons.
cept to his specific situation, paying partic
ular attention to operations against the Terrain (and weather). The defending
enemy in depth and to the wise use of force must exploit any aspect of the terrain
available time. that impairs enemy momentum or makes
it difficult for him to mass or to maneu
PLANNING FOR DEFENSE ver. Defenders must engage the attacker at
points where the terrain puts him at the
Planning for defense begins when a greatest disadvantage. Controlling key ter
commander receives a mission to defend or rain is vital to a successful defense. Some
perceives a need to do so. The commander terrain may be so significant to the
then formulates a plan for defense which defense that its loss would prove decisive.
meets the requirements of the mission. He When terrain is a decisive factor in a divi
is guided in the design of his plan by the sion or corps defense, the commander must
factors of mission, enemy, terrain, troops, make it a focal point of his defensive plan.
and time available (METT-T) and by the Weather and visibility affect how defenders
considerations he develops in his estimate organize the ground; commanders at all
of the situation. levels must take its effects into account as
Mission. The first consideration in plan they analyze terrain. The defending com
ning the defense is the mission. It defines mander should use man-made obstacles to
the area to be defended or the force to be improve the natural structure of terrain, to
defeated, and it must be analyzed in terms slow or canalize enemy movement, and to
of the higher commander's overall scheme. protect friendly positions and maneuver.
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of their troops in all areas. Operations of interest. At the same time, he focuses
officers should use available time to .his collection effort on areas and units of
develop plans for any contingencies which particular concern. To conduct successful
might arise during the defense. deep operations, the G3, G2, and fire sup
Preparation for defense also entails the
port coordinator (FSCOORD) must coop
stocking of forward supply points, liaison
erate to assure that actions in depth
with civilian officials, adjustment of air
support the central concept of the defense.
defense coverage, and arranging for secu
They must especially ensure that resources
rity of installations in the rear area. Alter
employed in deep operations do not divert
nate sites for command posts, artillery
resources necessary to win key close
firing positions, and CSS facilities can be engagements.
prepared if time allows.
As enemy formations approach the
The intelligence collection effort must FLOT, the commander monitors their
be intensified during preparation for the movement, determines which elements of
defense. Early identification of enemy the enemy force are most threatening to
units gives the commander a better idea his plans, seeks and attacks high value
of when the attack will begin and is vital targets, and disrupts and delays selected
to executing deep operations. enemy reserves to facilitate specific actions
within his overall defense. For example, a
division commander might act to isolate
DEEP OPERATIONS an enemy regiment by interdicting forces
Whatever type of defense is selected, that could reinforce or support it during a
deep operations are essential to its effec division counterattack.
tiveness. The commander uses them to
create windows of opportunity for decisive Tactical airpower, field artillery fires,
action against leading enemy echelons. Army Aviation, and unconventional'war
Deep operations are the commander's fare forces are the chief means of con
means of ensuring the success of his deci ducting deep operations. Because they are
sive engagements and counterattacks by usually limited in number and effect, com
limiting the enemy's options, disrupting manders must synchronize their use care
his coordination, and affecting the closure fully with the overall effort. Generally,
times of his follow-on elements. more sensors and weapons become avail
able as the enemy nears the FLOT. Effec
Areas of operations and interest must tive employment of maneuver units in deep
extend far enough forward of the FLOT to operations requires careful planning and
give the commander time to react to ap intelligence preparation of the battlefield
proaching enemy forces, to assess his op (IPB) before commitment and responsive sur
tions, and to execute operations accord veillance once operations are underway.
ingly. Deep operations begin before the
enemy closes with the maneuver forces.
They continue against follow-on or uncom SECURITY OPERATIONS
mitted forces to isolate combat in the
security area and MBA, to guard against In any defense, a covering force or
interference with the commitment of re screening force serves as the forward
serves, and to shape the conditions of the security echelon in close operations. The
next set of defensive engagements. security force occupies a sector far enough
forward of the forward edge of the battle
In conducting deep operations, the com area (FEBA) to protect MBA units from sur
mander maintains a current intelligence prise, to give MBA commanders time to re
picture of the enemy throughout his area position forces to meet the enemy attack,
Chapter 9 145
FM 100-5
and to prevent enemy medium range artil a covering force requires appropriate addi
lery from firing on the FEBA. A screening tional artillery, engineer, military intelli
force will be unable to do more than that. gence (MI), air defense artillery (ADA),
A covering force gains and maintains con and Army aviation units to perform its
tact with attacking enemy forces, and can mission.
also develop the situation, and delay or Either corps or its divisions control the
defeat the enemy's leading units. covering force. Covering forces should not
be controlled by brigades except where the
Screening Forces. Screening forces may terrain makes other solutions impractical.
be preferable to covering forces in some Whether corps or divisions control depends
defenses. Screening forces repel enemy re on the overall plan for defense, the size of
connaissance and keep enemy artillery the CFA, the number of battalion-sized
from firing on the FEBA. They give the units to be employed, and the time that
commander warning of the enemy's ap MBA units have for preparing.
proach and expose the enemy to indirect
fire, but they cannot delay the attacker Corps and division operations officers
significantly. Some reinforcement of screen monitor covering force operations and en
ing forces is usually necessary. Aviation, sure their synchronization with deep opera
radar, engineer, and field artillery (FA) tions. Above all, covering force operations
units all add to the effectiveness of a must be an integral part of the overall
screen. defensive plan.
Covering Forces. Corps and 'division com Battalions and squadrons of the cover
manders may establish a covering force as ing force make maximum use of the ter
the first echelon of a two-echelon defense. rain and the force's long-range fires.
When this is done, the covering force Carefully planned indirect fires and obsta
fights a major action to destroy leading cles augment the firepower of the covering
enemy formations, to cause the commit force and assist it in avoiding decisive
ment of follow-on battalions or regiments, engagement. A covering force operation
and to force the enemy to disclose his based solely on delay, however, will rarely
main effort. Covering forces also furnish provide the degree of protection the larger
information which allow MBA command force requires. Normally, the covering force
ers to shift forces before the enemy's will defend, delay, and attack with its
arrival at the FEBA. The stronger the maneuver units.
covering force, the more time it can pro
vide for corps or division commanders to The entire covering force should not be
establish their defenses in the MBA. withdrawn automatically just because por
tions of it have been forced back to the
The size and composition of a covering FEBA. It should adjust to the enemy
force depends on the mission, enemy, ter advance and, where possible, continue to
rain and weather, forces available, and fight or screen far forward. Retaining such
time. Normally a covering force is orga advanced positions allows surveillance and
nized around tank-heavy task forces and targeting forward of the MBA, upsets the
regimental cavalry. Ideally, a corps will enemy's coordination by resisting his sup
employ one or more armored cavalry regi porting attacks and reconnaissance effort,
ments because they are specially orga and assists the MBA commander to fight
nized, trained, and equipped for security one opponent at a time. Finally, retention
missions. Corps may use divisions or sepa of advanced positions by elements of the
rate brigades instead of cavalry or in addi covering force can facilitate counterattack
tion to it. A light corps may use air forward of the FEBA by providing obser-
cavalry, light armor, or air assault infan Vation of and access to the flanks of pene
try in its covering force area. In any case, trating forces. In some cases, covering
146 Chapter 9
FM 100-5
force elements themselves can attack first subordinate units based on their capabil
echelon forces from the rear or drive ities'and missions. Each sector usually
between echelons to isolate leading enemy coincides with a major avenue of approach.
units. The force responsible for the most dangei
ous sector in the MBA normally receives
Handover. Handover of the battle from priority in the initial allocation of artillery,
the security force to MBA forces requires engineer, and close air support. It is usu
close coordination. The Security force com ally the initial main effort. The com
mander must retain freedom to maneuver mander can strengthen his defense of the
until he begins rearward passage of lines. most dangerous approach by narrowing
Commanders of MBA forces must establish the sector of the unit astride it. He may
contact points, passage points, passage use armored cavalry units or other maneu
lanes, and routes through the MBA. Nor ver forces to economize in restrictive ter
mally battalion-sized units of a covering rain and to concentrate the major units
force hand the battle over to the brigades on the most dangerous approaches, but he
through which they pass. Screening forces must do so without splitting secondary
will be much smaller; they will not be able avenues of approach.
to affect the enemy's movement signifi
cantly, but must be able to warn MBA A significant obstacle along the FEBA,
commanders of the enemy's approach. such as a river, built-up area, swamp, or
These actions must be completed quickly escarpment, favors an area defense, or
and efficiently to minimize the vulnerabil iented on the retention of terrain. Such an
ity of both the main battle area and the obstacle adds to the relative combat power
covering forces. of the defender. An area defense may also
be structured with elements deployed in
After passage, elements of the security depth throughout the MBA.
force normally move to designated areas
in the rear area or MBA to prepare for Open terrain or a wide sector favors
subsequent operations. Those areas must mobile defenses which orient on the
be rearward enough to ensure the with enemy. The primary function of committed
drawn units do not interfere with MBA units in such defenses is to control the
operations. penetration until it Can be eliminated by
the counterattack of a large reserve.
Control of indirect fires passes to MBA Obstacles must be used even in open ter
units as the security force hands off the rain to support static elements of the de
battle. This usually occurs in one sector at fense and to slow or canalize the enemy
a time until the security force has been in vital areas.
completely withdrawn.
Corps and division commanders monitor
MAIN BATTLE AREA the development of MBA operations and
support critical engagements with addi
Whatever the concept of operation, the tional firepower. They may also.adjust
decisive defensive battle is fought by forces sectors, control movement of committed
of the MBA. The commander positions forces, or reinforce MBA units with fresh
forces in the MBA to control or repel maneuver forces. Corps and division com
enemy penetrations. He employs his re manders intervene at decisive junctures in
serves there to halt the attack, to destroy the battle with reserves and with close air
penetrating enemy formations, and to re support.
gain the initiative. As MBA operations progress, corps and
Division and corps commanders estAb division commanders continue to conduct
lish MBA sectors as means of implemeht deep operations. They monitor events be
ing their plans. These are assigned to yond the forward line of own troops
Chapter 9 147
FM 100-5
(FLOT) and strike follow-on enemy forces unprotected forces in depth, and conges
to prevent them from outflanking defen tion. He may also use them to reinforce
sive positions or overwhelming committed forward defensive operations, to block
forces.
penetrating enemy forces or to react to a
rear area threat. If the reserve is intended
Brigades and divisions fight combined to be used decisively, however, the com
arms actions and are usually responsible mander must withhold it for major counter
for defense of sectors. In mobile defenses, attacks and refuse to dissipate it, dealing
brigade and division commanders bear re with local emergencies.
sponsibility for major tasks which must be
closely synchronized with the activities of Commanders should decide the mission,
other units. In an area defense, they func composition, and size of the reserve based
tion more independently and operate with on their estimate of the situation. It is
fewer restrictions. impossible to generalize about the relative
importance of counterattacking, blocking
Commanders of brigades and divisions penetrations, reinforcing defending units,
employ units of all arms and services. or reacting to rear area threats. Each sit
They coordinate and support the actions uation is unique. The primary mission of
of maneuver units to locate, contain, and the reserve derives directly from the con
strike attacking units throughout the cept of the defense. Defenses at the
defense. They use fires, obstacles, and elec dynamic end of the continuum such as
tronic warfare (EW) to strengthen defended mobile defenses rely upon reserves to strike
positions and to support maneuver. the decisive blow. They demand large
Battalions usually perform a single task mobile combined arms reserves. When condi
in a defense directed by a brigade. They tions favoring counterattack occur, the
defend positions or strongpoints, delay, or main effort shifts to the reserve, which
attack to defeat enemy units or to regain then strikes with overwhelming combat
important positions. Battalions may hold power. Defenses at the static end of the
companies in reserve to provide depth and spectrum are more likely to use reserves
flexibililty in their operations. to block and reinforce at lower tactical
levels, leaving major counterattacks to divi
Mobile enemy forces are likely to pene sions, corps, and higher echelons. However,
trate sections of the MBA during the even area defenses at brigade and battal
defense. Such penetration and separation ion level may benefit from the use of
of adjacent units is especially likely if mobile reserve to strike a decisive blow
nuclear or chemical weapons are used by when such a force is available and the
the enemy. Nonetheless, MBA forces con enemy uncovers his flanks.
tinue to fight while protecting their own
flanks, striking at the enemy's, and driv Commanders of brigades and larger
ing across penetrations to restore continu units normally retain about one third of
ity to the defense when possible. Division their maneuver strength in reserve, though
or corps reserves can defeat some pene the actual size of the reserve depends on
trations but others may pass into the rear the commander's concept of operation. Re
area. serves may also be retained at battalion
level, but, just as frequently, battalion
RESERVE OPERATIONS commanders counterattack with their least
committed elements or with elements posi
The primary purpose of reserves in the tioned in depth.
defense is to preserve the commander's Timing is critical to counterattacks.
flexibility. He may use reserves to counter
attack to exploit enemy vulnerabilities, The commander must anticipate the cir
such as exposed flanks or support units, cumstances calling for the commitment of
148 Chapter 9
FM 100-5
reserves. When he commits his reserve, he promptly when needed. The mobility and
must make his decision promptly with an firepower of attack helicopters often make
accurate understanding of movement and them the quickest and most effective
deployment times. Committed too soon, means of reinforcing defenses against
reserves may not have the desired effect armored attacks and of destroying enemy
or may not be available later for a more tanks which have broken through. Since
dangerous contingency. Committed too weather and the air defense environment
late, they may be ineffectual. Once he has limit their use, they should never be the
committed his reserve, the commander only reserves.
should immediately begin reconstituting
another reserve from uncommitted forces In addition to designating reserves,
or from forces in less threatened sectors. commanders may choose to shift uncom
mitted subordinate elements to reconstitute
In planning a counterattack, the com a reserve or to concentrate forces else
mander must carefully consider the where. The most easily shifted forces are
enemy's options and the likely locations of the reserves of subordinate units. Com
his follow-on echelons. Then he must deter manders should shift committed MBA
mine where to position his reserve, what forces laterally only as a last resort
routes and avenues of approach to use, because of the risks and difficulties inher
what fire support will be necessary, and ent in such lateral movement close to the
what interdiction or deep attack will be
necessary to isolate the enemy's committed line of contact.
forces. Counterattacks like any attack
should seek to avoid enemy strength. Bri
gade and battalion counterattacks seize REAR OPERATIONS
strong positions from which to fire on the
enemy's flanks and rear. Division or corps During battle, protection of rear areas
counterattacks will either strike isolated will be necessary to assure the defender's
enemy maneuver units or will pass around freedom of maneuver and continuity of op
the enemy's committed forces to strike di erations. Because fighting in the rear area
rectly at his reserves, artillery, and other can divert combat power from the main
supporting forces. effort, commanders must carefully weigh
the need for such diversion against the
Reserves may be air or ground maneu consequences, and be prepared to take cal
ver units. Divisions, brigades, and battal culated risks in rear areas. To make such
ions may be held in reserve as part of decisions, commanders require accurate in
their superior commander's defense. When formation, both to avoid late or inadequate
counterattacking, their actions amount to responses and to guard against overreact
hasty or deliberate attacks. ing to exaggerated reports. They also
require clear heads and strong nerves.
Reserved air assault forces can respond
rapidly. In suitable terrain, they can rein
force positions to the front or on a flank. To minimize the vulnerability of rear
In a threatened sector, they may be posi operations, comipand and control and sup
tioned in depth. Air assault forces are also port facilities in the rear area must be
suitable for swift attack against enemy air dispersed, redundant and as distant from
borne units landing in the rear area. Once high speed dvenues into the rear as mis
committed, however, they have limited sion peformance will allow. Air defense
mobility. should be located to protect especially
Because of their speed, mobility and
sensitive areas and facilities in the rear.
Reserves must be prepared to respond
range, attack helicopter units may be held rapidly to rear area threats, and should be
in depth initially and still respond prepared to move to any of their objectives
Chapter 9 149
FM 100-5
by multiple routes. Air assault forces, attacks in depth and long-range fires can,
attack helicopter and air cavalry units, separate attacking echelons for destruction
close air support missions, and mechanized in detail by defending forces.
forces will be of special value in the rear In an area defense, committed brigades
area. should begin their local counterattacks as
Threats to the rear area will arise soon as possible. Brigade commanders use
throughout the battle and may require the their reserves in cooperation with static
repositioning of forces and facilities. When elements of their defenses-battle positions
possible, the defending commander should and strongpoints-to break the enemy's
contain and avoid enemy forces in his rear momentum and reduce his numerical ad
area rather than attacking them with vantage. As the attack develops and the
forces needed in the MBA. Unless such enemy's dispositions are revealed, brigade
enemy units pose a serious immediate and division commanders should use their
threat, he should defer attacking them reserves and fires to strike at objectives in
until after the battle is stabilized or won. depth to break up the coordination of the
attack.
For a detailed discussion of rear opera Mobile defenses anticipate enemy pene
tions, see FM 90-14. tration into the defended area and use
obstacles and defended positions to shape
CONDUCTING THE DEFENSE and control such penetrations. They may
also use local counterattacks either to
As the attack begins, the defender's influence the enemy to enter the penetra
first concerns will be to identify the tion area or to deceive him as to the
enemy's committed units, determine his di nature of the defense. As in area defenses,
rection of attack, and gain time to react. static elements of a mobile defense must
Security forces, intelligence units, special contain the enemy in a designated area.
operations forces, and air elements con In a mobile defense, the counterattack is
ducting deep operations will be the first decisive; it must be strong, well-timed, and
sources of this information. Information well-supported. Counterattacking forces are
about the form and location of the enemy's preferably committed against the enemy's
attack should be distributed throughout the flanks and rear rather than frontally
force during the battle as a basis for against deployed attacking units.
subordinate commander's actions.
During the defense, commanders will
The commander must slow the enemy's have to shift their main effort to contain
movement in some areas or separate his the enemy's attack until they can take the
formations to deny the enemy the ability initiative themselves. This will require the
to mass or to establish a tempo that will adjustment of sectors, the repeated com
make defense impossible. The defending mitment and reconstitution of reserves,
commander will normally have to econo and, usually, modification of the original
mize in some parts of his sector to concen plan.
trate forces and fires in the areas of
greatest danger. He should employ his To deny the enemy passage through a
long-range surveillance means to assist in vital area, a commander may order a force
monitoring economy of force sectors. to remain in a strong position on key ter
rain. He might also leave a unit in position
Covering forces and ground or air ma behind the enemy or give it a mission that
neuver units can delay in less threatened entails a high risk of being entrapped. It
areas to gain time for actions against is also possible for defending units to be
committed enemy units. Air and ground unintentionally cut off from friendly forces.
150 Chapter 9
FM 100-5
Chapter 9 151
CHAPTER 10
Retrograde Operations
retrograde operation is a
movement to the rear or away from the
enemy. Such an operation may be forced
or voluntary, but in either case, the higher
commander must approve it. Retrograde
operations gain time, preserve forces, avoid "TVLM O L'Th 1
0GQ 0
combat under undesirable conditions, or0F 0
..
Chapter 10 .153
FM 100-5
DELAYS
Delays are conducted when forces are attacks on the delaying force, to insert
insufficient to attack or to defend or when forces behind friendly units, and to employ
the defensive plan calls for drawing the nuclear and chemical weapons.
attacker into an area for counterattack.
Delays gain time for friendly forces to The terrain over which delays must be
conducted limits the commander's options.
" Reestablish the defense. Open, unobstructed terrain makes delays
more difficult to achieve. Such terrain
favors the use of armored, mechanized, and
" Cover a defending or withdrawing unit. aviation units by the delaying force and
will require great engineer effort. Close or
* Protect a friendly unit's flank. broken terrain will generally slow the
enemy's movement but also makes main
" Participate in an economy of force effort. taining contact with him more difficult. In
wooded, swampy, or rugged terrain, infantry
forces are better suited for the delay and
obstacles are easier to construct. Weather's
CONSIDERATIONS chief effects on the delay are to promote
or retard cross-country movement, the use
Commanders preparing to conduct delays of aviation and air support, and the con
should consider the factors of mission, struction of obstacles. Commanders of bri
enemy, terrain and weather, troops, time gades and smaller units must pay particular
(METT-T) as they make their initial esti attention to the effects of reduced visibility.
mate of the situation. Limited visibility requires greater numbers
of troop units to cover a given sector and
The mission of the force states the higher affects the way they maneuver and fight.
commander's requirements for the delay, Early detection of the enemy is more diffi
develops the concept of the operation for cult and long-range fires are less effective;
the force as a whole, and specifies the dura decisive engagement is therefore harder to
tion and terrain limitations that apply to avoid.
the operation. If the commander intends to
employ the delaying force in his subsequent The troops available to the delaying
operations, he must specify the degree of commander determine his actions to a large
damage or risk to the force he is willing extent. As a general rule, a delaying force
to accept. In this case, the commander must should be as mobile or more mobile than
make clear which parameter will govern- its enemy. Because the delaying commander
duration and terrain, or friendly loss. usually attempts to avoid decisive combat,
his forces should also be capable of deliv
The strength, location, tactics, mobility, ering accurate, long-range fires and of
and capabilities of the enemy also have a constructing significant obstacles. Armored,
large bearing on how the commander mechanized, and aviation units are gener
organizes his delay. Among the most im ally best suited to delay. Cavalry units are
portant considerations for the delaying specially organized and trained to conduct
commander are patterns of enemy opera security missions and should be used to
tions and the enemy's vulnerability to delay whenever they are available. Infantry
counterattack, interdiction, electronic war units can be employed to delay in close
fare, air attack, and canalization by terrain or to occupy positions as part of
obstacles. The commander must also exam the delay. When infantry units can be
ine the enemy's capability to conduct air moved by air to positions in depth, they
154 Chapter 10
FM 100-5
Chapter 10 155
FM 100-5
STEP 1 Elements of the delaying STEP 2 Elements remaining in STEP 3 Elements rejoin parent
force disengage and move to the rear contact fight to the rear while main- organizations at the next delay position
to organize the next position. taining continuous contact. and continue the delay.
156 Chapter 70
FM 100-5
Chapter 10 157
FM 100-5
WITHDRAWALS
,158 Chapter 10
FM 100-5
of the main body. Main body units will re potential pressure, the enemy may encircle
inforce the covering force as necessary and or destroy remaining elements of the com
will themselves delay or defend if the mand. If he withdraws the least heavily
covering force fails to slow the enemy. engaged units first, he may find himself
All available fires, electronic warfare unable to withdraw those most heavily
(EW) assets, and obstacles support the engaged or most dangerously threatened.
withdrawal of closely engaged friendly Commanders must decide which action best
forces. Commanders must tightly control preserves the force while accomplishing the
rearward movement and maintain syn mission.
chronization throughout the force. Deep When corps or divisions withdraw, their
operations may be useful in relieving reserves remain well forward to assist other
pressure on units in contact with the enemy. units by fire or by conducting ground at
If the withdrawal begins without enemy tacks. While units are withdrawing under
pressure, the covering force may remain in pressure, reserves can launch spoiling at
position to prolong the deception. If the tacks to disorganize and delay the enemy.
enemy does not attack during the with Reserves may also extricate encircled or
drawal, covering forces and rear guards heavily engaged forces. Aviation units help
remain between the enemy and the main forward units maintain contact, secure
body, and the main body moves to the rear flanks, delay enemy armor, react to enemy
as rapidly as possible. When the main body air assaults, assist in command and control,
has withdrawn a safe distance, the covering and transport troops and material.
force may be withdrawn to intermediate or Withdrawing units may be assisted by
final positions. other units which have established defenses
Every element of the withdrawing force behind the withdrawing force. Such de
must be capable of defending itself at least fending forces may be able to provide fire
temporarily against ground attack, and any support, EW support, air defense, and logis
contact with the enemy in, the rear area tical assistance to a withdrawing unit. Most
must be reported as a matter of great important, they assume responsibility for
urgency. Should the enemy block movement the sector once the withdrawing force has
in the rear, the commander must be able passed through them.
either to shift to alternate routes which When such a force is in position, the
bypass the interdicted area or to reduce the withdrawing unit coordinates for support
roadblock. as early as possible. The withdrawal is
When simultaneous withdrawal of all conducted in the usual way until the with
forces is not practical, the commander de drawing force passes behind the assisting
termines an order of withdrawal. If he force. Once in the defended area, the with
withdraws first the most heavily engaged drawing force either joins the defense or
units from the area of greatest actual or continues to the rear in a retirement.
RETIREMENTS
Retirements are rearward movements strikes, air assaults, or long-range fires. Its
away from the enemy by a force not in commander must have plans for dealing
contact. They are normally covered by the with such contingencies.
security forces of another unit to their rear Security and speed are the most
and conducted as a tactical road movement. important considerations in conducting a
Retiring units must be organized to fight, retirement. Retiring units move at night
but they do so only in self-defense. A retir when possible. They should move in day
ing unit may be attacked by guerrillas, air light only if their mission requires it or if
Chapter 10 159
FM 100-5
Planning for CSS must reflect the nature To solve the complex maintenance and
of the operation. To ensure uninterrupted recovery problems associated with retro
support in any retrograde operation, CSS grade operations, CSS unit commanders
installations should be located well to the should furnish contact teams to committed
rear. To reduce congestion and interference units. They should also consider augmenting
with combat units and losses, commanders these teams with additional personnel.
should have CSS units displace early and,
when possible, at night.
To avoid destroying or evacuating
Because retrograde operations move supplies unnecessarily in any retrograde
rapidly, commanders often attach support action, commanders must control the flow
ing elements to the maneuver force. Because of supplies into forward areas. When com
delaying actions consume large amounts of manders contemplate a delay, withdrawal,
fuel and ammunition, CSS units may carry or retirement, they should plan for early
ammunition forward to fighting positions removal of excess supplies and early dis
and locate the necessary fuel and ammuni placement of logistic facilities. By position
tion stocks forward during the delay. In ing supplies along routes of withdrawal,
withdrawals and retirements, fuel and CSS commanders can simplify support and
ammunition must be available for can reduce the enemy's ability to interfere
emergency issue and positioned in depth. with logistic operations.
160 Chapter 10
CHAPTER 11
Joint and Combined Operations
JOINT OPERATIONS
Chapter 11 161
FM 100-5
SECRETARY
OF DEFENSE
I II~h~fiT
I-I.
4-I
F I
,. ~~It.l In
II
I
I I 1
I I i I
! 1
KEY:
OPERATIONAL CONTROL
OPERATIONAL COMMAND
STRATEGIC AND OPERATIONAL DIRECTION
162 Chapter 11
FM 100-5
Chapter 11 163
FM 100-5
COMBINED OPERATIONS
In addition to operating as part of a Campaign planning in combined theaters
joint force, the Army must be prepared for of operations imposes special considerations
combined operations with land, air, and not present in unilateral theaters. In com
naval forces of allied governments. Army bined theaters, the allies share a compelling
forces in the North Atlantic Treaty Orga need to maintain the political cohesion of
nization (NATO) area will operate under the coalition as a prerequisite for main
one of NATO's Major Commands (Allied taining the military effectiveness and
Command Europe, Allied Command Atlan cohesion of the allied military organization.
tic, or Allied Command Channel). Those in Accommodation of differences in political-
the Republic of Korea will fight as part of military objectives is therefore of the high
the United States-Republic of Korea (US est importance. Similarly, accommodation
ROK) Combined Forces Command (CFC). of differences in capabilities among the
In these theaters, doctrine, procedures, and allies' military forces requires careful plan
principles have been developed and prac ning and tailored coordination and liaison
ticed to minimize the problems of inter-allied between the forces. Logistical support, while
coordination. normally a national responsibility, must be
coordinated in a combined effort to permit
Elsewhere, agreements on doctrine, proper synchronized employment of the
principles, and operating techniques are various allies combat formations. Campaign
only partially developed or do not exist at planning in all of its facets is inherently
all. In such theaters, US and allied forces a combined activity in coalition warfare.
will have to work out procedures for com
bined operations under the pressure of AirLand Battle doctrine must be adapted
imminent conflict or even while operations to each conflict. The following section de
are under way. scribes the chief considerations for Army
164 Chapter 11
FM 100-5
Chapter 11 165
FM 100-5
OPERATIONS
166 Chapter 11
FM 100-5
Chapter 11 167
FM 100-5
the rear. When reserves or supporting forces the theater will have to resolve the prob
must pass through or fly over a unit's rear lems of liaison, language, and compatibility
area, careful coordination must be made in of equipment inherent in multi-national
advance. Similarly, the movements of enemy military operations.
forces in the rear area must be reported Transportation, construction services,
promptly when such forces pass from one medical support, and some classes of supply
ally's area into another's. Territorial forces will often be available in the theater. Host
or home defense units, police organizations, nation support may be used to supplement
and civil authorities with rear operations or substitute for US services, supplies, and
responsibilities in the rear area of a US facilities. Water, food, and construction
force must be included in rear operations materials may also be available and may
planning, kept informed, and kept in com have to be obtained by a central allied
munications with the headquarters they agency and shared equitably between na
support. tional contingents. The civil military oper
ations (CMO) officers can identify and
COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT coordinate US requirements for local
resources, facilities, and support.
The logistical support of military forces In many instances, the US has supplied
is normally a national responsibility. None allied forces with material and has received
theless, allied commanders will have to combat support or combat service support
coordinate the use of facilities such as high from the military or civilian authorities of
ways, rail lines, ports, and airfields. They other alliance partners in exchange. Such
will also have to seek and usually regulate arrangements can lead to significant econ
within the force, the support available in omies of force and effort and support
the theater of operations or from the host agreements between allies should be sought
nations. For these reasons, combined com early in a combined operation.
nmanders should form a combined logistics
staff section as early as possible. When allies use the same equipment,
provisions should be made for resupply,
Movement control, operation of ports and maintenance, or other support operations
airfields, theater communications, some across national lines, routinely if that is
supply functions, and airspace command feasible and in case of tactical emergency
and control are significant matters that in any event. Petroleum, oil, and lubricants
may have to be coordinated above the level (POL), medical supplies, barrier materials,
of national contingents. To assure coordi mines, and some tools and vehicles can
nation and to prevent duplication, usually be used by all members of an alli
commanders of combined forces must es ance. In the interests of simplicity of
tablish clear responsibilities for such operations and economy of effort, these may
functions. Lower level commanders and be obtained and distributed through a single
staff officers responsible for operating in combined supply agency in some cases.
168 Chapter 11
CHAPTER 12
Contingency Operations
CONSIDERATIONS
The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) and authorities are prepared to do in respond
unified and specified commands provide for ing to threats to national interests.
the most effective use of forces committed
to a contingency. These military planners " Inform civilian authorities of the risks
seek to associated with proposed plans.
" Provide best available intelligence infor
mation, including political, social, and " Judge what additional resources would
economic considerations as well as infor effectively reduce those risks.
mation on terrain, climate, and friendly/
enemy forces. The overall national policy aims must
" Provide multiple options to the NCA in always be clear when military contingencies
support of national objectives, and explain are planned. Rules for limitations on use
the capabilities and limitations of the of force must be observed. At this level,
military forces in each option. military planners harmonize plans with dip
lomatic efforts to deter hostile actions,
" Use the most current and authoritative facilitate military actions, and provide a
guidance available. They shouldknow framework of policies to govern military
before hostilities occur what US political action.
Chapter 12 169'
FM 100-5
JCS and unified and specified command support. When adequate to the threat,
planners consider nine factors involving they are the preferred Army force. Before
total force readiness, availability, and an impending crisis develops into open
appropriateness in their plans. The hostilities which may increase risks to US
considerations include: interests, early deployment of light forces
may deter an opponent and thus prevent
" Mission. The mission analysis determines a costly subsequent engagement. Light
the tasks. A large force may have to deter forces would not be appropriate, however,
or defeat enemy forces that attempt sub to face tank-heavy forces or to operate
version or invasion. A small force may over great distances. Heavy forces take
be deployed to perform any of a number longer to deploy and are more difficult
of specialized missions. to support, but they may be necessary
to defeat the enemy. Planners weigh the
" Adequacy. A trained force adequate to the considerations in each case to arrive at
task should be available. a proper combination of forces.
* Deployability. The means should be
available to deploy the necessary force Use of indigenous forces. An indigenous
in the required time. force may be available to accomplish all
or a part of the mission and to assist in
" Supportability. The means should be supporting US units. The capabilities and
available to support and sustain the force limitations of indigenous forces enter into
long enough to accomplish the mission. contingency planning. Combined with a
small US combat force or appropriate US
" Affordability. The forces and other logistic and fire support, an indigenous
resources for one mission must be weighed force may be sufficient. Given these cir
against vital missions elsewhere. cumstances, US forces can operate under
" Availability of forces. Light forces can
either a US niational command or a
be deployed quickly and are easiest to
combined command.
STRATEGIC DEPLOYMENT
The commander of the United States requirements in a deploying JTF or may
Army Forces Command (FORSCOM) is also augment Army components of unified com
Commander in Chief of the United States mands overseas. Army forces normally de
Army Forces, Readiness Command (CINC ploy on receipt of a JCS deployment order,
USARRED). He supports USREDCOM. but they may also receive some movement
Readiness Command forces may fill Army instructions from JCS warning or alert
170 Chapter 12
FM 100-5
EMPLOYMENT
The scope and nature of the contingency * The probable or actual composition and
influences both force organization and oper size of land, air, and naval forces of the
ations. Economy of force, mobility, surprise, joint force and any allied force.
and bold, aggressive actions should be
emphasized to achieve decisive results. In " Command relationships within the joint
keeping with the AirLand Battle doctrine, force.
operations should be characterized by flexi * Specific operational aspects including fire
bility, imaginative leadership, thorough support (all services), communications,
planning, and skillful, decentralized execu nuclear and chemical warfare guidance,
tion. Support from the other services is intelligence, psychological operations, and
essential to the success of the Army mission unconventional warfare.
in joint operations. * Enemy capability for ground, air, naval,
Commanders at appropriate levels electronic, and nuclear, biological, and
maintain contingency plans for rapid force chemical operations.
deployment. At the time of deployment and * Enemy capability for unconven
under guidance from the NCA, they modify tional and psychological operations.
these plans to fit existing conditions. The
Army component for a contingency opera " Geography, weather, and terrain.
tion may consist of any size Army force- " The political situation and civil-military
a small specialized element, a battalion or responsibilities.
a brigade, a corps, or a multiple-corps force.
" Language requirements.
In planning to function as part of a joint " In-country facilities.
force in a contingency operation, the Army
component commander considers the Support operations involve
operational environment and support * Maximizing use of local resources.
requirements.
" Limiting supplies to essentials.
Operational considerations involve * Formulating a maintenance policy.
* The joint force mission and the land * Formulating a medical evacuation policy.
component's tasks.
" Maintaining and securing necessary
* Assumptions under which the planning stockage levels.
was conducted.
" Phasing in additional combat service
* The joint commander's concept of the support (CSS) capabilities with follow-up
operation. elements as required.
Chapter 12 171
FM 100-5
172 Chapter 12
APPENDIX A
Dvinm-imma .wwuWnv
fni
1=1V ON lilff
OBJECTIVE
OFFENSIVE
The principle of offensive suggests that
offensive action, or maintenance of the ini-
Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative. tiative, is the most effective and decisive
way to pursue and to attain a clearly de
fined, common goal. This is fundamentally
true in the strategic, the operational, and
Appendix A 173
FM 100-5
the tactical senses. While it may sometimes initiative, maintains freedom of action and
be necessary to adopt a defensive posture, achieves results. It permits the political
this should be only a temporary condition leader or the military commander to capi
until the necessary means are available to talize on the initiative, impose his will on
resume offensive operations. An offensive the enemy, set the terms and select the
spirit must be inherent in the conduct of place of confrontation or battle, exploit
all defensive operations-the defense must vulnerabilities and react to rapidly changing
be an active, not a passive one. This is so &tuations and unexpected developments.
because offensive action, whatever form it No matter what the level, the side that re
takes, is the means by which the nation tains the initiative through offensive action
or a military force captures and holds the forces the foe to react rather than to act.
MASS
ECONOMY OF FORCE
174 Appendix A
FM 100-5
strategic planning and judgment by political other than where the main effort is intended
and military leaders, and again places a to be employed. It requires, as at the stra
premium on the need for flexibility of tegic level, the acceptance of prudent risks
thought and action. in selected areas in order to achieve supe
riority in the area where decision is sought.
At the operational and tactical levels, Economy-of-force missions may require the
the principle of economy of force requires forces employed to attack, to defend, to
that minimum means be employed in areas delay, or to conduct deception operations.
MANEUVER
UNITY OF COMMAND
Appendix A 175
FM 100-5
Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs unity of command. Unity of command
of Staff at the highest level, and the unified means directing and coordinating the action
and specified commands and joint task of all forces toward a common goal or
forces at the operational levels. objective. Coordination may be achieved by
cooperation; it is, however, best achieved
In both the operational and tactical di by vesting a single commander with the
mensions, it is axiomatic that the employ requisite authority to direct and to coor
ment of military forces in a manner that dinate all forces employed in pursuit of a
common goal.
develops their full combat power requires
SECURITY
SURPRISE
176 Appendix A
FM 100-5
United States can achieve a degree of psy success out of proportion to the effort ex
chological surprise due to its strategic de pended may be obtained. Surprise results
ployment capability. The rapid deployment from going against an enemy at a time
of US combat forces into a crisis area can and/or place or in a manner for which he
forestall or upset the plans and preparations is unprepared. It is not essential that the
of an enemy. This capability can give the enemy be taken unaware, but only that he
United States the advantage in both a phy become aware too late to react effectively.
sical and psychological sense by denying Factors contributing to surprise include
the enemy the initiative. speed and alacrity, employment of un
expected factors, effective intelligence, de
Surprise is important at the operational ception operations of all kinds, variations
and tactical levels for it can decisively af of tactics and methods of operation, and
fect the outcome of battles. With surprise, operations security.
SIMPLICITY
Appendix A 177
APPENDIX B
The concept of centers of gravity is key terrain on which the unit's operations are
to all operational design. It derives from anchored. But the concept is more usually
the fact that an armed combatant, whether and usefully applied to larger forces at the
a warring nation or alliance, an army in operational level, where the very size of
the field, or one of its subordinate forma the enemy force and the scale of its opera
tions, is a complex organism whose effec tions make difficult the decision where and
tive operation depends not merely on the how best to attack it.
performance of each of its component
parts, but also on the smoothness with Even at this level, the center of gravity
which these components interact and the may well be a component of the field
reliability with which they implement the force-the mass of the enemy force, the
will of the commander. As with any com boundary between two of its major combat
plex organism, some components are more formations, a vital command and control
vital than others to the smooth and reli center, or perhaps its logistical base or
able operation of the whole. If these are lines of communication. During the Battle
damaged or destroyed, their loss unbal of the Bulge in 1944, St. Vith became a
ances the entire structure, producing a center of gravity for defending American
cascading deterioration in cohesion and forces, failure to retain which might have
effectiveness which may result in complete resulted in the complete collapse of the
failure, and which will invariably leave Allied center, with potentially disastrous
the force vulnerable to further damage. strategic consequences. But an operational
center of gravity may also be more ab
The center of gravity of an armed force stract-the cohesion among allied forces,
refers to those sources of strength or bal for example, or the mental and psychologi
ance. It is that characteristic, capability, cal balance of a key commander.
or locality from which the force derives its
freedom of action, physical'strength, or Finally, at the strategic level, the center
will to fight. Clausewitz defined it as "the of gravity may be a key economic resource
hub of all power and movement, on which or locality, the strategic transport capabil
everything depends." Its attack is-or ities by which a nation maintains its
should be-the focus of all operations. armies in the field, or a vital part of the
Tactical formations can and frequently homeland itself. But it may also be a
will have centers of gravity-a key com wholly intangible thing. At Verdun in
mand post, for example, or a key piece of 1916, for example, German and French
Appendix B 179
FM 100-5
armies sacrificed over a million men con weights to a scale alters its point of bal
testing a piece of real estate of little intrin ance. The commander seeking to strike his
sic tactical or operational value, but whose enemy's center of gravity must be alert to
moral importance to both sides made its such shifts, recognize them when. they
uncontested surrender unthinkable. Simi occur, and adjust his own operations
larly neither Dien Bien Phu nor TET seri accordingly.
ously threatened the operational capacity Finally, it should be remembered that
of French and American forces respec
tively. But both attacks struck directly at while attacking the center of gravity may
be the surest and swiftest road to victory,
their strategic centers of gravity-popular
and political support of the war. it will rarely be the easiest road. More
often than not, the enemy recognizing his
At any level, identifying the enemy's center of gravity will take steps to protect
center of gravity requires extensive it, and indirect means will be required to
knowledge of his organizational make-up, force him to expose it to attack. In the pro
operational patterns, and physical and cess, the enemy will do his best to uncover
psychological strengths and weaknesses. and attack our own.
Moreover, centers of gravity can change.
A major shift in operational direction, the Identification of the enemy's center of
replacement of a key enemy commander, gravity and the design of actions which
the fielding of new units or weaponry-any will ultimately expose it to attack and de
of these events can shift the center of struction while protecting our own, are the
gravity significantly, just as adding new essence of the operational art.
LINES OF OPERATION
Lines of operation define the directional and of making several forces vulnerable to
orientation of a force in relation to the interposition by the enemy and piecemeal
enemy. Lines of operation connect the defeat. Napoleon nearly destroyed the Al
force with its base or bases of operation lied armies in Belgium in 1815 by just
on the one hand and its operational objec such a maneuver and then was himself
tive on the other. Normally, a campaign defeated at Waterloo after dividing his own
or major operation will have a single line army. Overall, the historical evidence sug
of operation, although multiple lines of gests that multiple lines of operation are
operation in a single campaign are not un most likely to produce success when the
common. Often, such situations produce enemy is weak, irresolute, or lacks freedom
difficulties, as in the Allied campaign in of maneuver.
northern France and the low countries, Finally, classical theory makes special
where Montgomery and Patton competed note of the relationship between opposing
for resources which might better have been lines of operations. A force is said to be
concentrated in support of one or the other operating on interior lines when its opera
commander. tions diverge from a central point and
As that example suggests, the decision when it is therefore closer to separate
whether to operate on one or several lines enemy forces than the latter are to each
of operation will depend heavily on the other. Interior lines benefit a weaker force
availability of resources. Given adequate by allowing it to shift the main effort
resources, operations on multiple lines laterally more rapidly than the enemy.
have the advantage of forcing the enemy Germany's decisive victory at Tannenberg
to disperse his efforts. They have the dis was a classic example of the use of inter
advantage of being difficult to synchronize ior lines.
180 Appendix B
FM 100-5
CULMINATING POINTS
Unless it is strategically decisive, every have been joined by new allies who now
offensive operation will sooner or later also feel threatened. All of these causes,
reach a point where the strength of the and combinations of them, have resulted
attacker no longer significantly exceeds in offensive culminating points. Today
that of the defender, and beyond which another can be added. If the defender
continued offensive operations therefore possesses nuclear weapons, he may at some
risk overextension, counterattack, and point be pressed into using them in spite
defeat. In operational theory, this point is of the risk of retaliation.
called the"culminating point. The art of Tactical attacks can also reach culmi
attack at all levels is to achieve decisive nating points for similar, but scaled down,
objectives before the culminating point is reasons. Usually tactical attacks lose mo
reached. Conversely, the art of defense is mentum when they encounter heavily
to hasten the culmination of the attack, defended areas which cannot be bypassed.
recognize its advent, and be prepared to They also reach a culminating point when
go over to the offense when it arrives. the supply of fuel and ammunition fails
Strategic and operational offensives to keep up, the attacking troops become
reach a culminating point for several rea physically exhausted, casualties and'equip
sons. The forward movement of supplies ment losses mount, and repair and replace
may be insufficiently organized or may ment don't keep pace. But tactical attacks
lack needed transport, or available stocks also stall when reserves are not available
may be exhausted. The need to protect to continue the attack, the defender is
lines of communications from partisans or reinforced, or he counterattacks with fresh
regular forces operating on the flanks or troops. Several of these causes may com
in the rear may have sapped the strength bine to halt an attack.
of forward forces to the point that the There are numerous historical examples
attacker no longer has the needed quanti of strategic, operational, and tactical offen
tative advantage. The attacking force may sives which reached culminating points
have suffered sufficient combat losses to before reaching their objectives. Often this
tip the balance of forces. The attacker may was because planners were not able to
have entered terrain which is more easily adequately forecast the drain on resources
defended. The soldiers of the attacking of extended fighting at great depths.
army may become physically exhausted
and morally less committed as the attack At the strategic level, classic examples
progresses. The defending force may have in this century of armies arriving at culmi
become more determined as large portions nating points before a decision was
of territory are lost. The defender may reached include the German attack into
Appendix 8 181
FM 100-5
France in 1914, the German invasion of the enemy allows. Usually the attacking
Russia in 1941, and the Japanese offensive forces are dispersed, extended in depth,
into the South Pacific and Southeast Asia and weakened in condition. Moreover, the
in 1941-42. In each case, commanders and shift to defense requires a psychological
planners failed to concentrate their efforts adjustment. Soldiers who have become
in key areas and appreciate the resource accustomed to advancing, and thus "win
drain of extended operations over great ning," now must halt deep in enemy terri
distances. tory and fight defensively (sometimes
desperately) on new and often unfavorable
Classic operational examples of the terms. Finally, attacks rarely culminate on
same phenomenon just in WWII were ground ideally suited for defense. If a deci
Rommel's drive into Egypt which culmi sion is made to conduct retrograde opera
nated at El Alamein, the Japanese drive tions to more defensible ground, the
from Burma into India which culminated psychological adjustment of soldiers is
at Imphal-Kohima, Patton's rapid advance compounded.
across France which bogged down for lack
of supplies in Lorraine, the December 1944 From the foregoing discussion, it should
German counteroffensive through the be clear that culminating points are
Ardennes which resulted in the Battle of equally important to the attacker and the
the Bulge, the advance of General Paulus' defender. From a planning perspective, the
6th German Army to Stalingrad, and the attacker must seek to secure operationally
combined penetration of the Russian 6th decisive objectives before the force reaches
Army and Popov's Tank Corps Group into its culminating point. If this cannot be
the Ukraine which precipitated the third anticipated, the attacker must plan a
battle of Kharkov. pause to replenish his combat power, and
Examples of tactical attacks reaching phase his operation accordingly.
culminating points are equally numerous For his part, the defender must seek to
in military history but are rarely recorded. bring the enemy attack to or past its cul
In most instances, they resulted from over minating point before it reaches an opera
ambitious objectives or from violations of tionally decisive objective. To do so, he
principles of offensive operations (concen must operate not only on the enemy force
tration, surprise, speed, flexibility, and itself, but also on its sustainment system.
audacity) and less often because of logistic The more readily the defender can trade
insufficiency. space for time without unacceptable opera
In some cases momentum can be re tional or strategic loss, the easier this will
gained, as in the Patton example above, be.
but always after difficult fighting and a Once operations begin, the attacking
period of operational stasis. In many commander must sense when he has
cases, as in the other examples given, a reached or is about to reach his culminat
turning point battle is fought and won by ing point, whether intended or not, and
the defender. revert to the defense at a time and place
Fighting a defensive battle after reach of his own choosing. For his part, the
ing a culminating point is extremely dif defender must be alert to recognize when
ficult for several reasons. Defensive his opponent has become overextended and
preparations are hasty and forces are not be prepared to pass over to the counter
adequately disposed for defense. Reorgani offensive before the attacker is able to
zation for defense requires more time than recover his strength.
182 Appendix B
APPENDIX C
Echelons of Command
ifferent levels of command per nature of the conflict, and the number of
form different tactical and operational friendly forces committed to the effort.
functions. These vary with the type of unit This appendix describes the general opera
and, particularly at echelons above corps, tional functions of Army units from com
with the organization of the theater, the pany to theater army level.
COMPANIES/BATTERIES/TROOPS
Company-sized units consist of two or Field artillery (FA) batteries are the
more platoons usually of the same type basic firing units of FA battalions. They
with a headquarters and, in some cases, a are organized with a firing battery, a head
limited capacity for self-support. Compa quarters, and limited support sections.
nies are the basic elements of all battal They may fire and displace together or by
ions. They are also assigned as separate platoons. Normally, batteries fight as part
units of brigades and larger organizations. of their parent battalion. Occasionally,
they are attached to other batteries or FA
All close combat companies can fight battalions and, in some cases, they re
massed or by separate platoons. In infan spond directly to a maneuver battalion or
try, armor, and attack helicopter battalions, company. Multiple Launch Rocket, Lance,
companies normally fight as integral units. and Pershing batteries will more often
Cavalry troops and attack helicopter com operate independently. Armored cavalry
panies more frequently fight with their squadrons have organic howitzer batteries.
platoons in separate zones, sectors, or
areas. Air defense artillery (ADA) batteries
operate as the fighting elements of ADA
Company-sized close combat units are battalions or, if they are short-range in air
capable of fighting without additional defense (SHORAD) batteries, in direct sup
reinforcements. Ordinarily, however, com port of maneuver brigades or battalions.
panies or troops are augmented for opera Separate SHORAD batteries exist in sep
tions with SHORAD units and ground arate brigade-sized organizations.
surveillance radar teams. They may also
be reinforced with maneuver platoons of Combat engineer companies control
the same or different types and with engi three or four engineer platoons. They may
neer squads or platoons to form teams. be employed by their own battalion in a
Company teams are formed to tailor forces variety of tasks or they may support ma
for a particular mission. Such tailoring neuver brigades or battalions. Separate
matches forces to missions with greater brigades and regiments usually have an
precision but often disrupts teamwork assigned combat engineer company.
within the company. Company teams
should, therefore, be formed only after Most other combat support and combat
careful consideration and should train service support (CSS) units are formed as
together before they are committed when companies. Such companies vary widely in
ever possible. size, employment, and assignment.
Appendix C 183
FM 100-5
BATTALIONS/SQUADRONS
Battalions and cavalry squadrons con companies to form task forces for special
sist of two or more company-sized units missions. FA battalions can be reinforced
and a headquarters. Most battalions are with batteries of any kind to form artillery
organized by branch, arm, or service and, task forces.
in addition to their operational companies,
contain a headquarters company that gives Engineer, ADA, and signal battalions
them the ability to perform some adminis assigned to or supporting divisions rou
trative and logistic services. Typically, tinely operate throughout the division area
battalions have three to five companies in of operations. Their commanders also per
addition to their headquarters. form the additional duties of division
special staff officers.
Combat arms battalions are designed to
perform single tactical missions as part of Combat support and CSS battalions
a brigade's tactical operations. Battalions vary widely in type and organization.
attack, defend, delay, or move to assume They may be separate divisional or non-
new missions. Air and ground cavalry divisional battalions, but, in any case, they
squadrons also perform reconnaissances normally perform functional services for a
and security missions. FA battalions fire larger supported unit within that unit's
in support of any of these missions. area of operations. All battalions are
Maneuver battalions can be reinforced capable of at least limited, short-term self
with other combat and combat support defense.
BRIGADES/REGIMENTS/GROUPS
Brigade-sized units control two or more and actions of their subordinate units to
battalions. Their capabilities for self sup accomplish a single task for the division
port and independent action vary consider or corps.
ably with the type of brigade. Separate brigades of infantry, armor,
FA, ADA, engineer or aviation, and ar
Maneuver brigades are the major com mored cavalry regiments can be used to
reinforce corps or divisions and \can be
bat units of all types of divisions. They shifted from unit to unit to tailor forces
can also be organized as separate units. for combat. Separate brigades and regi
They can employ any combination of ma ments are usually employed as units when
neuver battalions and they are normally attached to corps or divisions.
supported by FA battalions, aviation units,
and by smaller combat, combat support, Other combat, combat support, and CSS
and CSS units. While separate brigades brigades and groups are organized to con
and armored cavalry regiments have a trol non-divisional units for corps and
fixed organization, division commanders larger units. Engineer, ADA, signal, avia
establish the organization of their brigades tion, MP, and transportation brigades are
and change their organizations as fre typical of such units. They may also be
quently as necessary. the building blocks of large unit support
structures such as corps and theater army
Brigades combine the efforts of their support commands and of combat support
battalions and companies to fight engage commands such as engineer commands.
ments and to perform major tactical tasks Divisions are supported by an organic
in division battles. Their chief tactical brigade-sized support command of mixed
responsibility is synchronizing the plans CSS battalions and companies.
184 Appendix C
FM 100-5
DIVISIONS
Divisions are fixed combined arms orga separate companies may be attached to or
nizations of 8 to 11 maneuver battalions, placed in support of brigades for the per
3 to 4 FA battalions, and other combat, formance of a particular mission.
combat support and CSS units. Capable of Divisions perform major tactical opera
performing any tactical mission and de tions for the corps and can conduct sus
signed to be largely self-sustaining, divi tained battles and engagements. They
sions are the basic units of maneuver at almost never direct actions at the opera
the tactical level. Infantry, armored, me tional level (campaigns or major opera
chanized infantry, airborne, air assault, tions), but they may be used by corps or
and motorized infantry divisions are all field armies to perform tasks of operational
presently in the force. importance. These may include exploiting
Divisions possess great flexibility. They tactical advantages to seize objectives in
tailor their own brigades and attached depth, moving to gain contact with enemy
forces for specific combat missions. Their forces, or moving by air to seize positions
combat support and CSS battalions and behind an enemy force.
CORPS
Corps are the Army's largest tactical may exercise operational as well as tacti
units, the instruments with which higher cal responsibilities.
echelons of command conduct maneuver at Corps may be assigned divisions of any
the operational level. Corps are tailored for type required by the theater and the
the theater and mission for which they mission. They possess organic support
are deployed. Once tailored, however, they commands and are assigned combat and
contain all the organic combat, combat combat support organizations based on
support, and combat service support capa their needs for a specific operation.
bilities required to sustain operations for Armored cavalry regiments, FA brigades,
a considerable period. engineer brigades, ADA brigades, and-avia
Corps plan and conduct major opera tion brigades are the non-divisional units
tions and battles. They synchronize tacti commonly available to the corps to weight
cal activities including the maneuver of its main effort and to perform special
their divisions, the fires of their artillery combat functions. Separate infantry or
units and supporting aerial forces, and the armor brigades may also be assigned to
actions of their combat support and CSS corps. Signal brigades, MI groups, and MP
units. While corps normally fight as part groups are the usual combat support orga
of a larger land force-a field army or nizations present in a corps. Other units
army group-they may also be employed such as psychological operations (PSYOP)
alone, either as an independent ground battalions, special operating forces (SOF),
force or as the land component of a joint and civil affairs units may be assigned to
task force. When employed alone, they corps when required.
FIELD ARMY
Field armies may be formed by theater They will normally be constituted from exist-
Army commanders in coordination with ing army assets and structured to meet spe
the CINCs of unified command to control cific operational requirements. In joint and
and direct the operations of assigned corps. combined operations, the subordinate units
Appendix C 185
FM 100-5
of field armies may include units of other In either case, field army commanders em
services or of allied forces. When the field ploy subordinate corps to concentrate com
army is the largest land formation in a bat power, to accept or decline battle, and
theater of war, its commander may serve to exploit the outcome of tactical actions.
as the land component commander (LCC),
and he may design and direct the land Field armies and equivalent organiza
campaign for the entire theater. tions are primarily operational headquar
ters. They may establish priorities for CSS
Field armies exercise major operational among their subordinate forces, but CSS
responsibilities. When subordinated to an is normally provided by a theater army,
army \group, field armies become the pri service component command, or national
mary units of operational maneuver, con support organization. In contingency opera
ducting the decisive operations of the land tions, the field army may assume responsi
campaign. When operating independently bility for the logistic support of army
or as the land component of a joint force, forces in the field. In such an operation,
field armies may be charged with planning the field army would require the assign
and conducting the land campaign in a ment of support organizations from the
theater of war or a theater of operations. theater army or unified command.
ARMY GROUP
THEATER ARMY
Theater army is normally the Army has both operational and support respon
service component command in a unified sibilities. Its exact tasks are assigned by
command. Third US Army, Eighth US the theater CINC and may be exclusively
Army, and US Army, Europe (USAREUR) operational missions, solely logistic tasks,
are current examples of theater armies. or a combination of both types of
The theater army as the service component responsibility.
186 Appendix C
FM 100-5
Theater army commanders are responsi available (METT-T). Other levels of com
ble to the unified commander in a theater mand can also perform theater army func
for recommending how US Army forces as tions. For example, a corps staff could
signed to them should be allocated 'and perform the theater army function if only
employed. Their support responsibilities in a single corps were committed to a contin
clude the requirements to organize, equip, gency area. Or a larger separate staff may
train, and maintain Army forces in the be necessary to handle the administrative,
theater. legal, logistical, personnel, intelligence,
operations, and communications tasks of a
The organization of theater armies is large force deployed overseas., Liaison
not standard. It varies between theaters between a theater army and another head
according to the size of the US Army com quarters employing its forces must be per
ponent in a force and with the factors of formed whenever theater armies release
mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time operational command of their units.
Appendix C 187
Glossary
Glossary 189
FM 100-5
190 Glossary
References
References 191
FM 100-5
63-1 Combat Service Support Opera 100-16 Echelons Above Corps (Revision
tions, Separate Brigade will be entitled "Theater Army,
Army Group, and Field Army
63-2 Combat Service Support Opera Operations")
tions, Division
100-20 Low Intensity Conflict
63-3J Combat Service Support Opera
tions, Corps 100-26 Air-Ground Operations
63-4 Combat Service Support Opera 100-27 USA/AF Doctrine for Tactical
tions, Theater Army Area Airlift Operations
Command 101-5 Staff Officers' Field Manual:
71-1 The Tank and Mechanized In Staff Organization and Proce
fantry Company Team dure (will be revised as "Staff
Organization and Operations")
71-2 The Tank and Mechanized In
fantry Battalion Task Force 101-10-1 Staff Officers' Field Manual:
Organizational, Technical, and
71-3 Armored and Mechanized Bri Logistical Data
gade Operations
Standardization Agreements (STANAGs)
71-100 Armored and Mechanized Di
vision, and Brigade Operations 2003 Patrol Reports
2008 Bombing, Shelling, Mortaring,
71-101 Infantry, Airborne, and Air and Location Reports
Assault Division and Brigade
Operations 2014 Operation Orders, Annexes to
Operation Orders, Adminis
90-2 Tactical Deception trative and Logistics Orders
90-3 Desert Operations 2017 Orders to the Demolition Guard
90-4 Airmobile Operations Commander and Demolition
90-5 Jungle Operations Firing Party Commander
90-6 Mountain Operations 2019 Military Symbols
90-8 Counterguerrilla Operations 2020 Operational Situation Reports
90-10 Military Operations on Urbani 2022 Intelligence Reports
zed Terrain (MOUT) 2036 Land Minefield Laying, Mark
ing, Recording, and Reporting
90-13 River Crossing Operations
2041 Operation Orders, Tables and
90-14 Rear Battle Graphs for Road Movement
100-2-1 Soviet Army Operations and
2047 Emergency Alarms of Hazard
Tactics or Attack (NBC and Air Attack
100-2-2 Soviet Army Specialized Warfare Only)
and Rear Area Support 2067 Straggler Control
100-2-3 Soviet Army Organization and 2070 Emergency War Burial Proce
Equipment dures
100-10 Combat Service Support 2077 Order of Battle (Non-NATO
100-15 Corps Operations Troops)
192 References
FM 100-5
2079 Rear Area Security and Rear 3465 Safety, Emergency, and Sig
Area Damage Control naling Procedures for Military
2082 Relief of Combat Troops Air Movement Fixed-Wing Air
craft
2083 Commanders Guide on Nuclear
Radiation Exposure of Groups 3466 Responsibilities of Air Transport
Units and User Units in the
2088 Battlefield Illumination Loading and Unloading of Trans
2091 Population Movement Control port Aircraft in Tactical Air
2096 Reporting Engineer Information Transport Operations
in the Field 3570 Drop Zones and Extraction
Zones-Criteria and Marking
2099 Fire Coordination in Support
of Land Forces 3700 NATO Tactical Air Doctrine
ATP-33
2101 Principles and Procedures for 3736 Offensive Air Support Opera
Establishing Liaison tions - ATP-27
2103 Reporting Nuclear Detonations, 3805 Doctrine and Procedures for
Radio-Active Fallout, and Bio Airspace Control in the Combat
logical and Chemical Attacks Zone - ATP-40
and Predicting Associated Haz 5048 The Miminum Scale of Com
ards munications for the NATO Land
2104 Friendly Nuclear Strike Warning Forces -'Requirements, Princi
to Armed Forces Operating on ples, and Procedures.
Land
2113 Destruction of Military Techni
cal Equipment PROJECTED RELATED
References 193
FM 100-5
194 References
Index
-A Army
Battalions, 41
Agility, 15
theater, 65, 161 thru 162, 186
combat support, 184
Airlift, 49
Army groups, 10, 186
Battlefield air interdiction (BAI), 49
operational/tactical (intratheater), 49
Attack(s), 2, 98
Belgium, 68
strategic (intertheater), 49
diversionary, 95
ADA, 183
Airspace coordination, 52
encirclement, 120, 151
Alliances, 29
exploitation, 17, 31, 96, 98, 100, 110,
maneuver, 183
flank, 101
signal,
183
Allied commanders, 28
from a defensive posture, 128
Allied nations, 28
hasty, 99, 112, 116
Ammunition, 117
reconnaissance in force, 95, 128
ammunition resupply, 72
spoiling, 95, 99, 100, 117, 128
defensive, 10
consumption, 60
supporting, 97
offensive,
10
Audacity, 95
protracted, 29
Authorities
sequential, 10
amphibious.
National Command, 43
simultaneous, 10
Anticipation, 12, 62
Avenue(s)
Battle of the Bulge, 11, 31, 96
anticipatory.
major, of approach, 147
Battle
ofthe"Chinese Farm", 11
of approach, 79
Battle of Gettysburg, 100, 130
Antiterrorism, 5
Aviation
German attack into France in 1914,
181
thru 182
Ardennes Forest, 95
German invasion
ofRussia in1941, 182
Arming, 61
Penetration oftheRussian 16th Army
Balkans, 83
and Popov's Tank Corps
Armor, 42
Basic load. See Sustainment controls.
Group into
theUkraine, 182
Index 195
FM 100-5
Continuity, 44, 62
Directions of movement, 22, 32
fire, 124
Disruption, 22, 132
Cavalry, 40, 42
standard, 45
Diversionary operations. See Operations,
Chemical weapons, 3, 45
Converging lines of action. See Lines,
Divisions, 10, 185
close air.
Counter air operations. See Operations,
US Army, 6
Combat power
Countermeasures
balance of, 11
command, control, and communications,
-E
dynamics of, 9, 11
20
East Prussia, 130
Counterreconnaissance, 144
Counterterrorism, 5
command, control, and communications CSR and RSR. See Sustainment controls.
Elbe River, 31
operational, 163
Electronic warfare support system
unified, 161
-
specified, 161
Environment
combat, 75
special, 82 thru 85
(CINCUSARRED) Estimates
Commander(s)
Operations, deception and security.
consumption, 72
logistics, 70
allied, 28
Deep operations. See Operations, deep.
of the situation, 28
joint force, 45
Evasion and escape (E&E), 57
established, 112
Exploitation. See Attack, exploitation.
joint or allied, 27
forward, 136
communications.
Falkland Islands, 96
communications.
defensive.
Field armies, 185
Communications-electronics operations
Delays. See Retrograde.
Field artillery, 34, 43
instructions (CEOI), 87
Deliberate attacks. See Attacks, deliberate.
FM 6-20, 45
Concealment, 12, 62
Devers, General Jacob, 166
FM 90-2, 54
operational, 133
Dien Bien Phu, 180
Direction, 12
FM 90-5, 83
contingency.
196 Index
FM 100-5
FM 90-11, 85
Forward line of own troops (FLOT), 20,
motorized, 42
FM 100-16, 65
Forward passage of lines, 125
Infiltration, 101
FM 101-5, 28
Freedom of action, 12, 133
Information requirements (IR).
FM 101-5, 33
Freedom of maneuver, 20, 98
See Requirements, information (IR).
FM 101-10-1, 72
Fueling, 61
Initiative, 1, 15
Firepower, 11
future close.
collection, 5, 145
Fires terrain, 81
G1/SI, 55
antitank, 41
Intelligence estimate. See Estimate,
delivery of, 4
G2, 37
intelligence.
final protective, 44
G3, 37
Intelligence officer. See Officer, intelligence
interlocking, 136
G3 Air. See Air, G3.
(G2, S2)
preparatory, 98
G4/S4, 55
Interoperability, 30, 165
Fixing, 61
G5, 58
Flanks, 22
German Eighth Army, 130
Jammers, 54
assailable, 102
Gona, 94
Jamming, 54
JCS, 11-4
Force expansion, 70
Commander, joint or allied.
Follow and support force. See Force,
Guard forces. See Forces, guard.
Forces
Joint Chiefs of Staff Publication 8, 52
allocation of, 34
Handoff, 157
Joint force commander. See Commander,
fixing, 42
Hart, Liddell, 109
Joint suppression of enemy air defenses
follow and support, 16
Health services. See Services, health.
(J-SEAD), 50
"campaign", 50
follow-on, 3,142
High-to medium altitude air defense
forward deployed, 6
(HIMAD), 52, 126
"localized", 50
economy of, 18
Hindenburg, General Paul von, 131
Joint task forces. See Forces, joint task.
encircled, 151
Jomini, 129
encircling, 119
Hoffman, Lieutenant Colonel Max, 131
exploiting, 119
Host nation civilian authorities. See
guard, 10
- I
joint task, 161
Korea, 10, 19
light, 143
Imitative communication deception (ICD), Kursk, 11, 130
mechanized, 143
55
mix, 143
Imperatives
L
movement of, 12
AirLand Battle, 22
resistance, 57
Sustainment, 62
Land component commander (LCC), 186
security, 113
Imphal-Kohima, 182
Lateral movement 149
special operating, 2, 49
stay-behind, 78
Inchon, 103
junior, 26
territorial, 168
Independent operations. See Operations,
senior, 26
uncommitted enemy, 12
Indirect approach. See Approach, indirect. Leadership, 11, 13
Infantry Lethality, 3, 96
136 mechanized, 41
Line of departure, 124
Index 197
FM 100-5
Lines
Montgomery, Field Marshal, 31, 141, 180
Operational objectives, 17
Morale, 13
Operational offensive, 11
air, of communication, 66
Operational planning. See Planning,
operational.
extended, of support, 60
Munitions, 13
exterior, 181
Operational PSYOP. See PSYOP,
exterior of support, 67
operational.
ground, of communication, 66
Operational reserve. See Reserve,
interior, of support, 67
Named areas of interest (NAI), 38
Operational reserves. See Reserves,
of action, 66
Napoleon, 110, 131, 180
operational.
of operation, 180
Authorities, National Command. operational.
of support, 32, 65
phase, 144
Navy and Marine component commanders. Operational sustainment, 65
sea, of communication, 66
See Comander, Navy and Marine Operation(s)
component. air, 9
LOC nodes, 63
New Guinea, 94
air interdiction (Al), 48
Lorraine, 68
Nonlinear Operations. See Operations,
civil-military, 31, 57
-M 164
MacArthur, 94
defensive, 137
deep, 105
Main operations,
1
"on-order", 116
joint, 6, 161
Manchuria, 96
logistical, 59
political, 9
major ground, 10
tactical, 12
Observation and fields of fire, 77
nuclear, 1
55
on multiple lines, 180
OCOKA, 771
Manning, 60
peacekeeping, 5
Offensive, 113
Mass, 174
psychological (PSYOP), 55
Operatiol Cobra, 31
Operation Goodwood, 31
reconnaissance and security, 106
operation (OPORDS).
security, 43
(CEWI)), 55
security force, 137
Military police, 35
Operational art, 9
special, 17, 49
(MOPP), 86
49
tactical, 6
Missions
Operational concentration. See
tactical air, 47
Concentration, operational.
theater, 17
on-order, 44
theater of, 9
strike, 57
Operational command. See Command,
operational.
Mitla Pass, 95
Operations on multiple lines.
Operational control. See Control,
See' Operations, on multiple lines.
Mobile air defense. See Defense, mobile
air.
operational.
Operations plan (OPLAN). See Plan,
•operational deception. See Deception,
198 -Index
FM 100-5
Orders
prepared, 132
Retrograde, 153
fragmentary, 116
successive, 155
delays, 153
mission, 21
supplementary, 133
withdrawal, 31, 108, 153, 158
commands, 163
Preparatory fires. See Fires, preparatory.
Routes, 124
Organizations
direct, 119, 158
high speed, 39, 116
police, 168
under enemy, 158
restrictive, 41
task, 22
Principles of war. See War, principles of. Ruses, 53, 96
Pas do Calais, 53
Priorities of support, 24, 62, 71
S5, 58
121, 180
Protecting, 61
St. Vith, 179
Plan(s)
of CSS units, 71
contingency, 30, 99
Psychological operations (PSYOP). Lines of communication, sea (SLOC).
CSS support, 70
See Operations, psychological (PSYOP).
counterattack, 133
Secondary avenues of approach. See
deception, 53
denial, 51
operational, 3-40
Secretary of Defense, 163
for concentration, 32
tactical, 3-40
deep, 142
nuclear fire, 45
Pursuit. See Attack, pursuit.
delay, 155
signal support, 52
Security, 13, 176
support, 124
----
communications, 52
Planners
Quebec, 78
operational, 45
campaign, 30
operations, 52
CSS, 68
Sequel(s), 31, 133, 140
transportation, 61
R
Planning, 5
Service(s)
anticipatory, 21
field, 73
Ranger, 57
health, 61, 64
major operations, 31
nuclear, 45
Rapid force deployment, 171
logistical, 59
nuclear fire, 45
Readiness unit, 7
maintenance, 64
operational, 14
Rear guards, 106, 114
medical and field, 21
tactical, 33
personnel, 64
Points
Reconnaissance in force. See Attack, transportation, 64
choke, 52
reconnaissance in force. Short-range air defense (SHORAD) systems.
contact, 147
Reconstitution, 55
See Systems, short-range air defense
culminating, 32
passage, 147
Rennenkampf's First, 130
Slim, Field Marshal Viscount, 94
pivot, 42
Required supply rate (RSR). See
Smoke, 43, 126
Port Stanley, 96
Sustainment controls.
Speed, 12, 24, 95
President, 163
Reserve(s), 16, 123
Staging, 67
Position(s)
lateral shifting of, 121
Standardization agreements, 165
alternate, 155
operational, 31, 110
Standing operating procedures (SOPs), 23,
battle, 144
Responsiveness, 63
166
central, 141
Retirements. See Retrograde.
Strategic (intertheater) airlift, 49
Index 199
FM 100-5
Target(s)
CEWI, 53
72
Strategy
distribution,
curbs that strategy may impose on area, 44
home defense, 168
operations, 29
development, 38
maneuver, 34
guidance, 28
high value, 38, 137
passed, 125
military, 1,9
points, 44
passing, 125
national, 161
Teams
readiness, 7
theater, 161
training, 6
Stress
company, 183
Unity of command, 175
battlefield, 88
fire support, 44
Unity of effort, 23
Tenets, ALB, 6, 15
X Corps, 31
-V
Structure of modern warfare. See
analysis, 76
Vicksburg, 91
Suez Canal, 96
covering, 78, 79
Visibility, 75
controls.
jungles, 83. See Environments, special.
Support
intelligence, 81
-w
key, 46, 79, 121
administrative, 61
mountainous, 82. See Environments,
War
engineer, 34, 50
reinforcement, 79
urbanized, 81
biological, 3
general, 44
winter zones, 84. See Environments,
logistical, 4
defensive electronic, 54
morale, 61
electronic, 20, 54
Terrorists, 4
jungle, 83
mortar, 44
naval fire, 41
TET, 180
offensive electronic, 54
44, 48
Third US Army. See Army, Third US.
unconventional, 28
Sustainment controls, 72
Trafficability, 76
basic loads, 72
Training, 2
Warsaw Pact, 2
supply distribution, 72
realistic, 22
Weapons, 2, 7
sustainment.
nuclear, 96
Transporting, 61
Weather, 24
Sustainment priorities, 69
Synchronization, 15, 96
System(s)
2
(A C), 53
-- U
World War II, 19
critical weapons, 71
United States Army Forces Command
engineer, 50
(FORSCOM), 170
fire support, 43
US Army, Europe (USAREUR). See Army,
""'Z
Unit(s)
of attack, 111, 116
air cavalry, 34
Winter. See Terrain, winter zones.
army aviation, 40
Tactical sustainment, 70
Zones of attack. See Zones, of attack.
Tactics, 9
200 Index
FM- 100-5
5 MAY 1986
By Order of the Secretary of the Army:
Official:
R. L. DILWORTH
Brigadier General, United States Army
DISTRIBUTION:
Active Army, USAR, and ARNG: To be distributed in accordance with DA Form 12-11A-R,
Requirements for Operations (Qty rqr block no. 512).
Additional copies may be requisitioned from the US Army Adjutant General Publications
Center, 2800 Eastern Boulevard, Baltimore, MD 21220-2896.
W, - - .e
iwi U.
dMIF
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