Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

Are we beings with free will?

Introduction

In the Ilm of Kalam, the issue of qada and qadar have been handled as very basic discussion
both in the history and at the present time. Qada is literally determined as: “To decree, create,
accomplish, bring to an end, complete1; to decide upon, to judge, to satisfy2. Also, Qadar is
literally determined as: “To be able, to be able to do, have power over3; pre-ordain, fate4.
Moreover, it is a research question which comes to the existence wherever people live in and
has a bilateral form that goes between the responsibility and freedom of person. As it is
tackled in the area of Islamic Philosophy, it is also tackled in the area of Philosophy by
Ancient Greek Philosophers5 like Socrates (470-399 BC), Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle
(384-322 BC)6 earlier. They all made efforts to find answer for this question. For example,
“In the Timaeus, Plato says that all souls are the same at their first birth, and go up or down in
successive lives according to whether they live righteously or unrighteously (Plato, Timaeus,
41 e and 42 b-c) : the point of this seems to be that whether human beings are good or bad
depends in the end on their free choices.”7 While these counted philosophers were in the
effort of grounding that people have free will, on the other hand, some other philosophers like
Stoics declared the opposite opinion. From this point of view, in fact, we can say that this
issue is more than occurring wherever people live in, rather, it can be counted as one of the
fundemental existential and universal issues. As a matter of fact, these kinds of things took
place between Christians and Jews8 and they defended also the side of absolute freedom and
force (jabr)9. To extent the context, we can also mention here the belief of Arabs before

1
Penrice, J., A Dictionary and Glossary of the Qur’an, Adam Publishers, 1991, pp.119.
2
Al-Badawi and Haleem, Arabic-English Dictionary of Quranic Usage, Brill Publication, 2008, s.v. “qadar”,
pp.763.
3
Penrice, J., A Dictionary and Glossary of the Qur’an, Adam Publishers, 1991, pp.115.
4
Al-Badawi and Haleem, Arabic-English Dictionary of Quranic Usage, Brill Publication, 2008, s.v. “qadar”,
pp.740.
5
For valueable ideas on that issue from the perspective of Epicurean ethics, please look at: Long, A. A. and
Sedley, D. N., The Hellenistic Philosophers, 2 vols., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, Vol. 1,
Section 20, “Freewill”, pp.108.
6
For detailed knowledge about this, please look at:
Thilly, F. (2012). History of philosophy, SBW Publisher, New Delhi, pp, 50-54.
7
John Cowburn, Free will, Predestination and Determinism, Marquette University Press, 2008, pp.146.
8
For detailed knowledge on Judaism and mankind please check: Martin Buber, On Judaism, Schocken Books
New York, 1996, pp.22-33.
9
For detailed knowledge about this, please look at:
R. Swinburne, Providence and the Problem of Evil, Oxford University Press, New York (1998) pp, 3.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

Islam10: It was based upon fatalism and has the characteristics of it. Hence, this feature
reflects in their poems. This verse explains the aspect: And they say, "There is not but our
worldly life; we die and live, and nothing destroys us except time (ُ‫)الدَّ ْهر‬."11

Furthermore, starting with terminological explanations may be more useful way to get the
topic well and properly. For the ‘slaves’ actions’, the term of ‘af’alu’l ibâd’ is used in the
science of Kalam. In this terminology, the actions are attributed to humanbeing. Most
probably, this arises from the mentality of Mu’tazila which was established as the first
systematical school that has their own methodology in Kalam. For this reason and arising
from the discrepancy in mentality between Mu’tazila and Ahl al Sunnah, Ahl al Sunnah
preferred to change the term as ‘halku ‘ef’ali’l-ibad’ which means to create of slave’s
actions.12 Moreover, when we look at the other words, freedom is used as opposite of
servitude. Also, the meaning of real freedom in Islam can be observed in the relation between
the slave and Allah. Moreover, İradah (will) is the adjective that designates one option from
the options related to realm of existence.13 Furthermore, the appeared form of iradah in the
external world, which is called as action (fiil) is defined by Jürjani (d.816 AH/1413 BC):
“Coming into existence of something because of having an impact to someone else.” 14 So, as
we can see, the words can reflect the position of the sects just like in the example of ‘af’alu’l
ibâd’ and ‘halku ‘ef’ali’l-ibad’. That is why, we especially preferred to give terminological
terms and it will give us the background of the period and the ideas of sects15 via penetrating
the words. Also, the other words like will, action are very basic terminological terms.
Whoever studies the issue, he has to have knowledge about them.

After giving the conceptual framework, as the end of our introduction part, we can say that
even there are many ideas and positions on this topic, we will go around three main kalamic
sects/approaches: Firstly, Jabriyya, which perceives humanbeing as robot (mechanical man)
and then, Mu’tazila, which sees humanbeing as creator of his actions and finally, Ahl al

10
Bernard Lewis, The Arabs in History, Hutchinson of London, 1975, pp.21-35: “Arabia before Islam”.
11
Surah Al-Jatniyah, (45/24). For translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.768.
12
Cağfer Karadaş, “İnsan Fiilleri” in Kelam El Kitabı, ed. Şaban Ali Düzgün, İstanbul: Grafiker Yayınları, 2018,
pp, 381.
13
A. Saim Kılavuz, Ana Hatlarıyla İslâm Akâidi ve Kelâm’a Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2016, pp, 145.
14
Al-Cürcâni, Seyyid Şerîf Ali b. Muhammed, Ta’rifât, İstanbul, 1300, pp, 112.
15
To understand the sects’ historical emergence: Karen Armstrong, A Short History, Weidenfield&Nicolson
Paper, 2002, pp.56-59.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

Sunnah, which tries to balance between the two approaches through the two theory (kasb-
khalk and kull-juzz).

1. Doctrine of Jabriyya: Their Position and Ideas on Free-will

The meaning of jabr here is abstracting humanbeing from his actions and putting all of them
as attributed to Allah only. Jabriyya was established by Jahm b. Safvan (d.128 AH/745 BC).
According to this kalamic sect, there is no fredoom of iradah (will) and the capacity of
choosing for humanbeing by no means. As a result of that, humanbeing is obliged to behave
in the way of whatever Allah determined before. The Mutakallimûn (Islamic theologians) of
Ahl al Sunnah and Mu’tazila16 criticised Jabriyya due to accepting humanbeing as if they
have no power and will at all and they are just implementer of what is ordered before, because
if the slave is obliged to do what is determined, it would be a requirement that he cannot be
held responsible in what he does and also, he cannot gain a right to torment and good works
(azab and sawab). However, Allah regarded humanbeing as responsible with some actions
and He informed them that when they commit a sin, they will face with torment.17

Jabriyya uses these verses for defending the thesis of ‘humanbeing under the jabr (force)’:
“Allah guides whom He wills to a straight path.”18 “Whoever Allah sends astray (ُ‫ض ِل ِل‬
ْ ‫ )ي‬- for
him there is no way.”19 “You do not will except that Allah wills - Lord of the worlds.”20

What is more, Jabriyya practiced ta’wil (interpretation) of the verses that indicates the
absolute will of humanbeing.21

When we think of Jabriyya from a modern viewpoint, we can say that they percieved
humanbeing just like a robot (mechanical man). Humanbeing cannot play any role of subject,
and also cannot play any role regarding resolution process, on the contrary, he performs the
actions which are determined before by Allah and there is no possibility to cross the line.
Metaphorically, according to Jabriyya, humanbeing is just like a leaf in front of the wind.

16
Also Qadariyya can be mentioned here in terms of having the same opinion with Mutazilas for a long period in
the topic.
17
A. Saim Kılavuz, Ana Hatlarıyla İslâm Akâidi ve Kelâm’a Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2016, pp. 158-159.
18
Surah al-Baqara, (2/213). For translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.46.
19
Surah ash-Shuraa, (42/46). For translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.563.
20
Surah at-Takwir, (81/29). For translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.934.
21
Ta’wil means the quranic explanations.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

That is to say, humanbeing is directed by leaf and wheresoever blows the wind, humanbeing
also has to pursue the direction. In brief, according to Jabriyya, humanbeing has no ownership
in his behaviours, rather, all ownership belongs to only Allah. Moreover, it is clear that they
have an ethical problem with divine judgement. Clearly, they attribute unfairness to God by
not giving any will to humanbeing and for this, there cannot be any possibility for a fair
judgement.

2. Doctrine of Mutazila: Their Positions and Ideas on Free-will

According to a well-known report, this sect took his name from the discussion that occurred
between Hasan al-Basri22 and his student Vasıl b. Ata. Basically, in that time, Hasan al-
Basri’s idea was that man has free-will, is responsible for his acts.23

Mu’tazila expresses the occurrence of the action of humanbeing with the principle of Adl-
Adalah (Just-Justice) which is one of the five main principles of them24. The basis mentality
of this principle is based upon “Allah is just and He does not oppresses to His slaves.
According to them, because of being needful Allah’s will and command each other, as Allah
does not command something bad (qhabih), He also does not will something bad. Thus, if
there is an action which is evil, it is because of humanbeing’s own creation of it. This frame is
not limited by just that, it is also extended to being a creator of their all own actions whether it
is bad (shar) or good (khayr) for humanbeing. However, what must be mentioned here is the
perception of creating of Mu’tazila: When Mu’tazila said “The slave is creator of his action”,
they do not use the creation here like we used it for the creation which is done by Allah only.
In other words, Allah’s creation means creating out of nothingness. Accordingly, the creation
that is used by Mu’tazila here is a form of creation that covers the creation from the entity to
the entity based upon the qudra (power) that is given to them by Allah.25 It seems clear that,
contrary to general belief, Mutazila means by creating not the creating out of nothingness
(Creatio ex nihilo) rather, from entity to forming of this entity. This can be understood as
transformation in just entity which is based upon the power given by Allah.

22
To look at historical background of Hasan al-Basri, please check:
Jonathan Berkey, The Formation of Islam, Cambridge University Press, 2010, pp.85.
23
Endress, G., Islam: An Historical Introduction, Edinburgh, 2002, pp.44.
24
To get detailed knowledge on five principles of Mu’tazila, please look at:
Cemalettin Erdemci, Kelam İlmine Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2017, pp.47-49.
25
A. Saim Kılavuz, Ana Hatlarıyla İslâm Akâidi ve Kelâm’a Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2016, pp.163.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

Mu’tazila uses these verses for defending the thesis of ‘humanbeing with the absoulute will
or absolute independence of humanbeing’: “But whoever chooses to deny (ُ‫ )يَتَبَدَّ ِل‬the [evidence
of the] truth, instead of believing in it, has already strayed from the right path.” 26 “Whatever
you do of good (ُ‫ )خَ يْر‬- indeed, Allah is Knowing of it.”27 “Say, "The truth is from your Lord,
so whoever wills - let him believe; and whoever wills - let him disbelieve."28

From the other point of view, Mu’tazila practices ta’wil of the verses which say that all
things occur with the will of Allah.29

In brief, Mu’tazila’s idea can be summarized in one sentence like that: The slave is the
creator of his own action and this actions have no relation with the creation of Allah.30 For
this position, on the contrary of them, we must say that the action of creation belongs to only
Allah. That is why, asserting such an idea removes us from the reality which is mentioned in
the Quran31. In this verse, Allah says that the all actions of creation belong to Him.
Furthermore, in order to put it into a proper place, Mu’tazila can be located in the opposite of
Jabriyya. The reason for this, while they were trying to acquit Allah from all bad attributions
(tanzih), clearly, they made it excessively. Consequently, they had to attribute the creation to
humanbeing, maybe unintetionally. However, this does not change the actual situation that
they felt.

3. Doctrine of Ahl al-Sunnah: Their Position and Ideas on Free-will

Under the term of Ahl al-Sunnah, this part will cover the two main positions as Asharis and
Maturidis. Before making a distinction between them, it is better to mention firstly the

26
Surah al-Baqara, (2/108).Translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.23.
27
Surah al-Baqara, (2/215).Translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.47.
28
Surah al-Kahf, (18/29). For translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.444.
29
Wolfson, Harry A., The Philosophy of the Kalam, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976, Chapter
8, pp. 646.
30
A. Saim Kılavuz, Ana Hatlarıyla İslâm Akâidi ve Kelâm’a Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2016, 160.
Surah az-Zumar, (39/62): ُ‫يء‬
31
ْ ‫ش‬ َّ “Allah is the Creator of all things.” For translation: Muhammad
َ ُ‫َّللاُخَا ِلقُك ِل‬
Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

common points of them. They have basically the same idea about humanbeing’s will and the
role of this will in action. So, “They maintain that there is nothing good and nothing bad on
the earth other than what God wills and that everything occurs according to the will of
God.”32 Additionally, for a comparison between Mutazila and Ahl al-Sunnah, for Mutazila the
reason is sometimes the starting point and other times judge, however, for Ahl al-Sunnah, the
reason is a supportive, explanatory and supplementary for nass (the fundamental sources of
Islam like Quran and Sunnah)33. Actually, this will be useful for perceiving fully the
distinction between what we mentioned in the Mutazila’s part and what we will mention in
this part.

The verse that are used as supportive by Ahl al-Sunnah, reflecting ‘the humanbeing with jabr
(force) and freedom’: “If Allah had willed, He could have made you [of] one religion, but He
causes to stray whom He wills and guides whom He wills. And you will surely be questioned
about what you used to do.”34

In this verse, two emphasises might be seen; one of them for the responsibility of
humanbeing and the other one, for the freedom of humanbeing. This also leads us to the
middle way which is tried to be grounded by Ahl al-Sunnah. After giving the general frame of
Ahl al Sunnah, now, we can delve into the details of them.

A. Ashari Position

The founder of the sect is Abu Hasan al-Ashari (d. 324 AH/936 BC). In comparison to
Mu’tazila, for Asharis, all actions of humanbeing regarding ikhtiyari (optional) or obligatory,
ta’ah (submission) or ma’siyah (rebellion), khayr (benovelence) or shar (harm), created by
Allah. Based upon that, Asharis defend that there is no direct effect of humanbeing in terms of
creation of actions. However, humanbeing obtains the action (kasb), and the role of
humanbeing is composed of this kasb (the theory of acqusition).35 To extend and make it

32
Endress, G., Islam: An Historical Introduction, Edinburgh, 2002, pp.49.
33
Bekir Topaloğlu, Kelam İlmine Giriş, İstanbul: Damla Yayınevi, 2017,pp. 124.
34
Surah an-Nahl, (16/93). For translation: Muhammad Asad, The Message of Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014,
pp.410.
35
Cemalettin Erdemci, Kelam İlmine Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2017, pp.60-64.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

clearer: “God creates the acts themselves but He also creates for man the possibility of choice,
to ‘acquire’ the acts for himself and thus to take a limited responsibility for their outcome.”36

The theory of kasb and khalk brought a new dimension to the discussion. According to this,
the power (qudra) of humanbeing in order to bring into being an action, when he approaches
to the action, immediately before the divine power turns to the action and creates it. So, “God
alone is agent, determining through a created power the individual existence of each act in all
its particulars.”37 For this, the slave is kasıb (the obtainer), Allah is khalık (the creator). The
interest of the slave with action is his being the place for it. Otherwise, there is no a real effect
for the slave’s power. The slave is a living creature which has no power and will in
appearence. However, this will is subordinated to the divine will.38

Asharis falls into the jabr (force) secondarily due to defining the jüzz (partly) will as created
and subordinated to the divine will and also connected with it. For this, Maturidis regarded
Asharis’ opinions as al Jabr al-Mutawassıt (the middle form of force). Based upon the choice
of Asharis, the opinion which counts humanbeing as responsible and also make them closer to
the divine is seen as more complicating and confusing. That is why, the Arabs developed a
proverb when they face such a complicated issue: “ahfa min kesbi’l Ashari” (It is more
complicated than Ashari’s the acquisition theory).39

Lastly, if we search for a similarity between the sects, it can be explicitly seen that they have
the similar line with Jabriyya in terms of negating humanbeing’s will or restricting it too
much. Clearly, Ashari sect can be seen as a beginning stage of the effort of finding the middle
way, but in this process, we can assert that he was in the mainstream of Mutazali sect which
he was a member of it for a long period in his life. Hence, we can also get this information
from Bekir Topaloglu’s book named Kelam İlmine Giriş: “Sometimes, for feeling of hate
against opponent, he adjudged the reason and denied khusun and kubuh (the things that are
deserving of praise legal or illegal things in Islam).40 Also, just like mentioned here: “al-
Ashari who formulated the sunni position using the concepts of Mutazila kalam.”41 After

36
Endress, G., Islam: An Historical Introduction, Edinburgh, 2002, pp.50.
37
David B. Burrell Csc, “Creation” in Classical Islamic Theology, Ed. Tim Winter, Cambridge University Press,
2010,pp.146.
38
A. Saim Kılavuz, Ana Hatlarıyla İslâm Akâidi ve Kelâm’a Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2016,pp. 161.
39
A. Saim Kılavuz, Ana Hatlarıyla İslâm Akâidi ve Kelâm’a Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2016,pp. 161.
40
Bekir Topaloğlu, Kelam İlmine Giriş, İstanbul: Damla Yayınevi, 2017, pp.142.
41
Endress, G., Islam: An Historical Introduction, Edinburgh, 2002, pp.48.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

leaving the sect, he might take an antipodal (fully opposite) side to them and tried to surpass
the effect of Mutazili past by searching for a middle way but without breaking off his
background. So, his Mutazili past impressed him both in finding the middle way and
emotionally in his decisions which leads him to take decision on contrary to Mutazili sects’
understanding.42

B.Maturidi Position

The founder of this sect is Muhammad b. Muhammad b. Mahmud Abu Mansur al-Maturidi
(d.333 AH/944 BC).

According to Maturidis, humanbeing has two kinds of will: One of them called kull, and the
other called juzz.43 They think that two powers have effect on the action. The part of kull
belongs to Allah, which is creating the action. The other one, juzz, belongs to humanbeing,
which contains capability (istitaah). Hereby, coming out of nothing for action is actualised by
Allah via the attribution of takwin (the creation from nothing) and in the process of taking
place of the action, the will belongs to humanbeing. Thus, Maturidis thought the power and
will that effects to creation of action as one side of it belongs to Allah and other side of it
belongs to humanbeing.44 For instance, an-Nasafi who is one of the representative of the sect,
puts forward that: “The creation pertains to Allah only. All of things are created by Allah.
Whether voluntary or obligatory, all actions and the power are created by Allah.”45 On the
other hand, for the probable criticisms that can be rised on the topic of the role of
humanbeing, there is a statement which is declared by el-Maturidi: “Being the object of
Allah’s command and prohibition and facing with good or bad deeds show us that
humanbeing has freedom in his actions.”46 By this statement, he pursues the goal of expelling
the possible criticisms. As a result, we can say these for this sect: While Ashari’s theory was
so complicated, Maturidi’s theory can be seen more systematical and grounded in a strong
ground. Lastly, we can say that thay near to the ideas of Mutazila by comparison with the
other sects. In addition, the reason for being more systematical and being nearer to Mutazila

42
Bekir Topaloğlu, Kelam İlmine Giriş, İstanbul: Damla Yayınevi, 2017, pp.136-137.
43
el-Harputi, Abdullatif, Tenkîhu’l Kelam, pp.240.
44
Cağfer Karadaş, “İnsan Fiilleri”, ed. Şaban Ali Düzgün, Kelam El Kitabı, İstanbul: Grafiker Yayınlar, 2018,
pp.387.
45
en-Nesefî, Ebu’l Berekât, el-İ’timâd, in Bekir Topaloğlu’s Book of Kelam İlmine Giriş, pp.352.
46
el-Maturidi, et-Tevhid, pp.225-226.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

arises from their usage of the methodology. Even though al-Maturidi does not agree with
Mutalizis’ ideas, he shares the same methodology with them. In the methodology of al-
Maturidi, the reason plays an important role as long as it does not exceed the limits of the
religion.

Conclusion

“Reflection on God and the relationship between God and human beings inevitably comes,
sooner or later, to the question of whether or not human beings have free will.”47 “How
possible for humanbeing to have free will? Could it be possible to mention of humanbeing’s
absolute free will?”. In this text, we tried to answer one of the fundamental and pre-historical
problem of free-will. We divided it into three main parts and tried to cover the topic as far as
we could do. What is more, we commented in some parts in order to make the text clearer.
Furthermore, the issue was sophisticated in and of itself. For this reason, it seems clear that
covering the issue without leaving any blank on it, is a quite hard work.

Despite all, as we did at the beginning of the conclusion, humanbeing wonders about any of
the things that comes into his mind. In this point, the kalam gets on the stage to satisfy the
need of us within the limits of nass48. Also, what is tried to be said here can be explained with
a quotation: “The theologians of kalam were not philosophers, even though they used
concepts and methods of Greek philosophy; they always served the interests of Revealed
Law.”49 So, the process that is pursued throughout this text, is covering the mentality behind
it. Also, using Quranic verses in the text gives really crucial proofs for demonstrating the
argument.50 In other words, kalam provides a framework in which humanbeing tries to find
the questions’ answers that comes into their minds.

What is more, basically, there are three worth-mentioning terms that past in the Islamic
traditional texts, one of them is ifrat (excessive) and the other one is tafrit (understatement).
In this context, we can express clearly that the sect of Jabriyya represents the side of ifrat

47
John Cowburn, Free will, Predestination and Determinism, Marquette University Press, 2008, pp.78.
48
It means the fundamental sources in Islam: Quran, Sunnah, Ijma and Qiyas.
49
Endress, G., Islam: An Historical Introduction, Edinburgh, 2002, pp.45.
50
Shahab Ahmed, What is Islam?, Princeton University Press, 2017, pp.397.

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because of removing the responsibility from humanbeing.51 On the other hand, Mutazila
represents the side of tafrit due to making tanzih and not giving any share to humanbeing in
creation of actions and using free-will. However, Ahl al-Sunnah seems to be representing
i’tidal (the middle position) due to searching for it all the time. Moreover, the we also made a
distinction between Asharis and Maturidis. To this end, it is clear that the position of Maturidi
in Ahl al-Sunnah deserves the title more than Asharis due to both developing clearer theory
and attributing enough value to reason on contrary to Asharis.

References

- Ahmed, Shahab, What is Islam?, Princeton University Press, 2017.

- Al-Badawi and Haleem, Arabic-English Dictionary of Quranic Usage, Brill

Publication, 2008.

- Armstrong, Karen, A Short History, Weidenfield&Nicolson Paper, 2002.

- Asad, Muhammad, The Message of The Qur’an, İşaret Yayınları, 2014.

- Berkey, Jonathan, The Formation of Islam, Cambridge University Press, 2010.

- Buber, Martin, On Judaism, Schocken Books New York, 1996.

- Cowburn, John, Free will, Predestination and Determinism, Marquette University

Press, 2008.

- Cürcâni, Seyyid Şerîf Ali b. Muhammed, Ta’rifât, İstanbul, 1300.

- Cüveynî, el-Akîdetü’n-nizamiyye, Kahire, 1978.

- Csc, Burrell, David B., “Creation” in Classical Islamic Theology, Ed. Tim Winter,
Cambridge University Press, 2010.

- Endress, G., Islam: An Historical Introduction, Edinburgh, 2002.

(İfrat, Tefrit and İ’tidal): These terms are taken from the basic principles of Islam. For example, we can reach
51

these from Quranic verses and hadiths. (“‫طا‬ً ‫س‬ َ ً‫ أ َّمة‬-A middle/just community”) (Surah al-Bakarah, 2:143).
َ ‫ُو‬
So, they can be seen as the measurement for measuring a life of muslim in a intellectuel and social form of
living.

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Name-Surname: Emrah GOKMEN Course: Kalam I Teacher: Kayhan A OZAYKAL

- Erdemci, Cemalettin, Kelam İlmine Giriş, İstanbul: Ensar Yayınları, 2017.

- Harputi, Abdullatif, Tenkîhu’l-kelâm fî akâidi ehli’l-İslâm (ve Tekmile-i Tenkîhu’l-

kelâm), İstanbul, 1330.

- Karadaş, Çağfer, “İnsan Fiilleri”, ed.Şaban Ali Düzgün, Kelam El Kitabı, İstanbul:
Grafiker Yayınları, 2018.

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