Ecology (from Greek: οἶκος, "house"; -λογία, "study of") is
the scientific study of the relation of living organisms to each
other and their surroundings.[1] Ecology includes the study of
plant and animal populations, plant and animal communities
and ecosystems. Ecologists study a range of living
phenomena from the role of bacteria in nutrient recycling to
the effects of tropical rain forest on the Earth's atmosphere.
The word "ecology" ("oekologie") was coined by[citation needed] the
German scientist Ernst Haeckel 1834–1919. Haeckel was a
zoologist, artist, writer, and later in life a professor of
comparative anatomy.
Ecology is a sub-discipline of biology, which is the study of
life, branching out from the natural sciences in the late 19th
century. Ecology is not synonymous with environment,
environmentalism, natural history or environmental science.[1]
[2][3]
Ecology is closely related to the biological disciplines of
physiology, evolution, genetics and behavior.[4][5]
Ecology seeks to explain:
• life processes and adaptations
• distribution and abundance of organisms
• the movement of materials and energy through living
communities
• the successional development of ecosystems,[4] and
• the abundance and distribution of biodiversity in
context of the environment.[1][2][3][4]
There are many practical applications of ecology in
conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource
management (agriculture, forestry, fisheries), city planning
(urban ecology), community health, economics, basic &
applied science and it provides a conceptual framework for
understanding and researching human social interaction
(human ecology).[4][6][7][8][9]
cology or ecological science, is the scientific study of the
distribution and abundance of living organisms and how these
properties are affected by interactions between the organisms
and their environment. The environment of an organism
includes both the physical properties, which can be described
as the sum of local abiotic factors like climate and geology, as
well as the other organisms that share its habitat.
Ecology may be more simply defined as the relationship
between living organisms and their abiotic and biotic
environment or as "the study of the structure and function of
nature" (Odum 1971). In this later case, structure includes the
distribution patterns and abundance of organisms, and
function includes the interactions of populations, including
competition, predation, symbiosis, and nutrient and energy
cycles.
The term ecology (oekologie) was coined in 1866 by the
German biologist Ernst Haeckel. The word is derived from the
Greek oikos ("household," "home," or "place to live") and
logos ("study")—therefore, "ecology" means the "study of the
household of nature." The name is derived from the same root
word as economics (management of the household), and thus
ecology is sometimes considered the economics of nature, or,
as expressed by Ernst Haeckel, "the body of knowledge
concerning the economy of nature" (Smith 1996).
The interactions between living organisms and their abiotic
and biotic environments, the focus of ecology, generally
convey an overall sense of unity and harmony in nature. See
for instance, species interactions. On the other hand, the
history of the science itself has often revealed conflicts,
schisms, and opposing camps, as ecologists took different
approaches and often failed to meet on common ground.
Scope
Ecology is usually considered a branch of biology, the general
science that studies living and once-living organisms.
Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from
proteins and nucleic acids (in biochemistry and molecular
biology), to cells (in cellular biology), to multicellular systems
(in physiology and anatomy, to individuals (in botany,
zoology, and other similar disciplines), and finally at the level
of populations, communities, and ecosystems, and to the
biosphere as a whole. These latter strata, from populations to
the biosphere, are the primary subjects of ecological inquiries.
The complexity of the subject of ecological studies can be see
in this river in South America, which is part of the world's
largest wetland, the Pantanal.
Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. Because of its focus on
the higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on
the interrelations between organisms and their environment,
ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science,
especially geology and geography, meteorology, pedology,
chemistry, and physics. Thus, ecology is said to be a holistic
science, one that overarches older disciplines, such as
biology, which in this view become sub-disciplines
contributing to ecological knowledge.
Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, medicine, and urban
development are among human activities that would fall
within Krebs' (1972: 4) explanation of his definition of ecology:
"where organisms are found, how many occur there, and
why."
The term ecology is sometimes confused with the term
environmentalism. Environmentalism is a social movement
aimed at the goal of protecting natural resources or the
environment, and which may involve political lobbying,
activism, education, and so forth. Ecology is the science that
studies living organisms and their interactions with the
environment. As such, ecology involves scientific
methodology and does not dictate what is "right" or "wrong."
However, findings in ecology may be used to support or
counter various goals, assertions, or actions of
environmentalists.
Consider the ways an ecologist might approach studying the
life of honeybees:
• The behavioral relationship between individuals of a
species is behavioral ecology—for example, the
study of the queen bee, and how she relates to the
worker bees and the drones.
• The organized activity of a species is community
ecology; for example, the activity of bees assures the
pollination of flowering plants. Bee hives additionally
produce honey, which is consumed by still other
species, such as bears.
• The relationship between the environment and a
species is environmental ecology—for example, the
consequences of environmental change on bee
activity. Bees may die out due to environmental
changes. The environment simultaneously affects
and is a consequence of this activity and is thus
intertwined with the survival of the species.
Disciplines of ecology
Ecology is a broad science which can be subdivided into major
and minor sub-disciplines. The major sub-disciplines include:
• Physiological ecology (or ecophysiology), which
studies the influence of the biotic and abiotic
environment on the physiology of the individual, and
the adaptation of the individual to its environment;
• Behavioral ecology, which studies the ecological and
evolutionary basis for animal behavior, and the roles
of behavior in enabling animals to adapt to their
ecological niches;
• Population ecology (or autecology), which deals
with the dynamics of populations within species and
the interactions of these populations with
environmental factors;
• Community ecology (or synecology) which studies
the interactions between species within an ecological
community;
• Ecosystem ecology, which studies the flows of
energy and matter through ecosystems;
• Medical ecology, which studies issues of human
health in which environmental disturbances play a
role
• Landscape ecology, which studies the interactions
between discrete elements of a landscape and
spatial patterns, including the role of disturbance and
human impacts;
• Global ecology, which looks at ecological questions
at the global level, often asking macroecological
questions;
• Evolutionary ecology, which either can be considered
the evolutionary histories of species and the
interactions between them, or approaches the study
of evolution by including elements of species
interaction;
• And ecolinguistics, which looks at the relation
between ecology and language.
Ecology can also be sub-divided on the basis of target groups:
• Animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology,
human ecology, and so forth.
Ecology can, in addition, be sub-divided from the perspective
of the studied biomes:
• Arctic ecology (or polar ecology), tropical ecology,
desert ecology, aquatic ecology, terrestrial ecology,
wetland ecology, and temperate zone ecology.
Ecology can also be sub-divided on whether or not the
emphasis is on application to human activities, such as
resource management, environmental conservation, and
restoration:
• Theoretical ecology and applied ecology (including
such subfields as landscape ecology, conservation
biology, and restoration ecology).
Basic concepts in ecology
Ecology is a very broad-ranging and complex topic, and even
its definition lacks consensus. Thus, there are numerous
concepts that fit within this discipline, and diverse manners in
which the content can be arranged and studied. Several of the
basic concepts of ecology include ecological units, the
ecosystem, energy flow, nutrient cycles, species interaction,
productivity, and ecological challenges.
Ecological units
For modern ecologists, ecology can be studied at several
levels: population level (individuals of the same species),
biocenosis level (or community of species), ecosystem level,
biome level, and biosphere level.
The outer layer of the planet Earth can be divided into several
compartments: the hydrosphere (or sphere of water), the
lithosphere (or sphere of soils and rocks), and the atmosphere
(or sphere of the air). The biosphere (or sphere of life),
sometimes described as "the fourth envelope," is all living
matter on the planet or that portion of the planet occupied by
life. It reaches well into the other three spheres, although
there are no permanent inhabitants of the atmosphere. Most
life exists on or within a few meters of the Earth's surface.
Relative to the volume of the Earth, the biosphere is only the
very thin surface layer that extends from 11,000 meters
below sea level to 15,000 meters above.
It is thought that life first developed in the hydrosphere, at
shallow depths, in the photic zone (the area of water exposed
to sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis). Multicellular
organisms then appeared and colonized benthic zones.
Terrestrial life developed later, after the ozone layer
protecting living beings from UV rays formed. Diversification
of terrestrial species is thought to be increased by the
continents drifting apart, or alternately, colliding. Biodiversity
is expressed at the ecological level (ecosystem), population
level (intraspecific diversity), species level (specific diversity),
and genetic level. Recently, technology has allowed the
discovery of the deep ocean vent communities. This
remarkable ecological system is not dependent on sunlight
but bacteria, utilizing the chemistry of the hot volcanic vents,
as the base of its food chain.
The biosphere contains great quantities of elements such as
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. Other elements, such as
phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, are also essential to life,
yet are present in smaller amounts. At the ecosystem and
biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of all these
elements, which alternate between their mineral and organic
states.
A biome is a homogeneous ecological formation that exists
over a vast region, such as tundra or steppes. The biosphere
comprises all of the Earth's biomes—the entirety of places
where life is possible—from the highest mountains to the
depths of the oceans.
Biomes correspond rather well to subdivisions distributed
along the latitudes, from the equator towards the poles, with
differences based on the physical environment (for example,
oceans or mountain ranges) and on the climate. Their
variation is generally related to the distribution of species
according to their ability to tolerate temperature and/or
dryness. For example, one may find photosynthetic algae only
in the photic part of the ocean (where light penetrates), while
conifers are mostly found in mountains.
Though this is a simplification of a more complicated scheme,
latitude and altitude approximate a good representation of
the distribution of biodiversity within the biosphere. Very
generally, biodiversity is greater near the equator (as in
Brazil) and decreases as one approaches the poles.
The biosphere may also be divided into ecozones, which are
biogeographical and ecological land classifications, such as
Neartic, Neotropic, and Oceanic. Biozones are very well
defined today and primarily follow the continental borders.
Ecological factors that can affect dynamic change in a
population or species in a given ecology or environment are
usually divided into two groups: biotic and abiotic.
Biotic factors relate to living organisms and their
interactions. A biotic community is an assemblage of plant,
animal, and other living organisms.
Abiotic factors are geological, geographical, hydrological,
and climatological parameters. A biotope is an
environmentally uniform region characterized by a particular
set of abiotic ecological factors. Specific abiotic factors
include:
• Water, which is at the same time an essential
element to life and a milieu;
• Air, which provides oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
dioxide to living species and allows the dissemination
of pollen and spores;
• Soil, at the same time a source of nutriment and
physical support (soil pH, salinity, nitrogen, and
phosphorus content, ability to retain water and
density are all influential);
• Temperature, which should not exceed certain
extremes, even if tolerance to heat is significant for
some species;
• Light, which provides energy to the ecosystem
through photosynthesis; and
• Natural disasters can also be considered abiotic.
The ecosystem concept
Main article: Ecosystem
Ecologists study ecosystems such as this section of the
Salobra River in the Pantanal area of Brazil.
Some consider the ecosystem (abbreviation for "ecological
system") to be the basic unit in ecology. An ecosystem is an
ecological unit consisting of a biotic community together with
its environment. Examples include a swamp, a meadow, and a
river. It is generally considered smaller than a biome ("major
life zone"), which is a large, geographic region of the earth's
surface with distinctive plant and animal communities. A
biome is often viewed as a grouping of many ecosystems
sharing similar features, but is sometimes defined as an
extensive ecosystem spread over a wide geographic area.
The first principle of ecology is that each living organism has
an ongoing and continual relationship with every other
element that makes up its environment. The ecosystem is
composed of two entities, the entirety of life (the community,
or biocoenosis) and the medium that life exists in (the
biotope). Within the ecosystem, species are connected and
dependent upon one another in the food chain, and exchange
energy and matter between themselves and with their
environment.
The concept of an ecosystem can apply to units of variable
size, such as a pond, a field, or a piece of deadwood. A unit of
smaller size is called a microecosystem. For example, an
ecosystem can be a stone and all the life under it. A
mesoecosystem could be a forest, and a macroecosystem a
whole ecoregion, with its watershed.
Some of the main questions when studying an ecosystem
include:
• How could the colonization of a barren area be
carried out?
• What are the ecosystem's dynamics and changes?
• How does an ecosystem interact at local, regional,
and global scale?
• Is the current state stable?
• What is the value of an ecosystem? How does the
interaction of ecological systems provide benefit to
humans, especially in the provision of healthy water?
Ecosystems are not isolated from each other, but are
interrelated. For example, water may circulate between
ecosystems by the means of a river or ocean current. Water
itself, as a liquid medium, even defines ecosystems. Some
species, such as salmon or freshwater eels move between
marine systems and fresh-water systems. These relationships
between the ecosystems lead to the concept of a biome.
Energy flow
One focus of ecologists is to study the flow of energy, a major
process linking the abiotic and biotic constituents of
ecosystems.
While there is a slight input of geothermal energy, the bulk of
the functioning of the ecosystem is based on the input of solar
energy. Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert
light into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis,
which creates glucose (a simple sugar) and releases free
oxygen. Glucose thus becomes the secondary energy source
that drives the ecosystem. Some of this glucose is used
directly by other organisms for energy. Other sugar molecules
can be converted to other molecules such as amino acids.
Plants use some of this sugar, concentrated in nectar, to
entice pollinators to aid them in reproduction.
Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms (like
mammals) break the glucose back down into its constituents,
water and carbon dioxide, thus regaining the stored energy
the sun originally gave to the plants. The proportion of
photosynthetic activity of plants and other photosynthesizers
to the respiration of other organisms determines the specific
composition of the Earth's atmosphere, particularly its oxygen
level. Global air currents mix the atmosphere and maintain
nearly the same balance of elements in areas of intense
biological activity and areas of slight biological activity.
See ecosystem for a more extensive explanation of energy
flow in ecosystems.
Nutrient cycles
Ecologists also study the flow of nutrients in ecosystems.
Whereas energy is not cycled, nutrients are cycled. Living
organisms are composed mainly of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen,
and nitrogen, and these four elements are cycled through the
biotic communities and the geological world. These
permanent recyclings of the elements are called
biogeochemical cycles. Three fundamental biogeochemical
cycles are the nitrogen cycle, the water cycle, and the carbon-
oxygen cycle. Another key cycle is the phosphorus cycle.
Water is also exchanged between the hydrosphere,
lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. The oceans are large
tanks that store water; they ensure thermal and climatic
stability, as well as the transport of chemical elements thanks
to large oceanic currents.
Species interactions
Biocenose, or community, is a group of populations of plants,
animals, and microorganisms. Each population is the result of
procreations between individuals of same species and
cohabitation in a given place and for a given time. When a
population consists of an insufficient number of individuals,
that population is threatened with extinction; the extinction of
a species can approach when all biocenoses composed of
individuals of the species are in decline. In small populations,
consanguinity (inbreeding) can result in reduced genetic
diversity that can further weaken the biocenose.
Mutual symbiosis between clownfish that dwell among the
tentacles of tropical sea anemones, protects the anemone
from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles
of the anemone protects the clownfish from its predators.
Biotic ecological factors influence biocenose viability; these
factors are considered as either intraspecific or interspecific
relations.
Intraspecific relations are those which are
established between individuals of the same species,
forming a population. They are relations of
cooperation or competition, with division of the
territory, and sometimes organization in hierarchical
societies.
Interspecific relations—interactions between
different species—are numerous, and are usually
described according to their beneficial, detrimental,
or neutral effect (for example, mutualism or
competition). Symbiosis refers to an interaction
between two organisms living together in more or
less intimate association. A significant relation is
predation (to eat or to be eaten), which leads to the
essential concepts in ecology of food chains (for
example, the grass is consumed by the herbivore,
itself consumed by a carnivore, itself consumed by a
carnivore of larger size). A high predator-to-prey ratio
can have a negative influence on both the predator
and prey biocenoses in that low availability of food
and high death rate prior to sexual maturity can
decrease (or prevent the increase of) populations of
each, respectively. Other interspecific relations
include parasitism, infectious disease, and
competition for limiting resources, which can occur
when two species share the same ecological niche.
In an ecosystem, the connections between species are
generally related to food and their role in the food chain.
There are three categories of organisms:
• Producers—plants which are capable of
photosynthesis
• Consumers—animals, which can be primary
consumers (herbivorous), or secondary or tertiary
consumers (carnivorous).
• Decomposers—bacteria, mushrooms, which degrade
organic matter of all categories, and restore minerals
to the environment.
These relations form sequences in which each individual
consumes the preceding one and is consumed by the one
following, in what are called food chains or food networks.
The existing interactions between the various living beings go
along with a permanent mixing of mineral and organic
substances, absorbed by organisms for their growth, their
maintenance, and their reproduction, to be finally rejected as
waste. The interactions and biogeochemical cycles create a
durable stability of the biosphere (at least when unchecked
human influence and extreme weather or geological
phenomena are left aside). This self-regulation, supported by
negative feedback controls, supports the perenniality of the
ecosystems. It is shown by the very stable concentrations of
most elements of each compartment. This is referred to as
homeostasis.
The ecosystem also tends to evolve to a state of ideal
balance, reached after a succession of events, the climax (for
example, a pond can become a peat bog).
Overall, the interactions of organisms convey a sense of unity
and harmony (see Biology:Interactions). Plants, through
photosynthesis, use carbon dioxide and provide oxygen, while
animals use oxygen and give off carbon dioxide. On the level
of the food web, plants capture the sun's energy and serve as
food for herbivores, which serve as food for carnivores, and
ultimately top carnivores. Decomposers (bacteria, fungi, etc.)
break down organisms after they die into minerals that can be
used by plants.
The harmony of species’ interactions with other species and
the environment, including the biogeochemical cycles, have
proposed a theory by some that the entire planet acts as if
one, giant, functioning organism (the Gaia theory). Lynn
Margulis and Dorion Sagan in their book Microcosmos (1997)
even propose that evolution is tied to cooperation and mutual
dependence among organisms: "Life did not take over the
globe by combat, but by networking."
The observed harmony can be attributed to the concept of
dual purpose: the view that every entity in the universe in its
interactions simultaneously exhibits purposes for the whole
and for the individual—and that these purposes are
interdependent. "Individual purpose" refers to the individual's
requirement to met basic needs of self-preservation, self-
strengthening, multiplication, and development. The "whole
purpose" is that by which the individual contributes to the
preservation, strengthening, and development of the larger
entity of which it is a part. Thus, the cell of a multicellular
body provides a useful function for the body of which it is
part. This "whole purpose," which could be the secretion of an
enzyme, harmonizes with the body's requirement of self-
preservation, development, self-strengthening, and
reproduction. The body, on the other hand, supports the cell's
"individual purpose" by providing essential nutrients and
carrying away wastes, assisting the cell's self-preservation,
self-strengthening, multiplication, and development. Likewise,
each individual organism exhibits both an individual purpose
and a purpose for the whole related to its place in the
environment. The result is an extraordinary harmony evident
in creation.
Ecosystem productivity
The concepts dealing with the movement of energy through
an ecosystem (via producers, consumers, and decomposers)
lead to the idea of biomass (the total living matter in a given
place), of primary productivity (the increase in the mass of
plants during a given time), and of secondary productivity
(the living matter produced by consumers and the
decomposers in a given time).
A meandering river.
These two last ideas are key, since they make it possible to
evaluate the load capacity—the number of organisms which
can be supported by a given ecosystem. In any food network,
the energy contained in the level of the producers is not
completely transferred to the consumers. Thus, from an
energy point of view, it is more efficient for humans to be
primary consumers (to get nourishment from grains and
vegetables) than as secondary consumers (from herbivores
such as beef and veal), and more still than as tertiary
consumers (from eating carnivores).
The productivity of ecosystems is sometimes estimated by
comparing three types of land-based ecosystems and the
total of aquatic ecosystems:
• The forests (one-third of the Earth's land area)
contain dense biomasses and are very productive.
The total production of the world's forests
corresponds to half of the primary production.
• Savannas, meadows, and marshes (one-third of the
Earth's land area) contain less dense biomasses, but
are productive. These ecosystems represent the
major part of what humans depend on for food.
• Extreme ecosystems in the areas with more extreme
climates—deserts and semi-deserts, tundra, alpine
meadows, and steppes—(one-third of the Earth's
land area) have very sparse biomasses and low
productivity
• Finally, the marine and fresh water ecosystems
(three-fourths of Earth's surface) contain very sparse
biomasses (apart from the coastal zones).
Humanity's actions over the last few centuries have reduced
the amount of the Earth covered by forests (deforestation),
and have increased agro-ecosystems (agriculture). In recent
decades, an increase in the areas occupied by extreme
ecosystems has occurred (desertification).
Ecological challenges
Generally, an ecological crisis is what occurs when the
environment of a species or a population evolves in a way
unfavorable to that species' survival.
It may be that environment quality degrades compared to the
species needs, after a change in an abiotic ecological factor
(for example, an increase of temperature, less significant
rainfalls). It may be that the environment becomes
unfavorable for the survival of a species (or a population) due
to an increased pressure of predation (e.g., overfishing). It
may be that the situation becomes unfavorable to the quality
of life of the species (or the population) due to a rise in the
number of individuals (overpopulation).
Although ecological crises are generally considered to be
something that occurs in a short time span (days, weeks, or
years), by definition, ecological crises can also be considered
to occur over a very long time period, such as millions of
years. They can also be of natural or anthropic origin. They
may relate to one unique species or to many species (see the
article on extinction).
People often use fires to clear land for agriculture or grazing
livestock in the Pantanal.
Lastly, an ecological crisis may be local (an oil spill, a fire, or
eutrophication of a lake), widespread (the movement of
glaciers during an ice age), or global (a rise in the sea level).
According to its degree of endemism, a local crisis will have
more or less significant consequences, from the death of
many individuals to the total extinction of a species. Whatever
its origin, disappearance of one or several species often will
involve a rupture in the food chain, further impacting the
survival of other species. Of course, what is an ecological
crisis to one species, or one group of species, may be
beneficial or neutral with respect to other species, at least
short-term.
In the case of a global crisis, the consequences can be much
more significant; some extinction events showed the
disappearance of more than 90 percent of existing species at
that time. However, it should be noted that the disappearance
of certain species, such as the dinosaurs, by freeing an
ecological niche, allowed the development and the
diversification of the mammals. An ecological crisis may
benefit other species, genera, families, orders, or phyla of
organisms.
Sometimes, an ecological crisis can be a specific and
reversible phenomenon at the ecosystem scale. But more
generally, the crisis’ impact will last. Indeed, it rather is a
connected series of events that occur until a final point. From
this stage, no return to the previous stable state is possible,
and a new stable state will be set up gradually.
Lastly, if an ecological crisis can cause extinction, it can also
more simply reduce the quality of life of the remaining
individuals. Thus, even if the diversity of the human
population is sometimes considered threatened (see in
particular indigenous people), few people envision human
disappearance at short span. However, epidemic diseases,
famines, impact on health of reduction of air quality, food
crises, reduction of living space, accumulation of toxic or non-
degradable wastes, threats on key species (great apes,
pandas, whales) are also factors influencing the well-being of
people.
During the past decades, this increasing responsibility of
humanity in some ecological crises has been clearly observed.
Due to the increases in technology and a rapidly increasing
population, humans have more influence on their own
environment than any other ecosystem engineer.
Some usually quoted examples as ecological crises are:
• Permian-Triassic extinction event—250 million of
years ago
• Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event—65 million
years ago
• Ozone layer hole issue
• Deforestation and desertification, with the
disappearance of many species
• The nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl in 1986 that
caused the death of many people and animals from
cancer, and caused mutations in a large number of
animals and people. The area around the plant is
now abandoned because of the large amount of
radiation generated by the meltdown.
History of ecology
Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science, having only
become prominent in the second half of the twentieth
century. Nonetheless, ecological thinking at some level has
been around for a long time, and the principles of ecology
have developed gradually, closely intertwined with the
development of other biological disciplines. There is no
consensus on its beginnings, as it developed more like a
multi-stemmed bush than a tree with a single trunk (Smith
1996).
Thus, one of the first ecologists may have been Aristotle or
perhaps his friend and associate, Theophrastus, both of whom
had interest in many species of animals. Theophrastus
described interrelationships between animals and between
animals and their environment as early as the fourth century
B.C.E. (Ramalay 1940).
In general, the modern movement to ecology through
botanical geography (which led to plant ecology) developed
earlier than animal ecology. Throughout the eighteenth and
the beginning of the nineteenth century, the great maritime
powers such as Britain, Spain, and Portugal launched many
world exploratory expeditions. These expeditions were joined
by many scientists, including botanists, such as the German
explorer Alexander von Humboldt. Humboldt is often
considered a father of ecology. He was the first to take on the
study of the relationship between organisms and their
environment. He exposed the existing relationships between
observed plant species and climate, and described vegetation
zones using latitude and altitude, a discipline now known as
geobotany.
With the publication of the work of Charles Darwin on The
Origin of Species, ecology passed from a repetitive,
mechanical model to a biological, organic, and hence
evolutionary model. Alfred Russel Wallace, contemporary and
competitor to Darwin, was first to propose a "geography" of
animal species. Several authors recognized at the time that
species were not independent of each other, and grouped
them into plant species, animal species, and later into
communities of living beings or "biocoenosis." This term,
which comes from Greek, was coined in 1877 by marine
biologist Karl Möbius, and essentially means "life having
something in common."
By the nineteenth century, ecology blossomed due to new
discoveries in chemistry by Lavoisier and Horace-Bénédict de
Saussure, notably the nitrogen cycle. After observing the fact
that life developed only within strict limits of each
compartment that makes up the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
and lithosphere, the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess
proposed the term biosphere in 1875. He used the name
biosphere for the conditions promoting life, such as those
found on Earth, which include flora, fauna, minerals, matter
cycles, and so forth.
In the 1920s, Vladimir Vernadsky, a Russian geologist who
had defected to France, detailed the idea of the biosphere in
his work The biosphere (1926), and described the
fundamental principles of the biogeochemical cycles.
Ecological damages were reported in the eighteenth century,
as the multiplication of colonies impacted deforestation. Since
the nineteenth century, with the Industrial Revolution, more
and more pressing concerns have grown about the impact of
human activity on the environment. The term ecologist has
been in use since the end of the nineteenth century.
Over the nineteenth century, botanical geography and
zoogeography combined to form the basis of biogeography.
This science, which deals with habitats of species, seeks to
explain the reasons for the presence of certain species in a
given location.
Pioneers in animal ecology were early twentieth-century
scientists R. Hesse and Charles Eton, Charles Adams, and
Victor Shelford.
It was in 1935 that Arthur Tansley, the British ecologist,
coined the term ecosystem, the interactive system
established between the biocoenosis (the group of living
creatures), and their biotope (the environment in which they
live). Ecology thus became the science of ecosystems.
Tansley's concept of the ecosystem was adopted by the
energetic and influential biology educator Eugene Odum.
Along with his brother, Howard Odum, Eugene Odum wrote a
textbook which (starting in 1953) educated multiple
generations of biologists and ecologists in North America.
At the turn of the twentieth century, Henry Chandler Cowles
was one of the founders of the emerging study of "dynamic
ecology," through his study of ecological succession at the
Indiana Dunes, sand dunes at the southern end of Lake
Michigan. Here Cowles found evidence of ecological
succession in the vegetation and the soil with relation to age.
Ecological succession is the process by which a natural
community moves from a simpler level of organization to a
more complex community (e.g., from bare sand, to grass
growing on the sand, to grass growing on dirt produced from
dead grass, to trees growing in the dirt produced by the
grass).
Human ecology began in the 1920s, through the study of
changes in vegetation succession in the city of Chicago,
Illinois. It became a distinct field of study in the 1970s. This
marked recognition that humans, who had colonized all of the
Earth's continents, were a major ecological factor. Humans
greatly modify the environment through the development of
the habitat (in particular urban planning), by intensive
activities such as logging and fishing, and as side effects of
agriculture, mining, and industry. Besides ecology and
biology, this discipline involved many other natural and social
sciences, such as anthropology and ethnology, economics,
demography, architecture and urban planning, medicine and
psychology, and many more. The development of human
ecology led to the increasing role of ecological science in the
design and management of cities.
The history of ecology has been one of conflicts and opposing
camps. Smith (1996) notes that the first major split in ecology
was between plant ecology and animal ecology, which even
lead to a controversy over the term ecology, with botanists
dropping the initial "o" from oecology, the spelling in use at
the time, and zoologists refusing to use the term ecology at
all, because of its perceived affiliation with botany. Other
historical schisms were between organismal and individualist
ecology, holism versus reductionism, and theoretical versus
applied ecology.
Levels of organization and study
Ecosystems regenerate after a disturbance such as fire,
forming mosaics of different age groups structured across a
landscape. Pictured are different seral stages in forested
ecosystems starting from pioneers colonizing a disturbed site
and maturing in successional stages leading to old-growth
forests.
The processes that influence ecological phenomena vary
through space and time.[10] It can take thousands of years for
ecological processes to mature; the life-span of a tree, for
example, can encompass different successional stages. The
ecological process is extended even further through time as
trees die, decay and provide habitat as nurse logs or coarse
woody debris. The area of an ecosystem can vary greatly from
tiny to vast. A single tree is of little consequence to the
classification of a forest ecosystem, but it is far more
significant to smaller organisms.[11] Several generations of an
aphid population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf.
Each of those aphids, in turn, support diverse bacterial
communities.[12] Tree growth is related to local site variables,
such as soil type, moisture content, slope of the land, and
forest canopy closure. More complex global factors, such as
climate, must be considered for the classification and
understanding of processes leading to larger patterns
spanning across a forested landscape.[13]
Global patterns of biological diversity are complex. This
biocomplexity stems from the interplay among ecological
processes that operate and influence patterns that grade into
each other, such as transitional areas or ecotones that stretch
across different scales.[14] "Complexity in ecology is of at least
six distinct types: spatial, temporal, structural, process,
behavioral, and geometric."[15]:3 There are different views on
what constitutes complexity. One perspective lumps things
that we do not understand into this category by virtue of the
computational effort it would require to piece together the
numerous interacting parts. Alternatively, complexity in life
sciences can be viewed as emergent self-organized systems
with multiple possible outcomes directed by random accidents
of history.[16] Small scale patterns do not necessarily explain
large scale phenomena, otherwise captured in the expression
'the sum is greater than the parts'.[17][18] Ecologists have
identified emergent and self-organizing phenomena that
operate at different environmental scales of influence, ranging
from molecular to planetary, and these require different sets
of scientific explanation.[19][20] Long-term ecological studies
provide important track records to better understand the
complexity of ecosystems over longer temporal and broader
spatial scales. The International Long Term Ecological
Network[21] manages and exchanges scientific information
among research sites. The longest experiment in existence is
the Park Grass Experiment that was initiated in 1856.[22]
Another example includes the Hubbard Brook study in
operation since 1960.[23]
To structure the study of ecology into a manageable
framework of understanding, the biological world is
conceptually organized as a nested hierarchy of organization,
ranging in scale from genes, to cells, to tissues, to organs, to
organisms, to species and up to the level of the biosphere.[24]
Together these hierarchical scales of life form a panarchy.[16]
Ecosystems are primarily researched at three key levels of
organization—organisms, populations, and communities.
Ecologists study ecosystems by sampling a certain number of
individuals that are representative of a population.
Ecosystems consist of communities interacting with each
other and the environment. In ecology, communities are
created by the interaction of the populations of different
species in an area.[25][26]
Biodiversity is an attribute of a site or area that consists of the
variety within and among biotic communities, whether
influenced by humans or not, at any spatial scale from
microsites and habitat patches to the entire biosphere.[27] :745
Termite mounds with varied heights of chimneys regulate gas
exchange, temperature and other environmental parameters
that are needed to sustain the internal physiology of the
entire colony.[38][39]
There are many definitions of the niche dating back to 1917,
[40]
but G. Evelyn Hutchinson made conceptual advances in
1957[41][42] and introduced the most widely accepted definition:
"The niche is the set of biotic and abiotic conditions in which a
species is able to persist and maintain stable population
sizes."[40]:519 The ecological niche is a central concept in the
ecology of organisms and is sub-divided into the fundamental
and the realized niche. The fundamental niche is the set of
environmental conditions under which a species is able to
persist. The realized niche is the set of environmental plus
ecological conditions under which a species persists.[25][40][42]
The habitat of a species is a related but distinct concept that
describes the environment over which a species is known to
occur and the type of community that is formed as a result.[43]
More specifically, "habitats can be defined as regions in
environmental space that are composed of multiple
dimensions, each representing a biotic or abiotic
environmental variable; that is, any component or
characteristic of the environment related directly (e.g. forage
biomass and quality) or indirectly (e.g. elevation) to the use of
a location by the animal."[44]:745 For example, the habitat might
refer to an aquatic or terrestrial environment that can be
further categorized as montane or alpine ecosystems.
Biogeographical patterns and range distributions are
explained or predicted through knowledge and understanding
of a species traits and niche requirements.[45] Species have
functional traits that are uniquely adapted to the ecological
niche. A trait is a measurable property of an organism that
influences its performance.[46] Traits of each species are suited
ar uniquely adapted to their ecological niche. This means that
resident species are at an advantage and able to
competitively exclude other similarly adapted species from
having an overlapping geographic range. This is called the
competitive exclusion principle.[47]

Biodiversity (an abbreviation of biological diversity) describes

the diversity of life from genes to ecosystems and spans
every level of biological organization. There are many ways to
index, measure, and represent biodiversity.[28] Biodiversity
includes species diversity, ecosystem diversity, genetic
diversity and the complex processes operating at and among
these respective levels.[28][29][30] Biodiversity plays an important
role in ecological health as much as it does for human health.
[31][32]
Preventing or prioritizing species extinctions is one way
to preserve biodiversity, but populations, the genetic diversity
within them and ecological processes, such as migration, are
being threatened on global scales and disappearing rapidly as
well. Conservation priorities and management techniques
require different approaches and considerations to address
the full ecological scope of biodiversity. Populations and
species migration, for example, are more sensitive indicators
of ecosystem services that sustain and contribute natural
capital toward the well-being of humanity.[33][34][35][36] An Biodiversity of a coral reef. Corals adapt and modify their
understanding of biodiversity has practical application for environment by forming calcium carbonate skeletons that
ecosystem-based conservation planners as they make provide growing conditions for future generations and form
ecologically responsible decisions in management habitat for many other species.[48]
recommendations to consultant firms, governments and
industry.[37] Organisms are subject to environmental pressures, but they
are also modifiers of their habitats. The regulatory feedback
[edit] Ecological niche and habitat between organisms and their environment can modify
conditions from local (e.g., a pond) to global scales (e.g.,
Gaia), over time and even after death, such as decaying logs
or silica skeleton deposits from marine organisms.[49] The
process and concept of ecosystem engineering has also been
called niche construction. Ecosystem engineers are defined
as: "...organisms that directly or indirectly modulate the
availability of resources to other species, by causing physical
state changes in biotic or abiotic materials. In so doing they
modify, maintain and create habitats."[50]:373
The ecosystem engineering concept has stimulated a new
appreciation for the degree of influence that organisms have
on the ecosystem and evolutionary process. The terms niche
construction are more often used in reference to the under
appreciated feedback mechanism of natural selection
imparting forces on the abiotic niche.[38][51] An example of
natural selection through ecosystem engineering occurs in the
nests of social insects, including ants, bees, wasps, and
termites. There is an emergent homeostasis in the structure
of the nest that regulates, maintains and defends the
physiology of the entire colony. Termite mounds, for example,
maintain a constant internal temperature through the design
of air-conditioning chimneys. The structure of the nests
themselves are subject to the forces of natural selection.
Moreover, the nest can survive over successive generations,
which means that ancestors inherit both genetic material and
a legacy niche that was constructed before their time.[38][39][52]
Diatoms in the Bay of Fundy, Canada, provide another
example of an ecosystem engineer. Benthic diatoms living in
estuarine sediments secrete carbohydrate exudates that bind
the sand and stabilizes the environment. The diatoms cause a
physical state change in the properties of the sand that allows
other organisms to colonize the area. The concept of
ecosystem engineering brings new conceptual implications for
the discipline of conservation biology.[53]
[edit] Population ecology
Main article: Population ecology
The population is the unit of analysis in population ecology. A
population consists of individuals of the same species that
live, interact and migrate through the same niche and habitat.
[54]
A primary law of population ecology is the Malthusian
growth model.[55] This law states that:
"...a population will grow (or decline) exponentially as long as
the environment experienced by all individuals in the
population remains constant."[55]:18
This Malthusian premise provides the basis for formulating
predictive theories and tests that follow. Simplified population
models usually start with four variables including death, birth,
immigration, and emigration. Mathematical models are used
to calculate changes in population demographics using a null
model. A null model is used as a null hypothesis for statistical
testing. The null hypothesis states that random processes
create observed patterns. Alternatively the patterns differ
significantly from the random model and require further
explanation. Models can be mathematically complex where
"...several competing hypotheses are simultaneously
confronted with the data."[56] An example of an introductory
population model describes a closed population, such as on an
island, where immigration and emigration does not take
place. In these island models the rate of population change is
described by:
,
where N is the total number of individuals in the population, B
is the number of births, D is the number of deaths, b and d
are the per capita rates of birth and death respectively, and r
is the per capita rate of population change. This formula can
be read out as the rate of change in the population (dN/dT) is
equal to births minus deaths (B – D).[55][57]
Using these modelling techniques, Malthus' population
principle of growth was later transformed into a model known
as the logistic equation:
,
where N is the number of individuals measured as biomass
density, a is the maximum per-capita rate of change, and K is
the carrying capacity of the population. The formula can be
read as follows: the rate of change in the population (dN/dT) is
equal to growth (aN) that is limited by carrying capacity (1 –
N/K). The discipline of population ecology builds upon these
introductory models to further understand demographic
processes in real study populations and conduct statistical
tests. The field of population ecology often uses data on life
history and matrix algebra to develop projection matrices on
fecundity and survivorship. This information is used for
managing wildlife stocks and setting harvest quotas.[57][58]
A list of terms that define various types of natural groupings
of individuals that are used in population studies[59]
Term Definition
Species All individuals of a species.
population
Metapopulatio A set of spatially disjunct populations,
n among which there is some immigration.
Population A group of conspecific individuals that is
demographically, genetically, or spatially
disjunct from other groups of individuals.
Aggregation A spatially clustered group of individuals.
Deme A group of individuals more genetically
similar to each other than to other
individuals, usually with some degree of
spatial isolation as well.
Local A group of individuals within an investigator-
population delimited area smaller than the geographic
range of the species and often within a
population (as defined above). A local
population could be a disjunct population as
well.
Subpopulatio An arbitrary spatially delimited subset of
n individuals from within a population (as
defined above).
[edit] Metapopulation ecology
Main article: Metapopulation
Populations are also studied and modeled according to the
metapopulation concept. The metapopulation concept was
introduced in 1969:[60] "as a population of populations which
go extinct locally and recolonize."[61]:105 Metapopulation
ecology is another statistical approach that is often used in
conservation research.[62] Metapopulation research simplifies
the landscape into patches of varying levels of quality.[63]
Metapopulation models have been used to explain life-history
evolution, such as the ecological stability of amphibian
metamorphosis in small vernal ponds. Alternative ecological
strategies have evolved. For example, some salamanders
forgo metamorphosis and sexually mature as aquatic
neotenes. The seasonal duration of wetlands and the
migratory range of the species determines which ponds are
connected and if they form a metapopulation. The duration of
the life history stages of amphibians relative to the duration of
the vernal pool before it dries up regulates the ecological
development of metapopulations connecting aquatic patches
to terrestrial patches.[64]
In metapopulation terminology there are emigrants
(individuals that leave a patch), immigrants (individuals that
move into a patch) and sites are classed either as sources or
sinks. A site is a generic term that refers to places where
ecologists sample populations, such as ponds or defined
sampling areas in a forest. Source patches are productive
sites that generate a seasonal supply of juveniles that migrate
to other patch locations. Sink patches are unproductive sites
that only receive migrants and will go extinct unless rescued
by an adjacent source patch or environmental conditions
become more favorable. Metapopulation models examine
patch dynamics over time to answer questions about spatial
and demographic ecology. The ecology of metapopulations is
a dynamic process of extinction and colonization. Small
patches of lower quality (i.e., sinks) are maintained or rescued
by a seasonal influx of new immigrants. A dynamic
metapopulation structure evolves from year to year, where
some patches are sinks in dry years and become sources
when conditions are more favorable. Ecologists use a mixture
of computer models and field studies to explain
metapopulation structure.[65][66]
[edit] Community ecology
Main article: Community ecology
Community ecology examines how interactions among
species and their environment affect the abundance,
distribution and diversity of species within communities.
Johnson & Stinchcomb[67]:250
Community ecology is a subdiscipline of ecology which studies
the distribution, abundance, demography, and interactions
between coexisting populations. An example of a study in
community ecology might measure primary production in a
wetland in relation to decomposition and consumption rates.
This requires an understanding of the community connections
between plants (i.e., primary producers) and the decomposers
(e.g., fungi and bacteria).[68] or the analysis of predator-prey
dynamics affecting amphibian biomass.[69] Food webs and
trophic levels are two widely employed conceptual models
used to explain the linkages among species.[70][71]
[edit] Food webs
Main article: Food webs
A food web is the archetypal ecological network. They are a
type of concept map that illustrate pathways of energy flows
in an ecological community, usually starting with solar energy
being used by plants during photosynthesis. As plants grow,
they accumulate carbohydrates and are eaten by grazing
herbivores. Step by step lines or relations are drawn until a
web of life is illustrated.[72][73][74][75]
Freshwater aquatic and terrestrial food-webs
Generalized food web of waterbirds from Chesapeake Bay
There are different ecological dimensions that can be mapped
to create more complicated food webs, including: species
composition (type of species), richness (number of species),
biomass (the dry weight of plants and animals), productivity
(rates of conversion of energy and nutrients into growth), and
stability (food webs over time). A food web diagram
illustrating species composition shows how change in a single
species can directly and indirectly influence many others.
Microcosm studies are used to simplify food web research into
semi-isolated units such as small springs, decaying logs, and
laboratory experiments using organisms that reproduce
quickly, such as daphnia feeding on algae grown under
controlled environments in jars of water.[76][77]
Principles gleaned from food web microcosm studies are used
to extrapolate smaller dynamic concepts to larger systems.[77]
Food webs are limited because they are generally restricted
to a specific habitat, such as a cave or a pond. The food web
illustration (right) only shows a small part of the complexity
connecting the aquatic system to the adjacent terrestrial land.
Many of these species migrate into other habitats to distribute
their effects on a larger scale. In other words, food webs are
incomplete, but are nonetheless a valuable tool in
understanding community ecosystems.[78]
Food chain length is another way of describing food webs as a
measure of the number of species encountered as energy or
nutrients move from the plants to top predators.[79]:269 There
are different ways of calculating food chain length depending
on what parameters of the food web dynamic are being
considered: connectance, energy, or interaction.[79] In a simple
predator-prey example, a deer is one step removed from the
plants it eats (chain length = 1) and a wolf that eats the deer
is two steps removed (chain length = 2). The relative amount
or strength of influence that these parameters have on the
food web address questions about:
• the identity or existence of a few dominant species
(called strong interactors or keystone species)
• the total number of species and food-chain length
(including many weak interactors) and
• how community structure, function and stability is
determined.[77]
[edit] Trophic dynamics
Main article: Trophic dynamics
The Greek root of the word troph, τροφή, trophē, means food
or feeding. Links in food-webs primarily connect feeding
relations or trophism among species. Biodiversity within
ecosystems can be organized into vertical and horizontal
dimensions. The vertical dimension represents feeding
relations that become further removed from the base of the
food chain up toward top predators. The horizontal dimension
represents the abundance or biomass at each level.[80] When
the relative abundance or biomass of each functional feeding
group is stacked into their respective trophic levels they
naturally sort into a ‘pyramid of numbers’.[81] Functional
groups are broadly categorized as autotrophs (or primary
producers), heterotrophs (or consumers), and detrivores (or
decomposers). Heterotrophs can be further sub-divided into
different functional groups, including: primary consumers
(strict herbivores), secondary consumers (predators that feed
exclusively on herbivores) and tertiary consumers (predators
that feed on a mix of herbivores and predators).[82] Omnivores
do not fit neatly into a functional category because they eat
both plant and animal tissues. It has been suggested that
omnivores have a greater functional influence as predators
because relative to herbivores they are comparatively
inefficient at grazing.[83]
Ecologist collect data on trophic levels and food webs to
statistically model and mathematically calculate parameters,
such as those used in other kinds of network analysis (e.g.,
graph theory), to study emergent patterns and properties
shared among ecosystems. The emergent pyramidal
arrangement of trophic levels with amounts of energy transfer
decreasing as species become further removed from the
source of production is one of several patterns that is
repeated amongst the planets ecosystems.[75][84][85] The size of
each level in the pyramid generally represents biomass, which
can be measured as the dry weight of an organism.[86]
Autotrophs may have the highest global proportion of
biomass, but they are closely rivaled or surpassed by
microbes.[87][88]
The decomposition of dead organic matter, such as leaves
falling on the forest floor, turns into soils that feed plant
production. The total sum of the planet's soil ecosystems is
called the pedosphere where a very large proportion of the
Earth's biodiversity sorts into other trophic levels.
Invertebrates that feed and shred larger leaves, for example,
create smaller bits for smaller organisms in the feeding chain.
Collectively, these are the detrivores that regulate soil
formation.[89][90] Tree roots, fungi, bacteria, worms, ants,
beetles, centipedes, spiders, mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians and other less familiar creatures all work to create
the trophic web of life in soil ecosystems. As organisms feed
and migrate through soils they physically displace materials,
which is an important ecological process called bioturbation.
Biomass of soil microorganisms are influenced by and feed
back into the trophic dynamics of the exposed solar surface
ecology. Paleoecological studies of soils places the origin for
bioturbation to a time before the Cambrian period. Other
events, such as the evolution of trees and amphibians moving
into land in the Devonian period played a significant role in
the development of soils and ecological trophism.[69][90][91]
List of ecological functional groups, definitions and examples
Functional
Definition and examples
group
Producers or Usually plants or cyanobacteria that are
autotrophs capable of photosynthesis but could be other
organisms such as the bacteria near ocean
vents that are capable of chemosynthesis.
Consumers or Animals, which can be primary consumers
heterotrophs (herbivorous), or secondary or tertiary
consumers (carnivorous and omnivores).
Decomposers Bacteria, fungi, and insects which degrade
or detritivores organic matter of all types and restore
nutrients to the environment. The producers
will then consume the nutrients, completing
the cycle.
Functional trophic groups sort out hierarchically into
pyramidic trophic levels because it requires specialized
adaptations to become a photosynthesizer or a predator, so
few organisms have the adaptations needed to combine both
abilities. This explains why functional adaptations to trophism
(feeding) organizes different species into emergent functional
groups.[83] Trophic levels are part of the holistic or complex
systems view of ecosystems.[92][93] Each trophic level contains
unrelated species that grouped together because they share
common ecological functions. Grouping functionally similar
species into a trophic system gives a macroscopic image of
the larger functional design.[94]
Links in a food-web illustrate direct trophic relations among
species, but there are also indirect effects that can alter the
abundance, distribution, or biomass in the trophic levels. For
example, predators eating herbivores indirectly influence the
control and regulation of primary production in plants.
Although the predators do not eat the plants directly, they
regulate the population of herbibores that are directly linked
to plant trophism. The net effect of direct and indirect
relations is called trophic cascades. Trophic cascades are
separated into species-level cascades, where only a subset of
the food-web dynamic is impacted by a change in population
numbers, and community-level cascades, where a change in
population numbers has a dramatic effect on the entire food-
web, such as the distribution of plant biomass.[95]
[edit] Keystone species
A keystone species is a species that is disproportionately
connected to more species in the food-web. Keystone species
have lower levels of biomass in the trophic pyramid relative to
the importance of their role. The many connections that a
keystone species holds means that it maintains the
organization and structure of entire communities. The loss of
a keystone species results in a range of dramatic cascading
effects that alters trophic dynamics, other food-web
connections and can cause the extinction of other species in
the community.[96][97]
Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are commonly cited as an example
of a keystone species because they limit the density of sea
urchins that feed on kelp. If sea otters are removed from the
system, the urchins graze until the kelp beds disappear and
this has a dramatic effect on community structure.[98] Hunting
of sea otters, for example, is thought to have indirectly led to
the extinction of the Steller's Sea Cow (Hydrodamalis gigas).
[99]
While the keystone species concept has been used
extensively as a conservation tool, it has been criticized for
being poorly defined from an operational stance. It is very
difficult to experimentally determine in each different
ecosystem what species may hold a keystone role.
Furthermore, food-web theory suggests that keystone species
may not be all that common. It is therefore unclear how
generally the keystone species model can be applied.[95][98]
[edit] Ecosystem ecology
Main article: Ecosystem ecology
These ecosystems, as we may call them, are of the most
various kinds and sizes. They form one category of the
multitudinous physical systems of the universe, which range
from the universe as a whole down to the atom.
Tansley[100]:299
The concept of the ecosystem was first introduced in 1935 to
describe habitats within biomes that form an integrated whole
and a dynamically responsive system having both physical
and biological complexes. Within an ecosystem there are
inseparable ties that link organisms to the physical and
biological components of their environment to which they are
adapted.[100] Ecosystems are complex adaptive systems where
the interaction of life processes form self-organizing patterns
across different scales of time and space.[101] This section
introduces key areas of ecosystem ecology that are used to
inquire, understand and explain observed patterns of
biodiversity and ecosystem function across different scales of
organization.
[edit] The biome
Main article: Biome
Ecological units of organization are defined through reference
to any magnitude of space and time on the planet.
Communities of organisms, for example, are somewhat
arbitrarily defined, but the processes of life integrate at
different levels and organize into more complex wholes.
Biomes, for example, are a larger unit of organization that
categorize regions of the Earth's ecosystems mainly according
to the structure and composition of vegetation.[102] Different
researchers have applied different methods to define
continental boundaries of biomes dominated by different
functional types of vegetative communities that are limited in
distribution by climate, precipitation, weather and other
environmental variables. Examples of biome names include:
tropical rainforest, temperate broadleaf and mixed forests,
temperate deciduous forest, taiga, tundra, hot desert, and
polar desert.[103] Other researchers have recently started to
categorize other types of biomes, such as the human and
oceanic microbiomes. To a microbe, the human body is a
habitat and a landscape.[104] The microbiome has been largely
discovered through advances in molecular genetics that have
revealed a hidden richness of microbial diversity on the
planet. The oceanic microbiome plays a significant role in the
ecological biogeochemistry of the planet's oceans.[105]
[edit] The biosphere
Main article: Biosphere
Ecological theory has been used to explain self-emergent
regulatory phenomena at the planetary scale. The largest
scale of ecological organization is the biosphere: the total sum
of ecosystems on the planet. Ecological relations regulate the
flux of energy, nutrients, and climate all the way up to the
planetary scale. For example, the dynamic history of the
planetary CO2 and O2 composition of the atmosphere has
been largely determined by the biogenic flux of gases coming
from respiration and photosynthesis, with levels fluctuating
over time and in relation to the ecology and evolution of
plants and animals.[106] When sub-component parts are
organized into a whole there are oftentimes emergent
properties that describe the nature of the system. This the
Gaia hypothesis,[20] and is an example of holism applied in
ecological theory.[107] The ecology of the planet acts as a
single regulatory or holistic unit called Gaia. The Gaia
hypothesis states that there is an emergent feedback loop
generated by the metabolism of living organisms that
maintains the temperature of the Earth and atmospheric
conditions within a narrow self-regulating range of tolerance.
[20]
[edit] Relation to evolution
Ecology and evolution are considered sister disciplines of the
life sciences. Natural selection, life history, development,
adaptation, populations, and inheritance are examples of
concepts that thread equally into ecological and evolutionary
theory. Morphological, behavioural and/or genetic traits, for
example, can be mapped onto evolutionary trees to study the
historical development of a species in relation to their
functions and roles in different ecological circumstances. In
this framework, the analytical tools of ecologists and
evolutionists overlap as they organize, classify and investigate
life through common systematic principals, such as
phylogenetics or the Linnaean system of taxonomy.[108] The
two disciplines often appear together, such as in the title of
the journal Trends in Ecology and Evolution.[109] There is no
sharp boundary separating ecology from evolution and they
differ more in their areas of applied focus. Both disciplines
discover and explain emergent and unique properties and
processes operating across different spatial or temporal
scales of organization.[20][110][111] While the boundary between
ecology and evolution is not always clear, it is understood that
ecologists study the abiotic and biotic factors that influence
the evolutionary process.[2][86]
[edit] Behavioral ecology
Main article: Behavioral ecology
Social display and color variation in differently adapted
species of chameleons (Bradypodion spp.). Chameleons
change their skin color to match their background as a
behavioral defense mechanism and also use color to
communicate with other members of their species, such as
dominant (left) versus submissive (right) patterns shown in
the three species (A-C) above.[112]
All organisms are motile to some extent. Even plants express
complex behavior, including memory and communication.[113]
Behavioural ecology is the study of ethology and its ecological
and evolutionary implications. Ethology is the study of
observable movement or behaviour in nature. This could
include investigations of motile sperm of plants, mobile
phytoplankton, zooplankton swimming toward the female egg,
the cultivation of fungi by weevils, the mating dance of a
salamander, or social gatherings of amoeba.[114][115][116][117][118]
Adaptation is the central unifying concept in behavioral
ecology."International Society for Behavioral Ecology".
http://www.behavecol.com/pages/society/welcome.html.
Behaviors can be recorded as traits and inherited in much the
same way that eye and hair color can. Behaviours evolve and
become adapted to the ecosystem because they are subject
to the forces of natural selection.[29] Hence, behaviors can be
adaptive, meaning that they evolve functional utilities that
increases reproductive success for the individuals that inherit
such traits.[119] This is also the technical definition for fitness in
biology, which is a measure of reproductive success over
successive generations.[29]
Predator-prey interactions are an introductory concept into
food-web studies as well as behavioural ecology.[120] Prey
species can exhibit different kinds of behavioural adaptations
to predators, such as avoid, flee or defend. Many prey species
are faced with multiple predators that differ in the degree of
danger posed. To be adapted to their environment and face
predatory threats, organisms must balance their energy
budgets as they invest in different aspects of their life history,
such as growth, feeding, mating, socializing, or modifying
their habitat. Hypotheses posited in behavioural ecology are
generally based on adaptive principals of conservation,
optimization or efficiency.[1][2][3][121] For example,
"The threat-sensitive predator avoidance hypothesis predicts
that prey should assess the degree of threat posed by
different predators and match their behavior according to
current levels of risk."[122]
"The optimal flight initiation distance occurs where expected poor years and all birds to survive when food is plentiful.[137]
postencounter fitness is maximized, which depends on the [138]

prey’s initial fitness, benefits obtainable by not fleeing,

energetic escape costs, and expected fitness loss due to
predation risk."[123]
The behaviour of long-toed salamanders (Ambystoma
macrodactylum) presents an example in this context. When
threatened, the long-toed salamander defends itself by
waving its tail and secreting a white milky fluid.[124][125] The
excreted fluid is distasteful, toxic and adhesive, but it is also
used for nutrient and energy storage during hibernation.
Hence, salamanders subjected to frequent predatory attack
will be energetically compromised as they use up their energy
stores.[126][127]
Elaborate sexual displays and posturing are encountered in
the behavioural ecology of animals. The birds of paradise, for
example, display elaborate ornaments and song during
courtship. These displays serve a dual purpose of signalling
healthy or well-adapted individuals and good genes. The
elaborate displays are driven by sexual selection as an
advertisement of quality of traits among male suitors.[139]
[edit] Biogeography
Main article: Biogeography

Ecological interactions can be divided into host and associate
relationships. A host is any entity that harbors another that is
called the associate.[129] Host and associate relationships
among species that are mutually or reciprocally beneficial are
called mutualisms. If the host and associate are physically
connected, the relationship is called symbiosis. Approximately
60% of all plants, for example, have a symbiotic relationship
with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Symbiotic plants and fungi
exchange carbohydrates for mineral nutrients.[130] Symbiosis
differs from indirect mutualisms where the organisms live
apart. For example, tropical rainforests regulate the Earth's
atmosphere. Trees living in the equatorial regions of the
planet supply oxygen into the atmosphere that sustains
species living in distant polar regions of the planet. This
relationship is called commensalism because many other host
species receive the benefits of clean air at no cost or harm to
the associate tree species supplying the oxygen.[131] The host
and associate relationship is called parasitism if one species
benefits while the other suffers. Competition among species
or among members of the same species is defined as
reciprocal antagonism, such as grasses competing for growth
space.[132]
Popular ecological study systems for mutualism include,
fungus-growing ants employing agricultural symbiosis,
bacteria living in the guts of insects and other organisms, the
fig wasp and yucca moth pollination complex, lichens with
fungi and photosynthetic algae, and corals with
photosynthetic algae.[133][134]
The word biogeography is an amalgamation of biology and
geography. Biogeography is the comparative study of the
geographic distribution of organisms and the corresponding
evolution of their traits in space and time.[140] The Journal of
Biogeography was established in 1974.[141] Biogeography and
ecology share many of their disciplinary roots. For example,
the theory of island biogeography, published by the
mathematician Robert MacArthur and ecologist Edward O.
Wilson in 1967[142] is considered one of the fundamentals of
ecological theory.[143]
Biogeography has a long history in the natural sciences where
questions arise concerning the spatial distribution of plants
and animals. Ecology and evolution provide the explanatory
context for biogeographical studies.[140] Biogeographical
patterns result from ecological processes that influence range
distributions, such as migration and dispersal.[143] and from
historical processes that split populations or species into
different areas.[144] The biogeographic processes that result in
the natural splitting of species explains much of the modern
distribution of the Earth's biota. The splitting of lineages in a
species is called vicariance biogeography and it is a sub-
discipline of biogeography.[144][145][146] There are also practical
applications in the field of biogeography concerning ecological
systems and processes. For example, the range and
distribution of biodiversity and invasive species responding to
climate change is a serious concern and active area of
research in context of global warming.[34][147]
[edit] r/K-Selection theory

Intraspecific behaviours are notable in the social insects,

Main article: r/K selection
slime moulds, social spiders, human society, and naked mole
rats where eusocialism has evolved. Social behaviours include
reciprocally beneficial behaviours among kin and nest mates. A population ecology concept (introduced in MacArthur and
[29][116][135]
Social behaviours evolve from kin and group Wilson's (1967) book, The Theory of Island Biogeography) is
selection. Kin selection explains altruism through genetic r/K selection theory, one of the first predictive models in
relationships, whereby an altruistic behaviour leading to death ecology used to explain life-history evolution.
is rewarded by the survival of genetic copies distributed
among surviving relatives. The social insects, including ants,
The premise behind the r/K selection model is that natural
bees and wasps are most famously studied for this type of
selection pressures change according to population density.
relationship because the male drones are clones that share
For example, when an island is first colonized, density of
the same genetic make-up as every other male in the colony.
individuals is low. The initial increase in population size is not
[29]
In contrast, group selectionists find examples of altruism
limited by competition, leaving an abundance of available
among non-genetic relatives and explain this through
resources for rapid population growth. These early phases of
selection acting on the group, whereby it becomes selectively
population growth experience density-independent forces of
advantageous for groups if their members express altruistic
natural selection, which is called r-selection. As the population
behaviours to one another. Groups that are predominantely
becomes more crowded, it approaches the island's carrying
altruists beat groups that are predominantely selfish.[29][136]
capacity, thus forcing individuals to compete more heavily for
fewer available resources. Under crowded conditions the
A often quoted behavioural ecology hypothesis is known as population experiences density-dependent forces of natural
Lack's brood reduction hypothesis (named after David Lack). selection, called K-selection.[148]
Lack's hypothesis posits an evolutionary and ecological
explanation as to why birds lay a series of eggs with an
In the r/K-selection model, the first variable r is the intrinsic
asynchronous delay leading to nestlings of mixed age and
rate of natural increase in population size and the second
weights. According to Lack, this brood behaviour is an
variable K is the carrying capacity of a population.[25] Different
ecological insurance that allows the larger birds to survive in
species evolve different life-history strategies spanning a
continuum between these two selective forces. An r-selected
species is one that has high birth rates, low levels of parental
investment, and high rates of mortality before individuals
reach maturity. Evolution favors high rates of fecundity in r-
selected species. Many kinds of insects and invasive species
exhibit r-selected characteristics. In contrast, a K-selected
species has low rates of fecundity, high levels of parental
investment in the young, and low rates of mortality as
individuals mature. Humans and elephants are examples of
species exhibiting K-selected characteristics, including
longevity and efficiency in the conversion of more resources
into fewer offspring.[142][149]
[edit] Molecular ecology
Main article: Molecular ecology
The important relationship between ecology and genetic
inheritance predates modern techniques for molecular
analysis. Molecular ecological research became more feasible
with the development of rapid and accessible genetic
technologies, such as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
The rise of molecular technologies and influx of research
questions into this new ecological field resulted in the
publication Molecular Ecology in 1992.[150] Molecular ecology
uses various analytical techniques to study genes in an
evolutionary and ecological context. In 1994, professor John
Avise also played a leading role in this area of science with
the publication of his book, Molecular Markers, Natural History
and Evolution.[151] Newer technologies opened a wave of
genetic analysis into organisms once difficult to study from an
ecological or evolutionary standpoint, such as bacteria, fungi
and nematodes.
Molecular ecology engendered a new research paradigm to
investigate ecological questions considered otherwise
intractable. Molecular investigations revealed previously
obscured details in the tiny intricacies of nature and improved
resolution into probing questions about behavioral and
biogeographical ecology. For example, molecular ecology
revealed promiscuous sexual behavior and multiple male
partners in tree swallows previously thought to be socially
monogamous.[152] In a biogeographical context, the marriage
between genetics, ecology and evolution resulted in a new
sub-discipline called phylogeography.[153]
[edit] Relation to the environment
The environment is dynamically interlinked, imposed upon
and constrains organisms at any time throughout their life
cycle.[154] Like the term ecology, environment has different
conceptual meanings and to many these terms also overlap
with the concept of nature. Environment "...includes the
physical world, the social world of human relations and the
built world of human creation."[155]:62 The environment in
ecosystems includes both physical parameters and biotic
attributes. The physical environment is external to the level of
biological organization under investigation, including abiotic
factors such as temperature, radiation, light, chemistry,
climate and geology. The biotic environment includes genes,
cells, organisms, members of the same species (conspecifics)
and other species that share a habitat.[156] The laws of
thermodynamics applies to ecology by means of its physical
state. Armed with an understanding of metabolic and
thermodynamic principles a complete accounting of energy
and material flow can be traced through an ecosystem.[157]
Environmental and ecological relations are studied through
reference to conceptually manageable and isolated parts.
Once the effective environmental components are understood
they conceptually link back together as a holocoenotic[158]
system. In other words, the organism and the environment
form a dynamic whole (or umwelt).[159]:252 Change in one
ecological or environmental factor can concurrently affect the
dynamic state of an entire ecosystem.[160][161]
Ecological studies are necessarily holistic as opposed to
reductionistic.[19][162] Holism has three scientific meanings or
uses that identify with: 1) the mechanistic complexity of
ecosystems, 2) the practical description of patterns in
quantitative reductionist terms where correlations may be
identified but nothing is understood about the causal relations
without reference to the whole system, which leads to 3) a
metaphysical hierarchy whereby the causal relations of larger
systems are understood without reference to the smaller
parts. An example of the metaphysical aspect to holism is the
trend of increased exterior thickness in shells of different
species. The reason for a thickness increase can be
understood through reference to principals of natural
selection via predation without any reference to the
biomolecular properties of the exterior shells.[163]
[edit] Metabolism and the early atmosphere
Metabolism – the rate at which energy and material resources
are taken up from the environment, transformed within an
organism, and allocated to maintenance, growth and
reproduction – is a fundamental physiological trait.
Ernst et al.[164]:991
The Earth formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago[165] and
environmental conditions were too extreme for life to form for
the first 500 million years. During this early Hadean period,
the Earth started to cool, allowing a crust and oceans to form.
Environmental conditions were unsuitable for the origins of
life for the first billion years after the Earth formed. The
Earth's atmosphere transformed from being dominated by
hydrogen, to one composed mostly of methane and ammonia.
Over the next billion years the metabolic activity of life
transformed the atmosphere to higher concentrations of
carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and water vapor. These gases
changed the way that light from the sun hit the Earth's
surface and greenhouse effects trapped heat. There were
untapped sources of free energy within the mixture of
reducing and oxidizing gasses that set the stage for primitive
ecosystems to evolve and, in turn, the atmosphere also
evolved.[166]
The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants.
Throughout history, the Earth's atmosphere and
biogeochemical cycles have been in a dynamic equilibrium
with planetary ecosystems. The history is characterized by
periods of significant transformation followed by millions of
years of stability.[167] The evolution of the earliest organisms,
likely anaerobic methanogen microbes, started the process by
converting atmospheric hydrogen into methane (4H2 + CO2 →
CH4 + 2H2O). Anoxygenic photosynthesis converting hydrogen
sulfide into other sulfur compounds or water (2H2S + CO2 →
hv → CH2O → H2O → + 2S or 2H2 + CO2 + hv → CH2O + H2O),
as occurs in deep sea hydrothermal vents today, reduced
hydrogen concentrations and increased atmospheric
methane. Early forms of fermentation also increased levels of
atmospheric methane. The transition to an oxygen dominant
atmosphere (the Great Oxidation) did not begin until
approximately 2.4-2.3 billion years ago, but photosynthetic
processes started 0.3 to 1 billion years prior.[167][168]
[edit] Radiation: heat, temperature and light
The biology of life operates within a certain range of
temperatures. Heat is a form of energy that regulates
temperature. Heat affects growth rates, activity, behavior and
primary production. Temperature is largely dependent on the
incidence of solar radiation. The latitudinal and longitudinal
spatial variation of temperature greatly affects climates and
consequently the distribution of biodiversity and levels of
primary production in different ecosystems or biomes across
the planet. Heat and temperature relate importantly to
metabolic activity. Poikilotherms, for example, have a body
temperature that is largely regulated and dependent on the
temperature of the external environment. In contrast,
homeotherms regulate their internal body temperature by
expending metabolic energy.[2][86][157]
There is a relationship between light, primary production, and
ecological energy budgets. Sunlight is the primary input of
energy into the planet's ecosystems. Light is composed of
electromagnetic energy of different wavelengths. Radiant
energy from the sun generates heat, provides photons of light
measured as active energy in the chemical reactions of life,
and also acts as a catalyst for genetic mutation.[2][86][157] Plants,
algae, and some bacteria absorb light and assimilate the
energy through photosynthesis. Organisms capable of
assimilating energy by photosynthesis or through inorganic
fixation of H2S are autotrophs. Autotrophs—responsible for
primary production—assimilate light energy that becomes
metabolically stored as potential energy in the form of
biochemical enthalpic bonds.[2][86][157]
[edit] Physical environments
[edit] Water
Main article: Aquatic ecosystem
Wetland conditions such as shallow water, high plant
productivity, and anaerobic substrates provide a suitable
environment for important physical, biological, and chemical
processes. Because of these processes, wetlands play a vital
role in global nutrient and element cycles.:29[169]
The rate of diffusion of carbon dioxide and oxygen is
approximately 10,000 times slower in water than it is in air.
When soils become flooded, they quickly lose oxygen from
low-concentration (hypoxic) to an (anoxic) environment where
anaerobic bacteria thrive among the roots. Water also
influences the spectral properties of light that becomes more
diffuse as it is reflected off the water surface and submerged
particles.[169] Aquatic plants exhibit a wide variety of
morphological and physiological adaptations that allow them
to survive, compete and diversify these environments. For
example, the roots and stems develop large cellular air
spaces to allow for the efficient transportation gases (for
example, CO2 and O2) used in respiration and photosynthesis.
In drained soil, microorganisms use oxygen during respiration.
In aquatic environments, anaerobic soil microorganisms use
nitrate, manganic ions, ferric ions, sulfate, carbon dioxide and
some organic compounds. The activity of soil microorganisms
and the chemistry of the water reduces the oxidation-
reduction potentials of the water. Carbon dioxide, for
example, is reduced to methane (CH4) by methanogenic
bacteria. Salt water also requires special physiological
adaptations to deal with water loss. Salt water plants (or
halophytes) are able to osmo-regulate their internal salt
(NaCl) concentrations or develop special organs for shedding
salt away.[169] The physiology of fish is also specially adapted
to deal with high levels of salt through osmoregulation. Their
gills form electrochemical gradients that mediate salt
excrusion in salt water and uptake in fresh water.[170]
[edit] Gravity
The shape and energy of the land is affected to a large degree
by gravitational forces. On a larger scale, the distribution of
gravitational forces on the earth are uneven and influence the
shape and movement of tectonic plates as well as having an
influence on geomorphic processes such as orogeny and
erosion. These forces govern many of the geophysical
properties and distributions of ecological biomes across the
Earth. On a organism scale, gravitational forces provide
directional cues for plant and fungal growth (gravitropism),
orientation cues for animal migrations, and influence the
biomechanics and size of animals.[2] Ecological traits, such as
allocation of biomass in trees during growth are subject to
mechanical failure as gravitational forces influence the
position and structure of branches and leaves.[171] The
cardiovascular systems of all animals are functionally adapted
to overcome pressure and gravitational forces that change
according to the features of organisms (e.g., height, size,
shape), their behavior (e.g., diving, running, flying), and the
habitat occupied (e.g., water, hot deserts, cold tundra).[172]
[edit] Pressure
Climatic and osmotic pressure places physiological constraints
on organisms, such as flight and respiration at high altitudes,
or diving to deep ocean depths. These constraints influence
vertical limits of ecosystems in the biosphere as organisms
are physiologically sensitive and adapted to atmospheric and
osmotic water pressure differences.[2] Oxygen levels, for
example, decrease with increasing pressure and are a limiting
factor for life at higher altitudes.[173] Water transportation
through trees is another important ecophysiological
parameter dependent upon pressure.[174][175] Water pressure in
the depths of oceans requires adaptations to deal with the
different living conditions. Mammals, such as whales, dolphins
and seals are adapted to deal with changes in sound due
Environmental science
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Blue Marble composite images generated by NASA in 2001
(left) and 2002 (right).
Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field
that integrates physical and biological sciences, (including
physics, chemistry, biology, soil science, geology, and
geography) to the study of the environment, and the solution
of environmental problems. Environmental science provides
an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to
the study of environmental systems.[1]
Related areas of study include environmental studies and
environmental engineering. Environmental studies
incorporates more of the social sciences for understanding
human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the
environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design
and technology for improving environmental quality.
Environmental scientists work on subjects like the
understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative
energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural
resource management, and the effects of global climate
change. Environmental issues almost always include an
interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes.
Environmental scientists bring a systems approach to the
analysis of environmental problems. Key elements of an
effective environmental scientist include the ability to relate
space, and time relationships as well as quantitative analysis.
Environmental science came alive as a substantive, active
field of scientific investigation in the 1960s and 1970s driven
by (a) the need for a multi-disciplinary approach to analyze
complex environmental problems, (b) the arrival of
substantive environmental laws requiring specific
environmental protocols of investigation and (c) the growing
public awareness of a need for action in addressing
environmental problems. Events that spurred this
development included the publication of Rachael Carson's
landmark environmental book Silent Spring[2] along with major
environmental issues becoming very public, such as the 1969
Santa Barbara oil spill, and the Cuyahoga River of Cleveland,
Ohio, "catching fire" (also in 1969), and helped increase the
visibility of environmental issues and create this new field of
study.
Environmental science is the study of interactions among
the physical, chemical, and biological components of the
environment. It provides an integrated, quantitative, and
interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental
systems.[1] It includes such diverse areas as geology,
agronomy, meteorology, atmospheric chemistry, soil
chemistry, water chemistry, systems modeling, and biological
responses of systems to anthropogenic influences.
Environmental scientists monitor the quality of the
environment (air, water, and soil), interpret the impact of
human activities on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, and
develop strategies for restoring ecosystems. In addition,
environmental scientists help planners develop and construct
buildings, transportation corridors, and utilities in ways that
protect water resources and reflect efficient and beneficial
land use.[2] Given the interdisciplinary nature of environmental
science, teams of professionals commonly work together to
conduct research or produce environmental impact
statements, as required by governmental laws and
regulations. In addition, various professional organizations
engender work in environmental science and aid in
interdisciplinary communications.
[edit] Components
Atmospheric sciences focuses on the Earth's atmosphere,
with an emphasis upon its interrelation to other systems.
Atmospheric sciences can include studies of meteorology,
greenhouse gas phenomena, atmospheric dispersion
modeling of airborne contaminants,[3][4] sound propagation
phenomena related to noise pollution, and even light
pollution.
Taking the example of the global warming phenomena,
physicists create computer models of atmospheric circulation
and infra-red radiation transmission, chemists examine the
inventory of atmospheric chemicals and their reactions,
biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions to
carbon dioxide fluxes, and specialists such as meteorologists
and oceanographers add additional breadth in understanding
the atmospheric dynamics.
Ecology. An interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system
which is being impacted by one or more stressors might
include several related environmental science fields. For
example, one might examine an estuarine setting where a
proposed industrial development could impact certain species
by water and air pollution. For this study, biologists would
describe the flora and fauna, chemists would analyze the
transport of water pollutants to the marsh, physicists would
calculate air pollution emissions and geologists would assist in
understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.
Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical
alterations in the environment. Principal areas of study
include soil contamination and water pollution. The topics of
analysis include chemical degradation in the environment,
multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation
of a solvent containing lake to yield solvent as an air
pollutant), and chemical effects upon biota.
As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent
tank which has entered the habitat soil of an endangered
species of amphibian. As a method to resolve or understand
the extent of soil contamination and subsurface transport of
solvent, a computer model would be implemented. Chemists
would then characterize the molecular bonding of the solvent
to the specific soil type, and biologists would study the
impacts upon soil arthropods, plants, and ultimately pond-
dwelling organisms that are the food of the endangered
amphibian.
Geosciences include environmental geology, environmental
soil science, volcanic phenomena and evolution of the Earth's
crust. In some classification systems this can also include
hydrology, including oceanography.
As an example study of soils erosion, calculations would be
made of surface runoff by soil scientists. Fluvial
geomorphologists would assist in examining sediment
transport in overland flow. Physicists would contribute by
assessing the changes in light transmission in the receiving
waters. Biologists would analyze subsequent impacts to
aquatic flora and fauna from increases in water turbidity.
[edit] Regulations driving the studies
Environmental science examines the effects of humans on
nature (Glen Canyon Dam in the U.S.)
In the U.S. the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of
1969 set forth requirements for analysis of major projects in
terms of specific environmental criteria. Numerous state laws
have echoed these mandates, applying the principles to local-
scale actions. The upshot has been an explosion of
documentation and study of environmental consequences
before the fact of development actions.
One can examine the specifics of environmental science by
reading examples of Environmental Impact Statements
prepared under NEPA such as: Wastewater treatment
expansion options discharging into the San Diego/Tijuana
Estuary, Expansion of the San Francisco International Airport,
Development of the Houston, Metro Transportation system,
Expansion of the metropolitan Boston MBTA transit system,
and Construction of Interstate 66 through Arlington, Virginia.
In England and Wales the Environment Agency (EA),[5] formed
in 1996, is a public body for protecting and improving the
environment and enforces the regulations listed on the
communities and local government site.[6] (formerly the office
of the deputy prime minister). The agency was set up under
the Environment Act 1995 as an independent body and works
closely with UK Government to enforce the regulations.
[edit] Terminology
In common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are
often used interchangeably, but technically, ecology refers
only to the study of organisms and their interactions with
each other and their environment. Ecology could be
considered a subset of environmental science, which also
could involve purely chemical or public health issues (for
example) ecologists would be unlikely to study. In practice,
there is considerable overlap between the work of ecologists Warming 1924 Geography[17]
and other environmental scientists.

The National Center for Education Statistics in the United

States defines an academic program in environmental science Ellen Swallow 1842– Pioneer and educator who linked
as follows: Richards 1911 urban ecology to human health[18]

A program that focuses on the application of biological,

chemical, and physical principles to the study of the physical Stephen 1844– Early founder of entomology and
environment and the solution of environmental problems, Forbes 1930 ecological concepts in 1887 [5][19][20]
including subjects such as abating or controlling
environmental pollution and degradation; the interaction
between human society and the natural environment; and
natural resources management. Includes instruction in Independently pioneered
biology, chemistry, physics, geosciences, climatology, 1860– mathematical populations models
Vito Volterra
statistics, and mathematical 1940 around the same time as Alfred J.
Lotka.[21][22]

Timeline of ecologists

Vladimir 1869–
Founded the biosphere concept
Vernadsky 1939
A list of founders, innovators and their significant contributions
to ecology, from Romanticism onward.
Pioneering studies and conceptual
Henry C. 1869–
development in studies of ecological
Cowles 1939
Notable Lifespa succession[23]
Major contribution & citation
figure n

Jan Christian 1870– Coined the term holism in a 1926

Antoni van 1632– Smuts 1950 book Holism and Evolution.[6]
First to develop concept of food chains
Leeuwenhoek 1723

Arthur G. 1871– First to coin the term ecosystem in

1707– Influential naturalist, inventor of Tansley 1955 1936 and notable researcher[15][24][25]
Carl Linnaeus
1778 science on the economy of nature[10][11]

Animal ecologist, biogeographer,

Charles
First to describe ecological gradient of 1873– author of first American book on
Alexander 1769– Christopher
latitudinal biodiversity increase 1955 animal ecology in 1913, founded
Humboldt 1859 Adams
toward the tropics [4] in 1807 ecological energetics[26][27]

Founder of evolution by means of Friedrich 1844– German geographer who first coined
Charles 1809–
natural selection, founder of Ratzel 1904 the term biogeography in 1891.
Darwin 1882
ecological studies of soils[12]

Frederic 1874– Authored the first influential American

Herbert 1820– Early founder of social ecology, coined Clements 1945 ecology book in 1905[28]
Spencer 1903 the phrase 'survival of the fittest'[11][13]

Founded physiological ecology,

First to develop concept of ecological Victor Ernest 1877– pioneered food-web and biome
1825–
Karl Möbius community, biocenosis, or living Shelford 1968 concepts, founded The Nature
1908
community[14][15][16] Conservancy[29][30]

Invented the term ecology, First to pioneer mathematical

1834–
Ernst Haeckel popularized research links between 1880– populations models explaining trophic
1919 Alfred J. Lotka
ecology and evolution 1949 (predator-prey) interactions using
logistic equation[31]

Invented term plankton, developed

1835–
Victor Hensen quantitative and statistical measures Early ecology pioneer, quantitative
1924 1882–
of productivity in the seas Henry Gleason theorist, author, and founder of the
1975
individualistic concept of ecology[28][32]

Eugenius 1841– Early founder of Ecological Plant

 1. Lentic, the ecosystem of a lake,
'Father' of animal ecology, pioneered pond or swamp.
Charles S. 1900– food-web & niche concepts and
Elton 1991 authored influential Animal Ecology
2. Lotic, the ecosystem of a river,
text[29][33] stream or spring.
2. Artificial, ecosystems created by humans.

G. Evelyn 1903– Limnologist and conceptually Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living
Hutchinson 1991 advanced the niche concept[34][35][36] organisms interact with every other element in their local
environment. Eugene Odum, a founder of ecology, stated:
"Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the
"community") in a given area interacting with the physical
Co-founder of ecosystem ecology and environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined
Eugene P. 1913–
ecological thermodynamic concepts[25] trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e.:
Odum 2002 [29][37][38]
exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts)
within the system is an ecosystem."[3]

Co-founder of ecosystem ecology and [edit] Etymology

Howard T. 1924–
ecological thermodynamic concepts[25]
Odum 2002 [29][37][38][39][40]
The term ecosystem was coined in 1930 by Roy Clapham to
mean the combined physical and biological components of an
environment. British ecologist Arthur Tansley later refined the
Co-founder on Theory of Island term, describing it as "The whole system, … including not only
Robert 1930– the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical
Biogeography and innovator of
MacArthur 1972 factors forming what we call the environment".[4] Tansley
ecological statistical methods[41]
regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as
mental isolates.[4] Tansley later[5] defined the spatial extent of
ecosystems using the term ecotope.

[edit] Examples of ecosystems

Environment may refer to:

• agro-ecosystems
• The natural environment, all living and non-living
• Agroecosystem
things that occur naturally on Earth
• Built environment, constructed surroundings that
• Aquatic ecosystem
provide the setting for human activity, ranging from • Chaparral
the large-scale civic surroundings to the personal • Coral reef
places
• Desert
• Environment (biophysical), the physical and
• Forest
biological factors along with their chemical
interactions that affect an organism • Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
• Environment (systems), the surroundings of a • Human ecosystem
physical system that may interact with the system by • Large marine ecosystem
exchanging mass, energy, or other properties
• Littoral zone
• Lotic
An ecosystem is a biological environment consisting of all
the organisms living in a particular area, as well as all the • Marine ecosystem
nonliving, physical components of the environment with which • Pond Ecosystem
the organisms interact, such as air, soil, water, and sunlight.[1] • Prairie
It is all the organisms in a given area, along with the nonliving
(abiotic) factors with which they interact; a biological
• Rainforest
community and its physical environment.[1] • Riparian zone
• Savanna

[edit] Overview • Steppe

• Subsurface Lithoautotrophic Microbial Ecosystem
The entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular • Taiga
ecosystem is called a community.[1] In a typical ecosystem, • Tundra
plants and other photosynthetic organisms are the producers • Urban ecosystem
that provide the food.[1] Ecosystems can be permanent or
temporary. Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs.[2]

Ecosystems are functional units consisting of living things in a A freshwater ecosystem in Gran Canaria, an island of the
given area, non-living chemical and physical factors of their Canary Islands.
environment, linked together through nutrient cycle and
energy flow.[citation needed]
[edit] Biomes
1. Natural
1. Terrestrial ecosystem
2. Aquatic ecosystem Map of Terrestrial biomes classified by vegetation.
Main article: Biome
Biomes are a classification of globally similar areas, including
ecosystems, such as ecological communities of plants and
animals, soil organisms and climatic conditions.[citation needed]
Biomes are in part defined based on factors such as plant
structures (such as trees, shrubs and grasses), leaf types
(such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant spacing (forest,
woodland, savanna) and climate.[citation needed] Unlike ecozones,
biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic or historical
similarities. Biomes are often identified with particular
patterns of ecological succession and climax vegetation.
A fundamental classification of biomes is:
1. Terrestrial (land) biomes.
2. Freshwater biomes.
3. Marine biomes.
Branches of Environmental Science
Environmental science deals with many areas as is
comprehensible as environmental factors work in determining
the way life would work in synchronization with the natural
factors. For example pollution is related to population, green
house effects is related to global warming, pollution is again
related to ozone depletion which also contributes to Global
warming. There is no definite demarcation between the
branches of study of Environmental Science, each overlaps on
the scope of the other, yet to make things easier to grasp and
to facilitate work upon them, the study of Environment
Science has been divided into the following divisions:
• Environmental Chemistry
• Ecology
• Geosciences
• Atmospheric Science
• Environmental Assessment
• Environmental Microbiology
n ecology, a niche (pronounced /ˈniːʃ/ or /ˈnɪtʃ/)[1] is a term
describing the relational position of a species or population in
its ecosystem to each other; e.g. a dolphin could potentially
be in another ecological niche from one that travels in a
different pod if the members of these pods utilize significantly
different food resources and foraging methods.[1] A shorthand
definition of niche is how an organism makes a living. The
ecological niche describes how an organism or population
responds to the distribution of resources and competitors
(e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when
predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in
turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to
resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for
predators and a consumer of prey).[2]
[edit] Grinnelian Niche
The word "niche" is derived from the Middle French word
nicher, meaning to nest. The term was coined by the
naturalist Joseph Grinnell in 1917, in his paper "The niche
relationships of the California Thrasher."[3] The Grinnelian
niche concept embodies the idea that the niche of a species is
determined by the habitat in which is lives in. In other words,
the niche is the sum of the habitat requirements that allow a
species to persist and produce offspring. For example, the
behavior of the California Thrasher is consistent with the
chaparral habitat it lives in--it breeds and feeds in the
underbrush; and escapes from predators by shuffling from
underbrush to underbrush.
This perspective of niche allows for the existence of ecological
equivalents and also empty niches. For example, the anolis
lizards of the Greater Antilles are a rare example of
convergent evolution, adaptive radiation, and the existence of
ecological equivalents--the anolis lizards evolved in similar
microhabitats independently of each other and resulted in the
same ecomorphs across all four islands.
[edit] Eltonian Niche
In 1927 Charles Sutherland Elton, a British ecologist, gave the
first working definition of the niche concept. He is credited
with saying: "[W]hen an ecologist says 'there goes a badger,'
he should include in his thoughts some definite idea of the
animal's place in the community to which it belongs, just as if
he had said, 'there goes the vicar.'"[4]
The Eltonian niche encompasses the idea that the niche is the
role a species plays in a community, rather than a habitat.
[edit] Hutchinsonian Niche
The Hutchinsonian Niche views niche as an n-dimensional
hypervolume, where the dimensions are environmental
conditions that define the range in which a species can
persist.
The niche concept was popularized by the zoologist G. Evelyn
Hutchinson in 1957[5]. Hutchinson wanted to know why there
are so many different types of organisms in any one habitat.
The full range of environmental conditions (biological and
physical) under which an organism can exist describes its
fundamental niche. As a result of pressure from, and
interactions with, other organisms (e.g. superior competitors),
species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower
than this, and to which they are mostly highly adapted. This is
termed the realized niche. The ecological niche has also
been termed by G.E. Hutchinson a "hypervolume." This term
defines the multi-dimensional space of resources (e.g., light,
nutrients, structure, etc.) available to (and specifically used
by) organisms. The term adaptive zone was coined by the
paleontologist, George Gaylord Simpson, and refers to a set of
ecological niches that may be occupied by a group of species
that exploit the same resources in a similar manner.
(Simpson, 1944; After Root, 1967.)[citation needed]
Hutchinson's "niche" (a description of the ecological space
occupied by a species) is subtly different from the "niche" as
defined by Grinnell (an ecological role, that may or may not
be actually filled by a species—see vacant niches).
Different species cannot occupy the same niche (or guild). A
niche is a very specific segment of ecospace occupied by a
single species. Species can however share a 'mode of life' or
'autecological strategy' which are broader definitions of
ecospace[6]. For example, Australian grasslands species,
though different from those of the Great Plains grasslands,
occupy the similar modes of life.[7]
Once a niche is left vacant, other organisms can fill that
position. For example, the niche that was left vacant by the
extinction of the tarpan has been filled by other animals (in
particular a small horse breed, the konik). Also, when plants
and animals are introduced into a new environment, they
have the potential to occupy or invade the niche or niches of
native organisms, often outcompeting the indigenous species.
Introduction of non-indigenous species to non-native habitats
by humans often results in biological pollution by the exotic or
invasive species.
The mathematical representation of a species' fundamental
niche in ecological space, and its subsequent projection back
into geographic space, is the domain of niche modelling.
Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the
chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural
places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which
seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be
defined as the study of the sources, reactions, transport,
effects, and fates of chemical species in the air, soil, and
water environments; and the effect of human activity on
these. Environmental chemistry is an interdisciplinary science
that includes atmospheric, aquatic and soil chemistry, as well
as heavily relying on analytical chemistry and being related to
environmental and other areas of science.
Environmental chemistry involves first understanding how the
uncontaminated environment works, which chemicals in what
concentrations are present naturally, and with what effects.
Without this it would be impossible to accurately study the
effects humans have on the environment through the release
of chemicals.
Environmental chemists draw on a range of concepts from
chemistry and various environmental sciences to assist in
their study of what is happening to a chemical species in the
environment. Important general concepts from chemistry
include understanding chemical reactions and equations,
solutions, units, sampling, and analytical techniques.[1]
Habitat
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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For other uses of "Habitat", see Habitat (disambiguation).
A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits") is an ecological or
environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of
animal, plant or other type of organism.[1][2] It is the natural
environment in which an organism lives, or the physical
environment that surrounds (influences and is utilized by) a
species population.[citation needed]
[edit] Definition
The term "population" is preferred to "organism" because,
while it is possible to describe the habitat of a single black
bear, it is also possible that we may not find any particular or
individual bear but the grouping of bears that constitute a
breeding population and occupy a certain biogeographical
area. Further, this habitat could be somewhat different from
the habitat of another group or population of black bears
living elsewhere. Thus it is neither the species nor the
individual for which the term habitat is typically used.
[edit] Microhabitat
The term microhabitat is often used to describe the small-
scale physical requirements of a particular organism or
population. A microhabitat is often a smaller habitat within a
larger one. For example, a fallen log inside a forest can
provide microhabitat for insects that are not found in the
wider forest habitat outside such logs. Microenvironment is
the immediate surroundings and other physical factors of an
individual plant or animal within its pool. A microhabitait can
be big or small depending on how much it varies.
biological terms, a community is a group of interacting
organisms sharing a populated environment. In human
communities, intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs,
risks, and a number of other conditions may be present and
common, affecting the identity of the participants and their
degree of cohesiveness.
In sociology, the concept of community has led to significant
debate, and sociologists are yet to reach agreement on a
definition of the term. There were ninety-four discrete
definitions of the term by the mid-1950s.[1] Traditionally a
"community" has been defined as a group of interacting
people living in a common location. The word is often used to
refer to a group that is organized around common values and
is attributed with social cohesion within a shared geographical
location, generally in social units larger than a household. The
word can also refer to the national community or global
community.
The word "community" is derived from the Old French
communité which is derived from the Latin communitas (cum,
"with/together" + munus, "gift"), a broad term for fellowship
or organized society.[2]
Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar
climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of
plants, animals, and soil organisms,[1] and are often referred
to as ecosystems.Some parts of the earth have more or less
the same kind of abiotic and biotic factors spread over a large
area creating a typical ecosystem over that area. Such major
ecosystems are termed as biomes. Biomes are defined by
factors such as plant structures (such as trees, shrubs, and
grasses), leaf types (such as broadleaf and needleleaf), plant
spacing (forest, woodland, savanna), and climate. Unlike
ecozones, biomes are not defined by genetic, taxonomic, or
historical similarities. Biomes are often identified with
particular patterns of ecological succession and climax
vegetation (quasi-equilibrium state of the local ecosystem).
An ecosystem has many biotopes and a biome is a major
habitat type. A major habitat type, however, is a compromise,
as it has an intrinsic inhomogeneity.
The biodiversity characteristic of each biome, especially the
diversity of fauna and subdominant plant forms, is a function
of abiotic factors and the biomass productivity of the
dominant vegetation. In terrestrial biomes, species diversity
tends to correlate positively with net primary productivity,
moisture availability, and temperature.[2]
Ecoregions are grouped into both biomes and ecozones.
A fundamental classification of biomes is:
1. Terrestrial (land) biomes
2. Aquatic biomes (including Freshwater biomes and
Marine biomes)
Biomes are often known in English by local names. For
example, a temperate grassland or shrubland biome is known
commonly as steppe in central Asia, prairie in North America,
and pampas in South America. Tropical grasslands are known
as savanna in Australia, whereas in Southern Africa it is
known as veldt (from Afrikaans).
Sometimes an entire biome may be targeted for protection,
especially under an individual nation's Biodiversity Action
Plan.
Climate is a major factor determining the distribution of
terrestrial biomes. Among the important climatic factors are:
• latitude: Arctic, boreal, temperate, subtropical,
tropical.
• humidity: humid, semi-humid, semi-arid, and arid.
 o seasonal variation: Rainfall may be
distributed evenly throughout the year or be
marked by seasonal variations.
o dry summer, wet winter: Most regions of the
earth receive most of their rainfall during
the summer months; Mediterranean climate
regions receive their rainfall during the
winter months.
• elevation: Increasing elevation causes a distribution
of habitat types similar to that of increasing latitude.
The most widely used systems of classifying biomes
correspond to latitude (or temperature zoning) and humidity.
Biodiversity generally increases away from the poles towards
the equator and increases with humidity.
Earth science (also known as geoscience, the
geosciences or the Earth sciences), is an all-embracing
term for the sciences related to the planet Earth.[1] It is
arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being
the only known life-bearing planet. There are both
reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. The
formal discipline of Earth sciences may include the study of
the atmosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid
earth. Typically Earth scientists will use tools from physics,
chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to build a
quantitative understanding of how the Earth system works,
and how it evolved to its current state.
Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science,
having only become prominent in the second
half of the 20th Century. Nonetheless, ecological
thinking at some level has been around for a
long time, and the principles of ecology have
developed gradually, closely intertwined with
the development of other biological disciplines.
Thus, one of the first ecologists may have been
Aristotle or perhaps his student, Theophrastus ,
both of whom had interest in many species of
animals. Theophrastus described
interrelationships between animals and between
animals and their environment as early as the
4th century BC (Ramalay, 1940).
18TH AND 19TH CENTURY ~ ECOLOGICAL
MURMURS
The botanical geography and Alexander von
Humboldt
Throughout the 18th and the beginning of the
19th Century , the great maritime powers such
as Britain, Spain, and Portugal launched many
world exploratory expeditions to develop
Maritime Commerce with other countries, and to
discover new natural resources, as well as to
catalog them. At the beginning of the 18th
Century , about twenty thousand plant species
were known, versus forty thousand at the
beginning of the 19th Century , and almost
400,000 today.
These expeditions were joined by many
scientists, including Botanists , such as the
German explorer Alexander Von Humboldt .
Humboldt is often considered a father of
ecology. He was the first to take on the study of
the relationship between organisms and their
Environment . He exposed the existing
relationships between observed plant species
and Climate , and described vegetation zones
using Latitude and Altitude , a discipline now
known as Geobotany .
In 1804 , for example, he reported an impressive
number of species, particularly plants, for which
he sought to explain their geographic
distribution with respect to Geological data. One
of Humboldt's famous works was "Idea for a
Plant Geography" ( 1805 ).
Other important botanists of the time included
Aimé Bonpland and Eugenius Warming .
The notion of biocoenosis: Charles Darwin and
Alfred Wallace
Towards model.
Alfred Russel Wallace , contemporary and
competitor to Darwin, was first to propose a
"geography" of animal species. Several authors
recognized at the time that species were not
independent of each other, and grouped them
into plant species, animal species, and later into
communities of living beings or Biocoenosis .
This term was coined in 1877 by Karl Möbius .
EARLY 20TH CENTURY ~ EXPANSION OF
ECOLOGICAL THOUGHT
The biosphere - Eduard Suess, Henry Chandler
Cowles, and Vladimir Vernadsky
By the 19th Century , ecology blossomed due to
new discoveries in Chemistry by Lavoisier and
De Saussure , notably the Nitrogen Cycle . After
observing the fact that life developed only
within strict limits of each compartment that
makes up the Atmosphere , Hydrosphere , and
Lithosphere , the Austrian geologist Eduard
Suess proposed the term Biosphere in 1875 .
Suess proposed the name biosphere for the
conditions promoting life, such as those found
on Earth , which includes Flora , Fauna , Minerals
, Matter Cycles , et cetera.
In the 1920s Vladimir I. Vernadsky , a Russian
geologist who had defected to France, detailed
the idea of the biosphere in his work "The
biosphere" ( 1926 ), and described the
fundamental principles of the Biogeochemical
Cycle s. He thus redefined the biosphere as the
sum of all Ecosystem s.
First ecological damages were reported in the
18th Century , as the multiplication of colonies
caused Deforestation . Since the 19th Century ,
with the Industrial Revolution , more and more
pressing concerns have grown about the impact
of human activity on The Environment . The term
Ecologist has been in use since the end of the
19th Century .
The ecosystem: Arthur Tansley
Over the 19th Century , botanical geography and
zoogeography combined to form the basis of
Biogeography . This science, which deals with
habitats of species, seeks to explain the reasons
for the presence of certain species in a given
location.
It was in 1935 that Arthur Tansley , the British
Ecologist , coined the term Ecosystem , the
interactive system established between the
Biocoenosis (the group of living creatures), and
their Biotope , the environment in which they
live. Ecology thus became the science of
ecosystems.
Tansley's concept of the ecosystem was adopted
by the energetic and influential biology educator
Eugene Odum . Along with his brother, Howard
Odum , Eugene P. Odum wrote a textbook which
(starting in 1953) educated more than one
generation of biologists and ecologists in North
America.
Ecological Succession - Henry Chandler Cowles
At the turn of the 20th Century , Henry Chandler
Cowles was one of the founders of the emerging
study of "dynamic ecology", through his study of
Ecological Succession at the Indiana Dunes ,
sand dunes at the southern end of Lake
Michigan . Here Cowles found evidence of
Ecological Succession in the Vegetation and the
Soil with relation to age. Ecological Succession is
the process by which a natural community
moves from a simpler level of organisation to a
more complex community (e.g., from bare sand,
to grass growing on the sand, to grass growing
on dirt produced from dead grass, to trees
growing in the dirt produced by the grass).
MODERN ECOLOGICAL THEORY AND RESEARCH
ECOLOGY'S INFLUENCE IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
AND HUMANITIES
Human ecology
Human Ecology began in the 1920s , through the
study of changes in Vegetation Succession in the
city of Chicago . It became a distinct field of
study in the 1970s . This marked the first
recognition that humans, who had colonized all
of the Earth's Continent s, were a major
Ecological Factor . Humans greatly modify the
environment through the development of the
habitat (in particular Urban Planning ), by
intensive exploitation activities such as Logging
and Fishing , and as side effects of Agriculture ,
Mining , and Industry . Besides ecology and
biology, this discipline involved many other
natural and social sciences, such as
Anthropology and Ethnology , Economics ,
Demography , Architecture and Urban Planning ,
Medicine and Psychology , and many more. The
development of human ecology led to the
increasing role of ecological science in the
design and management of Cities .
In recent years human ecology has been a topic
that has interested organizational researchers.
Hannan and Freeman (''Population Ecology of
Organizations (1977)'', American Journal of
Sociology) argue that organizations do not only
adapt to an environment. Instead it is also the
environment that selects or rejects populations
of Organizations . In any given environment (in
Equilibrium ) there will only be one form of
organization ( Isomorphism ). Organizational
Ecology has been a prominent theory in
accounting for diversities of organizations and
their changing composition over time.
James Lovelock and the Gaia hypothesis
The Gaia Theory , proposed by James Lovelock ,
in his work ''Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth'',
advanced the view that the Earth should be
regarded as a single living macro-organism. In
particular, it argued that the ensemble of living
organisms has jointly evolved an ability to
control the global environment — by influencing
major physical parameters as the composition of
the atmosphere, the evaporation rate, the
chemistry of soils and oceans — so as to
maintain conditions favorable to life.
This vision was largely a sign of the times, in
particular the growing perception after the , was
"becoming sick from humans and their
activities".
Conservation and environmental movements
Since the 19th century, Environmentalists and
other Conservationists have used ecology and
other sciences (e.g., Climatology ) to support
their Advocacy Positions . Environmentalist
views are often controversial for political or
economic reasons. As a result, some scientific
work in ecology directly influences policy and
political debate; these in turn often direct
ecological research.
Ecology and global policy
Ecology became a central part of the World's
politics as early as 1971 , UNESCO launched a
research program called '' Man And Biosphere '',
with the objective of increasing knowledge
about the mutual relationship between humans
and nature. A few years later it defined the
concept of Biosphere Reserve .
In 1972 , the United Nations held the first
international conference on the human
environment in Stockholm , prepared by Rene
Dubos and other experts. This conference was
the origin of the phrase " Think Globally, Act
Locally ". The next major events in ecology were
the development of the concept of biosphere
and the appearance of terms "biological
diversity" -- or now more commonly Biodiversity
-- in the 1980s . These terms were developed
during the Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro in
1992 , where the concept of the biosphere was
recognized by the major international
organizations, and risks associated with
reductions in biodiversity were publicly
acknowledged.
Then, in 1997 , the dangers the biosphere was
facing were recognized from an international
point of view at the conference leading to the
Kyoto Protocol . In particular, this conference
highlighted the increasing dangers of the
Greenhouse Effect -- related to the increasing
concentration of Greenhouse Gas es in the
atmosphere, leading to Global Changes In
Climate . In Kyoto , most of the world's nations
recognized the importance of looking at ecology
from a global point of view, on a worldwide
scale, and to take into account the impact of
humans on the Earth's environment. Sub-
categories
 As an example study of soils erosion, calculations would be
made of surface runoff by soil scientists. Hydrologists would
assist in examining sediment transport in overland flow.
Physicists would contribute by assessing the changes in light
transmission in the receiving waters. Biologists would analyze
subsequent impacts to aquatic flora and fauna from increases
in water turbidity.

Environmental assessment is the process of appraisal

Environmental Scientist sampling water.
Atmospheric sciences examine the new phenomenology of
the Earth's gaseous outer layer with emphasis upon
interrelation to other systems. Atmospheric sciences
comprises meteorological studies, greenhouse gas
phenomena, atmospheric dispersion modeling of airborne
contaminants, sound propagation phenomena related to noise
pollution, and even light pollution.
Taking the example of the global warming phenomena,
physicists create computer models of atmospheric circulation
and infra-red radiation transmission, chemists examine the
inventory of atmospheric chemicals and their reactions,
biologists analyze the plant and animal contributions to
carbon dioxide fluxes, and specialists such as meteorologists
and oceanographers add additional breadth in understanding
the atmospheric dynamics.
Ecology studies typically analyze the dynamics among an
interrelated set of populations, or a population and some
aspect of its environment. These studies could address
endangered species, predator/prey interactions, habitat
integrity, effects upon populations by environmental
contaminants, or impact analysis of proposed land
development upon species viability.
through which environmental protection and sustainable
development may be considered. Environmental assessments
typically involve collection of field data, this can be from
stakeholders and the ambient environment, and serves to
harmonize the linkages between the different branches of the
environment and development.
Environmental microbiology is the study of the
composition and physiology of microbial communities in the
environment. The environment in this case means the soil,
water, air and sediments covering the planet and can also
include the animals and plants that inhabit these areas.
Environmental microbiology also includes the study of
microorganisms that exist in artificial environments such as
bioreactors.
Environmental Biology is a sub-category of environmental
science that focuses specifically on the effects of
environmental conditions on biological systems. Although it
incorporates aspects of environmental science such as
geochemistry and ecology, studies are focused on individual
organisms, their biological processes, and their genetics. In
addition, environmental biology incorporates the ideas of
global change and conservation biology to encourage the
conservation of biodiversity. Tulane University of New Orleans
offers a B.S. in Environmental Biology distinct from the B.S. in
Environmental Science.

An interdisciplinary analysis of an ecological system which is

being impacted by one or more stressors might include
several related environmental science fields. For example one
might examine an estuarine setting where a proposed
industrial development could impact certain species by water
pollution and air pollution. For this study biologists would
describe the flora and fauna, chemists would analyze the
transport of water pollutants to the marsh, physicists would
calculate air pollution emissions and geologists would assist in
understanding the marsh soils and bay muds.

Environmental chemistry is the study of chemical

alterations in the environment. Principal areas of study
include soil contamination and water pollution. The topics of
analysis involve chemical degradation in the environment,
multi-phase transport of chemicals (for example, evaporation
of a solvent containing lake to yield solvent as an air
pollutant), and chemical effects upon biota.

As an example study, consider the case of a leaking solvent

tank which has entered the soil upgradient of a habitat of an
endangered species of amphibian. Physicists would develop a
computer model to understand the extent of soil
contamination and subsurface transport of solvent, chemists
would analyze the molecular bonding of the solvent to the
specific soil type and biologists would study the impacts upon
soil arthropods, plants and ultimately pond dwelling copepods
who are the food of the endangered amphibian.

Geosciences include environmental geology, environmental

soil science, hydrology, physical geography, climatology, and
geomorphology. It may also embrace oceanography and other
related fields.