GMELIN-Hand Book of Chemistry, Vol I (2 Ed) (1891)

HAND-BOOK CHEMISTRY. BY LEOPOLD GMELIN, ‘Mormon oF cmmeTEY I THR UMTVIRITTY OF HEIDELIELG, PRASEPORT, Q”TFINGES, MALLE, HAMBURG, HAWAU, HEIDELOERG, J4M47, LOHDOM, MANOR, MONCH, PANG, PRTEMENUBOM, YIRGKA, AND THE WEFPERAC. VOL. I. COHESION, ADHESION, AFFINITY, LIGHT, HEAT, AND ELECTRICITY. TRANSLATED BY HENRY WATTS, BA, F.CS. eorvon oF THE sovnwAL oF THE CmEAICAL socLET. SECOND EDITION—REVISED, LONDON: PUBLISHED FOR THE CAVENDISH SOCIETY BY HARRISON, 59, PALL MALL, Bookseller to the Queen, DOOCLEI.TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. ‘Tax volume now offered to the members of the Cavendish Society is the first part of a translation of Gmelin’s “ Handbuch der Chemie,” comprising the General Laws of Chemical Action, and the Chemical Relations of Light, Heat, and Electricity. The publication of the Isat edition of this Great Standard Work was commenced by the author in 1848,—since which time, these branches of science have been enriched by many important dis- coveries. A full account of the whole of these researches would have extended the volume to too great a length ; I have therefore contented myself with introducing the most important. The principal additions relate to the following subjects :—Relations between Atomic Weight and Density ;—Relation of Light to Magnetism; the Calotype Process ; Thermography ;—Radiation and Conduc- tion of Heat; Expansion; Specific Heat; Latent Heat of Liquids and of Vapours; Tension of Vapours; Liquefaction and Soli cation of Gases ; Development of Heat in Chemical Combination ; Decomposition of Water by Heat ;—Development of Electricity by the escape of High-pressure steam ; Grove’s Gas Voltaic Battery ; and the Magnetic Condition of all Matter—Additions have likewise been made to the list of Memoirs at the heads of the chapters. ‘The new matter is kept quite distinct from the original; more complete incorporation would have required alterations in the text, which a translator is by no means justified in making. The decimal weights and measures employed in the original have been retained in the translation. If it should be thought necessary, in any particular instance, to ascertain the equivalent values in the English system, the required data will be found in a table near the beginning of the work (p. ix). For the most. part, however, such reductions may be entirely dispensed with: for scientific chemistry is more concerned with relative than withiv ‘TRANSLATOR’S PREFACE. abeolute magnitudes ; and therefore, the particular unit or mode of subdivision adopted is unimportant, except in so far as convenience and simplicity are concerned ; and in these respects, the decimal system is incomparably superior to every other. In some few instances, in which absolute magnitudes are of special importance, the English equivalents are given in addition to the original data in the decimal system. a H.W. University College, December, 1848.LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS WORK. Grell, chem. J. signifies : Chemisches Journal, von Dr. Lorene Crell. Lemgo, 1778—1781._ 6 Parts. Crelt, N. Entd.—Die nouesten Entdeckungen in der Chemie, von Dr. Lorene Grell, Leipaig. 1781—1784. 12 Grell, A jmieche Annalen, von Dr. Lorene Crell. Hemst and Leipzig. 1784—1804. 40 Volumes. Voigt. N. Mag. in fur den neuesten Zustand der Naturkunde, von Jok. Heine, Voigt. Jena, Weimar. 1797—1808. 12 Vol. Gren, A. J—Journal der Physik, von F. A. C. Gren. Halle and Leipzig. 17901794. 8 Vol. Gren, W. J—Neue® Journal der Physik, von F. A. C.Gr. Leipzig, 1795-97. 4 Vol. = Gitb-Annalen dor Physik s edited by Z. W. Gilbert, Halle. 17991824. 76 Vol Pogg-—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, von Poggendorff Leipzig. 1824-1860. 111 Vol. Continued. Las Scher. J.—Allgemeines Journal der Chemie; edited by Dr. Al. Nic. Scherer. Leipzig. 17991808. 10 Vol. Scher. N. Bl—Nordische Blitter fir die Chemic, von Al, Nic. Scherer, Halle. 1817. 1 Vol Scher, N, Ann—Allgemeine Nordische Annalen fir die Chemie, von AZ, Nic. Scherer. Petersburg. 1819—1822. 8 Vol. A, Gehl, Neues allgemeines Journal der Chemie; edited by 4. F. Gehlen, Berlin. 1803—1805. 6 Vol. WV. Gehl.—Journal fir dio Chemie und Physik ; edited by Dr. A. F. Gehlen, ‘Berlin; also, Journal fiir die Chemie, Physik, und Mineralogie ; edited by Dr. A. F. Gehlen. Berlin. 1806—1810. 9 Vol. Schw.—Journal fir Chemie und Physik; edited by Dr. J. 8. C. Schweiger. Nurnberg, Halle. 1811—1833. 69 Vol. J. techn, Chem.—Journal fiir technische und ékonomische Chemie, von O. L. Erdmann, 1828-33. 18 Vol. J. pr. Chem.—Journal fiir praktische Chemie, von O. L. Erdmann, up to 1836 with Schweigger-Seiddcl, after 1839 with R. F. Marchand and G. Werther. 1834-60. 81 Vol. Continued. A. Tr—Journal der Pharmacie, von Joh. Barthol. Trommsdorf. Leipzig. 17941816. 25 Vol. ¥. T—Neues Journal der Pharmacie, von’ Joh. Barthol. Trommedorf. -Teiprig. (1817-94, 27 Vol. Taschenb—Taschenbuch fir Scheidekinstler und Apothcker. Weimar. 1780—1829. 50 Vol. Berl. Jahrb.—Berinisches Jahrbuch der Pharmacie. Berlin, 1795—1841. 45 Vol. Continued. Repert-—Repertorium fir die Pharmacie, von Buchner (the first volume by Gehlen). Erlangen. 1815-42. 76 Vol. Continued. Jakrb, prakt. Pharm.—Jahrbuch der praktischen Pharmacie und verwandte Facher, von Herberger und Winckler. Landau, 1888—1847, 15 Vol. Continued. bevi + ABBREVIATIONS. ndrdlichen Deutschland, yon cece ee os nadtien Rud. Brandes, . 1835—1842. 32 Vol. Pharmacie ; ties, Gent by. EAN tree mie ee 1823-31. eee Nas, title: Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, you Frederich Wihler ‘Justus Liebig : since 1850, under the same title, by Wher, Hack MOEA fas Me geesmnte Novsrohee, von 2 We : ‘gest von. We 1 with the 19th Vol., under cunt Metsorologse vom WG, Kasse, eee Boe ae pemaear ras 1840, together with Vol. 88, under amd 2) Ann, Chim. Phys-—Annales de Chimie et Physiq ae pete, Paris, 1816-40, Vol, a WN, Ann, Se ater de Chimie & Perdis Fes ee 1841-60. G0 Yok. Commas a tert Pod Pas 1797. 22 Parts. ee Naturelle, Paris, 1802— i ree ene teers, Tetistaire Nafcrela, Paris, 1815 BN. dy Mus.—Nouvelles Annales du Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, 1832-85. 4 Vol. britannique, Sciences et Arts. Genave, 1796— 1815. 60 Vol. een universelle. Sciences et Arts. Gendve, 16-85. 60 Vol. WN, Bibl. univ—Bibliothdque universelle de Gendve, Nouvelle Série, 1886-42. 42 Vol. OES a eae a aa t des Mines. Paris. 1794—1815. 38 Vol. Ana. Mines. Premitre eeABBREVIATIONS. = aii Bull, Pharm.—Bulletin de Pharmacie, par Cade, Planche, Boullay, &. Paris. 1809-14. 6 Vol. J, Pharm —Journal de Pharmacie, 1815-42, 29 Vol. Continued, NW. J. Pharm —Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie, Troisitme Serie. 1842-60. 88 Vol. Continued. J. chim. méd.—Journal de chimie médicale, de pharmacie, et de toxicologie. Paris. 1825-42. 18 Vol. Continued. Ann, Sc. nat—Annales des Sciences naturelles, par Audoin, Brogniart, et ‘Dumas, 1824-83. 30 Vol. Continued. Ny. Ann, Sc. nat. Bot.—Annales des Sciences naturelles, etc. Seconde Série, Botanique. 188442. 18 Vol. Continued. WV. Ann, Sc. nat. Zool—-Aunales des Sciences naturelles, ete. Seconde Série. Zoologie. 1884-42. 18 Vol. Continued. Compe, rend.—Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des Séances de Academie des Sciences. Paris. 1835-60. 51 Vol. Compt. rend. L. § G., Comptes mensuels, or Comptes chim.—Comptes rendus deg (Travaux de Chimie, par Laurent et Gerhardt. 1840-60. 6 Vol Rev. scientif—Revue scientifique et industrielle: par Quesneville. Paris. 1840-47. Continued, Phil, Trans.—Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. London. 1665—1860. Continued. Phil. Mag.—Philosophical Magazine and Journal, by Tilloch (and Taylor). London. 1798—1826. 68 Vol. Ann, Phil—Annals of Philosophy. London. The first 16 volumes up to 1880, by, Thomas Thomsons tho following. 12, 8 a New Series, by *hillips. Altogether from 1818 | tol 1826. 28 Vol. Phil. Mag. Ann.—The Philosophical Magazine and Annals, By Richard Taylor an Bichard Philips, 1827-98. 1 11 Vol. Phil, ig J—The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, by Brewster, Taylor, and 2. "Philip" 1852-50, 87 Vol—Fourth Series, by Brewster, Kane, Francis, and Tyndall, 1857-60. 20 Vol. Continued, Quart. J. of Se—The Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art. London. 1816-27. 22 Vol. W, Quart. J. of Se.—The Quarterly Joumal of Science, Literature, and ‘Art. New Series. London. 1827-80. 7 Vol. J. Bey. Inst—The Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. 1880-81. 2} Vol. Chem. Soc. Mem.—Memoirs of the Chemical Society of London. 1848-47. 8 Vol. Chem. Soc. Qu. J—Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Socicty of London, 1848-60. 18 Vol. Continued. Edinb, J. of Se—The Edinburgh Journal of Science; by David Brewster. Edinburgh and London. 1824-29. 10 Vol. Eainb, Phil. J—The Edinburgh Philosophical Journal; by Robert Jameson (ap to 1824 also by David Brewster. Bdinburgh. 1819-26. 14 Vol, N., Edinb. Phil. J.—The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, by Robert Jameson, Edinburgh. 1826-47. 43 Vol. * Continued. 8 of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 1788- 1860. 24 Vol. Continued. Bil, Am. J—The ‘American Journal of Science and Arta; by Silliman, Newhaven. 1619-45. 49 Vols. Second Series, 1846-60. 90 VokWEIGHTS AND -MEASURES. In the new French aystem of weights a Metre is the tenth millionth part of the distance from the orth Pole te the Equator, or of half the length of a meridian. Tt is divided into tenths, hundredths, ‘and thousandths, or Decimetres, Centimetres, and Millimetres. 1 Metre = 0'518074 French Toises =8 Paris Feet and 11-1 Lines = 3694128 Par. Inches = 89°37079 English Inches—A French Foot = 0'32484 met.; an English Foot = 03047946 met.; and s Swedish Foot = 0296867 met. 1 Cubic Metre = 1 Btére = 1000 Litres = 1,000,000 Cubic Centi- metres. 1 Cubic Declmetre = 1 Litire = 1000 Cubic Centimetres. 1 Gallon English = 4'548 Litres. 1 Cubic Centimetre of water at + 4°, ts point of maximam density, weighs 1 Grammo; hemos, 1 Litro of water at 4° weighs. 1000 Grammes (about zyomis)s ‘and 1 Stare of water weighs 1,000,000 Grammes = 1000 10,000 Grammes = 1 Myriagramme; 1000 Grammes = 1 Kilo- gramme; 100 Grammes = 1° Hectogramme; 10 Grammes = 1 Deca- gramme; 01, Gramme = 1 Desigrammes 0€1 Gramme = 1 Cent gramme; 0-001 Gramme = 1 Milligramme. 1 Gramme = 18:82715 Fr. poids de mare (72 grains = 1 ) 5 = 16001022755 grains, lirembety. el ght; = 261-01569 Richt. fennigtheilchen, Kélnish Markgewicht (65586 Richtpfennigtheilchen =8 Ponont or ruark); = 056475 ‘fame, sh evoinlapa ee same ‘ounce, 16 ounces = 1 pound); = 15°48235 grains, rm Engle Coy troy imy vial (400 gr. = 1 on, 19 on. = 1 Th); — 029509 Bot it (8 lotnik = 1 Loth, 82 Loth and) ete Dell 6D =1 Solotnik, 288 Doli = 1 Loth, and $216 Boi = 1 Ruseian pound). 1 Paris Cubic Inch of water at 4° wei; 19-836 Grammes = 819°4 Grains Nuremberg weight;—1 Rhenish Cubic Inch of water weighs 17-891 Grammes = 288'1 Nur.;—1 English Cubic Inch of water weighs 16°891 Grammer 264°5 Nir, wt. 1 Apothocaries’ pound (18 on.) weighs : in Austria, 490-000 Grammon —in Holland, 87496 erm. ingland, troy-weight, 872-9986 grm.— in Bavaria, 360 0 grain Ni mberg, 857°66391 grm—In Hanover, 357°56686 grm.—In Sweden, 356-22687 grm—in Prussia, 850-78348 grm.Areomcter for Liquids heacier than Water. Ineo 108 ‘ns 101s | 1-014) Sis 1922 | 1-999] Lomi 1928 | 1928) T9092, 1-106 | 1-994] 19088! 1-943 | 1-081 19429 1061 | 1-040] 19466. 1950 | 1057 105 V8T tons: 1-975 | 1-972] 15st 1546 1563 1s78 | 1506 1815 164 1653 ie 1300 SSSSSTIESASSSASKLBRSSBIRR BPAVASSSAResaseseursurags 31 | 1-46902 1983 | 1-080] 1709 38 | rer 1991 | 1088) | 17a 13 | 1997811090 | 1-006 1780 4 | 19007 1707 | 1104 im 36 | tones sae | 12113} 819) 1-798 16 | 14000! 1135 | ran 19346 | 1802] 1815 37 | 4111 j14194 | 1-139] 1'6506 | 1868) 1-839 4s | 14196'1-145 | 1-138) ‘reee7 | rest! 1864 Jo | t12ss) 1499 | 1447] 16832 | 1916) 1836 0 | 14333) 1-361 | 1157 11-7000 | 1-943] 1-909 51 | 11499:3470 | 1166 1-968] 1935, 2 1-995] 1-960 a 203 “ 053] % 3081 The scale of Beck, Cartier, 5, and Boumé 5, are taken from Gra- hasn’n Lehrbuch, I, 158; thowe of Cartier a and Baumé a, in which the sprrific: gravity of water at 12°5° C. is assumed = 1-000, and likewise the seals of (ay-Lussec’s Alooholometer, are from Maroseau’s Memoir. (J. Pharm, 16,452.)WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. xiDESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. Protosulphnte of iron or cobalt;—112: Acetate of zinc;—118: Acetate of sodas—114: Carbonate of soda with ten atoms of water ;—115: Hy- arated ferrocyanide of sodium ;—116: Hydrated carbonate of magnesia, ¢ Onecand-two-menbered Sytem. Fy. 1W7—110. $177 Oxalio ecidy 118: Chromate of soda;—119: Sulphate of soda. 5. Mitacherlich’s Syatem. Fig. 120 i phito of lime. 6. One-ani-one-membered or Double "Priematic Sytem. ig.121— Sulphate of copper;—124, 125: Axinite;—126: Gallio Succinate of ammonia;—128: Succinate of soda;—129: Bonase adds 180" Alkargen, 7. Three-and-one-membered System. 4, Strmenbored or Hesagonal Sytem. 1g1—140, Quarts -—158, 185: Sapphire ‘1th ‘Hyposulphate of strontia; ait, 186: Emerald ;—137—140 : Caleapat 5. Three-and-three-Membered Ot Rhombahedral Sytem, , Forms derived from an obtuse rhombohedron, Fig. 141—150. 14.148 and 145-150 ;—Calospar;-—144: Neutral byposulphate of . Forms derived from an acute rhombohedron. Fig. 151—160. 151, 158, 155, 156 and 157: Specular iror 152, 154: Calcspar ;— 158: Sesqui-oxide of chromium ;—159: Red silver ore;—160: Cinnabar, Prats III. Schemes of Chemical Decomposition, Decomposed compounds are indicated by dotted lines; newly formed compounds, by full lines. Prats IV. Apparatus. Electro-Chemical Apparatus and Processes. App. 1—83. 25: Daniell’s Constant Battery. 26: Grove’s Battery. 27: Trough or Cell Apparatus. 28 and 29: Fe oltameter. 81 and $2: Faraday’s Battery.L Ty, Basos of Avrorrr Vv. CONTENTS OF VOL. I. PART I. Genera Cuemtsrry; on Turory or Arrintry in GexERaL. ‘List of Works and Memoirs relating to Affinity .. Forownmnat Norox oF Armor... Foausrion oF Cmranaas, Courouspe Conditions of Chemical Combination Cireumstances aod Results of the Bodies Atomle Weight of Simple Substances Relations between the Atomic Weights and Densilies of Elementary Bodice . Atomic Welght of Compounds... Chemical Formals... Btotchiometrical Calcalstion .. Relations between the Atomle Welghta and Denait ot Campos ‘late of Aggregation of Compounds a Tsomorphiam... . Calorifc Relations of Compounds Relations to Light. . (Chemical and Physiological Relations of ompounia ‘Dimorphism ... : Amorphism Isomerism Polymertem Metameriem Dacomrosrriou or Cmmaacat Courovxps. 1, Conditions of Decomposition... “ 4. Ciroumstances and Rasalts of Decomposition a1 33. 62 59 61 64 87 93, * 96. 98 102 108 109 10 m1 133CONTENTS. xv ‘V. Maowrrope on Sramvora oF Avrimirr. Page In Decompositions in which the Affinity of Heat contributes to the result . In Decompositions in which Ponderable Bodies areal General Laws relating to Strength of Affinity Columns of Affinity ‘VI. Ontorr awp Navone oy rau Paxwowexa or Avvonrr, 1. Atomic Theory .... (a.) Constitution of Atoms. 1.) Chemical Combination... 2. Dynamic Theory A. Kante Theory. B. Sebelling's Theory PART II. Sprcrat Cremisray. ‘Seontou I. CHEMISTRY OF IMPONDERABLE BODIES. Caarrm I, LIGHT. 161 168 List of Memoirs, &e., relating to Light Physical Properties of Light . Canaoat Ratarioxs, L. Relation of Light to the other Imponderables. Development of Heat by Light ‘Development of Light by Hest Relation of Light to Blectricity Relation of Light to Magnetism I. Relations of Light to Ponderable Bodies. C Combinations produced by the agency of Light ... .. Combinations accompanied by Decompositions ecomporitions produced by Light. Cavorrre; DavoxiRnorrrs ; oRarEY Phoephorescence of Living Animals Phosy horescence of Living Plants ... Phosphorescence of Putrefying Animals Phoephoreacence of Putrefying Plants Phosphorescence by Irradiation 198 Phosphorescence produced by Heat... 199 Development of Light by Mechanical Force ‘202 Luniinous Appearances accompanying Crystallization 208 Caarrma I, HEAT. ‘List of Memoirs, &., relating to Heat ...xvi CONTENTS. Radiation Conduction Bxpansion of Gases... ‘Bxpansion of Liquids Brpansion of Solids . ..... ‘Thermometers and Pyrometare Specific Heat. Cold produced by Vaporization ‘Density of Vapoura and Gases .. Latent Hest of Vapours.. ‘Liquefaction and Solidification of Gasoe Development and Absorption of Heat by Chemical Combination Development and Absorption of Heat by Mechanical Canses ‘Decomposition of Water by Heat Cuarren III. ELECTRICITY. List of Memoirs, dc., relating to Electricity 304 309 310 1. Mutual Relation of the thoo Blectricities, Combination of two Electricities: Discharge Decompaition of Latent Rletrieity into its two opposite ine ‘Busormsorrr. (A) By Induction, (B.) By Magnetism, (C.) By Capillarity. (D.) By the Solar ‘Rays (R) By variation of temperatare in Crystals (P.) By Heat: Taxnwo-srscrmorrr (@) By Friction (H) By Chemical Action (a) By Chemical Combination (8) By Decompositions efected by the agency of Light or Heat: Steam. electricity a (c) By Combinations accompanied by Decompositions (q Imperfect Conductors (B,) In the Maton! Action of Perfect and Tmperfect Conductors: Snarta GauvaaTo smoUrT, (1) Teo Metal and One Liquid. . a 3a Toro Motals with 346 ‘Two Metals with Dilute Acide ur aud Diveionunet o7 318 ao 321 826 328 340CONTENTS: avi ‘Two Metals with Concentrated Acids . ——- 388 ‘Two Metals with Nitrie Acid 858 Passive Condition of Iron . 858 ‘Two Metala with Caustic Ali . 868 ‘Two Metals with Alkaline Salts 865 ‘Two Metals with Hoary Motallio Salts 306 ‘Two Metals with Sulphide of Potassium 878 ‘Two Metals and one Liquid nnoqually heated Quantity of the Electric Current in the Simple Galvanic Circuit ‘Motions of Mercury in the Bimple Galvanic Circuit... .... 2, me Metal and one Liquid 3, Two Motals ad two liquide 4. One Metal and two Liquids = 5, Two Metals and two separated Liquids ‘A. The same Liquid in both Vomels .. B. The two Veuels containing diferent Instruments for the production of Electric Currenta by Chemical Action. I, Instramenta consisting of « Simple Galvanic Circuit: Wollaston’s Thimble- Apparatus; Hare's Defagrator and Calorimotor . If, Tnstromenta formed by the union of several Simple Barraaias...... ‘Quantity of the Current in the Battery: Onu’s Fomrvts Electrical Tension of the Battery : Materials of the Battery... 1. Batterion with two Metals and two Liquide: Dawimu‘e Barren; Gnovg' BATTERY : 2. Batterie with two Metala and one Liquid an ae ar a9 3. Batteries with one Metal and one Liquid 4er 4. Batteries with one Metal and two or three Liquids 428 5. Grove's Gas Battery ... 428 439 (1) Development of Hlectricity by the Vital Procoes; EAEorRioaL FiSiRa x. IL, Inftuence of Blectricity on the Chemical Nature of Ponderable Bodies. 1. Combinations brought about by Electrical Influence % Decompositions produced by the Action of Electricity (A.) Decompositions produced by repeated Electric Discharges (B) Decompositions produced by the Continaoua Discharge of Hlecsicity of small Tension: Euacrsoursis = Hiectrolpts, Ion, and Products of Decomposition in General. ‘Degree of Decomporition : Place of Decomposition ... aaton tetreen the quantity of the Current and the Quantity of Liquid decomposed .... Influence of the Intensity of the Carrent on Decomposition. Tafiuence of the Chemical Natare of the Electrolyte Infuencs of the Tempersiare and Compreasion ofthe Hletrolyte Influence of the Relative Volume of the Electrolyte... Induence of the Chemical Nature of the Electrodes Influence exerted by the Surfaco of the Electrodesxviii ‘Riectrolysis of Individual Compounds: Water ... Oxygen-ealts of the Allalis and Earths .. --—__— Heavy Metallic Oxides Electrolysis of two or more Liquids in contact ‘Two Liquids in two Divisions Motions of Mereary in the Voltale Cireuit Development of Heat in the Voltaic decomposition of Liquids Technical Applications of Voltaic Electricity. {din Plialsing ivering Coppin, Tmnng, and Hnking ‘Maowemo Oospmox or au, MarzINTRODUCTION. i iz i A i te Wn iB: i 3 as FF ra yaa ea aa i ah i Fae ns : 4 uy i ir 2a8t3 1 fh Hl ee es 3 HG ea ii SSE eHA RT !INTRODUCTION. Secale 7 BHHE ie “Pub beavis fe eave eal is ey He TG te it capayea it it_on other sciences, these several cae to ve received the names of ei soot in medicinal and ii Hr id AiHISTORICAL SURVEY. 3 pigment pee see Ee ant its, On means: snats bodies from decay. ‘The the od arious forme oft are due merely to differences of shape in the ultimate particles. ‘The Romans deri their chemistry, as indeed all the rest of did envisage Teeth Greeks, without making the smallest extension of it. The migration of the northern nations and the overthrow of the Roman empire put a stop to the progress of science in Europe. On the ater hand, from the seventh to the leventh century, the sciences, and chemistry in particular, obtained protection Bes citrate among the Arabs, who had spread themselves over Spain and the north of ‘Africa. Their chemical investigations were ehiefly directed to the te eta ae sine si eget acbetamnce which, like the plilosopher’s ‘stone, metal from its imperfections or blemishes and thereby Conver eta anble cal they believed also that such a substance, or on restore the sick to health and even render man immortal. Hence they laid the foundation of Alchemy. Geber, one of the seonctagt naced a acquainted with preparati or Mthargo, ae jon Sa ee eins eset «for of still like that at present used in the distillation ne also the dis- of and ee dnt ek i, Aludel, &c., inated witl it the chemical knowledge and views of tho Arba Bane where, agreeably with the mystical tendencies ‘of the age, the theory of transmutation found especial fayours and while it raised up persevering alchemists who employed selves in were fruitless, for the of obtaining gold from the baser metals, at the same time gave to a host of who turned the credulity of others to their own account. rage for alchemy continued ‘in from the ee to the seventeenth century, and though it fail ee e rave rise to ‘the: of a mass of facts which, ‘it not for ‘thirst for gold, would in all have remained unkn Among the Setsptads chet nidaninia weser, Arnoul do Vile Nove 36 the ‘hiteenth century, Haimand Lally in the fourteenth, Basil Valentine Ba fluoride of a au ae : aoa Be) wee —— aie eaer hanes advanced with twofold rapidit zeal the adherents of the new the ‘through that of their ipso thio: tine partly through the newi iW ! i i : Different liquids exhibit different degrees of cohesion: the cohesive power is for the most part very nearly proportional to the density. Cohesion of Solids. ‘This force shows itself particularly in three ways.ce caualy ica to a y secceta aL an Hed Hh ne ne zt yi a anaes directions, and when external form, hice ight fracture 5 Amorphous bodies, such as glass and grum. are uneven, the imperceptil © go of contact is the surfaces as powerful in Feridce et masses of indefinite very section, are b a wep eile If bodies would be }. When bodies ‘this: - the @), na separate oye formed,—for or clea i ‘than in 5 bodies form: a ‘the other, according To enable a ox paseo i ingmseqaencs-of wh another ponderable sia rior which have eerieITORSIr weer mecanramecemsiy. RH “2 wien ae worse Ov was wo ur raed? Hee eet Ue mer mex he mote or mece acpeacs sulama eons a ce Sy SoM Ue Whale, chat oe sites, Wien ie sume Sas Sc Sey Acme uN rus a h Ey cues suffer 1 Batts ot ta Lesa ‘ wha bh, Whois the a. ie tig tet " ear padi wb ery alate we tae det ned a Petty We the ys Wonwe ve toe ais tiled (hue ba tan gqant w tinct toe he ett Hajuon, thot ate tine af te H malt, a gtvatqb Iida elt neta Ht tnt Ce ie hae ni an Gee ale a i i Ta ll Ha Hiei) 3 Hs Pee i ane te eu baie al panne PETE MeE Pl et nny la iil lly ie Tee SAa aR Sea ae ay dt iil i le ie j a ie ee uueiibat : q pale deen ginlenal fae Fa y Hie coil ui dinet HW id is nie UE a in ei vy iat cee Ha a dln 3 ue a8 a il qi iG ay iity aC THEns H i mut Se HEI: (4 fa i if ne ii! i 4 : / ie i i ciel in a C1 ca ea enti tg | Li ae all lay UU Ct ea Le ata, Pal 1h Hal ihe eee isue ip aaa: Ha fet He a ad Le ; 3338 = aly aea43; ii ea a ean u wii un ae aul UW il el He i Hi aa i ah : eh ied Hee Hele : a Ah Wee bu A Hae nae peeAT measures of hours, and the same volume of carbonic acid in 10. Now of A i gh Sink at juare root of 1 (spec. gray. of 1) to the square root of 22 (spec. i cf 5 Hl i i if af i it z i : t H i" Ht H Z ee Ee i i a i A 22 i he li ii tf a | t 5 : ff i é i i i 2 i HE i i Z respects ir geneous constitut eae ages Dias eee Ne iE a SEEDADE ts i cannot i means, it must. when devoid of colour, cannot be distin- y Sapene emsenl estleaton, Goo-attrres Ft oveverdoasints eh all the chatacters of a chemical combination excepting uniformity: (a.)* HH et deraias (NRRL ae Te Tee lth Hil Laat i i ie Hue i laaaie ae : $ ao ae siggeegg ate te sisakee teks | et std eee Tela HAG Ey fal Be aus edit in ag ese ed ah ifs uel Wat Hy Wn # a Brink dya ADHESION. 2 tities which are as the roots of their densities. Thus Ser ncaa tai fic ees the or te ace reac =1, ‘place, flexible i and cork. ( 2 Phat J. 2 175, 269 te aotearoa also, 1,83. Thomson’s observations thereupon. (Phil. Mag. J. 4, $21.) 1 tied over the opening of a wide= ' : ; iF ‘ i zu ; : : i 4 i F i acts like a sheet of eaoutchoue. (Mitchell.) A moi two-thirds filled with coal-gas or air, swells when suspended in carbonic acid gus and finally bursts. In this experiment, as much as 40 per cent, of carbonic a somtimes mixes with the coal gus, while only a very small quantity of the latter ‘into the atmosphere of carbonic acid, "Hence the water of the moistened absorbs carbonic acid and gives it up again on the inner side. Qu. J..0f Sc. 6, 88; also 57, 2273 extr. inADHESION. 27 8. Adhesion between liquide. 1, ‘The spreading of water over the surface of mercury seems to arise "2° When one gl ver intial dif hoop another th being transparent wl ‘a turbid and often milky fluid, called Ba Eons eof which the two bodies peepee frag efaiereatarnts colo i a | q unl na lh Hae Hel apis HEE i oe wi Zl i 3. a i u Ee E 2 i i : : Zz z exhibit the i omens rE they have een fret ke) ‘Well, but not er holding, the carbonate of wads involution carbonic gradually and complete! vessel on opening the veeed) after it hee ith violence. Hence water EF EE He ih agoe E,EE I = : hl i FH 2h & 4 5 “it Hl 2k Gi i i 3 4 i e i g F i ng the more moveable body escapes, mate uikly than the water. (c.) IF the vessel bas been but very slightly Baked: the gas and liquid escape together, the latter in the for of fis mist, as long as the pressure of the gas is sufficient to force it out. (Terey, Phi. Mog. J. 16, 10.) Oracks produced in the sealed end of a glass tube by heating and then wetting it with water, may be of four of fineness. (a.) The widest allow water to escape when the tube is exposed to the air. (b.) Those somewhat narrower only when immersed in water. (c.) Still narrower cracks are pervious only when théa aqua 2238 sa agsses aes besa 5 ue #3 Seen ie Het BET Te Ee Hee ee ae aerate § gesagt Cigk ec seasg=egsges § SESSA RESsos8o8 3 Hi aes Pi caliGeclia: | ia Hastie aa enGent al He euaetidealiduanietis fate ali i Heute negen Het APU ce cata ieaea Hi jin! taal HH i ein By HahaPART I. . GENERAL CHEMISTRY, THEORY OF AFFINITY IN GENERAL. Gzorrnor Vainé. Des différents Rapporta observés en Chimie entre différentes Substances. Mém de Acad. des Se. de Paris, 1718, 202; 1720, 20. ‘A. Manuzne Chem, Abhandl, von. d.Verwandtachaft der Kérper. Leipzig, 1764. Wear.’ Lehro von der Verwandtachatt. Dresden, 1777, L. Benoman. De Attractionibus electivis. Opuscula. Winette. “Hevision der Grundslahre von der chemechea Verwandt- “schaft. Erfurt, 1780: R. Kmwan. Physico-chemical Writings. Translated into German by Crell. “5 vol. Berl. u. Stettin, 17851801. Gortox pe Morveav. Articles Afinité and Adkésion in the Encyclopédio ‘Méthodique. Chimie, Pharmacie et Metallurgie. Paris, 1786, 1, 585. J.B. Ricnrer. Anfangegriinde der Stéchiometrie. 8 Bde. Breslau und Hirschberg, 1792—1794. ae" Gegenstinde der Chemie. Breslau. Heft 7—9. 1796— C.L'Burmouer. Recherches sur les Lois de V'AMinité, Paris, 1801. ——— Premitre et seconde suite des Recherches. —— Troisitme suite. Paris, 1806 5 also WV. Geblen, 8, 248, + —— Essai de Statique Chimique. 2 Binde. Paris, 1803. L. Scunavserr. Untersuchung der Verwandtschaft, u.s. w. Erfurt, 1808. On Chemical Combination and Decomposition. J. pr. Chem. 5, 57. Kansrex. Revision der chemischen Affinititslehre. Leipzig, ‘iclation of Composition to Form, "Scho, 65, 20 atl 394." Gax-Loeeac, on tho Combinations of Gagoous Bodies. Now. Bul. de Soc. Philom. 1809. 1, 298; also Gilb. 36, 6. ‘On the Precipitation of Metallic Oxides one by another. Ann. Chim, 89, 21; also Gehl. 2, 487. J.Dazzox. New System of the Chemical part of Natural | ilogopby. 2 vol. Manchester, 1808: translated into German by Wolff. Berliz, 1812. 1, 282. ‘Ann, Phil. 8, 1743 also Sehw. 14, 462. ‘a. Tomsox, on Stochiometry. Ann. Phi. 2, 82, 109, 167 and 2 8, 184 and 875; 4, 11 and 88; 5, 184; 7,'848; 12, 888 ond 486;AFFINITY. 33, J. Deatas, on Tsomerism. Ann. Chin. Phys. 47, 824; also Pogg. 26, 915. —— Speeitic Gravity of Vs ‘Ann. Chim. Phy, 50, V Tuowas Guanaat., Kloments'of Chemistry. London, 1888, ‘Translated into German by Otto, 1840. J. Paton, “introlustion APEtude do" Chinio Moléoulire. Pasis ot Strasbourg, 1899, Rope ont eatin be Tetwece the Atoms Weights and Spot: Gr. of ‘Liquid and Solid Compounds. Pogg. 47, 133; 52, 243 and 2625, 4 also Ana, Farm 961. Saag eel secenwirien, on the same i. fn tho samo aubvock, Pep. 86, $535 62, 209 and 282. Bror, See J reo 38 on y L. Gacenas, cha Artikel: ;eHLER’s Physikalischen Wérter- buch, Meh 1857. Synonymen Cheah Atatin, Chm Frc Rtatoe Aerain watelS ioe Maine Hlatoe Ake ” Chemical combination was in early times attributed ‘of Hippocrates that like assorts with like> hence the ork ferwandtschaft) which seems to have been first em by Barchhnsen. Becher assumed, in accordance with this dogma, that whe i hn ea combining, they must contain 2 common = Overs, among whom was Lemery, supposed that solvents are ‘with a number who referred combination to the principle of universal attraction, omer he at the same time assumed that this attraction between is not the same as that which acts between the chemical combinations take place in oven, eet to some of pees + and they endeavoured to determine these ‘was confirmed by Richter, Proust, Gay-I1 , and Berzelius, and expanded into the Theory of Definite / tniform tothe senses even, when a ments. The act of union is called ee ee Predluct a Ghoniul Compound, and it it be Gud, «Solon, The ae *The term Combination je sometimes Sac cneaeteicenee Product the ‘et of com=the Order, the most important of which are the Seicaieataog oamrsoeaae agua usw capable ef enizip vot with each other and with ‘of the first order, thus forming compounds substance B is of uniting, while a third substance 0 is not cay itself of ig into such combi so by uniting with B, the us manifested was called Mediating Affinity, on instance, (iy ot combining with ealphere acid (B) otomed soluble in water (A). t B nor ( ean combine with A, but the ‘BO can form such a union, the affinity is called Produced Developed Afinity, ( v Pe A aac Pesce pone without causing the destraction of any pre chemical compound was called the older chemist onan Maes (aun 1. Conditions under which Chemicat Combination takes place, A. The affinity of the combining bodies must. be sufficient to over- ome all opposing forces, such as gravitation, cohesion, and elasticity. >to it, Nitrogen and hydrogen will not combine to ioe it or electricity ; but if tin- binoxide of nitrogen, the tin HARE ae cat ape ae rae aie Hie fi ie bes HF i i L i : q i a n 5 FERED EE ta tae ER i ie ‘ ity pele bl i F :int a i i t i fia = il aad 4 ene Ha 4 it ei 12 3 3 Hin ‘ith -- 2% Circumstances and Results of the, chemical combination of Pondlerable i 4 a Fag: ae ae ill a ‘ aYe is loos frequent. (Vid, Heat.) Some eom- with a of electricity. (Vids about ; a fall of are’ ) Electricity. B, Time Bebe 7s is between the new bodies and hinders and sulphur. ‘Hydrochloric acid gas, on. the cont n directed on the surface of water, because its solu place nner combine but aia aces tea ly. Hlibel agigsket Herat ion 5 es gay Zine “p ‘satu th fe of properties: ¢.g., Water and aleohol ; aleobol oils. take wp any quantity whatever of another body peculiar may having combined with a certain then said-t0, be eaturted. wiUW 3 : EE GL eet fe aaa Ge ae aap yeti Uitteliidiing a Ec i il ulieiiad Pee Ha aT ania41 ‘STOICHIOMETRY. ijg]i Loabeeeasaretaeg | Jethesaceaggt f2gcdice2t] t i aig A Heats bauils Sl GE in LEE ERY Ean Pe dil dlaus| Wiest eed 1H aati renee iNaae 1 aH Hiatal tees mie eta His GHERIEAG ans Ha Hn He aeialgeed Ebjglus ie iedgad (gs tienes 33 Relsd tgciZe a Pine: i agHe eH He PahHerta at a rE i pe nue : Hina ti a bal (ce Jay themsel atoms being of uniform while the atoms of di atoms weg a rere bg eve sn each individual Esto yolume, It is assumed ‘atoms, which, when. collected eee, 2 e. ert oe He Hei aalle Hie ce i inI RHO HUTA iat Head i AE a Wey even (A Teulea i tee iE aia HE ei: 2s bee ae ped on eeeiet aft Laas eras negate tH tay ree Ue eG 4 Sag8¢ israe a S3sy : : eoessgakg = aan dileses TEUams a8 = es s 2 bongs 23 er ee Saad 7 ier: Fis) ay be: Ha 4 HUGE auteeunen if HEnIE | Te ail Ha id i Pe i uaa melbisieaed GF atte | ie eae AE are a ee Farag eae Ee Ee eae fH eH es BHT HE Eee unger HbALU a i a ale ui é i “ ae oftin with 2 At. > this relation 1 with to, of titanium. Black oxide of copper forms compounds isomorphous with the anal and protoxide of iron, all which are su a * development of these relations will be found under-the head of Zsomonphizan, For the determination of the atomic weights of si their specific heats, vid. Heat, ‘The following table of the atomic weights of the elementary bodies is founded almost wholly on the analyses of their eompounds performed by ‘a labour as ‘as it was extensive, by which ius has conferred an everlasting obligation on chemical science. Carn A contains the arcs of the single wats; B the ymin introduced by Berzelius to denote them: C and D the atomic weights, Shs: Bageatr el tet pevbebly belong to Ss several Dodies scot ag to the principles. just pels eolumis0, in which the storia weight =1; is that which will be used in preference in this work; in D the atomic weight of oxygen = 100. ‘The columns E and F contain the atomic weights according to Berzelins; in B the atomic weight of(AFFINITY. Atomic Weights of the Elementary Bodies. B c D z F ° 8 100 8-01 H i 125 0°50 o 6 5 6-18 B ros | 135 10-91 P sia | sos | 15-73 Sulphur 8 10 200 1613 Selenium « se | 40 500 39-63, Todine - I 128 1575 63-28 Bromine. Br | 78-4 | 980 39-20 Chlorine <.. ct | 354 | sas | 17-74 Fluorine z 17 | 283-75 | 9-37 Nitrogen x rr 175 7-09 Potassium K 30-2 | 490 Sodium . we | 25-2 | 200 Lithium L 6-4 80 Be | 636 | 857-5 sr | 44 550 cs | 30:5 | 250-25 Mg | 1a-7 | 158-75 le | 46 576 Ge | 46 575 p| 4 600 Y s2-2 | 402-5 | 32-25 | 402-51 Givcinam . o a7 | 221-25 | 26-54 | as1-26 ‘Aluminam Av] ise7 | am-25 | as-72 | an-t7 Thoriem . Tm | soe | 745 9-65 | 744-90 Zirconium. a | a4 | 280 as-er | 40:20 Silicium st us| 185 aa-a2, | 277-81 Titaniom * m | 2-5 | 306-25 | 2433 | 303-66 Tantalum T. | 185 aeia-5 | 9245 | 1158-72 Niobium Tongsten . W 95 nists | 94-80 | 1188-00 Molybdenum". Mo | 48 600 4796 | 508-52 Vanadium. v 68-6 8675 | 68-66 | 856-89 Chromium. G | 4 35125| 2819 | 351-82 Uranium. vu 217 e726 | 217-26 | 711-36 Manganese <.0000| Mn | 37-6 345 ar7a | 345-89 Arenic. As | 75-2 40 ar6r | 470-08 ‘Antimony s...-..2.:] 8b] 129 1612-5 | 64-62 Telluriom-.2000520:] Te | 64 800 64-25 Bi-math Br | 106-4 | 1380 7-07 Zine . Zo | 32-2 402°5 | 32°31 Cadmiom ca | 558 eor5 | 35-83 Tin... 8 50 wars | 58-02 Tead Pb | 103-8 | 1207-5 | 108-78 Tron Fe | 37-2 340 7-18 Cobalt co | 396 370 29 87 Nickel | Ni] 306 370 20-62 Copper co | 38 3075 | 3171 Mereary Hg | ore | 1267-5 | 101-43 Bilver. Sy] ag | 108-1 | 1861-25 | 108-30 Aa | 190 2487-5 | 99-60 | 1248-01 Pe ser | 1253-75 | 98-85 | 1988-50 Pa | 53+ 607 5 | 63-86 | 665-90 R 5 65125 | 52-2 651-39 Tridiom. Ir 98-7 | 1233-75 | 98-84 | 1283-60 Ommiem Os | s9-6 | 1205 sora | 1264-49 Rathenium Ba | 51-7 646-25STOICHIOMETRY. ol The betrtm the numer nD ond thowe in B Fare explained by the following considerations. itis " soca one is exactly 8 times: that of ny while in EF its value is 8:01 times (or more accurately 6-0083, that of the double atom of hi + also in CD the fractions of the other numbers are shortened as Aa posible, In EP the atomic weights of hydrogen, iodine, bromine, chlorine, fluorine, tro reasons above tnentioned, reduced one-half, In GD, according to Principio 2, the assumed that silica contains 1 At. silicium com- cy ays AaB, 1 At. metal with 8 AL oxypen..In "was, is now s supposed by Berzelius, and regarded by him as admissible, that oxide of ith contains 3 At. oxygen to every 2 At. metal: in EF it is supposed to contain 1 At +1Atmetal —« Gn comparing with ou6 ehothér th numbers. ta cifuum 0; we obtain the following 1. The atomic weights of the other simplo-substances are in many aitppseyealeaan, sont, stone, ayptontas £2. si tan le nit ; strontium, fentim, &e. Is it then a lave of nature, 8 Prout and Thomson suppose, that the atomic weights of all the elements are divisible by that of n? If we can entertain the‘STOJCHIOMETRY. 53 ‘the atomic number of hydrogen = 0-0693- The last column F gives gravities of the gases, that of hy = 1, by which the sim elation between the specific gravity and the atomic weight becomes In compound elastic fluids, we also meet with 4, 3, }) and J-atomic When a body assumes the gaseous state, its atoms become sur- ron Greate etereereanemariaas ac 60th ac gases); 8 (in the 2-atomic gases); 6 (in the I-atomic gusos)s 9 (in the som eee) 1a (nthe atomic gases; 1 (in the s-atomie gases) (in the atomic genes). Hence the magnitude of the gus-spheres increases in the simple jon of 1:8: 629112 18:24, fhe gas-epheres of any oa De eal tomate his gen. ton, «ff th of sulphur 6 times as Soest Geeta ces eerste te ‘canse of the aaa sae Stee past oka a 7ans, relations of a ha hie hange ‘hose been effected, merely require a higher temperature than na refractory: it mus state ; Paste ‘be brought into the es tan bone cocbe that that these more to gaseous speelted wil be found in the table, page 67. Salyer : inl a LT eae i ¢ ei iF a fy ne ad ae hha hs . 3 ak 7 Hell i Hi iSTOICHIOMETRY. 56 been hammered. Finally, one body expands more by heat than another. All these disturbing causes, which prevent the existence of any exact relation between atomic weight and specific gravity, are absent in gaseous bodies : in these the size of the atoms is so small in comparison with that of the heat-spheres, that it need not be taken into consideration; moreover, cohesion is in gases completely overcome, and they all expand equally with equal increments of heat. The following table is arranged in the same manner as the last.— Column A: the simple substances taken in order according as their atomic numbers for the same volume diminish. Column B: their atomic weights. Column (: their specific gravities in the liquid or eolid state, that of water =1-000; in the case of the metale, the specific gravities are those which they possess after fusion and solidification, not after hammering. Column D: the quotient obtained by dividing the wpectc gravity by the atomic weight, is to say, the atomic number. Column E: the quotients in column D multiplied by’ 770 (air being 770 times lighter than water) in order to render the atomic numbers of this table comparable with those of the former, in which the specific gravity of air was assumed = 1-000. Column F: the atomic numbers of column E divided by 0-0698; the column F of the present table is thus made to harmonize with column E of the preceding : it gives the number of atoms of a liquid or solid body contained in a space which would include 1 atom of hydrogen. Column @: the numbers taken from column F of the former table, and giving the reduced atomic number of a body in the gaseous state, 1 volume of hydrogen gas being supposed to contain 1 atom of hydrogen, a B o D B F @ Atomic Number. Atomic | Specific In the weight. | gravity. | Water=1.| Aira1. | Reduced. | gaseous ‘alate, 36000 | osess | dsonar | 64st iW 86370 | 02918 3242 8:0000 | 02898 3220 gsssa | 09885 13205, e430 | 02888 3208 e720 | 02742 3046 215000 | 02178 2420 52800 | 02155 2304 5 11000 | 02158 2392 Rhodiom :1!.:!] 621 | 112000 | o2149 | 165473 | 2388 Zine .......1..| 822 | @9154 | 02148 | 165396 | 2386 Chromium::1.:!] 281 | 5:9000 | 02100 | 161700 | 2338 Iridium......1| 987 | 186300 | 01887 | 145-299 | 2006 angsten ......| 950 | 17-4000 | 1881 | 140987 | 2034 Molybdenum ..| 48 ‘6000 | 01792 | 137-984 | 1901 Cadmium....:.| 558 | 86355 | o1sa7 | ni9i19 | 1719 135500 | 01337 | 102049 | 1485 1 20000 | 01250 | 96250 | 1888 6 72900 | 01296 | 95172 | 1878 irsss9 | 01007 | geasp | 1218 ‘¢sioo | o1077 | sz029 | 1196 10-0000 | 1004 | 77308 | 1116 62580 | 00978 | 75306 | 1088 104280 | ooscd | 74218 | 071 192000 | over | 73097 | 1008viz., the their cohesion, and their attraction for heat, are not the only ones by oie ee natee EMGAGMGA TCE ntinbar properticb tice abatr adathis. numbers nearly equals gy nlckel ‘manganese, cobalt, and iron (of Yih tht of th damond i double platioun, plod, and rains titanium and chromium ; roolsbdennm silver, and gold: nature; that of is nearly double that of mercury: that’ of zinc double itiA IaNPE pe arsenis 24 noe list of 'antaivoy sof soda nearly toico that of potassium. aYs (Por further development of this matter, vid. Density af Com S31] a4s24 Aromto Wwetcur or Courouxps. 5 =" % orale g2a B lla ern, Hastie bia: se Tasca! bys babel fys2 aa ti met a Hee 132] et sn ah sée,383 a i ; iveuue sHHHthat when the proximate clemenss -f sm:t ompvanis of the second oricr, wolphate 4 lead Za examcie. onmain a ommwa ultimate element, an oxygen in this cave. the yaaaccees :f chis titimate element con- fA in the two proximate elemenss mins tear a smple relation to each Other: e.g. the quantity € P).0? If now D denote the density of the chloride determined by experiment, we always find D > A, and? So expresses tlio cooficiont, of oon- traction. ‘The same method is applicable to other compounds (sulphates, cqrbo- nates, &c.). The following table contains a scries of results obtained in this manner. The density of chlorine is estimated at 1-35, being the mean of the resulta obtained by Faraday and Karsten, viz. 1°33 and 1:38; that of carbonic acid at 0°83. Density Coefficient by of Experiment, | Contraction,ae i Contraction. o1sT e140 162 0236 0330 os ono o4s7 0-460 o477 e459 0380 ses O6sT 0581 4. Hytrates. . Baryta (BsO,HO) .... s718 4495 O17 ona (SO,H0) 2980 3625 0175 Lime (Ca0,HO) 3292 2078 0-098 Magnesia (Brucite) 2336 ‘1920 O178 ‘Alumina (Gypsite) +400 1989 17 Alumina (AFO'SHO) .. 1786 1459 0188 Zine (Za0,H0) ran goss eno a (Ba0,910) « Strona (30,0110), Tail 1398 O30 1520 13785 O03 1751 13h 180 3231 2009 009 2036 1-658 O17 1906 1546 O188 2286 1829 ol 1920 1603 0165 3160 2640 O165 eens Sn ec Me It will be seen from this table that, in a vory large number of cascs, independently of all hypothesis, the ‘coefficients of contraction of thoes eompounds which most strongly resemble one another in a chemical point nsibly the same, Tt may likewise be observed that, in a certain number of cases, the ratio between the calculated doasities of certain compounds of the the same 6 that which exists between the deusitios determined by experiment. Hence we may calculate, & priori, the densities of ceriain salts according to those of their elements, and that of a salt of the same speciesDENSITY OF COMPOUNDS. 88 having a close analogy to the former: In such a case, we have in fact— A: D: D’;—thus for Chloride of sodium. potassium "y169°: 1-039 224 ‘The density of af tho lator alt by experiment is 1-994 (it P. Pee accords ing to Karsten, it is 1-915 ; according to Kopp, 1:945.—Again for Sulphate of baryta...... 4 = $399, D = 444 and $898 : 2901 796 ‘The experimental result is 8°77; Karsten makes it 859, ‘prelthaupt 895. Other examples might be adduced, but the relation thus developed is not sufciently general to constitu a aw, Jn conclasion, M; Fill, remarks that the eubjoct of the relation between atomic weight and density is not so far advanced as has been imagined—that it is easy, by slightly altering the numbers which form the bases of these calculations, to obtain resulta of very fascinating uniformity : but this very circumstance ought to create distrust of such resulta; for it ia extremely difficult—considering the great numbor of Causes of error, often inevitable, which beset theee calculations —to attain that degree of exactness which apparently belongs to many of the results which have been put forth in connection with this subject. .', A.peries of elaborate memoirs on atomic volume and specific gravity has heen published by Mosere, Playfair and Joulo in the, Memoir and rterly Journal of ety of London, (Chem. Mem. 2, 477; 8, 54 ond 199; Ge eo of Chen, ‘Soc. 1, 121,) The principal results contained in these memoirs are as follows: I. The volumes of salts in solution are cither equal to each other, or are one of the other. 1f 9, tho atomic volume of water (atomic weight of hydrogen = 1) bo assumed as the standard of comparison, this law may also be thus expressed: Compounds dissolved in water increase its volume either by 9 or by a. Cotta salts, such as the magnesian sulphates, the alums, &0., dissolve in water without increasing its bulk more than is due to the liquefaction of the water which they themselves contain. b drous salts, or salts containing a small proportion of water occupy in solution « number of volumes, which pass along with thom unchanged into their union with other salts. ‘c. The volume occupied by double salts when dissolved is (with certain exceptions) the sum of the volumes occupied by their constituents when rate. II. The volumes of solid bodies bear a simple relation to each other, being malipla of 0 cotain submuliple of the volume of jensity of ice, as determined by Playfair and Joule, is 0-9184, almost exactly with the number 0-9180 determined by Chim. Phys. 14, 869). Hence the atomic volume of 9°8. This being determined, the submultiple in question the authors as the unit of volume for solids is 4 = 1-225 5 80 that the atom of ice, considered as a globe or cube, will have twice the linear dimensions of the atom possessing this unit-volume. In some cases, the volumes of solid bodies correspond more nearly to altiples of oBt +7 APPISTTY. 1-424 = 0-6195 than of 1-225 itself: bat these cases being tively Tew are regarded as exceptional. The following table. gives the. atoms volumes, &c., of some of the metals in a finely divided state; also of flowers of sulphur, The volumes of the metals in their more compact state do not accord my well with the law above stated, probably from the effect of cohe- vw enrTho volume of the maguesian oxides in their most compact state, ia found to be very nearly 5 x 1-225 12. Hence that of oxygen these oxides must be 2 x 1225 = 2-4: yw the volume of sulphur is 8°57; consequently, that of sulphuric acid, SO*, will be 8:57 +-3 x 245 = 1592. Again, the mean sp. gr. of sulphate of soda, as determined by various experimenters, is 2-562: this gives 27-9 for the atomic volume of that salt; and deducting 15:9 the volame of sulphuric acid, we have 12 for the atomic volume of soda: this is nearly 10 x 1-225 = 12-25.—Tho volume of potash (deduced from the sp. gr. 2-756 determined by Karsten) is 17-75, which is not far from 14 x 1-225 = 17-15.—The volume of anhydrous sulphate of ammonia is 39°2 (Chem. 3fem. 2, 428), from which deducting 15-9 for the acid, we have left 25°3 as the volume of oxide of ammonium. This is very nearly 18 x 1-22: density of 2-5 (Wahler): this gives 5-47 for its nearly equal to 44 x 1-225 or 5 Chromium has the density 5-1, which makes its atomic volume = 5°5: and admitting that in the scequi-oxides the volume 8 x 1:22: we shall have for the ines of alumina and oxide of chromium, 5°51 x 2 + 3°675 x 3 = 22-05,—Senqui-oxide of iron being isomorphous with alumina and oxide of chromium, its volume in combination may likewise be assigned as 22-05. ‘The reawn for selecting the particular results detailed in this will be seen immediately. "The volumes assigued to alumina and. the sexqui-oxides of iron and chromium, most be regarded as to a considerable extent hypothetical, ML. Th highly rated salts, the water of crystallization always occupies the volume Of ice. a. In the class of hydrated arseniates and phosphates with 24 atoms of water of crystallization, and in carbonate of with 10 atoms of water, neither acid nor base occupies any appreciable space, the volume of ‘© This agrees very nearly with the number 32 assigned by Kopp (whose numbers are based on the oxygen scale of atomic weight) for the atomic volume of oxygen : for Rais = 350 (W) :DENSITY .OF COMPOUNDS, 85 the salt being’ the samie a that of the water of erystillzation ‘frézen into ice. 3. In cane and milk sugar, the carbon ccases to occupy space, the liydrogen and oxygen taking p exectly the space of the corresponding quantity of water frozen into ice. ‘Those resulta are exhibited in the following table. It is especially remarkable that in the ordinary phosphate and arseniat of soda the atom of basic water disappears as well as the two atoms of soda. PSorvolame of icons unity. N20, COP 1010 34 3Na0,HO,PO"+ 24H0 | 3591 3Na0,PO'+2HO | 3816 2Na0,HO,As0" + 240 | 4029 TV. Another class of salts, including all the hydrated magnesian sulphates, sulphate of alumina, borax, pyrophosphate of soda, and tho alume, ‘a volume mado up of that of their bases and of their solid water, their acids ceasing to bo recognizable in space. Table A. 4s i 2d = $ fat bela, | Eas 3 = ya) ea Eee| 5. & &2|a2|aea| £8 & E S Sulphate of copper -|0u0,80"+5110 Salphate of sina - [2u0)S0* +7HO Sapte of mgs igs 807710 g & 28) a8 ‘080 |1935 | 11035 s-0 |2150 | 12250 | 13 g Table B. = - s = Salta Formsla ai |te : ay Ee é Poms alum ~|ARORARO™| KOSOR ARNO | 47098 28 Tat Jetanadn sain/ANOHBSO*4 NIEO SO 2H) 4095'35 35 ; iis Gama, (CeO 80's KO,SO™42I110 || 2309) 2246) 1714 rea Arman el aonas0% +0 504240 st 2x9 en nara vn36 AFFINITY. Tt will bo acon from these tables that many salts contain one atom of water of crystallization for every unit-volame in their base. ‘Thus, sulphato of alumina possesses 18 atoms of water, and the volume of its base ia 18 x 1225, Sulphate of soda bas 10 atoms of water, and the volame of ita base ia 10x 1°25. Biborate of soda also crystallizes with 10 atoms of water. Tho magnesian sulphates generally ize with 7 wtoma of water: of these however, 2 atoms are united by a much owt powerful affinity than the rest, being driven off by a heat of 212° F., and oven ander certain circumstances escaping in dry air at ordinary temperatures, ‘Tho number of atoms of water essential to the crystallized salt, may therofore be estimated at 5, which is the actual number contained in tho ordinary crystals of eulphate of copper. The volume of the base of thono valte la 5 1225. Now the volume of solid water being 9°8 and tho unit-volumo of the base 1-225, it follows that the volume of the walt (in which tho acid docs not appear) must be @ multiple of 9°8 + 1925, that is of 11-025. In the series of researches by Messrs. Playfair and Joule (Chem. Mem. vol 1. p. 401) numerous tables are given showing that in many classes of salts—eulphates, chlorides, oxalates, &. tho voluino in the solid state is a multiple of 11 or of some number very near He Ge oxplanation of this fact is contained in what has just been utatod, b. State of Aggregation. A compouni is, at ordinary temperatures, cither solid, liquid, or gaseous. 1. A wid compound may be formed: sa gaa t 1, Frum two gases, Condensation.—Hydrochloric acid gas forms a wolid compound with ammoniacal gas, viz., sal-ammoniac. ¥, From a guscous and a liquid body. Absorption.—Mercury absorbs chlorine and oxygen gases, forming solid compounds, 3, From a gmscons and a eolid body. Adsorption again—Iron and other wolid metals absorb oxygen gaa, and hydrate of soda absorbs curbonte acid gaa 4, From two liquids.—Mereury and bromine. 5. From a liquid aud a solid—Mercury forms solid amalgams with sovoral motult; burnt lime mixed with 4 its weight of water crumbles to solid hydrate of limes burut gypsum mixed with water hardens into the state of gypsum combined with water of crystallization. 4, From two wolids, generally by fusion.—The combinations of metals with ono another or with sulphar. IL, A liquid compound may be formed : n two gases. Condensation.—IIydrogen and oxygen gases com- form water. ‘ron gran and a liquid. Adsorption.—Water absorbs hydrochloric ux, fortning wolution of hydrochloric acid. 1 From a gan and a solid, Adsorption —Arsenic, antimony, or tin stmurlm chlorine gus, forming a liquid metallic chloride. 4, Vou two liquide, Mixture in ite most confined sense—Water and alerted» wulphide of earbon and chloride of sulphur, '. Fran ‘6 mold wulmtanco and one that is liquid at the ordinary or wanowelat higher temperature. Solution in the wet scay—Salte and sminylur aut apirt of wine, sulphur and fatty matter, lead and Frm tw solils-—Sometinen in tho cold, as common salt. and ice,CRYSTALLINE FORM. 87 Lismath-malgam nd load-amalgam; somotimes not below a read hea ‘86 carbon and sulphur. * pomoumee me . * TIL A compound gaseous at the ordinary temporaturo and pressure of ne pe ar: gases, i _ 1 ‘two permanent Hy und chlorine. 3. From a permanent gas and a ri eFiydrogen gan and bromine, 8. From a permanent gas and a solid.—Hydrogen gas and sulphur; Bie Bo compount which is gescous at ordinary ate no com which ia yus at ordinary prosaures and temperatures is ever formed by the combination of two liquids or two solids or # eolid and a liquid, while on the contrary solid and liquid compounds are formed by the union of two permanent gases, it may be surmivcd that i any of the hitherto undecomposed bodies are really compound, such will probably be found among the solid and liquid clasece. The less completely tho mutual affinity of ponderable bodies is satisfiod, or in other words, the leas complicated the combinations which they form, the stronger is their attraction for heat and the greater their elasticity; those clements which are gaseous under ordinary circum. stances have also on an average the smallest atomic weights. ¢. Crystalline Form, The crystalline form of a compound probably bears a definite relation to Roe of ita elements. Such a relation however has not yot boon com: ly ‘out, partly beoause the crystalline forms of many important elements, oxygen for instance, are unknown, partly because one and tho same substance, simple or compound, often assumes one or another gxzstaline form aocording to circumstances, te, oxhbite Dinorphion (9. v) e existence of such a relation is however apparent from the facts by which Mitacherlich has established his important theory of Zsomorphism, ‘The term Lsomorphous in ite widest sense applies to those bodies which can replace one another in a compound without producing any alteration in the crystalline form of that compound, except small angiilar differences. Buch bodies may be divided into the following groups. ‘A. Substances which are isomorphous both in the state and in combination.—Subetances posscasing the samo crystalline form and re- placing one anothor in combination according to equal numbers of atoms without alteration of crystalline form. Arscnio and antimony crystallizo in acute rhombohedrons: AaO* exhibits the same crystalline form as Sb0%, and many double salts containing AsO’ as one base, present, aecording to. Mitecherlich, the same orystalline form as the corresponding saltg in which AsO® is repiaced by SbO¥ ; . Substances which replace one another in compounds according to equal number of atoms. The crystalline form of such substances in the separate state is either different or else unknown; but they replace one another in combinations according to equal numbers of atoms and without alteration of crystalline form. ‘Titanium erystalizes in cubes, tin in regular six-sided prisma; but both Ti0* and Su0* crystallize in square Bias, The crrstaline form of lime end ‘magnesia ‘are unknown, but {CO* and Mg0,CO* eryetallize in obtuse thombohedrons.. ‘This group of substances may porhaps be hereafter shown to be identical with the first, when we shall have beoome acquainted with the crystalline forms of these bodies in the separato state and, possibly have discovered that their difference of form may be referred to Dimorphism, ©. Substances which replace one another in combination according to8 " apRniry. enepual minbirs of atome—It sometimes happens that one stom of an element contained in a compound is replaced by two or more atoms of another element, or by eee tkareeionn alteration of crystalline form. Hyperchlorate of (KO.C30*) has the same form as byper- manganate of potash (KO,Mn*0’); here 1 At. chlorine is 2 At. manganese. Sal-ammoniac (NH‘C1) crystallizes in the same form as chloride of potassium; hence K and NH are isomorphous. In sach cases, no such chemical resemblance exists between the interchangeable bodies ‘es in cases A and B: thus manganese bears no resemblance to chlorine, nor doce nitrogen to potansiom. of sn The following is a general view several groups of simple an compound subetanocs which exhibit the same expataine form with or without slight differences of angular magnitade. Each group af isomor- 1ous substances is distinguished it contains bodies of ferent stoichiometrical nature. it is farther subdivided by means of lotters, The same substance, if di or trimorphous, may be oponted in diferent groupe. Mitecherlch’s observations are denoted by it, Regular Syetem. “qu ts Homobedrat, a. © Diamond) P, K, Ti, Bi, C2 Phy Fe, Co, Ag, 0. 8. CoA, ZnS, PbS, CoS, AgS, KI, Nal, KBr, NaBr, NH‘Cl, KCl, NaCl, LO}, AgCl, KF, NaF ¢, Cu, Cu®S, CuCl, Hig!ag. a0’ SLO} ak eee e. MgO, APO’, Zn0,AP0?, (Orie lad FOO, oo Frankhatsy FOR .FerO?, ‘hingwots iron ore). Absch, Jf, RaO,NO* — Sr0,NO%—PbO,NO\—and according to Berzelius, 0, » NUAGH Ptr, — NILCLIrC?,—KCLPtCr, — KCl, IrCP, — KCLOsci*. Berzetina, 1. NII4),APO*,4S0°24 Aq. — NH40,Cr°04S0?,24Aq. — NI‘0,Mn'0', iM 24 Ag |. — NINO, PAO 480°34.Aq. — KO, ASO 4 a K0,C40%,48o8, 24.Aq. — KO,Mn°O*450%, 244g. — 21Ag. —NaO, APO ASO? 24Aq. Mt. i, KO, Ais 48108 (Lente), 4, Nu0,APOA43i0%, 2Aq. (Analcime). 2.'In Pontngonal ‘dodecahedrons: FeS* (Iron pyrites).—Co*AsS* (Cobalt glance). Four-membered or Square Prismatic System. 2, Unb), WO, PLO, WO%,— PbO, MoO', 8, 518),— Ss y PLO,WO!,— PDO,Mo0", Levy (Pog. 8, 518)—PbO,CrO" 4 Sar, 7Ay. Se, 7Aq.—Zn0,Se0*, Tg, Me SH4y2110,0 —Ni10,2110, vk? —K0,2H0, Ko, ),2H0, Aad". fA AVM, 300424 Aq.—3Ca0,2UF°0%, 3PO!, 244g. a 2 ae —2NI1, AgOSe0*,—2NH3,Ag0,CrO*. Mt. 4, Caves? (Conpur pyrites)—b, Mu'O? (Braunite). Kobell. 9%. TMP (Katile)— Bn (Tinstonc), cS a MeISOMORPHISM, 89 0. & Koy roesay nos 16Aq. [7] (Apophyllit » " ite). Kobell. no 2080! Se 4: Cab 2AP EO [1] (Wernerite) Breithaupt. ‘Two-and-two-membered or Right Prismatic System. 2, Sulphur.—Iodine. : .—Sb0", Wahler. in a. FeS* (White iron pyrites).—b. Fe*AsS* (Arsenical pyrites) 1b-e Booed mea ¢ Pyrites). - b. 2Ca0, ; ARO, 3Si0*, Aq oi Pre hnite). Kobell. 16. i. CaO, CO* (Arragonite),—Ba0,Co*,—Sr0,C0*, — Pb0,CO*. . KO 17. a, Ba0,S0,—Sr0,S0%—PLO,S0". It. 3. NOC NBO Moro! KOC KOM It 18. a. —! Ay —Agd0,SeO* 59). Mt. 2 BuO MOB eas 9. a. ,— KO,Se0*,—K0,(r,0—KO,Mn0* (fig. 76). ft. ° Rio 220,80 ‘Aq, —Ni0,S0¥, 20. a. 80°, 7Aq,—Znt 7Aq,—Nil 7Aq,—Mg0,Se0?,7Ac —tn0. S60 Biba (7 71, 72, 73). Mt. a eo 10 a1. ‘ta PO gy NaO,An0t 4g (fo. 64), Me 22, 2Mn,SiO¥ (Chrysolite)—2Mn0, Si 23. NaO,APO"3SiO", 2Aq (Natrolite)-Ca0, APO} 310%, 8Aq (Skole- h. Bi0,cIre’, 8Aq (Acctate of baryta),—PbO,C'H*0", 3Aq (Acetate, af lead, 40,60). “Mt . KiB y4 KCC, Two-and-one membered or Oblique Prismatic System. e0,WO® (Wolfram). Breithaupt, Mt— Pe SO, 2Aq. Graham, -Mn0,S0*, 6Aq-—Cod), ))Se0*, 6Aq, ,, or with Zn0,S0"; similarly of Ca0,S0%, with Zn0,80%, ‘or with NiO,SO*, or with Mg0,SO*, similarly of ‘Mn0,S0, with Mg0,S0, or with Zn0,S0%, always in com! mn with 6 At water (fg.111). Me. Mg0,Be0%,7Aq,—-Z0,80%7 Aqy—Co0) 80*,7.Aq,—Ni0,S0,7Aq, — medjieo 7Aq,—Co0, Se0*,7Aq. 'N20,S0"10Aq7—Na0) $tip,104.q,—Nao, Cr0,10Aq (fg. 118, 119). 49, 2NTHO,POST0,—2NH10, As O4HO (ig. 98, 94, 95). Ife 83. 2Na0,P0*, 25Aq,—2Na0, a0 25Aq (fig. 96—100). Aft. 34. a, NaO,2B0% 10Ag (Borsa 100, Mg0,25i0" (hugo, — Na0,2Fe0,48i0* [1] (Acmite) ‘Kobell.AFFINITY. 85. SBe0,2APO*,5Si0* [1] (Euklase),—3Ca0,2AP0*,5Si0* [?] (Zoisite). Brooke. One-andd-one-membered or Doubly Oblique Priematie System. 96, Mn0,S0%4Aq,—Mn0,Se0%4Aq,—Zn0,8e0,4q,—Co0,Se0"4Aq. © 87. Cu0,S0%45Aq,—Cu0,Se0% 5.Aq)—Mn0,802,5.Aq (ig. 121, 122, 123). Ni 12810" os a. tions BLE ene a ee Dark red silver). 0H0,008 “+ M0605 —ISOMORPHISM. 91 ‘be isontorphous in their combinations with carbonic, sulphuric, and solenio acids (1, ¢—4,—20,—22,—29, 80,86). Lime, CaO, is also related to hem Jn one of tn dma ae ; Ar PbO, BaO, Sr0, an (in one of its states) are isomorphous (1, ,— 8,—16,—17,—24,—44,—-45).. According to (35), if the formule are correct, BeO is isomorphous with C4 ofeae ling to (23), we might suppose that NaQ-is interchangeable ‘APO?, C40? and Fo, are isomorphous in the separate state (42); ‘Mz'O* is also isomorphous’ with them in combination (1, ¢—I, A) TiO* and Sn0* are isomorphous in the separate state, (9) ‘although Ti and Sn crystallize in different forms. roger combination is isomorphous with MoO* and Cr0* (2) also with (27). 80" in combination is isomorphous with SeO%, Cr0%, and MnO* (4,— JAB 419, 20;-26, 5, -28,—20, 96-97). CrO* soem, also’ to form 8 connecting link of the series WO", MoO, Or0*, Mn0*, Se0%, and PO* and AsO? are also isomorphous in combination (5,—21,—82,—B8, Y in combination is isomorphous with Mn'0" (17, 6). ‘The following similarly formed compounds, however, differ so much in their chemical properties, that their similarity of shape can scarcely be regarded as resulting from the substitution of one element for another: PUO,NO* and PLONO*, (1, 7) have tho same form, though they differ in composition by 2 At: oxygen. ite and Analcime have the samo composition (1, #) excopting that the latter contains 2 atoms of water. Copper-pyrites CuFeS* and Braunite Mn‘0* (8). Here it must be t's atoms of oxygen may be substituted for 2 atoms of ur. "Anatase and Apophyllite (10).—TZircon and Wernerite (11). Man- ganite and Prebnite (15) ;—all differing irreooncilably in their ‘chemical ‘composition. nite, Ca0,C0* and nitre KO,NO* (16). Ba0,80? on the one hand, and KO,CIO’ and KO,2Mn0" on the other 17). : %iao,s0° and BaO, Mu*0" (18). Sos" and, Mg0,S0%,7Aq (20}.—S and KO.2S04110 (26)— Borax, No0,2B0%10Aq and Augite, Ca0,Mg0,2Si0* (84). Labrador and Anor- ite (88) thite (38). of totally dissimilar composition are: Ca0,CO* (Calosy and NoONO® 40}Quartz and Chabasite (41)-—Mobsite od fie. lyte, AAttompts have been made to bring some of these cases in sccordanco with the theory of isomorphiem by altering the atomic weights of some of tho substances concemed. The following is one of the most remarkable instances of this kind: Ca0,CO* oa arragonite is isomorphous with nitre (KO,NO*) in its usual form (16); Ca0,CC%, as calcspar with KO,NO? as it is sometimes obtained, and with NaQ,NO* as it always crystallizes. Hence Ca0,CO* in its two conditions ie isomorphous with KO,NO? in ita two conditions. For this reason, Count Schaffgotech halves the atomic weights of potassium and nitrogen; nitro then becomes KO'NO* = KNO# This agrocs with Ca0,C0" = Ca00";oz APMINITY. tn testh extmpennda 3 atoms of oxygen are combined with 1 atom of metal aod} atom of cither carbon or nitrogen. This halving of the atomic weight of potansium involves the halving of those of ammonium (NH), malin, silver, and gold, because potash is isomorphous with oxide of Atononinin (NINO) and wolla, and the last of these with oxide of silver 5 fat beeanae xilver in combination with the most various quantities of guld always crystallizes in the: wate form, a circumstance which indicates the of thea two metalt. The halving of the atomic weight of vpenerl by HL Kono, beennse in grey copper ore place of 2 atoms of copper, and the crystalline if Ay an well an that of Cu'S belongs to ‘the regular ayxtem, Arsorluy to thia view, the atomic weights of N, H, K, Na, Ag, and Au formil be reduced to oncshalf of the values now assigned to them’; potash would te: KD, wilh Nut, oxide of silver Ag’, and suboxide of silver Aoty. Wey Walvis ¢ weights of potassium and chlorine, the stialae fn J BuO),SU! would also be explained, (17) for Wes 1a otapeons KCIO# and BaSO*, ry, doubles the atomic weights of sodium and mucile the composition of NaO,SO* and AgO,SO? with Hat of Bal Mu? (14). He thus obtains NaO2S0, SO and Ayle, 2:08 — AgSO"; and this formula agrees with BaQ,Mut0? = feMitA. Hat nine the ntomic weight of potassium must be doubled fa well nn ht the explanation off case (18) becomes by this shficult than before. ait to then attempts, we connot but agree with the view tet_Ly Johnstone (who formerly made trial of the same nt Schuffgotach), viz., that many of the formule of it ev mude to agree with one another in any way hypotheses which are either contradie- plivity of the chemical formule. Although wwolve nimilarity of shape, it does not by any means wonintent with dissimilar formulw. There ex- w hy which these cases might be explained: the din- new form to the theory of isomorphism, irked, that isomorphous substances have Iw» equal atomic numbers). The wet 55) exhibit approximations to this law, at Mn, Co, and Fe; W and Mo; T, Br, and Cl. As, of Na and K, of Mu, Cr, $, and Se, im in their acids, differ widely. According to bers are ‘exhibited hy APOSCHOS, and GU and MO; by Aw und SbO% by atex, sulphates and’ nitrates (some too not ey awd hy neveral hydrated eulphates. Exceptions are, howe cuted hy KOSO% and KO,Cr0?; and by KCl, NaCl, and AgCl; creement in the atomic numbers of the in great measure be explained by the fact ty «4 ights, and theso being al mpecific gravities, the quotients cannot On the other band, Kopp has shown that. the the wnglew at the edgen of the obtuse rhombo- 1A ral ayene corresponding angles in the other carbonates apierre with it, probably bear a simple relation to the » avane of which those crystals are composed, pad before: been p ol eile takes thRELATIONS TO HRAT. 93 { A peculiar kind of isomorphism has recently been discovered Scherer (Pogg. 68, $19) which appears to play an important part in a mineral kingdom. "By the analysis of a great number of minerals, Scheerer finds that one atom of magnesia, protoxide of iron, or protoxide of manganese—and probably also of oxide of zinc, protoxide of nickel and protoxide of cobalt—may be replaced by 8 atoms of water, and 1 atom of oxide of copper by 2 atoms of water—without change of crystalline form. ‘This kind of isomorphism has received the name of Polymeric Iosomor- slim: it was frat noted. in the mincrale Cordirite and Aspasiolte two minerals crystallize in the same form, and crystals are found consifting partly of cordicrite and partly of aspasiolite, the most complete fransitions from one to the other occurring iu the same apocimen. Moreover, both minerals contain nearly the same proportions of silica and alumina ; ‘but aspasiolite contains a smaller quantity of magnesia and a larger quantity of water than cordicrite,—the difference being euch that 8 atoms of water in the former may be regarded as the equivalent of 1 atom of magnesia in the latter. [Vid. Neumann, Journ, fiir Prakt. Chem. 41, 8.)% On the subject of Isomorphiam, see the already (page 82) cited treatises of Mitechorlich, Beudant, Wollaston, Hauy, and Mars; likewise Kobell (Schw, 64, 41}.—Breithaupt (J. pr. Ch. 4, 249 and Pogg. 51, 510). Persoz (Ann. Chim, Phys. 60,119; also Ann. Pharm. 18, 241)—Brooke (Pht Mag. J._12, 496)-—Johinaton (Phi. May. J. 12, 285 and 4805 18, 805).—Count Franz Schaffgotach (Pogg. 48, 335). . Relations to Heat. * Fusibility—Compounds are, for the most part, more easily fusible than their elements. No metallic alloy is more refractory than cither of its constituent metals, but many are more easily fusible than either of their components in the separate state. ‘The earths also become more fusible dy combination, An alloy of nickel and platinum melts at the same temperature af coppers alloys of lead and tin, lead and biamuth, &, melt more casily than either of those metals by itself. Iron, by com= bining with the infusible substance, carbon (in atecl and cast-iron), becomes more fusible than it is in the pure state. Silica is not fusible in the blaat-furnace, neither is lime, baryta, strontia, alumina, or magnesia, —but the combinations of silica with these bodies are unable to resist such a temperature. Many metallic sulphides, on the contrary, are lose fusible than their clements, eg, KS, ZnS, Sn, gS; otherg aro leas fusible than sulphur, but more’ fusible than the metal, e. g. FeS, AgS; but none of them are more fusible than sulphur. ‘Why the melting point of a compound should be sometimes between those of its elements, sometimes below, and sometimes, though rarely, above them both, has not yet been explained, Vola . The elasticity of a compound is gencrally less than that of either of its elements. A solid or liquid may be formed by the com nation of two gases, but no permanent gas is ever formed by the union of two liquid or solid bodies (p. 87). Phosphide of nitrogen, when excluded from the air, will sustain a white heat without decomposition or volatiliza- tion, and even without fusion. 3. The volatility of a compound is very often of an intermediate degree; the moro volatile clement scems to impart a portion of its volaeREFRACTIVE POWER. 95 refractive power which the compound should exhibit according to calonation, taking the mean botwoen the refractive powers of the component s—D, their specific gravitics ;—E, the specific refractive power, SEzsined by dividing tho observed refractive power by the spocilc ‘Ether vapoor . ‘Vapour of hydrochloric ether ‘From these numbers Dulong concludes that when a compound gas is of ‘an acid nature, its refractive power is below the calculated mean, but above ‘the mean when the gas is alkalinc or neutral; hydrochloric ether, however, forms an exception to this rule. If it be admitted that the ‘refractive wor of s substance is directly proportional to its density and combusti- Biity, the latter will bo found by dividing tho refractive power by the fie gravity. ‘The quotients in column E agree very well with this view; hydrogen has the greatest refractive power, and oxygen, the substance most opposed in its properties to combustible bodies, the smallest, The other numbers also grec, excepting that the refractive power of sulphide of carbon should be smaller than that of sulphuretted hydrogen, ince the former contains 2 atoms of the loss combustible substance sulphur to 1 atom of carbon, the latter equal numbers of atoms of sulphur and hydrogen ; the refractive power of nitrous oxide, again, ought to be smaller than that of nitrogen, since nitrogen must lose some of ita refracting by combining with oxygen. Some compound, tn passing from the gascous to the liquid state, increase in refracting power more than in density, a8 was fret noticed ‘Arago and Petit. ‘The absolute refractive power of liquid sulphurous ‘acid ought, according to calculation from that of the gas to be 0-661: its actual value, however, is, according to De la Rive, 0-78 (Ann, Chim, Phys. 40, 410, abstr. Pogg. 15, 528); that of liquid ammonia should by caloulation from that of ammoniacal gas be 0-725, and thatof sulphuretted hydrogen 0767; but according to Faraday, the refractive powers of both those liquids exceed that of water, which 1s 0-784.caustic body, though in different way: and Therefore be swallowed without fajury except in very small and in a state of dilution. If now the aqueous solution of fc acid and aqueous solution of ammonia, be mixed in certain Peake care Dap) 2 picectty wentet contoend eid be abet or turmeric r) a oT i which reddens neither ltmus nor turmeric, tastes and szella neither acid Addenda to the pnitey tt see teas Alteration of ‘the ties of a id are main) it on those Sergi at tence vee ae ames om bined, it has nevertheless been shown by recent experiments that other : :DIMORPHISM. 99 oblique rhombic prism when precipitated from solutions or sublimed at temperatures near its melting point. ‘Rative copper generally corre in cubes and other forme belonging to the regular system ; but Hauy once found it in double six-sided pyramids with truncated edges (fg. 138). Seebeck likewise obtained copper after fusion in crystals belonging to the rhombohedral system. According to Haidinger and H. Rose (Pogg 23, 197), however, these crystals, which ‘appear to belong to the rhombohedral, are really macle-crystals of the cube with pyramidal eummits (fg. 9), and therefore belong likewise to the ‘system. ‘Suboxide of copper occura in ordinary red copper ore in regular octo- hedrona and other forms belonging to the regular system, but. in copper- bloom it exhibits regular six-sided prism, whose planes of cleavage are jel to the faces of an obtuse rhomboliedron. (Suocow, Pogg. 34, 528.) is may be regarded as a case of dimorphism similar to that of copper, in eo far as the latter is really dimorphous. Protoxide of lead crystallises after fusion, as well as from a saturated solution in hot concentrated caustic potash, in yellow rhombic octohedrons. If, however, the solution is not fully saturated with oxide of lead, so that crystallisation does not take place till after complete cooling, red crystalline scales are deposited on the yellow rhombic octohedrons just formed : if the red crystals are heated, they turn yellow on cooling, in consequence of passing into the first form. (Mitschérlich, J. pr Phem.., 19, 451.) ‘Oxide of titanium, Ti 0%, occurs in nature in the two forms of anatase and rutile. Although both these crystals belong to the square prismatic system, their angles are incompatible; they cannot be reduced to the same primitive form ; the specific gravity also of anatase is 3826, that of rutile 4-249. Arsenious acid, As 0%, generally crystallises in regular octohedrons 5 but Wobler (Pogg. 26, 177) found it also in the form of native oxide of antimony, Sb. U" (Weissspicseglanzer), which belongs to the right Bfimatic' system. Wabler also obtained artificially, crystallised oxide antimony in regular octobedrons. Consequently AsO and SLO* are to-dimorphous ; i. e., they are capable of crystallising in two different forms which are similar cach to each. Disulphide of copper, Cu*S, appears in copper-glanco in crystals of the rhombohedral system (fig. 131, 132, 185, 187); but Mitscherlich (Pog. 28, 157), by melting together large quantities of copper and sulphur, obtained’ it in regular octohedrone. ‘These two forms are the same as thoae of copper and ite red oxide, Bisulphide of iron occurs in nature as iron pyritd® in crystals belonging to the regular aystem, (J. 18, 19, 20,) and’ a8 white iton pyrites in those of the right prismatic system, the latter being of a paler yellow and much softer. Breithaupt imagines that the oblique rhombic sulphur, which may be supposed to exist in common iron pyrites, has imparted the hemihedral character to the iron, which has retained its original system,— and that the white pyrites, which in form reeembles the rhombo-octohedral sulphur, may contain this kind of sulphur; and, accordingly, that the white pyrites has been formed at » lower temperature than the common variety. Protiodide of mercury separates from solution, and likewise sublimes at a very gentle heat, in scarlet tables belonging to the square prismatic stem, but when sublimed at a higher temperature, in sulphur-yellow mbic tables of the oblique prismatic system. The red crystals turn m2APMNITY. Reso they are heated, and resume their ellow crystals obtained by sublimation retain but on the slightest rubbing or stirring wi gre i ote iw touched tare seatet, 26d thia extends, with a slight motion, as if the mase were alive, ‘whole group of crystals as far as they adbere together. ” External form of the yellow crystale remains unchanged, pound atoms must have taken up the relative = The red crystals, pecudomorphous crystals bein thereby ps same cryvials turn yellow every time they are cooling. (Hayes, Sil. Am. J, 16, 174: aloo Sche., 57, 198) The red crystals also turn yellow when heated, and retain this cooling for several daye, even when touched with foreign a length epontancously, but very slowly, resume their red odour, the red crystals are sublimed ‘at a very gentle heat, red axystals sullime togetber. If glass plat, baving both red exyuials on it, be warmed oo gently that ‘the red once, do ur, bat sublimation neve goes on, both red and collect on a plate held above the former. Now, sinoe the cooler than the lower, and the latter is not hot enough to colour of the red crystals, the yellow crystala on the upper come only froin those of the eame colour on the lower; they must, therefore, have sublimed as yellow crystals, and the vapour of the yellow xyes saust be diffrent from that of the red ones. (Frankeakein, J.pr. C 16, 4.) FGarbonate of lime, CeO, OC, in the form of calcspar, whooe sp. gr. = 2-721, belongs to the rhombobedral ; in arragonite, whoee sp. gr. is F951, ws the right tc aystem. (An explanation of thin was formerly sought inthe fact discovered’ by Stromeyer, vis, thet srragonite usually contains small quantities of carbonate of strontia.) ‘The wume peculiarity in presented by carbonate of iron, FeO, O*, which in syarry non ono (of 3472 ap) haa the form of caleepar, in jankerito (@f Y that of arroguite. Hence CaO. Cov and Ifo solution of carbonate of lime in water containing « left to evaporate at the ordinary temperature, nothing is ‘and for the most part truncated Imitle (fy. 1423 if cn the contrary, the eclution be evapo- nite is obtained in small 6-sided prisms, inurl with w fow cryatala uf casper. because the temperature of tho sition iv lower a drt than it afterwards becomes, and the ep. gr. of the of ° Oe Hite z i int i i ich fh if att if i ed at ordinary temperature with an aqucous solution ot carbonate of ammonia, © voluminous flocculent raat of chalky (amorphous) varbonate of lime is first produced, if immediately Chalet wath Aitcr wash and dried rémaine analtered possessing a ap. xr. of 2-716, and appearing under the microscope to consist of small Ope,jue qranulen; but if this eame precipitate be left for some time in the saline liquid from which it bas been precipitated, it collects into micro- scopical crystals of calcapar, of 2-719 sp. gr. If the same saline solutions be mixed boiling, the carbonate of ammonia being added to the chloride of calcium, arragonite in cbteincd, mixed with a etall portion of calcepar. If, on the contrary, the chloride of calcium be added to the carbonate of ammonia, arragonite is obtained alone, in exceedingly small crystals of 2-949 op. gr. If, however, these crystals are not immediately collected‘of potash, nitric acid, or nitrate of soda ‘no alteration. (rankenheim, Pogg. 40, 4475 also J. pr. Chem. 16, 1.) Sal-ammgaiag, wish commonly “crystalises In regular oRbea ealAMORPHISM. 103 talline structure, even in its smallest particles. It has no power of double refractionjaas many crystals have, no planes of cleavage, being equally cary oF equally Gidicalt of soparation in all directions, and exhibite when broken not » granule but » conchoidal fracture. Marble and even common fia ‘are not amorphous bodies, but: a tes of small, imperfectly developed crystals’ glass is amorphous” per e often find the same body assuming the crystalline or the amorphous condition, according to the circumstances under which it passes from the to the solid state: some bodies again are more inclined to the ay e, others to the amorphous state: some are known to exist in one ly of these conditions. ‘The eame body ia generally speaking specifically heavier, harder, and less soluble in the crystalline than it is in the mus atate: the atoms seem to be more closely packed in the former condition than in the latter. According to Graham, an amorphous body also contains a larger quantity of combined heat than one which has a erystalline structure. ‘The of a body from the amorphous to the crystalline state is called by Fuchs, Transformation, and the change from the crystalline to the amorphous ‘state, Deformation. ‘The amorphous state is particularly apt to occur, when the atoms, either from viscosity in the liquid, or a too rapid passage from the liquid to the solid etate, are not able to arrange themselves in that peculiar manner which constitutes crystalline structure. "An amorphous body may be produced :-— 1. By fusion—the process is then called Vitrifcation—Common glass, many lage, obsidian, pumice-stone, pearl-stone, vitrified borax, phosphoric acid, arsenious acid, arsenic acid, boracic acid, &c. All bodies which solidify in the amorphous state, form viscid liquide when melted. If a body appears transparent immediately after cooling from a atate of fusion, it may generally be regarded as amorphous; but if it becomes opaque pon fouling, although it was transparent while melted, it is then most pbably crystalline, (eg. hydrate of potash and carbonate of lime): Peceuse the humerous sraall crystals interlacing cach other in all dircetiona refract light in a confused and irregular manner. According to Graham, acid phosphate of soda gives out less heat at the moment of solidification than acid arseniate of soda; the former solidifies in the form of a transparent glasa; the lattor in that of an opaque fibrous mass. 2. By evaporation of a eolution.—A solution of gum, glue, white of egg, soluble glass, &c. in water, and of most resine in alcohol, leaves the dissolved bodies in, an amorphous state when the quid evaporates. All fheae bodies require but a very small quantity of the solvent to retain them in the liquid state: consequently, after the greater portion of it has ‘evaporated, they still remain dissolved and form very thick solutions, the viscosity of which appears to’ prevent the particular mode of epproxima- tion of the atoms required for crystallisation, 8, By precipitation. —Most if not all voluminous, gelatinous, and ‘Viscid precipitates must be regarded as amorphous. Some of them retain thie condition even after remaining for a long time in the liquid, and form, ‘efter washing ond drying, earthy or transparont masses having a conchoidal fracture like alumina or phosphate of lime; others sink to the Bottom of the liquid in which they are produced, and, with various degrees of rapidity, cllectthemaelves into an aggregate of small crystals «4. wo ecid and carbonate of lime. [Comp. Tank (Pog. 46, 250); Mitacherlicl (Ann. Chim, Phys. 78, 389); ann (J. pr. Chem. 19, 849, 345 and 858.)]& i Fa 3 af iy He i i a i se ga ney soheciend ints iovol vetoes to ¢ some ‘other (the amorphous) variety. fallining-s aoe rea lint of ecgyetatlacl ie the. amen cra err hich contains ee conditions is. heated ‘or 300° toa — about 98° Ah so passes qui sich ene ifort stats, sv obtsl colotiont ‘they appear Tasty ark do eee eey pete crystalline and therefore more ee any Nestea taba ge ea ae tha wh a been. provio ‘is probably amorphous, remarkable of ae nivel be states. has not been ignited burns when heated in the air: ane: i aehe He : ae wl Hines 3 5 4E if | ‘brown powder, but when led. it into a (Marchand USE a Beg pen eg ‘solution of I, anc however finely it ein ting tls in contact with lime and water. ‘Opal ies a ops gr of 2°09, refracts singly, dissolves easly in boli Serpe petiaty ewly in the mao whon cold, and hardens with Hime water into a mortar. Both minerals consist of silica. however, contains from 3 to 12 cent. of water, and the difference n them has been ascribed to. this circumstance, opal being regarded /drate a eebar tcl, the eesti ete Sal ie onal eae variable. Fuchs, therefore, re li his ‘ards amorphous silica, and ee Pitsecall te uieeban bear asven off presents almost the same ‘and is nearly as Sot in ‘as before. Silica, artificially preparell (by reakienay ‘silicions: og with potash, treating ees ae with dilute hydrochloric acid in excess, evaporating to dryness, and digesting in water, has likewise, after ignition, the same action with caustic potash that ‘has, and must therefore in like manner be rey as gel ‘is a mixture of quartz an + boil caustic dissolves care latter and leaves the former in the state of pct Arsenious acid, when sublimed on the large scale, solidifies from the temperature into a perfectly transparent glass. This kept at ordinary temperatures for several months, subsequently white and opaque. In this case there is sition from the to the crystalline state; but it is }) the specific gravity diminishes that the opaque acid dissolves rather more abund- in cold water than the transparent, whereas in ‘the ous to the crystalline state is density and diminished solubility. When the in boiling dilute hydrochloric acid: and the # ile ERT ine peek HG a § Ht i yp eth lett SEES ‘ i SeEeEse Ht eyme : ft iil i a ial 3 i aoAMORPHISM. 107 found to possess greater specific gravity, greater hardnese, and less Tha mioendewoonce ero observed fe similar to. the pheno- ol by Graham and Regnault (pp. 104 and 106). Most. of ies which exhibit thie phenomenon are originally crystalline, but heated become porous and amorphous, in consequence of losing water, ammonia, or other volatile matters: ‘then, when no further loss of weight takes place, if they are heated to a temperature a little below redness, they exhibit the incandescence just, epoke To this claes belong—the hydrates of zirconia, titanic acid, tantalic acid, molybdous oxide, oxide of chromium, peroxide of iron, and oxide of rhodium; also hydrated basic perarseniate of iron, hydrated antimonite of cobalt, hydrated sntimoniate of cabal hydrated antimouiate of copper, and euxonite (which chiefly consists of hydrated tantalate of yttria.) If these compounds are heated morcly tothe point at which they par with all their water, they are afterwards nearly as soluble as in their hydrated state ; but if by stronger beating incondescence has been produced, they are afterwards found to be much less soluble, and often alter in colour. “Zirconia, after being heated to incandescence, is no longer soluble in any acid excepting boiling oil of vitriol ; oxide of ‘chromium, after ignition, is of a paler green than before, and soluble in nothing but boiling oil of vitriol ; ignited peroxide of iron is ‘as hard and as difficultly soluble as micaccous iron ore, which is crystallised ‘de of iron. The above-mentioned antimonites aud antimoniates are, in their original state, easily decomposed by hydrochloric acid, but after ignition they resist its action almost entirely, and are also of a much paler colour than before. Hydrated phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, after being deprived of all its water and ammonia by gentle heat, exhibits incandescence when more strongly heated. ‘The same appearance is presented by the carburet of iron which remains in the distillatory apparatus after gently heating prussian blue or protocyanide of iron. Gadolinite (silicate of yttria) whose conchoidal fracture and obsidian- like appearance testify sufficiently to its amorphous structure, (although geome persons have fancied that they could discover a cry: in it,) exhibite vivid incandescence’ when moderately he thereby no loss of weight, but is afterwards found to dissolve but ve imperfectly in hydrochloric acid, even after several days’ boiling, althoug! before iguition it is very casily soluble. According to Kobell (J. pr. Chem. 4, 91), its specific gravity increases by this change only from 4-25 to 4-31. ‘Th. Scherer aluo (ogg. 51, 493) observed in the gadolinite of Ytterby bat a very trifling increase of specific gravity, but he attributes this circumstance to the partially distingrated and impure condition of the mineral ; for (2) gadolinite. trom Pitterdn (6) orthite from Fille-Fjold, and (c) allanito from Jotun-Fjeld (which two minerals havo nearly the same composition a8 ‘gadolinite) showed after ignition considerable incroase of density ; the ep. gr. Of a increased from 4°35 to 4-63, giving a condensation of 1000 to 9396 5 that of & from 8°65 to 8:94, therefore condensation = 9264; and of c from 8:54 to 8-76, therefore condensation = 9417. The quantity of water loot by a was'0-18 por cont 5 that iost by 8 and e was greater. At the same time, a lost by iguition ita black colour and opacits ing bottle- green and translucent, “Scheerer endeavoure to explain the increase of ity by supposing that the spherical atoms are at first disposed one upon another in euch e manner that each spherule rests upon two others below it, and that the atoms after being heated are so displaced that cech one of them rests upon three below it; this would give a condensation of from 1000 to 9182. PLay Pee GUAT | Ute en i sl il a Hi a aug sus : HG st a al Hab hte ena Hef a be ae vil An : Ss : 5 oat size i I is aie HH iM ai He et Ke Ha i ie i Head HiePOLYMERISM. 109 happen t6 be, is ignited with three atoms of any base, soda for instance, an ordinary phosphate is produced; but when P O is ignited with 2 atoms of sods, the result is @ pyrophosphate, and with 1 atom, @ metaphos- iy long digestion or toting with large quantity of water ‘which iteelf acts as a base, the pyrophosphates and metaphosphates are converted into ordinary phosphates. ‘The particular quantity of base with which PO? is in contact, seems then, at certain high temperatures, to affect ‘the manner in which 1 atom of phosphorus arranges itself with respect to 5 atoms of oxygen, so that the compound is capable of saturatin, sometimes 8 atoma of @ base, sometimes 2, and sometimes only one. If ‘we would explain these remarkable relations of phosphoric acid, first dis covered by Graham, on the hypothesis of Polymeriam, we might consider ordinary joric acid ae PO’, pyrophosphoric acid as P'0", and meta- Peck ca POH, then PUP wuld eatarate three, PO four, and three atoms of a base. (Vid. Phiosphorus,) In the case of tellurous acid, TcO*, a more soluble modification A and less soluble modification Bare to be distinguished: the latter is produced by the action of nitric acid upon A, and is again converted into A by fusion with caustic potash. Telluric acid Te 0%, exhibits two modi- fications perfectly similar to the above the more soluble of the two is converted into the leas soluble, when two or more atoms of it are fused with one atom of potash; this is analogous to the transformations of phosphoric acid above noticed. If these compounds are regarded as Polymeric, they must be supposed to exist as TeOR, TO! TeO* and (Vid, Tellurium.) Antimonious and antimonic acid may possibly pass from one such modification to the other when their salts are iguited. Peroxide of tin, when precipitated by caustic alkalis from a solution of the bichloride, is much more casily oluble in acids than the anomalous ‘variety of it produced by the action of nitric acid upon metallic tin; the latter when dissolved exhibits also very different relations. Possibly the soluble oxide may be Sn0? and the anomalous variety Sn°Ot, Among organic compounds the following may be regarded as isome- ric: Tartaric and racemic acid (C*H*0*); mucic and paramucic acid (C*H'0') ;—malcic and paramaleic acid (C+HO"), B. Polynerism, Two or more compounds, possessing diferent physical and chemical properties, and composed of the same clements in the same proportions, are said fo be polymer, when their diferences may bo explained by supposing that their compound atoms contain different numbers of simpl atoms, varying however in such a manner that the numerical ratio of the several kinds of simple atoms remains unaltered. If, for example, one of & group of polymeric compounds contains 1 atom of substanc: A and 8 atoms of a substance B, then the second may contain 2 atoma of A and 6 atoms of B, the third 8 atoms of A and 9 atoms of B, and so on. In such cases, the weight of the compound,atom varies, but the proportions between ite clements remains the same. Besides the instances mentioned under Ieomeriem, which ought all thape to be included under this head, the following among organic com- nations must be particularly notice. Polymeric compounds all containing 1 part of hydrogen unived with 6 parts of carbon, and therefore containing C HT: Olefiant gas the more tile oil of oil-gas, rock-oil, eupione, oil distilled from bees'-wax, caout-eee eee mee ii ie Hi eee i ieee tal seHt EAH ipy nei HPS UTA u Fn22 33 is i an ila paneiilin ue hs i et 3 y iE i pec eee a i q i Hf uid ie is eae EE Ha ee & g35gias 54 7 2 2 bidaaltlily ae ea i a ut he pull sat 1 iisigi ayes URES ance 4 By ep y Ha 2HDECOMPOSITION BY COHRSION. 3 body ‘the affinity of the fluid for it is eo far diminished that equilibrium between that force and the cohesion of the solid is again established. If now a solation thus saturated while warm bo cooled down to its former temperature, i regains its original cohesive power, and 9 portion of it separates from the fluid in order to unite in larger and crystalline masses, the quantity remaining in aolution being only jast #0 mach as the fluid would directly have taken up at this lower tem- This separation is called Spontaneous or False ipitation, spontana in go far us it takey place without the addition of ‘8 foreign body to the solution. This precipitation by cooling is exhibited by the solutions of most salts in water’ and alcohol, of many kinds of camphor and fat in aleohol and ether, &c. Aqueous solutions containing excess of water, often when cooled below 0° C., deposit a portion of the water in the form of ico, the remaining liquid being @ concentrated solution of the salt; for at low temperatures the cohesion of ice may overcome ita affinity for the salt. ‘Whereas therefore a saturated solution when cooled deposits salt, 80 on the other hand a dilute solution, when its temperature is sufficiently Foduced, yields ice. Lastly, a saturated solution of common salt solidifies at — 20°C. to a mixture of ice and common salt containing water of crys Glacial acetic acid solidifies at + 15°C. (59° Fah.); a mix- substance with } water deposits glacial acctic acid at a lower temperature, the remaining liquid being a compound of glacial acetic acid with water ; when the quantity of watorsia somewhat greater, nothing solidifies ; when it is atill greater, part of it freczce, leavi centrated acid behind. When the mixture of glacial ac water, instead of being cooled, is subjected at 15°C. to a pre atmospheres, 2 of it crystallizes in afew minutes in the form of glacial acetic acid. (Perkins, Sch. 39, 161.) It appears from this that increased jure hae the same effect as cold in increasing cohesion, The following are exceptions to the law just considered. Some solid bodies, as lime and citrate of limo, are more soluble in cold water than in hot ; so that a solution of cither of them saturated in the cold becomes turbid when warmed, and clear again on cooling. If to a solution of chloride of calcium or nitrate of lime in absolute alcohol, there be added as much ether as will throw down only a portion of cither of these salts, the mixture of alcohol and ether will become. turbid, even t0 opacity from precipitation of the lime-salt still remaining in solution—every time the liquid is warmed, if only by the hand, but will regain its transparency on cooling. (Dabereiner, Ann. Pharm. 14, 249.) A solution of caustic potash in water dissolves in the cold a large quantity of tartrate of lime ; the clear solution congulates to a pasty mass when heated, but becomes clear and fluid again on cooling. (Lassonne, Osann.)—The solubility of Glauber's salt in water increases rapidly with rise of temperature up to 83° (92° Fah.), but diminishes when the temperature is raised above this point; water saturated with Glauber’s salt at 83%, yields hydrated crystals whon cooled, and anhydrous crystals when further heated, Similar anomalics occur in solutions of liquids in other liquids. Conine, agitated with water at ordinary temperatures, takes up a small portion of it: the clear liquid becomes turbid, from separation of water, every time it is warmed even by the hand, and clear again on cooling. (Geiger.)—Animine dissolves in 20 parts of water: the solution becom turbid when heated, from separation of animino, which is redissolved on cooling. (Unverdoxben.)—When a solution of chloride of calcium in a Vou. I. 1 .SE TE eer cee iy a eH ae eee al ea , Sheela Fie Sree sate a pitied Hf ue _ oo a Hi alii: 5 3 Hh Hi 3 aA ut uel cee uecontact i terete cxytons i ticpron edecos tim pascal vero tare ere ‘inous fermentation may be explained enusistently with ‘this view by supposing that the decomposing ferment brings the sugar into a Statoof decomposition, and the sugar is then resolved into carbonic cid and Assimilar explanation may be applied to the decomposition of urea into carbonic acid and ammonia by animal mucus, of asyaragin into as; ‘of ammonia by yeast, and of amygedalin into hydrocyanic acid and {or ned eatin the action of yeast and Licbi tt on ec fir of, ants ond anitonls kayo exsrta a decsoponae iHO Hp ne moa = ‘y fr 5 2 ay wu lid un wie Tibet tag Be uu ee iN tat Hig 2 UM pustliae fa ie E Ee ss ts i i i jit Hy Hea if ' i A it iF i dius du cilia a Uh raleetlaaetel ta Hi7 $9, 880).—Andrews (Phil. (Phil, Mag, J. 10, 2673 12, 483 15, 292; abstr. action of acids 'on carbona\ Berthollet, to notice some of the more i (t cases of chemical OFT poesed notice same of the mora important cane of Sesion z : 1, A_ compoun: is intervention of © into the compound A © and the liberated a Gao) Simple Elective acting 4B be water, ie. heat + foo and ( frozen m 3 these gir vercury as be oxygen ed aad Cees A aseeeatng a eee result is oxygen (oxygen + heat) and metallic (Sch. In ‘Donate of lime at a red heat is resolved into carbonic A arseniuretted hydrogen gas at a red heat into gas—which in the separate state is more expanded and therefore ‘combined with a greater quantity of heat than when in union * Plate III, The dotted lines denote the j the full lines the am, ‘compounds destroyed ines118. AFFINITY. with arvenic—and metallic areenic.—Let AB be hydrochloric acid gas (hydrechloric acid + heat), and C water; the water combines with the acid. forming aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid, and heat is disengaged. (Sch. 4). Cases in_ which Il three bodies are ponderable: Sulphuret of silver red heat yields eulphurous acid and metallic silver Uxide of zine heated’ to redness in contact with charcoal is slved into carbonuic oxide and metallic zinc (Sch. 6).—Oxide of copper in a similar manner into carbonic acid gas and copper (Sch. thlorine gus expels oxysen gas from red-hot potash (KO) and produces chloride A pransium (Sch. 8)—Hydrochloric acid and zine form chloride of zinc with down zagemet of hydrogen gas (Sch. 9}—Iron decomposes chloride 1A wiver in contact with water into chloride of iron and silver (Sch. 10). Cauatar (ig 8) heated to redness in contact with iron fet sulphide of im awl mercury (Sch, 11)—Carbonic acid gas ia expelled by sulphuric 4 Irnu carbonate of lite, and nulphate of limo is formed (Sch. 12)-— Avjw7nm wilution of nitrate of silver mixed with caustic potash yields tnzy. «A vilver aud nitrate of potash (Sch. 13)—Water added” to a wAuwiiens A revin in alcohol, forms dilute alcohol and precipitates resin. Gu as calor had, Glauber’s salt dissolved in water is almoet wholly -igitated by widition of aleohol: for the mixture of alcohol with a ree ynantity of water has scarcely any affinity for resin, and that of water with « barge quantity of leokol scarcely any affinity for Glauber's malt. Pynwaines C taken from the compound A B only a part of A. 60 that a sanjenul AB with a wnaller quantity of A is separated. ‘Thus zine fu a stay: wanda robm caren acd of half its oxygen and 14,)—The resulting compound A C may Werte it thats +7 with A ‘f which has been deprived of balf of ite original ypeaeh wolution of wulphurous acid form byyxeul- say Fob the compound A B of the whe weparate only the remaining part of B. Th of inanganese forms sulphate of prot and detven out half the oxygen (Sch 16). takes phice in presence of ate Bee sd jar of i 1 anor 4p med th waljtiae ach uN sulphate of zinc and hydrogen gas . atest taker plore: whe imyen yas is given off during sen acila or alkaline solutions —To ona of metals from solutions ther metals in the metal uted for hydrogen). Thus zi HE evgget pereloces wulphate ger and nitrate .—When cartenate ©119 BY AFFINITY. DECOMPOSITION qld: UB GHGY iy Ai iat ee de Gee 1 alt Hi (ee ctpiau asta Ua tlh ee eed Weg five He i ieee ee EE HE [cei iid naan ett aeentl i paler ly in iaviteteiey Hi iad elaialiina: didi Uren a esi ie if ian afi Li a if wag Hue ene naa i ; : 5 a inl if: He a Ce TE : st ie Pi ie ae eg a4 ilk Ht cae iy wie bi fal fuacin? ue Hii ee 17] ae yi ne Hn He ae AFFINITY. il rat ie = i i ii a Hite HG) ane Hu iRiseDECOMPOSITION BY AFFINITY. 121 f ie ee ~ on of common salt by heating itwith silica, and allow- water to have access to the mixture, presents this peculi SER ithe siics in not combined with AB tho-raten, bot acts by ited and combines with AO the soda (Sch. 8). of decomposition by double affinity, part of the com- ‘Tn some cases pound A B remains undecomposed and enters into combination with the new compound AC. When 2 atoms of at a red heat are acted ‘upon by 1 atom of bisulphide of carbon, there are formed 2 atoms of pani see oe Saeea e eoan ee tom of baryta (Sek. 59)—In other cases, the undecom= B unites partly with A C and parily with BD. ‘Thus de of antimony in excess is fused with potash, a compound of antimony with oxide of antimony is formed, and also a ere ar Seer eae es eo tack Or again thie undecomposed portion of AB unites with the new gom: 'D, and the undecomposed portion of C D with the new compound fl i potash (Sch. 62). The as B may be in combination with a fifth body E,* ee weet ea with the cane of A Cand BD. 1G COT of rie ammonia ‘is resolved when i aaa kioe at calston and water while ammonia is set of B may remain uncombined: 2 atoms of hydrochloric acid and 1 atom of peroxide of manganese yield 2 atoms of water : ; i i i 1CT aT Ut fi iinet es HES sie] GEER tent bad iit ii il it ul ed 1a eens f ape Hi Ha Le ce u: Pau at an i shal = sail ua a han ii 8 Lib ll 5: zi Eee ie i iialise sake ea int ful eal i ti a i aan ah a cH il ne aah :DECOMPOSITION BY AFFINITY. 123 phosphate of lead, producing carbonic oxide, shorua, and lead (Sch. Bs). Hydrogen gas conducted over red hot inate ot potash produces water and sulphide of potassium (Sch. 84). ‘Tin treated with aqueous solution of nitric acid yields peroxide of tin and ammonia, the latter however combining with the undecomposed portion of the nitic acid (Se 85). ‘& Two compounds, ABC and DEF, resolve themselves by thet mutual action into the three compounds AD ,BE, and C F (Sch. 88). ‘This case has received the name of Atiractio electiva multiplex. Hydrosulphate of ammonia and nitrate of lead produce sulphide of lead, water, and nitrate of ammonia (Sch. 87). ‘The cause of all these decompositions of existing compounds by superadded bodies, resulting in the formation of new compounds, is universally to be sought in the condition that the forces which tend towards the formation of the new compounds are stronger than those whose tondency is to maintain the old ones. In such changes, affinity plays by far the most important part ; but some influence is also exerted by cohesion, The influence of cohesion may perhaps be understood in the following manner. ‘The more coberent any element of a compound may be, the greater will be its inclination to leave that compound, and form itself, by ‘virtue of cohesion, into larger masses, and the more quickly, therefore, ‘ill the old compound be decomposed by a weaker affuity.” The same effect results from greater cohesion in the new compounds : for the formation of these compounds is then assisted, not only by the affinity of their elements, but also by the tendency of the compound atoms to unite themselves by virtue of their cohesion into larger masses. The greater therefore the cohesion of the separating bodies and of the compounds bout to be formed, the more eaeily will the decomposition. take places on the contrary, the greater the cohesion of the old compounds and of the body which produces the decomposition, the greater will be the excess of affinities required to affect that decomposition. ‘This influence of cohesion ‘ecems to be especially corroborated by the law discovered by Hahnemann (Demachy Laborant im Grossen, P. 2, 1784, Vorrede), and further developed by Berthollet, viz, that two salta dissolved in’ water decompose one another by double affinity, whonover one at least of the new salts is, at the given temperature, less soluble (and therefore more coherent) than either of the two original compounds. This law holds good without any exception whatever; in no instance are two soluble salts produced from the mutual action of a soluble and an insoluble salt; on the other hand, two soluble salts often produce a less eoluble and an insoluble alt. ‘The only case which appears to present an exception is that observed by Th, Schoerer (Poy. 51, 470), and this requires further examination. Tt ia from this cause that precipitations ao often result from decompositions by double affinity. (Comp. Sch. 46, 47, 48, 49.) If now we suppose that a salt dissolves in water with greater facility, the more coherent it is (although the strength of its affinity for water must also be taken into consideration), it will follow that in these decompositions, the precipitation results from the greater cohesion of one or both of the new salts. Perhaps in these mutual decompositions of salts, the affinities by which the old compounds are held together are in equilibrium with those which tend to produce the new ones, and consequently the greater cohesion of a new compound determines the result. On the other hand, the experiments of Gay-Lussac (page 114) must be considered, according to which cohesion exerts no perceptible influence on solubility, Nevertheless, Gay-Lussac’s explanation of the above lawa i ah ee a a r, of this influence of the cohesive force (which ‘case be estimated too lities come See rienathpargney nn gieng deetepetor ened ‘the least solubility. any 4h ‘must not in SP, Soa aes the relative determined rhanerer ths tales invariably an sci nt a a. ets ote a uit S32 alg 2 il 2 3 H i le Hi te i i ed a He : Hlof soda for acid which about the for- ‘compound, Fete at vo Comin isomer te decompositions always take place under similar it that A B i Cat AC by B. Seraaatier as wie chien chciioee a so-called Recprocal or Alimatng | Elatve fit, ‘reciproce. ‘The circumstances whose alteration Seecsignn clrraelscorerehe tparalqumniesiee the bodies which act upon ench other, the predisposing afinity of the solvent, Quantity. "An excess of one of the bodies which act upon an ‘may produce ieee a ete Adhesion. When hy is passed over black oxide of (FeO), tho oxide Solana te anise salle lias Soe Regnanit (Ann Chi Chine Pigs 83; 62, 972) have shown that these opposite results are by no means produced (as somo have supposed) difference of temperature, but that, at every degree of temperature from Salles to he right red heat, and even when red-hot vapour of the tube, the action takes place, sometimes one the other, accordin, suai ean of hydrogen IPaeiabe raps. of water gwestas a affinity for oxy; santos a) eh ‘sare heat, het for oo corse into Hey sta then the adhesion between the preponderance, If hy. Namrata to ve Sipe set np cntos ina ars was eee iron: if vapour of water is in excess, its adhesion to hydrogen gras causes theron fo compos yr fin wat heey kom od nad Horstes hydrogen gas. In either cage there is produced a mixture of id if water.—According to (Ann. Chim, Fe Ss Sao 2 Pomme 160) sing Uy lly aot kc do the sioongh te of them decimate alr eh ty = : tin, and i to Re; similar rela- eee ree eres ‘acid gas and convert it into carbonic oxide; and on the other hand their Se ee bees i a eae eect ee are reduced to the teetalic stale, oirboain acid beg at the ‘sime time To explain this action, we mast suppose, aesion to exist carbonic oxide and carbonic acid gases.—Hj Se eee ee aetile HAH oo aut an La / al 428. ie if a al 1H il is i td Ht aie a Hal iu i 3 ne a a Seta ee Hi ey all He ie i HAWHUTTE i Teal il bana HU sia luball) uae 3 i Hin HERE : es pital ean ee ale a “Gaui ilaapie ah 128 AFFINITY. with alcohol higher temperatore prodaood by boiling ‘may also contribute of soda and chloride of calcium dissolved in water are ‘While sulphate oe ie ci mature of it eaapecniaal 112), The ies formin, @ small ria soft and contains a ‘to show how it a resi after of calcium qu = funy: Hit SRL a an iat pea me a ia lie a Liu alaium, with which SS ium q ha yw white heat, ecompones potas, produc on ide gas and Boassinm vapour (Sh; eubsiutng fonZ) Ah of et for crt i an a ata ‘When potash (or soda) is in combination with phosphoric aci acid, or silica, sulj Sai otal ail ajiaeate, owe peanosa at ornare temperatures and combine with the potash by virtue of its greater affinity. Ee Gee ited in contact with phosphoric ‘acid, boracio acid, or silica, those. acide wal take hold of the potash and Eee career In this case, it is the -of heat for the volatile sulphuric acid, with which it forms a i ‘that enables the much weaker affinity of the above-1 tioned acide fot potash to gain the re ‘combines and forms a vapour, between sal-ammoniac and carbonate of lime at a higher temperature. For a similar reason, borate of ammonia and common salt act upon each other only at a high temperature, evolving sal-ammoniac in the state of “To the same category may also be assigned the following facts, so far yay prove to be correct. | When enipburio acil act upon sine ordinary pressure atmosphere, ine ferred (th tng Hats (oh 37, 183; also . 12, 523) this decomy ceases when the ee ocied 8 OnE Oo ee closed by a stop-cock, as ‘soon as igen gas has attained a certain pressure; at 10°C, the decomposition and evolution of gas-cease when the gas presses with a force of 13 atmospheres; at 25°, when the pressure amounts to 33 1 « if i i iagqnaps say at |i LTRs eine ot eta ii : cu ee ee ey 3 Heil] i 4 see ges ssi | HH i teal Ese Tere eg a at aH a Hae it oH i fi Hl ee al a Ht 23 A Hl ial i ee ae se ine Ha it ied in 3 alt see i th He i Hl ub i ae Hf ii i233 it Hp HA Weal tne ‘ene iy ite ey # 8 and 271 (iieaue i ei u z ; S as i fee ane tea He ea Heals ua i {al lee eee ie FE ‘ ee Ha eta 2 seus ‘ Hilt iinet ie aul eaeail a i EL: { a 3 nan qi Hie fii ue ik Hi il a lh By Head GL aul . 2 tf Hi He Ee vy s i eBay ite HG ci ai a Cee i re ony bia Hit 5 na sii i Ht it ciate bi : te ae “lll fide ae; . of lime requires solve it, but chloride of calcium, dissolved Geo eres dap : pai Bat ties this large 5 ¥ fl z 3 i il i E Be eee the aloctie of claus Wet Sanam ie tee ive ‘since if sulphate of lime were formed, more than half iz it i if als i Ze Ft F rendered the carbonate of lime more soluble: and Karsten (Schrift. Berl. Akad., 1841) has shown that many easily soluble salts are ron- \ the addition of other salts, pemeisessatats solubility in water thorel ueed, explain of carbonate end sulphate of lime, carbonate of mages ssulpha ts 4 FS : tities ter than water Tins aston by. a) eosin senders such waters contain salts which are incompatible with ‘each ich at the given would decompose one another temperature mw eect, Sf che quantity of water umeeant wore male, (Statique Chin. 1, 108, and 129); Brandes (Schw. 48, facts relating to the theory of reciprocal affinity but ring scart vention be found in Scheele (Opusc. 1, + Grotthuss (Scher, N. Bl. 970); N. Fischer (Pog. 7, 268); Berthollet Chim. 1, 81, 99, 100, 401) and Dulong (Ann, Chin. 82, 273, also in In the its of the last-named philosopher on the fence of insoluble by soluble salts, eee eer eee res does not seem to have been 2. Circumstances and Results of Decomposition, Change of temperature. Since heat is gencrally sct free in the Mostra ct Goes, on, coal quardity ot best nat elo boooso Iatant " if 4 i t 5 Q aPRECIPITATION. 185 of the mpostion of oxide of cblorine, nitrogen, &c., which appears not to be with a rise of temperature amo ee eee eee Peace Saseaes be exriained the violent compression of air ‘the exploding body.—The of the detonation of an eee ‘mixture propounded by Brianchon (DO. snio: 28, 995) has shown by Gay-Lussac (Ann. Chim. Phys. 39, 58) to be untenable. R. has also shown (Ann, Pharm, 29, 75) that the explosive force of silver is equally stron, is sl rections. aoe ‘When several lgvid' products result ‘a decomposition, they form a turbid mixture, until 1 ber bare ‘taken up the determinate relative positions ferent: specific gravities :—Volatile oil ved Fe i Ee te ition of a liquid or gaseous body, solid! products to the bottom in consequence of thelr greater called Pct, aud decomposition of this Kind is tio. wi i |13) i i ke as d : au i Ee a BFE, Hibs i iH Tron pyrites, FeS', when raised to a moderate red heat, which may Morena Fd Gat gtrngee Tod bunt (perhaps = 600 al ter ‘e' S*; at a stronger = quantity of sulphur eublimes, and FeS remain vehind. faking Dunas ition of the boiling point of sulphur, viz, Adi saad sapiens for the quantit Pe en een oes eee the quant sulphur " expressed iy) 40 = 3, and that of eden ax mah pulps eainih joe i with all by aphid of wok, AUS" its sulphur, perhaps at about 450°; if 80, the of gold. for sulphi will be iy 45044010.” But few af We otber metals sulphides are decomposed by heat; whence we may conclude that the number which express the affinity of theso metals for sulphur isA MEHARYTINT Been gr pan iH uh Me Hy a: Hi He el . i i He fl ayaa wis tii ee Lamina tiy | eel ee ey te ql fe luis he [gt cH i i EUG EA139 STRENGTH OF AFFINITY. URS re abel Ha Aut i iets ii afb 254] a aie " Wy ute a apse 24 iat = ) vast a Sele. BHR Hensae ea f ie if coe Hey Hi : ut ite ae 2 nH Hi ill (ee natal il!‘therefore the affinity between two bodies, the greater should Eiht etn nd theme of the foer ul alt Sete from that of the latter. Morvean suspended a metal disc one uch in diameter from one of the arms of a balance, and counterpoised it in the opposite scale ; he then ‘under the disc a glass le ‘mercury, 80 that the surface of the mercury just came in con- with the lower surface of the dise,—and what additional ‘eight required to be laid in the opposito acale-pan inorder to te ‘the eT andy sete ait eerie oe weights were necessary : 446 grains, silver 429, tin 418, lend 397, ath 72, zine 204, copper 142, antimony 126, iron 115, cobalt 8. is almost exactly the order of facility in which these combine mercury, and so far to accord with view. But it has not yet been shown that the magnitudes of adhesion and affinity are in direct proportion one to the other. Although the affinity of sulphur for mercury is much greater than that of either of the metals: named, still a disc of sulphur would adhere to it with far less force either of the metallic discs did. Moreover, the fact of mer- combining with gold more easily than with zinc does not show that earn the greater affinity for the mercury: for facility of combination is one thing, intimacy another. Besides, Morveau’s method does not give MUIR TSered of ‘adicaion'; “foe's certais quantity. Cf mercury remains ‘attached to the plates, and on separation the mercury itself is torn asunder, on, determined is in reality its cohesion. Finally both on and because many substances on coming in contact imme- enter into chemical combination,—and the film of the new com- bodies whose adhesion is to be measured is really that iption,—an exact determination of the force of adhesion ‘numerous and important cases is impossible. of affinity is sometimes estimated by the time in takes place, | Wensel (Vow der Verwandschaf,p. 28) jinders of equal height and diameter, and covered ion of one of the terminal surfaces, with varnish of different acids at the same temperature and for equal time, and estimated the force of affinity by the quantity of Ived. ‘These experiments however prove nothing, first because lution of metals in acids various affinities come into play, viz ity of the metal for oxygen, which has to be taken sometimes ‘acid sometimes from the water,—that of the oxide of the metal for the acid—and that of the salt for water; secondly, because Wenzel wometimes weed! concentrated, sometines dilute acide, aecording, to F Z bere beg ftps a ! Ff 1G gE Heon the rapidity of the combination could not well be taken into iF ett sf anny cates : Hie ne Heal iene a iG i Ha] z al ie sit iis int Seas Ha ae iad aia a1 a eat i Hine u43 STRENGTH OF AFFINITY. ist in an yusseee wayesnga fe ih Gaeta tig ual dil Fn ba i nea eal ih eat vena j is 1 ap alpilad al saa aly fai “Hi ais etal ety . a dege llr; 3B 5 aig u eae se232ae ESeeas . igus glu fie ial > pelea t akg Hifi fl ae peel pf t ee ge e222 ge8e Eee BREeress <3 Hig sien aly ju erate hi e Hijet iia ‘i eae § s 3 g eI BCHATOMIC ,THEORY. 145 must be taken into account. Nevertheless the affinity of the ‘metals for chlorine seems to be greater than for aE acid: 4PLO; KO on Cad; 3 GeO: Zn0. ‘Atn0; Feo; TO; wort; Cat ‘Anfrye and’ Darect’ si 225) SO On ay 5 cd ies Persoa eee soe at J. Pr. Chem. 6, 82). suboxide of the protoide without how. Samoan on cxpsiunsan props incre. With Miri Acid: KO; Nu; LOt; BuO; S10; GPLO; Cad; Meds Cot Za0 Mad; ids (GPO, NO'); CuO; according to faci te ec tarees Og mi kaass Daciee le a Poa a owalic acid: Lime, baryta, strontia, mag- Pita raresia if theeo column of acide, partinlar aiténtion should to the formation of basic salts. sa : 2 At. MoO*; 250°; 2Cr0#; 2 At. oxalic acid: 2 At. tartaric S04; 500 NO*; 10"; (10's HF HCl; PO*; AsO": 10%; DrOts Bs Os PO" mae NO*; MnOT;) Mn0*; Bots cor; is as yet une and re- A aes Sty edhe e a yet very uncertain, bases exhibit orders of affinity more or less resembling that of : fl ie VI. Origin and Nature of the Phenomena of Affinity. 1, Atomic Hypoth to the Atomic or Corpuscular Theory, matter is an original consists of certain very small parts called Atoms, Molecules, , arranged, not in absolute contact, but with Intervals or Pores Shares Gest 0 that bodies, which to the eye ae Bett continu- nm, ke a pee of glaso or metal, must be id, not as being com- filed with matter, but as agaregates of atoms and empty spaces. chemical combination, the heterogeneous atoms arrange’ themselves ou to each other, but without penetration—juxtaposition ae ‘the aggregate of the so formed compound atoms, with the intervals oor bet a constitutes the new compound, Che Sed atomic theories are dist tinguished from one another, according the fino whi i supa oat in bringing about the Tectapeattce, ot SE eee x nePEeELE Ha H a Ai: =e aut Ae ue a ay i i aly el i Hai ia is i iH i i i i E i i E : i i ! i int bil i ae j fit i PLE und atom of very complicated figure. therefore, to the second theory, which particularly ‘by Ampere (Ann. Chin. 90, 43). Accord: ‘, all atoms have a fi i it ‘arranging themselves in various numbers and at possessing one or other of the forms rag ilieea AGaREAN may be called 4 such spheres forming a base, and 4 them, many prodave eae; aa Likewise may 8 layers i iH fi i i i 9, arranged in a square, ee Ae or ‘square prism; 2 or more rect- Bia; armor ser fed one le te ot ‘a reotangular prism ; 9 or 16 spheres arranged on a plane in ‘hombus, and 9 or 4 such layera one above another, would spheres below and 1 above, or 6 at the bottom, a tetrahedron; 8 spheres below and crystalline molecules f i l Bi i cH ul ee respect to ponderable fluids, it is supposed, ing to the tea iaettins os initial Asal (eiattvensoeerba: ia bee) surrounded by a sphere of heat, which takes up but a small space in Lie a ae ie aaa ae ee a ee Ta SG i fl ih EUnet sa ee iene i i ut i aH a : Hi He felt ie Ha A i Hi g fala ge: Hi al etalATOMIC THEORY. 149 ee therefore is a mixture continued as it were to intimacy; in a mixture so called, whole masses of SpE the toe Doty reine th those of the other—and_ ‘these sn laa Romer by the senses. But in. chemical the indi heterogeneous atoms are laid side Senet ance a eeigtba maaone petit tgetien eee es ‘compound . These masses may indeed be separated into smaller and smaller mechanical force, but their compound pn So re ae erie eee preetlr aer r overcome which holds together compound s affinit giieletie einiple etenn nre-united into nd ones. re com nu ail ti of Ce Reslenrtanel to extlas tie Allerence supposing that the centres of gravit ~ as atoms of heterogenous substances might, in onsequencs of their diference of form, approach ove another within i Bergman. ie action of ‘rovitation ad thot of Affinity to the diferent forma of the atoms and likewise to thelr relative Peers Sartoe-Morvean perosiced that so explain the grent diferance tength of afinity depending on mature of the bodies concerned, on the hypothesis difference of form in their atoms, was mathematically impossible: but_ he was nevertheless inclined—since, according (0 his view, strongth of adhesion and strength of ality follow the same laws—to regard affinity as a particular manifestation of the gravitation of the atoms, and to hope that the peculiar characteristics of affinity would be explained by the discovery of new facts. Berthollet's Theory. Universal attraction is probably the cause of chemical combination. Tia ection in thie respect exhibite peculiar charac: ters, because it is exerted, not on masses, but on molecules placed at fmall distanooe from each other, and difering in form, cobesion ity. All bodies have affinity for all others: but the affinity is manifested, because other forces, such as gravitation, cohesion ‘ir ic aia ; essentially capable of unitin are, by virtue of capable of uniting: a 2s ae oe atta to to the mt elecicy, iy of the uomple enbatances themselves, partly Thus, water dissolves. only a Gertain quantity of sali, Bee! ? in all of the compound. .eSeere ea jeneeneerraieg Tne i He i a ie i i Het fla a He iil uf a al HE Ban iti si la i 3 i 2 wie a a ala it Fe Hs Hi ui ik : z if ae aeiers ins HG i i shal ae ail iti nl ib 3 bali : 3 te is Heli isetl Ht li i GH a ee Ee au a eta it i fy, a zt aa if sssgeees a (alg eae Aa GAG BE iets Hal ee a GN si fede! Ramin ietametili inal Cat anata ee ae at i Ce sa a i latidiied ie se ea ea, 228 § 3 32 i a a Hae i aie UE Le aa . [ee ea i ae at = at Gi H: os® § et ae ably iesulphuric acid or set that acid free. Tinting of leas is tantly Menched y chor ‘Tincture of litmus is bleached by chlorine id. mantity of sulphuric acid somewhat less gu e up all the oxide of lead, yields a solution of periodic acid free from sul- ue acid nd fom’ periodate of lead. (Benckiser, of ly separate though no, solid or gascous compound is formed, the melted ide of iron lying in a stratum above the melted antimony. thas also been shown (page 130) that hydrochloric acid decomposes of limo; and forms with the lime a perfectly neutral solution, even under a pressure sufficient to liquefy carbonic acid. Now since the hydrochlorae of lime is soluble and the carbonate ingclble, th contrary ‘ought to be according to Berthollet, as soon as the escape of carbonic acid is prevented. Ino similar manner, hydrochloric acid Gseomposes sulpite of Lime, although that salt i nearly. insoluble, and Gharons acid has lees elasticity than hydrochloric acid; inssmuch aa it is! by smaller pressure, .: E Het RAN] TRY eet HH Le i al il Te a i ae in ny fala Hi i aia ti oe ae Aa Hi Hay il He ae ee si Jad eH Haina el auELECTRO-CHEMICAL THEORY OF BERZELIUS. 155 i i rl ila ig He iid afide i i is e i j F i i i i is | i f £ f sf af Ee F fe J it FTE Hl ui f i Ha : i p i E tive. : 0, S, N, F, Ol, Br, P, As, Cr, V, Mo, W, B, Tr Sh a I, Se, P, Se oe ee ee Mn, Ce, Th, Zr, Al, Y, G, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, L, Na, Ke of an electro-1 ‘ive with an electro-positive a El cP Fx aF = : contact. At the instant of combination, the negative poles of the atoms ee ene eet nara ain teenies the sooonds and since itis only in the dud stat that the atoms mobility necessary for this arrangement, it follows that solid bodies have, generally speaking, no chemical action’ on one another, The two of these pol electricities ‘3 now combine and produce heat or fire, where In every chemical combination, therofore, a nen- tralization of cleciticities takes place, by or is in the same manner as in the discharge of the electrical pile or of lightning, excepting that these last-mentioned phenomena are not ‘accom any chemical combination, at least of ponderable bodies. ‘com is therefore an electrical phenomenon depend- 6n the electrical polarity of the atoms, c, periment, less ‘to combine with itive body gold than with sulphur which stands next to oxygen in the series—Berzclius supposes that, in the atom of ga tho pote of the itral Gi iia ai fees cay sapstit cee tm A ce | Let iba itil i Teun taated| aa dibs aie Hi ‘lh sci i tha : Hu oe ca fe a tle uu iat ii ad ela Tee“quantity: Now if atoms of ater ity for water, why ‘acid when pure or when combined with onc swaidrt=(2) What tie that indoes the two each by in definite quantity, on two ‘accompanied by a development of light and i icity at of negative electricity ae of an atom sitive it ith the negative lurium and not a antiot stent (ie Tela not easy fo discover ty what force comin substances are held together. ‘The atoms unite in consequence of their adhesion to the oppo- sie ttn tt Peon ‘these have been neutralized by combination, it might be that the all allow them= selves to be casa hy friction and other mechanical forces, which is by no means the fn order to overeome this difficulty, Dumas (Philos. d. haan 87) that in the combination of oxygen for example, the negative pre of the former places itself ive pole of the Intter, and the positive pole of the former towards the negative pole of the latter; moreover, that the atoms can ely give up the clecticty of one of their pree—ihat itis only on this Sout matic Feige enn \e positive o igen—that on the contrary tn of the to) ocr ple, vi the positive of the oxygen iataiore ive of the hydrogen remain uncombined, and hold the atoms united by t sicrantzal atest. But abi anemnplion--that the ets — ‘would not only be a new enigma, ee canara ‘contradiction ; Sor Garde combinetion of salpinar with oxygen, the positive electricity of the sulphur must unite with the negative of the oxygen; and in the combination of sulphur with the metals, its negative electricity with the positive of the metal. Einbrodt’s explanation (Ann. Chim, Phys. 61, 262; aleo J. pr: Chem. 8, $45,) agroca in the main with that of Dumas. The adopted present work is as f Gaetan have affinity.for ote another. The two electricities ‘are sobstancos likewise possess affinity for each other, and by whose combination ‘tie ions in which they neutralize each other, heat (Bre) i pro- individual electricities, and likewise heat, have ae ait for ponderable substances, and are united to them with great force and in renter quantity, ‘the more simple these ponderable pathos are. Oo Sa es, according’ to their nature, have a greater or less excess of positive ornepitite! ‘dectricity tnited with ‘them in addition to a definite quantity of heat. ‘Thus, oxygen probably contains the greatestdaaue HB Ht OTe ARM 4G Ue Ae feel lena | 2 i ie ae i al a Bes tf be i Hh Bl ds tll u i bp ‘i vi a il hi vie pete bh if He ci i mete le ne bea i tit ae a Hl Bit ‘lie ree =e nun PA a au Hi‘THEORIES OF KANT AND SCHELLING. 159 own intrinsic nature, not in consequence of the widening or narrowing of pores contained within it. In chemical combination, the elements have the power of diffusing themselves through each other without limit, so that in the smallest point of the compound both elements are alike present ;—the elements do not lay themselves side by side—they penetrate each other, A. Kant's Theory. Matter is a self-existent essence, and is actuated by two forces, the fore of attraction and the force of repulsion. It may indeed be pressed together by external force, but only to a certain point,—for its repulsive force increases with the condensation. The action of different kinds of matter on each other, whereby through their innate forces they alter the combination of each other's parts, is chemical action; it consists eome- times in solution, sometimes in decomposition. A perfect solution would be such as, in ite emalleat particles, would contain the heterogeneous substances in the same proportion as in the whole. Kant however leaves it undecided whether uch a solution is ever actually formed; but it may be imagined—for if the action of the solvent power be continued, the division must still go on and that without limit, ao that ultimately the volume of the solution will be uniformly filled with each of the two elements at the same time, and thus they will have penetrated each other, Kant, Anfangagr. d. Naturwissenschaft. ‘Aufl. 8, 8. 75.) B. Schelling’s Theory. Matter is not an original essence, but derives its origin froth the con- fic of the attractive and the repulsive force; and ita, various qualities depend upon the quantitative relation of these primary forces. i setion takes place’ only between heterogeneous bodies, those namely, in ‘one of which the relation between the forces is the reverse of that in the other. The resulting compound is the moan dynamical ratio of the ai imary foroes which have cht into activity during the process, fed cnsequenly' its properties ier ementally” from those! of its elements. (Schelling, Jdeen cu einer Philosophie der Natur. Aufl, 2, 1808, 8. 458. CRaraday Speculation concerning the Nature of Matter. Phil. Mag. J. 24, 186.]LIGHT. 161 On Light in general, and its relations to Heat. C. W. Scuzzzz: Von,der Luft und dem Fever. Ups. and Leipe. 1777. p. 61; leo Opusc. 1, 21. ‘Henscuet, on the Heating and Illuminating Powers of the Coloured Solar Rays. Phil. Trans. 1800, II, 255, 292; II], 437; also Gilb. 7, 187; 10, 68; 12, 521. Kansren, on the Solar Rays. Scher. J. 7, 663. C.W. Bécamann: Ueber die Erwiirmung verschiedener Kérper durch die Son nenstrahlen. Karalr. 1811. ‘Ssenrox, on the Heat of Prismatic Rays. Schw. 40, 129. Fravozrcues, on the Heating Power of the Sun during a Solar Eclipse. J. Phys. 92, 485. Bapen Powe1t, on Solar Light and Heat, Ann. Phil. 28, 322 and 401; 24, 81 and 287; 25, 201. ‘On Terrestrial a Light and Heat. Ann. Phil. 24, 181; 25, 201. Béeanp, on the Physical and Chemical Properties of the Rays of Solar Light. Report thereupon by Berthollet, Chaptal, and Biot. Gib. 46, 876. On the Chemical Action of Light. Rrrvae, on the Chemical Rays of Light. Gilb. 7, 527; 12, 409. ‘Woutasrox, on certain Chemical Effects of Light. Gilb. $9, 291. C.W, Bécxuanw, on the Action of Light upon Phosphorus. Scher. J. 5, 243. A. Vooxt, on the Action of Light upon Phosphorus. Schw. 7, 953 9, 286. Gar-Lussac & Tuéxanp, on the Chemical Action of Light. Schw. 5, 219. SzesecK, on the Chemical Action of Light: in Géthe zur Farbeniehre, 2, ‘716 ;—likewise, Schw. 2, 263; 7, 119. Biscxor, on the Action of Light on a Mixture of Chlorine and Hydrogen Gases: in his Lehrb. d. reinen Chemie, 1, 93; Kastn, Archiv. 1, 443. Grorrauss, on the Chemical Activity of Light, Gib. 61, 50;—in’ detail in his Phys. Chem. Schriften, 1, 1. G. Scocow. Die Chemischen Wirkungen des Licks. Darmst. 1882 ;—slso Pogg. 82, 287. G. Lancnese. Ueber das Licht, voreugnoeise itber die Chemischen und Phy- siologischen Wirkungen desselben. Marb. 1834. Duxx, on the Chemical Action of Light. J. pr. Chemie. 3, 225. Hissetex, Chemical Action of Refracted Light. Zeichr. Phyo. Math. 8, Canvarct. Action of ‘Light on Goloured Tissues, Ann. Chin. Phys, 66,71. ‘Maxaccrt. Chemical Effects of Light passing through various fluids. Ann, Chim. Phys. 72, 5: abstr. Pogg. 49, 567. Daarzn. Chemical Action of Light. Phil. Mag. J. 16, 81 5 24, 169. OL. 1 .LIGHT. 168 Phosphorescence of dead animale: Fane. an Agua Pexpente. De oculo, Cap. 14.—Thom. Bortholinus. De luce animalium, 169.—Rob. Bortz. Works, 8,904,—Brate, Phil, Trans, 11, 299. Ginran, on the Phoaphorescence of Decayed Wood.’ Scher. J. 8, 3. ©. W. Bécxmaxn, on the Phosphoresconce of Decaying Wood. Scher. J. 5, 3. Génex, on the Phosphoresoence produced during Vinous Fermentation, ‘Schw. 40, 257. On Luminosity produced by Irradiation, Electricity, and Heating. Caxton. An easy method of making a Light-magnet or Phosphorus. Crell. Chem, J. 6, 179. Gnorravss, on Chlorophane, Sch, 14, 133. ‘on the Absorption of Light by Phosphorescent Bodies, Sch. 15, 171. Osaxx, on remarkable Phosphorescent Minerals. Kastn, Archiv. 4, 8475 5, 88. —— Luminosity produced by Irradiation, Pog. 88, 405. ‘Wacn. Preparation of new Phosphorescent Minerals, Scho. 67, 288. Peansatt, Phosphorescence, produced by Electricity. J. Roy, Inst. 1, 77 ‘and 267; also Pogg. 20, 202; 22, 566. E. Brcqueret. Phosphorescence produced by Irradiation. Bibl. unio. N. S. 20, 344; also Pogg. 48, 540. Phosphorescence produced by Electricity. Compt. rend. 8, 2165 also Pogg, 49, 543. Bior. Phosphorescence produced by Irradiation. Compt. rend. 8, 2595 ‘also Pog. 49, 557. Bror & E. Becquenet. Phosphoresconce by Irradiation, Compt. rend. 8 815 ; also Pogg, 49, 563. Woop, on Phosphorescence produced by Heating and Rubbing. Phil. ‘Trane, 82, 28, Brewsrer, on Phosphorescence produced by Heating. Ann, Chim. Phys. 14, 288, On Phosphorescence accompanying Crystallization, Prone. Taschenb. 1787, 55.—Scnéxwatp. Crell. Ann. 1786, 2, 50, Scumier. Taschenb. 1791, 54.—Gronent. J. Phys. 36, 2563 also Gren. J. 2, 437.—Prarr. Schw. 15, 275.—HerRmaxn. Scho, 40, 75.—Benzeu10s. Takreaber. 4, 44 5, 41.—ScuwerecER. Scho. 89, 247; 40, 271.—Hiswen. Repert, 15, 441 ; also Sch. 41, 221 ; also Schw. 41, 228.—Prersci., Zeitschr. Ph. Math. 8, 220.—H. Rose.’ Pog. 35, 481; 52, 448 and 585. raxonrmes. Luminous Substance, Light-producing Matter, Luminous Matter, Lumitre, Photogéne. Light is that substance which excites in our eyes the sensation of brightness or vision. Physical Properties. 1. Light is imponderable. 2 Its in the highest degree expansible: it spreads iteelf out from ita aRELATIONS OF LIGHT TO HEAT. 165. CHEMICAL RELATIONS OF LIGHT. — 1, Relations of Light to the other Imponderables. 1, Relation of Light to Heat, A. Development of Heat by Light. All bodies absorb a tion of the light with which cad cece Maina Tiae statue peaie a entist thot opocty, and the darkness and roughness of their surface, Traie- pear pa te htc aloo thom tether transmitted or reflected. ‘light a body absorbs, the hotter does it become when. ‘exposed to the sun’s rays. In sunshine which raises a mercurial thermometer to 38° C. (100° Fab.) a ball of pare bismuth, one inch in diameter, rises to 50°; the same covered with Indian ink, to 56°; with lamp-black, to 59°; and with white I SOUAd hans covered weit mle qehoan ke alk sa taonsainante than when clean , but leea atrongly when peinted red. (Béckmann.) colours, the black most heated in the sun, then the blue, then the a ee ae (HL. Davy.)—Pieces: deeper of cloth faid upon snow in the sunshine ‘the darker they are in “Heat-collector of Saussure and Ducarchat.] he concentration of the sun's rays hy’ means of burning or mirtors is one of the most powerful means of producing a high tempe- sure. has shown, by experiments made during a solar eclipse, iesibaoanbisdanpideasekoleacn omen or centre. Daniell’s supposition, that the solar rays have less heat-producing ference dace Sear ‘been shown by: = to i z regions, has 875) and Foggo (Eiinb. Phil. J. 14, 63) Z i i i = i & i He ae reese ne it ah i il = A fe ie i : ? 3 4 a aE ‘and corrosive sublimate together, between red; with a prism of common white glass and crown red; and with prism of flint-glass, ‘the red. z M tee EFRELATION OF LIGHT TO MAGNETISM. 167 agi be raat Ta ote peeeies enine eet ee eee ese to Newton, becomes dull red in the dark at 335° ©. (635° Fah.), bright red at 400° 0. (@52" Bet), laminons in tha tight: at 474° 0, (005" Fa.) and latinonn bright at about (100° Fah.) a ‘Modes of explaining the facts stated in A and B. 1. Light and heat are the same substance. arrested in its motion by the adhesion of » bodies shows itself as heat. When. Dy Teradi oo nee is difficult 2. The solar rays consist of rays of light and rays of heat distinct from one another; the former are more refrangible than the latter: hence two spectra of different kinds. ‘The solar rays give heat therefore only ‘in consequence of the heat which they contain. The solar light reflected ‘to the earth from the moon has left its heat-rays on the moon and therefore cannot give heat. (Herschel.) ions: (a.) What becomes of the rays of light which bodios cease te Ones tootion aie ge of temperature (0), Why OnRIDelgdOMEE Dacotnarrery. bok withers eal light? ig Ge soar mean ge rey i Fire, which, when uni light whi on ‘produces heat. (Deluc.) 2. Relation of Light to Electricity. it often as an attendant of electrical jomena :—the sea gr, ein dn cet a oe ae is bwo citi it the surrounding medium ? 3. Relation of Light to Magnetism. pass uniformly for about half an hour over one half of a steel needle, pro- Pan. fetes? middle towards one of the extremities, being Se Tatra 5 ‘the needle will become perfectly magnetic. (1 Schw. 20, 165 further in Kasta, onan are mate by Ridolfi (Schw. Mary nine Phils 27, 224; abstr. 6, 493), ‘slice (Kasin, Archiv. 18, 8! a ue rl % Hs a ae Hi Hu7 I. 563). @Hombres Firmas (Ann. Chim. ee na ee Ha ui uel hte B ja Hgah als a iy ul :169 RELATION OF LIGHT TO MAGNETISIM. 3 i a a 3a: tn2gs Pia 4 Ue x the rotation ie force in a few sul tag force of a rotating j ‘ag compat specimen of oil of turpentine. (Water = 1.) 2 & Magnetic tne oF by tapos. ‘degree lines of electro-static tension, : act either by altering the direction of the of their force within itself. i re by. as they are ee re ‘the 20th and 2ist series of abstract of these is in The weults bereIL Relations of Light towards Ponderable Bodies. ‘1, Changes produced in Ponderable Bodies by the Action of Light. Chemical effects of Light. of eee Todine and olefiant plate: a ie a, a of fo becooe in the dark tie Hf "aleo Poor. mete ee te 164; G. their reddish tint and becomo browner. . This case bolongs perhaps to the head of decompositions, Ee cenpireee ecernni ites HE War eee or in water, is (not th various or under red) into red oxide of ‘phos sunshine under ralgeheae eaboet the combinat pb ie PELL ae ci = acid eae Gli the chloride of eyanogen it The! vurous acid solid a pegs in different w: action of abheatierullan) tion of iodine in absolute alcohol saturated with sul deposits fo ac as light is concerned in a ite) }—h. Ip sulphur when exposed to sunshine, ‘) han F say ct Fe to these, the influence of light at er tei can uranium dissolved in ether is oxides combined with acids and dissolved in aleohol and are thus Up oxygen, iHCHEMICAL ACTION OF LIGHT, Vk SE of pee of moced action eee pasllawire exjosed Sunshine (slowly in Lue and violet coheed i acid and oxalate of protoxide of oxalate oF ee ies of the «un, into carbonic acid and oxalate of protoxide of iron. ee ‘and blue, but n6¢ f in yellow o re neither is it produced by. boiling, cDaeper Dia solutions of hydrochlorate of oxide of gold, ‘i ied platinum, and ammonio-chloride of iridium, precipitates the metal and generates carbonic acid. In the case of iridium, the action eannot be replaced! by that of « boiling heat." (Doberciner, Sele, #3, 00.) An ee tion of tartrate of seaqui-oxde of iron and potash, containing arias eS a ight. | (Ehrmann, ier organic substances aleo take oxygen from ived in acids, only when their action is assisted by ight. Thus, charcoal and oils precipita wh nnd a it or ‘Linen marked wi 5 oF 23LE ihe 2 i 4 2 le ail i id 4 Ae Ta ‘iit oo Ua sata hl) [uuu dart aia ae ii : eat HE i Hah i i i ae ils ar aie ieee ied ue‘be assumed = 1, that of water = 0-7645; of hydrochloric acid of sp. gr. B Ulevsgzeagd ¢ egsavaatigacias speeteay an gy Ha ST i a alle (Hallie Bee GH Ba : fa : a yeaa a i eine GAH Tl ie i id =u Beda p ana pitas 5 i 2 ane Tel ieee Hinata et Pehl atin aa a ilies Hai atl EU EaGaehle eine He Hate ulidiaes PCH GUL Vurala ECE AL a ie He ie Uf nt : pul HA a $i; a Hee Hi Hi a Bu zee i eee ERG TG tL ihe is a i ne Hine i sai dul ae ; i Je G atl ie i HeeCHEMICAL ACTION OF LIGHT. 15 eee Pin mB 13/2 — in BL—1i 12) Ba of BL 2) — 124) 14 Lin, in BL 2 vyory weak appears that the position of the maximum of blackening aan rh dey he etn et oo a re tions of itor Ls Blackens Corte lett, and bluish oi 3 yellowish: and low glasses it remains almost unc See ete) iaad ie cutie toly Caton ae ree siderable time ; chloride of silver ed. Tt soon’ bontonta Hatiese el onion Wied pihcell coat "ceangeeesounen ver paper does not, become coloured in sunlight which hhas passed SP en ho following yellow liquids, oven when iti concentrated by a len: potash, of quinto-sul- ie bassin rs of mera of ini-chloride of eae bichloride of pen me low vegetable Br Uaaie daha of ichromate of potadl If becomes in five yellow unk a solution ferrocys le aie en of tiered aad under ataonturet of comer, of & brown tint. (Draper, Phil fe Sette saturate the paj Pape, which is afterwards: in silver-solution, the chloride of silver acqu various colours under it coloured glasses : red glass: dep orsnee fier reddish ‘low yellow green Paper with chloride of barium is coloured yel ight which passes through chlorine oe ‘hat which pa sc eth Pat elt tabs iis oe PAN ae pannel eemeas ¢3S Ci 3 olf a aR i elas | fi! pang ; Piiierad Phen eel hae ; i Heed Gutta and ui pion iaatl jE oat aii ent gal Ala fi de bg ne aban EH diqitout Malia 5 uh Uwe Hs Heed : eee ie ate a aa slateCALOTYPE. v7 owe to romain on it for lf minatei, must be dried hig wih been This requires the total exclusion of he cond to dittsed day taht bagquilo wuliont a ite procs o deoklod ala ee _ eee the cxinera Obeoures Tris the only’ paper yet discovered ciently sensitive for this purpose. When prepared; it yields pete exe Dent ad ty. 1 Mewise serves for representations of buildings, scenery, ‘The picture, as first is erly nani, a but may be bronght out intely by oe paper with a mixture of 1 part of the silver solution bes parts i) pres ee of gallic oe eae re e. it of the several it basin, ina ht water pea re on sai iti to bo Bie ‘ing in clean w: tl ween blotting paper, the wag Bee oe agian of ir abso poems oo i en iatigasee ct yan after a minute or two, it aw well washed with water and then finally dried. Where the light is acting upon it.—i. ‘The i them twice the nsual its lights to assume a and merce hott a hyeTAA areca i ae Huai Hise 2 sheet i ae re fu. Si 3 aa Be i i al Hit al te 4 ial 4 HCE TEE ut re ig ue il Hae ai sake aa ee pao age age Bas i Hu pills gievis? scat ett ate He fplinpaidalidiig! ee a8 fh EET at aie ee =e tia179 HY. HF Ha Bp Hl a ue sie ud a a i HAGE eee sates He Pile He i é filigy i Ese i Het a EA va ey see ates vbecsaa) Silage iegrges = ieil gal ties: i A a a fae Rlguil etal dull i Hie 7 cen fe a Gl : au see ie g Hal Ps 5 ii a Hu jae ca ail HH ay lai i Haley anz ii ny Hu ie copying feed di! if a cael i nh cH [HE a1) HLie pe es i a His Hi!) Hilde iy Hin He e a $3 3 S ual erate th nae aun ue ult ice of other observers, of ‘ca a them) requires ‘most ce may be said of to the experien I. Da 's assertion (Elem, 1, 187) that the iydrogen bowerflly than the other coloured rays. gases and on wet ‘on @ mixture of chlorine and hy of more ae suis i e 7 ce ora ight often cause the rays of i from metal, they have been called deci, and ice however, since the oxygen with guiacum 4 oridizing rays ; i bring about, the combination of ee esos cima ec, it may also be brought about of salts ; of ition of most metallic salts dissolved a Sroka i eg. the eS alplas pure § deo of tex) ated ADEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT BY CHEMICAL ACTION. 181 ‘at which it melts and sublimes. The green parts of plants do not sepa- cea errs Leics carbonic acid at at any temperature in, the abeonce of also to be remarked that the rays by which chemical action is Frodaoed aro'nct the hotest bt the caldect Renton Hence it is only in a few cases that we can adopt Rumford and of Garin eT, at th a te of temperature which it produces in coming in contact with ponderable 2. Development of Light by Ponderable Substances. of light is either vivid and attended with considerable sol eee it ts faint and. sooomy paniod. by litle ox nc development of heat—Phosphorescence Luminosity. A. Development of Light by the mutual chemical action of Ponderable a Deselopment of Light ona eoseqnce of actual Chena! Combination. ‘Many substances whose for each other is considerable,—the elementary bodies therefore most all (coonding to Law 2 p VA) — develope light and heat at the moment of combination, ‘The ele which most ee cht and and hatching With ors cise os "intination with oars See Seer tik tate jor aeslinnst; ee phuric or nitric acid. Heinrich.) ‘The light must either haye existed ready formed in one or both of tho combining bodig, and be marely yy the act of combination, or i€imt be evolved daring the tion of the ponderable bodies out of Hopiitibentle lessen patainod ix teens. a tl latter bypothents, 1 st probable that one kind of electricit d by 03 a es dad fonts by tho mists ancl Gatos Tho ton [Vid Deep” ment of Heat in the chapter on Heat, and Combustion in anes Oxygen.) 4}, Development of Light as a consequence of probable Chemical Combination. (a) Phosphorescence of living Organized Bodies, L Hamas ey Ls ‘The phosphorescence of from. this een oo Satan Seong and ne one cases liquid oF aoe ia oe ba seen apse ka, Shine iaggsiier AAAatE vide sbuaiRe air, ‘faint luminous appearance. Not only does the separation of dis Said’ sppecr to dopond lyon the Wife of ts animal, bot a wilthe ‘Bis Carradori_ the ae This saline ‘Treviranus, and Tilesius,—whilst a Tony pgs ea poe i in gas from n of in other media from re luminosity even dhe rhe animals which, exhibit phosphorescence during life, all belong to the eephintes "The pee of Locorte apis (iipinrich), sad if some WWishea? ie proaliae Kind of ‘The bodies of dead fish Tateien MT Chlapaare: late nicusen, Sed, Langage masects. nictitans, Lucernula, Speculator, Janus, tucidulua, Ea cease, Sot gas eae eee i) at wit Ir, Pg tara (a luminosity of which is doubted st Hote Sip Lolo Ba Wapiti, "Vans cornitay Yekons wad 4 Lies oe raion nant . Zoophyten 1. Radiata: Astras ect + Ophinra phomoren sass nes edusa, as pelagica, (these to ange nih il), vention, sampler, toot = et are Siri, the several concise of Aono Mi Arena fm ef ce aac ae BMS Reigt: Sertolore nertna an vobibite (Or. eS Se Pennatula phosphorea, grisea, and all others ; Veretillum Jing to Leuckart, Jnie; Gorgonia ; Alcyonium exos, ‘conning to Lewes, triangular, gramulosa, cohhnoldons ‘grainy rm, Comet (De gprolies Portia ‘Corceres cp : allk sib squat ae fle is SORE a ie i af WE Te fatty i ay tie ate felt By Bid Lia csi ah Fug) ua uh el ees 3 iia 5 Hy de A Zz ba} no a fie eit 8 pial ties ip Aiihe fat Hue Hee ‘| | i Tea ii Ha a i a i feels ential Hl id eee184 Licut. pleasure by warming. The phosphorescence of the extracted luminous matter may likewise be strengthened by moderate heating, and destroyed dy ® heat of 58%,—in which respect it resembles coagulated albumen. A current of electricity from the electrical machine, or repeated electrical discharges passed through the animal, excite no phosphorescence. If, on the contrary, the insect immersed in a little water be brought by means of two wires within the circuit of the voltaic pile, it instantly becomes Tuminous and continues 80 as long as the circuit is complete, but ceases to shine every time the circuit is broken, although the water surrounding the animal shows an elevation of temperature of only }°. Similar effects are produced upon decapitated glow-worms, on the three terminal rings, ‘and the separated luminous matter, when they are no longer eelf-luminous. —Ncither the animal nor the luminous matter is phosphorescent in vacuo, even at tho most favourable temperature or under the influence of the voltaic pile; on admitting the air, the luminosity is restored. ‘The rescence of the luminous matter likewise ceases under oil, probably muse the access of air is impeded. In oxygen gas and nitrous oxide, the glow-worm appears to shine somewhat more brightly than in common air. (The increased luminosity in oxygen gas was observed by Spallanzani Gilb. 1, 33) and by Foster. According to Grotthuss, the animals must be cooled some degrees lower in oxygen gas than in common air before they ooo their phosphorescence.) Ia chloriue gee tho animal dies instantly, and if subsequently warmed, emits rose-coloured light for a short time. In hydrogen, carbonic acid, carburetted hydrogen, or sulphurous acid the glow-worm soon dics 'and emits no light when warmed. Accordin, to Spallanzani, also, the light is extinguished gradually in nitrogen an hydrogen gas and Shatanth in oarbonis acid, The luminous mater aleo loses its phosphorescence in these gases, and shines again on the admission of air or oxygen gas, excepting when the luminosity has been destroyed by chlorine, sulphurous acid, or vapour of hyponitrie acid.—Alcohol and very dilute mineral acids, which do not kill the animal instantly, cause the final extinction of its light when under water, and likewise of that of the extracted Itininous matter; concentrated acids extinguish it instantly. By these means. ax well as by heating, or by the action of copper-salte, cormeive sublimate of ether, the luminous passes into the state of coagulated albumen, and then its Iuminos dT aqueous solution of potash, the luminons matter dissolves aud loses its illuminating wrie shines both as a perfect inscet and also in the larva, but most powerfully in the nymph state. (De Geer.) The eggs. begin te shine faintly in four or six weeks when the larve are dev and on the point of ness in the brveding-season and durin tely afterwanix, but shine brightly a We evening ; < brightest when they are prog time they’ heir whole bodies with the exception of the head. The males e during . Ioees it phosphorescence when immersed in ic oxide as, but shines again when brought, ity has not been too king interrupted ; seven when dead, in hyponitnic acid ‘vapour, emitting a erwen light which showly disappears (Caradon) The iemake of Lampyris Halica exhibits the same steady light as thatele il i i 4 ! ae ; i sn i ie ie Hl Hi i H oe if ‘tions,—shines wh ‘ion ich rlichdimiiaher aad lemony but may often be restored by Hae # i ines most, eee one li moat ao (‘Treviranus) ling to Viviani, the cirri- gera is the most inde as nabs yale teers in October on the indurated Lumbricus terrestris gs “Grugiére, Flaugergucs, J Plys. 16, 113 Andouln, Zetue. 1840, Pomarletoaeaatiocs uniformly over the whole body. (Viviani). The Pioiat Base rboring, muscle, slsosonntalna a phoepharescent liquid which adheres to thing which it touches, and makes it Tuminous, and may be and mixed with water, oil, or milk, so a8 to form 4 luminous fluid. ‘The boring muscle not only shines externally, bese sbertst nee ‘when cut open ; it continues to shine for a day or after death, till it Its light shows itself between 0° and ir Iuminosity on beings moistened with water, even Ter the iapeo of sever months, (Boocaris, Common. Bonen. 2 11 248.) Salpor Ww. Forbes, Ann. and Mag, of Nat. Histy 1841, 7, 850) do not shine of themselves, but only in consequence of luminous fustaoca which frequently adhere to them. aee(raoma Avantioun difases a light, and is often so in the sea that fish can be Hatnguiahed ‘by ia light at the depth of 15 feet. The temperature of water in which this animal is immersed rises about 1° C., as is likewise the case with Salpwe. (Kuhl. Scho, 34, 864.) The light of Auerian noctiuon itself out from the centre into fhe rays: the separated rays aud ther frogments also continue Inminous atime. The lundnous eae colt intel an thet eh comet186 UoHT, seve watery uid into whith Ste almost entirely melts when Femovod from the water. This viscid liquid luces itching when applied to tho skin, as docs lao the juice of several non-luminous modus, The tod repr Phoroscont—and mixed with water, urine, and icularly with tallk, forms mixtures which remain luminous for several hours—are in- reared in brightness by agitation or by warming to 87° C.—may be again their has ceased—| in wators if soa-water is used for the purpose, the mixture shines but feebly.)—The medusa shines in water like a torch, so brightly, that it cam be seen at the distance of 100 paoes. Its light is most brilliant the gltornato contraction and it of the disc succeed put for a time by rubbing. A medusa which has luminous but beginning to deliquesce, it not in sea water : the water also be- brightness. (Macartney.) Yo aeeter te from the base of the tentacala; im Berot from the veanels taced filaments, (Edw. Forbes.) If a Phyeota be immersed in alcohol it instantly ceases to shine. be- canee it dice. cdo not shine when at rest. but only after exertion, thy increased reepirativn, inasmuch as locomotion i aad consequently i reeprative in wn aod rs ‘ecomes fainter as their vital force diminishes, ceases with their death. ‘slmmece of Keht, sanetimes prewar a Secy seca. at ee des vote jce wire Rt won by aie or am Ot ethers again exhibits singe qrects stars belt coum fends Brean mainly attrdacshir souks Tomo’as acmas what aahitPHOSPHORESCENCE OF LIVING PLANTS. 187 Nereis and great numbers of small Medias, When sea-water of this aloohol,Uewise 4 suiden and generally eyanesount light.’ The water passing: ae a filter no " bepelieee S epe and microscope, ing of a ving a, ‘spot tall which they moved with great rapidity. Cartan) loreover, the phos- jorescence of the sea is probably often produced by the luminous putre- ion of marine animals, by insolation (as appears to be the case from an experiment of Hellwig), and by 7, as supposed by Riviere, Le Instances have been known of men whose perspiration is Sees tesanliet eaerpewae harass of en leciviosl ol A ‘perspiration, ease of an in whom the ‘broke out after violent Se sour Onell. N. Chem. Archiv. 2, 291); in had a peculiar ie’ odour. Maga. natury. P. 2, 248.) in ing condition sometimes emit light. saw wounds on a soldier's horescent far fourteen days ; six days. More frequently human urine just voided exhibits phospho- foes, Gill. 49, 291; 39, 262,)—Keser Archiv. 8, 414) saw the urine which he voided against the wall, when tired after a walk, exhibit phosphorescence; the wall shone for half a minute, as if it had been with ph : the urine two hours later was not phosphorescent. urine of Viverra Putorius and Mephitis ise said to be luminous at the moment at which is likewise mals void it. (F. D'Azora, Langsdorff.) ‘The luminosity of the Se, smith ly oa ge, et re 8 TL, Phosphorescence of Living Plante. 1, Sudden emission of Light. often out repeated flashes at inter- ‘vals of several minutes. This light is undoubtedly electrical, perhaps i BE i i: Tr HE it i i aL 333 La aE L i a : i l i ff F i : é . F » = Po the See etisalat # i i I ht u pe i bs i oe i immersed in this gas, to} often continue luminous for nine days ; found to be nearly consumed and converted of carbonic acid. When these plants in th ceased to shine in the air, their luminosity cannot be restored by electric Fy i E i i its luminosity for ever, so that no light is t is afterwards immersed in oxygen + Comp. Sohe. 44, 65; alao Laroche, Verh. d. eu natu. RF ‘Rhizomorpha pinnata has been seen by Friesleben to emit light. eee eneen Batt Jo .nitted by Dyas phere a ‘According to Funk and Brandenburg, Sckis Sich Grows in carcenn bs ponoroocent” Tht lo oyPHOSPHORESCENCE OF PUTREFYING ANIMALS. 189 ‘Von Esenbeck to be the same moss which Gilbert (Gilb. 80, 242) saw shining with an emerald-green light in a cavern in the According to Ducluzeau, many conferve growing near Montpellier are phosphorescent, : (@.) Phosphorescence of Putrefying Organic Bodies. ic bodies emit light after sometimes before the concent at eam REMI ce leone ret with it 1. Phosphorescence of Putrefying Animals, Ata certain temperature, and in contact with moisture and oxygen decomposition appears to arise in many dead animals, especially i ee tate eevereneiemrineRe asall porciscaene patuune = glutinons substance, its are capable in the Soran et Sy aotiae nye mt tas ocenet eat :—or it ion in attended by the ey! aa oe * fuman Phosphorescont. Of a body receiv on the Lith i bia fore ris writes which and wl remained over, began to exhibit on the 3rdof March. A second body it into. the same di room on the 5th of March Pesige marie Siracfis sec bataneeohoc arg raaarlbr rg ea the air was re-admitted,—and was finally extinguished in sulphuretted and chlorine gas, hot air, boiling water and alcohol. (A. Cooper and Appleton.)“Taaminosity is it roudily exhibited hy sea-fi Spinaux, and Tetodow Noles Marner Hidose Gada daideee} Miter Tadeo tall ores Conolaire Higa) Goa Soe cea a phractua; Pleuronectes Platessa; Scomber Scomber and Pelamis; Perea maria; Thigle wolton y Cl Clupea Harengas; Salmo Salar and Trutta, Fresh water fish may, with some difficulty, be made to emit light hy them with salt and laying them in a moderately warm place. Teper mayo sien itless attempts, succeeded by this process in making the xox iucius emit a very beautiful light, and the Siluwrus Glanis faint it * shows itself in day or two after the death of the fish, provided they are kept, neither boiled nor salted, in a molat condition, at a temperature of about ie anemones ieee a See vy in_wint ft ogre aia faeotoaa Si after ep are loan skh hy tial ah he w the aly eee ae ica 33,994.) i ees Dessaignes, the lu is most. i on the ne ane : ie i ae ‘According to Hime uo ian of fermperatry i observable during the ‘to pea rphorescenc SE Sie oe on housing temperat phosphorescence. i oa al ect oootcyete haan Sp Gi) Fain espn fo veel cnt xaturated solutions of various salts, alkalis, sul oe other, Pethap be dinars nevertheless, i soe poche oor ee likewise lime-| . ae ve ine j Bitened io dususlon, by sists cisions of spain a,PHOSPHORESCENCE OF PUTREFYING PLANTS. 19 salt, phosphate of soda, of magnesia, nitre, sugar, and honey. fulme.) A‘ to luminous fish diminishes in ri Cine placed inv yocuum » sceoing 19 De coal eee Fr wl one eon ane aie when he a a from it; a earn ae ees ie continues for a respneers aa a time proportionat the quay present. 1s tnary ft oy he fe Sins fo in fo hours 5 tat if the oil has been boiled, ‘the light ceases as soon as the fish is put into it. (Dessaignes.) rhen left to itself, itinne osphorescent for anil fete poeta eter nad nasi then te hat dagpeite: |) a 2. Phosphorescence of Putrefying Plants. The complete decay of the various parts of « plant is also—when the ‘temperature is moderate, and ec ie sr al Goss ke ela ta eereptaa hn Penli: dosncetio Toto Jn the development ofa substance which, like phosphorus, burns at ordinary femperacures, producing) light and quantity of heat. Never= theless, this substance cannot be phosphorus (especially in wood which does, not ontein. thet. element) iat bey eae compound. of and peculiar, and combustible carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, resulting from the decomposition of the original proximate con~ stituents of i iB i F ‘ a 4 a Het ie ue Hit Hl j 5 iieit 3 i ri Hf LB it - i posed, TESS aw tt ld wooden pipes often exhibit iP ern oa roots, which hiave been dead for out of the earth and kept in a moderately become after a few days. (Heinrich, 8, josphorescence ceases when the + 6° O(128° Fab); to Heinrich, it ehows i _jties bose tat Sopa el By boiling water itis irrecoverably destroyed, Wood : i a f i i ii fe et Hi f aEre lee Uae i : ars 3 .) Tn a vessel containing pierre but by moderately wetting it, theore efter an ntreal From 6 to 24 oars: ‘sooner sar te boiled water, potassium, dilute acids, Mote ead oh solutions ; instantly in wa ‘acid. Saturated Deete Petisnobes cikaisat cree tly peted sie to ferment in cask, into. the bung-hole of ‘wi hes ieee tbe 1 Inc, wide and’ fot ong, filed with the same Joico, wo tak ti carbonic acid gas, devel ‘the fermentation was com) throngh the tube. ‘The bubbles of gas which thus cational exhibit ice for more than an hour. The light of the bubbles tube, diminished in intensity as ascended, and completely when they came Jn contact with tho air. Whon the gus was fed by mean of a gas-delivery tube adapted to the tubesabove-mentioned, it was 10 reaction of pure carbonic acid. (Gébel and Schweigger suggest that the , i of light inthis experiment may be duo to electricity « babi seal quant te Sitio pccbustle oxgunio mation ge ‘a volatile and com! organio matter the fermentain 8 and ca thin, substance may ha beet burt dlevelopment ity by combining: with the aan cna the tube, before the bubbles rea :PHOSPHORESCENCE BY IRRADIATION, 193 B. i alteration in the Ponderable Development of Light ame a. Development of Light after exposure to Light. quently give it out in a dark place,—because there the effort of the light to diffuse itself uniformly through the space devoid of light overcomes ia sea eee ee ‘ Phosphori by Irradiation, Light-absorbers, Light-magnets, axe trans- Be cepa emma iin pa seed beh td stances. = __ The best phosphori by Irradiation are the following: Diamond (some diamonds however have 1 Heinrich. Desaseeetarhosag thy Spat ads oF gum tragacanth and spar iyers, pale yellow ‘thus obtained. If it be heated once or twice more in a one, its phosphorescent properties will be greatly in- eaten perfectly free from’ iron ‘Strontian may be propared ia similar manner (1) from cxrestn (Zohn): its uminonity may be greatly inereased by the addition of 8 or 4 per cent, of magnesia to the powdered eclestin. _ Canton’s Phi (i) Canton exposes » mixture of $ parts ot sifted and calcined oyster shells and 1 part of flowers of sulphur to a strong fire for an hour. (2.) Grotthuss ‘oyster-shells—which have ‘ously cleaned ited hourL : a ne ci Hu Ree in cutie: A I as195 PHOSPHORESCENCE BY IRRADIATION. ~ 4 i sie a Hi (ea a fit CA de eel ean (au i HE Sea Gl a be inlias gael H ee ee aden lina! ali ies Heit ea HPA PHST esa eT3 i E52 iy Hl Er at 4 a os +ePHOSPHORESCENCE BY IRRADIATION 197 ) alourof the i varies in an equal degree according to the nota of th sistance Mos than ce wie phos ‘when 7 and after still lon tion a light. yellow rosesred or: pale violet, oyster in a phosphorus ali gon oF, when i has been ignited fora long time, & a a green or .—realgar phosphorus a blue light, in some places plow ‘but alter strong ignition a wl sht,—phosphori yellow, and ¢ a white light; the part f° arseniate ammonia appears of a fiery red with a green border; that moistened with g, © yellowish red with lighter + that with iSevies GNierai latin: eeaseg sais Son ie area sociion oe the lateral movements of the rays, the direct velocity of pro- passtiot bine asp Phogphoresoence shows itself in oll ransparynt media which do not alter the composition of the ate diamond shies in water, er Ereons Pd et a feu ep, oe sty i igor when fe time under water ; oe eo Dacduptigtan ge catenins air. Osan. ‘The ‘phosphorescence of these bodies shows itself, according to Heinrich, as strongly at — 12° as at + 25°. A higher temperaturesarah 4. Decelopment of Light produced by the Action of Heat. PHOSPHORESCENCE BY NEAT. is at first confined & EE Benen) itself pears. (Bit & others tha th Dole the cdr temperate eta Tt seems therefore temperatnres—and ordinary Sunite Seong someacems BF Almost all bodies which are insolation and have ceased to shine a ane aa era ea A ahs eee Hig lated te Pe aa a NE aed alii Tea ea aie ai ae iy Ee fa Gale whe Hee etal a oe nna Hine aada Henet feet Bate wind Hak eiagus sis eh a nat (aed Lett iy See Ey Tea ee ee i 8 sR! sae : HiT 4 8 ileanginia iy ee201 INCE BY HEAT, iif ‘leat ae fi iy le ii 4 iit ff jit fi i 2H le Hane wi4 ie nus ait in bed fy aye HE rf We FEE ii i ize seh it i 3 i 33 Ss a i eS lu ‘@ a I - 4 Hy i i f 1 fe i i 3 a i & Hi Bs é a4 j 33 i i oe ulPHOSPHORESCENCE BY MECHANICAL FORCE. Heinrich) Tartaric acid. becomes Juminons when pounded. (Morion's r. Chim. Fo 2) owned argo amc of ean ‘mutton oats aan Tae frvine cate ortatt = sul light when rubbed together: Diamonds which become phosphorescent insolation or beating, ehorate of potash heavy spar, strontanite, Time,” Canton’s fluor-spar, many of statuary marble, magnetic iron ore, and Heinrich.) Wied QING “ips wet eapntale, of ie oP aia when violently thrown one against the other (A. 249); manna-sugar, and the so-called sub-resins.uaiBApt af nee a i i a Le Hii IBLE a Hi Pr Heh guid | ly siflictal ee Hd a ip HD Hp HAPS]PHOSPHORESCRNCE BY CRYSTALLIZATION. 205 shine when heated, and the heat which the pressure produces is the cause of the luminosity. " (Ieinrich.) ‘When hea carbonate of carbonate of strontia, lime- stone, chalk, ddomite, Canton'a and I horus, and. are heated cither to redness or to whiteness and ‘ag soon aa they have ceased to emit light, the luminosity reappears and continues for a ogee ‘This development of light is perhaps of a different kind. (Dessaignes. i i Water, aqueous solution of acetic acid, alcohol, ether, volatile site and Sage a Batted Netin oes hate rasa a in a glass fire-syringe. (Dessaignes.) ‘The same result with saline goln- tions. (Hetareh Fhe ight shows tell most strongly in tat part of the liquid which Sean eect ce anna experiment may be several times and unin' ‘with the ‘same water, the temperature perhaps rising to 5° C. ?iF i elt eersdiide stil i cn “i ed f ne z iH in oo 82 35 (HEL Hans Leila shew prtat at wants era lilt i il if ee id HilHEAT. 209 Cuarrer 2. HEAT. Rornnaave, Elementa Chemia. 1, 126—424. ot Heat is ADhendE, von Expt und Fever, 58. Wruee, on Speclie Heat N, Abhandl, d. Schwed. Akad. d. Wiss. 1782, its die ae 263 and 340. Be. 170, 1787, 1, 263, 344 and 546 a 25, Govrox-Mouvzat. Pyromatre. i 0,118 and 234 Maren. Ueber ti Ga wil Moana ds Le ram bb ral 1791. On the Specific Heat of various kinds of Wi Graton Crawrorp. and Observations on Animal Heat. Leipz, 1789. Prorer. “pats Phyigucs sos Pe, Gen. 1790. Leste, Enquiry into the Nature of Heat. 1804. Bicnmawn, Versuch ither die Wiirmeleitung werschiedener Kénper. Karls- Romrorp. Gren. N. J. 4, 418.—Gilb. 1, 204, 323 and 436; 2, 249; 3, 309; 4, 85, 222 and 330; 5, 206 and 288; 9, 61; 12, 553 3 13, 3855 17, 83 and 213; a See 44, 1; 45, 1, 142 and 306. Dartox, New System’ of the Chemical Part’ of Natural Philosophy. Manchester, 1808, I, 1. Detarocun. ae a. ". 75, 201. Detarocur & Bénarp, ut of Gases. Ann. Chim. 85, 72 and 13. Cumuart & Desomans, Frvezing by Evaporation. Awe. Chin. 78,1 wisn Gil 19, 378-—Abeolune and Specific Heat. J. Phys. 89, ‘$21 and 428. Cooling of Metals in the Open Air, Am, Chim. Phys #1—Spocitic Gravity of Vapours, Ann. 1 ts Latent Heat of Vapours, Ann. Chim. af sh 323.—Shifting of the Zero in ‘Thermometers. “Ann. Chi 64, 812,-—Conducting Power of Solids for Heat. Ann, Plys. 36, 422: also Pogg. 12, 281.—Development of Heat in Combustion. Ann. “Chim. Phys, 26; B49; 97,180 and 162; also Pog. 12, 519 and 620.—Preening: Compt. rend.'2, 19 ; also Pog. 41, 492—Conducting Power of Wat Ann. Chim, Phys. 71, 2065 also’ Pogg. 46, 340.— Density aoe Solutions. "Ann, Chim. Phys. 70, 45 and 73, 296, Heat, of Compt. rend. 11, 806 ; abstr. Pogy. 52, 177. octeaes Expansion of Gases by Heat, Ana. Chim. 48, 1875, abet Gil. 12, 256. Gravit . Ann. Chim. 80, 2185 also Gilb, 45, ‘Ann. Chim. 81, =o eee coy hy “Heats mn. Chin. Phys. 2, fin. @Arcuell, 1, 204; TiN ae, 658 Paleo Gh 7 117, Prasdnction of Cod ‘bythe Expansion of Gases, Ann. Chin, Phys. 9, 305—Heat in the vacuum. Ams. Chin. Phy. 18, $08.—Prodaction of Cold during volt113; aloo J. Phys. 86. 113; aloo Scher. 25, 304. Navizx, sur la Variation de Temperature qui accompagee les Changemens de Volume des Gas. Amn. Chis E~4 ‘Moxceg, on the Elasticity and Density of Vapoure. Scher. 22,1; more fally in his “Abhandi. Gicnsen. 1816. Cacxtazp pe 1a Tor. Formation of Vapour. Ans. Chim. Pigs. 21, 197 and 178 ; 22, 410. Fonses. Polarization of Heat. Phi. Mog. J. 6. 134, 205, 284 and 366. Transact. of the Roy. Soc. of Ed. wl. 14: abstr. Pegg. 45. GA. Prevost. Ann, Chim. Phys. 81, 429; $8 41; $9, 194 (the last also in Pog. 14, 595). Baven Powerit. Ed. J. of Sc. 3, 297 ; also Pegg. 21. $11- Se. 2, 297.—Phil. Trans. 1834, 485 ; also Pogg. 34, 636. Fanapay. Limits of Evaporation, Aun. Chim. Phyt, 28, 436; also Pogg. 9, 1.—J. Ray. Inst. 1, 70.—Liquefaction and Solidification of Gases.” Phil. Trans. 1845, 170; abstr. Phil. Mag. J. 26, 253. Arsoux. Specific Meat of Gases. "Phi. Mag. J. 13, 261 and $39. Porrun. Specific Heat. N. Ed. J. of Sc. 5, 5753 6, 166. Necmaxn. Specific Heat. Pog. 23, 1. Maoncs. Boiling Points of Mixtures and Compounds of two Liquids. Pogg. 38, 481.—Expansion of Gases. Pogg. 55,1; 57, 177. Tension of Aqueous Vapour. Pogg. 61, 225, de la Soc. de Mose. 8, 187. Tixuwaxx. Specific Heat. Nour. Me Alloys. Pog. 18, 240.—Specific Repnexo. Melting points of Metulli Heat of Salts. 35, 474.—Expansion of Gasea by Heat. Pogg. 41, 2715 44, 1 Avouabno. Specific Teat, Brugn, Giorn. 19, 16—Ann. Chim. Phys. 55, 805 57, 11 RIAXN. Specific Heat of Gasen. Ann, Chim. Phys. 68, 8153 also Pog. 41, 474.HEAT. 211 Reoxavts, Specie Heat, Am. Chin. Pye 3,52 78, 1295 also Pog. pie pds 53, San 62, Re: ae Gates ty ea Midka. Cin Piya 4, 555, 82. gaa the Mercurial and Air Thermometers. N, Ann. Chin. Phys. 5, Sit) of Aqueous ‘Vapour. N, Ann, Chim. Phys. 11, 83: —— Relation des Expériences entreprives +.» Lois et les données nui qa Wood. Mn. de la Soe. de Gendve, 4, 70. Dera Rive & Mancer. Speci Heat of Solida. Am. Chin. Phe, 75, 113; 77, 121.—Specific Heat of Gases, Ann, Chim, Phys. 88, 209; 85, 5; also Pog. 10, 3633 also N. Zr. 17, 1, 2175—Bidl. wniv, 41, 875 alao Popp. 16, 8405 alno Soho. 65, A17}—Ann. Chin. Pye. 41, Mui Pogg. 24, 640; 35, 112, 272, 985 and 529; 87, 212, 218, 486 ‘and 494; 58, 1y and 208; 89, 250, 456 and 5443 49, 18 and 2573 44, 124; 45, 15 51, 735 52, 421; 53,475 62, 80. Warr, on the Production of Artificial Gold. “Gren. N. J. 1. 420;— Gren, N, J. 8, 458. Fovucnor & Vavavsutxs Rovere; Gurrox-Monreau, Vax Moss Has- and others. Gold. Scher. J. 3,4. Powis 0 ‘on tho Development of Heat by spplication of ‘Moisture. dima. Phys. 20, 141; also Gilb, 73, 806; abstr. Scho, 36, 193,— Solar Host and Tempesstare of Space, Pogg. 45, 25, Pasmoca, Quantity of Heat and Tension of Vapour of Water, Inditut, Hr, 2505 abet Jabresbrch, 19, 625-—Compt. rend. 6, 379; abst. Jaleesberet, 19, 38 $—Compt. rend. 12, 6553 also Pog. 53, 234,— arther, Pegg. 89, 187. Hise Development ‘of “Heat accompanying Chemical Pogg. 47, 2105 50, 385; 52, 97 and 1145 58, 499 and 585, De 14 Prevostare & Desarys. Experiments on the Latent Heat of Wates, Pop. 9, 103; 61, 20-— Radiant Heat. N. Ann Chim. Phy, ete S8ts aleo Poop, 648 67, 285; 69, 867. between the Boiling Points and Composition of Somthmnieal Coapoane. Pigg. 62, 184 and 897; 64, 96 and. 8675 67, 45. Pus. a ee Cryometer. Pogg. 68, Axprews. Chango Preteen scan Basic Gace Cherie, “Phi. Mog, J 98, S21 and Staten Hae Qu. J. of Chem. Soe. 1, 37. Mussa, Tension of Vapour of Water at Low Temperatures. els 67, Dilatation of Liquids. N. Ann. Chim. Phys. 15, 325; 19, 1985 20, 5; 21, 836. Pp?the nature of its surface ; it has therefore a specific Radiating and Absorbing power, to which are opposed the Retaining and Hyfectng powers so that ‘the peat hake in the same ele ee ini ad versely. the radiating power of a surface covered wit ceouned=2'100y that-ofa: wurface covered. witht estat will bo 06, -with sealing-wax 95, with crown-; 90, with Indian ink 88, with ice 85, i Mind red lad BOs with’ graphizo 78, with ished lead 19, vith polished iron 15, with polished tin, copper, and gold 12.” (Leslie. —Black wool has ting and absorbing ‘hen fellow reds thea yellow, thea white bodies radiate heat in the same manner, the first-mentioned body receives heat from them at the same time that it gives out heat to them. ‘If the surrounding bodies have the same temperatire with, the fist, the quantities of beat emited and absorbed will eae enue eens teens rn remain the same; if the surrounding bodies are colder, it will radiate more than it receives and will cool down ; if they are hotter, its tompera-ul jfetutiett HTT ae URN THIN eee ae si Meet a Tish eta nn anata clei Let i ee re ake ale ne ne is 27Si2fs Eppa begi ti,t2! tla ae ane a Hbuniiean ok th temertoy of ‘an empty space ofERLE Beate Hel sPrea angst age Ha fh i a i e HE 1.2945 6 2° 2° gr gr be at uo 3 1 O302 2 i 3 sf i i ‘3 i 3 Hi 2B = been further her are as follows. wh abstr. Ann. Radiant Heat has lately 205 and 8875, 71,1: ‘obtained by this philosop co 1. © The Knoblauch, ‘The prin radiant hegt transmitted through The py ; ‘seemed to 2 ee Tae au HE RS fants oar : (Katina passes less easily ex] its acylinder of unti =e ‘other three taining hot water,x 8 5 Argand lamp, and a spiral of platinum wire heated to various degrees of ndesconcey it was likewise found that when the heat emitted from one the same body at various temperatures ‘made to ‘through different. diat ‘batch; the quantity of-hoat transmatiod ‘a mot | to the temperature of the source, but depends upon the nature of the dis media, 2 With regard to the heating of bodies by radiation, Knoblauch shows that: heating effect produced, when the radiated heat which reaches the bodies is of given intensity, is” totally independent of the temperature of the source, and determined only by the nature of the absorbing bodies, which receive certain rays more readily than others—Thus when the heat’ from an Argand lamp and a metal eylinder heated to 80° R. was made to fall on a plate of metal covered with lamp-black on the side turned towards the thermo-pile, but having its other side covered, in one case with carmine, in the other with black paper, the following’ results ‘To determine the manner in which the heating of bodies by radiation is affected by their thickness, experiments were made with a metallic slate cor with layers of varnish, &c., of various thicknesses. The following table exhibits the results.neetl* t Soares same body; but that, with respect to “aca pt mn iN pei ites Fab aris in di the second only half an ineh. ‘The first, produced a pressure of about 20 res, the second increased it to upwards of 50. ‘The tubes into which the gas thus condensed was made to pass were of green bottle glass, from ¢ to} of an inch in diameter, and bad a curvature in one of their length adapted | cane mista, mixture employed consisted of solid carbonic acid and ether. ‘Tho cok it amounted to 106° Fah. in the open air, and—166° Fah, under the exhausted receiver faset, when subjected to this extreme degree af col, wero liquefied without the use of the condensing’ apparatus; this was the caso chlorine, | cyanogen, ammonia, ‘sulphe iydrogen, arseniuretted ic acid, hydrobromic acid, carbonic acid, t gas, and oxide of chlorine. Fluoride of silicon liquefied at a ‘oxide F ‘of 9 atmospheres. ‘The following were solidified when subj ‘to the action of the carbonic ‘acid bath & vacuo s Hydriodic. acid, Yomi acd, walphurous acid, sulpbureted hydrogen, carbonic acid, oxide chlorine, cyanogen, ammonia, and nitrous oxide. Faraday suggests ecipes ii of, sol nicovn suite ralzed with ether. ne a sene of) i be condensed gus, prevented SaaPee ctmasnGare, a paon tem ene abet™ ak ‘Goa of ica ncrat Grae which pried Sears a simile Tim to the whole quaccy if some ac exten te cu 1 an emyty synce of infinite ct im orn al oenpences. be omrered Em ems ecpacace frm the Pepa reker Seals by eee, "eon of Bipha ce be caer “wen. thew: parker are slid, the cloud is wimetimes Seniriaced tr siee erm Fone. Paces Seipters: Fisker Brrenaae- Gu J. 7 Se. 1590; aloo GH. 65, apparatus by ovdng. The «pct of tech theve operatives is met part. W seperaie an easy vapcrined beds fives cme which is lees volatile. the furmer is ccaverted into vapour. while the latter remains as the ‘residue A the cublamative of distDathe.—the so-called Capet mortman, or in the case its teing biquid. the Phiegma. de. of the older chemists.” The operation is called Seliimation, when the vapour conducted into the colder part of the apparatus condenses into a ecbd substance, and Dis- Gllation, when the vapour is converted inw a bysid In both operations the budy to be vaporized is encleed in an Alembic Flask. or Retort. On the typ of the alembic or flask is fitted a Head: and this. during the die- tillatim in often connected with a Cooling or Condensing Twhe which passes ints the Rorairer: when a retort is used. the vapcr passes through the wack into the receiver. which is kept o»L and there condensea, A tube he vapours may als le conducted from the retort. the wad of the alembic through a glass or metal tube, and there ry tay Iw: condensed either in the manner reoxmmended by Liebig, viz, Ly Weigel'a Crulrnsing Apparate: (Taschenb 1794. 129). in which the tube 8 surrounded metal eylinder through which cold water is con- tinually flowing in a direction contrary to that of the vapour—or else by surrounding the tube with bibulous paper or linen kept moist by water constantly dropping on Vapour condensed into a solid body forms a Sublimate: that which con- denen to a liquid, a Distillate. When the latter is subjected to a second dintillation, to free it atill further from less volatile bodies, the operation is called Hectification : by Cohobation is meant the distillation of the distilled has been poured back cither on what remains behind or on ization proceeds very rapidly in vacuo even at low tem- ewine docs distillation goon very quickly at low tempera- paratus is exhausted of air, provided the receiver be colder than the retort. If, on the other hand, the apparatus be full of air, the wubmtance must be heated to the point; otherwise the n will be vary slow. It will, however, be understood from whatLIQUEFACTION OF GASES. 289 ld ke ether, is to be kept boiling for a eon: allowin ene eotod i ahd with wator by means of pee ‘moistened. b, Liquefaction or Solidification Affinity of Ponderable Bodies ha Penance Beas on Cle: J ponderable body, whether it be in the solid, liquid, or gaseous il es ‘a stronger sdinty It tha piven Selapees aire Se daeepearieable snbslane contained in apa, than het hae for the sate mbetace and if this st affinity ‘to exert i \e two ponder- ‘Sialoatg egeee elon sed $o0 atint bent Gb ews oc or Tek ae as the case may be) is rendered sensibl, provided tho now compound is not ii gaseous. ‘To this case belongs the condensation of oxygen gas by the combina Non of oxygen with hydrogen boron phosphorus elni, and, otal combination with phosphorus, selenium, iodine, and metals la guy umn a ny es sal as ofall gases. by water, alcohol ard other Hauidss of aqueous vapour by ‘salifiable bases, salte and other bodies ; sof alcohol and ether vapours Dy water oll of vitiol fat of or camphor, fe; ‘When aqueous vapour at 100° is ght into contact paueennet salts, citricacid, hydrate of potash, or sugar, these substances of the thowater ai orm a opt ratare of which is several ve 100°, anc tae ture at se fhe aqueous sudan of dwe eubansee Toi: $0) Pithns ‘leo ‘of 83'3° raises the tomperature of chloride of caloiun to at ie Rie al earn of aqueous vapour. (Graham, Edinb. J. of Se. 8, 326.) = ‘Bonsdorgf's Receiver. (Pogg. 15; G04.) A basin filled of vitriol is ‘ono sass plate, a number of cup-shaped arranged in the basin, and on the top of these above of are dishes containing the liquid to be evaporated. A glass jar is over the whole, and kept close to the by means, The evaporation goes on gradually at the ‘pressureDEVELOPMENT ’OF HEAT. 291 Tl. Disex¢acemext anv Ansorrrion or Heat, 1, By Chemical changes in Ponderable Substances, A. By alteration of the state of Aggregation, Tt has already been shown that the passage of a solid body to the liquid state, and that of a liquid or solid to the guscous state, is always accompanic eon heat; and that when these substances are. ‘back fo their former condition, the heat is again set free. B, By the combination of Ponderable Bodies one with the other, and decompo- » sition of the resulting Compounds. The combination of ponderable substances, with or without the de- struction of existing compounds, is always accompanied by disengage ment or absorption of heat. ‘The most striking instances of the Development of Heat are those which accompany the production of light, as noticed on page 181, those namely take place in the combination of oxygen and chlorine with metals and other combustible bodies,—of bromine, iodine, sulphur, and, with several metals ; likewise in the combination of strong bases with water,—in all cases, that is to say, in which combination is brought about by strong affinity, and in which the combining lies are decidedly opposite in nature. ‘To determine the quantity of heat set free in combustion, the process is made to go on in a space surrounded with water or ice, and the quantity of ice meltod, or the rise of temperature in a given quantity of water, Tn the table, column A contains the name of the combustible substance ae bal or formula sO the formula of the com, pound produced duri combustion ;—D I yw man} ol Yrnter are heated 1° by tho combustion of 1 part of the combustible body, or the number Factersoee bo waa ie temperature of 1 part of water of water are heated 1°, when 1 of oxygen combines with the com- Dustiblo mbatance—Ii we would find how many units of heat aro deve. loped by the burning of atom of the combustible body, we mast multiply the number in colamn D bynes rem rel of substance: similarly by multiplying the numbers in * by 8 we obtain the quantity of heat which 1 atom of oxygen develops in combining with the dif- Gr denotes Grawfords—Da: Dalton ;—Dg Dulong;—Da: Despretz — v292 ‘HEAT. + He: Hess;—Lv: Lavoisier ;—Rf: Rumford, When two results by the ‘same observer are given, the first is denoted by ', the second by * {I I have likewise added the more recent, determinations by Grassi (Gr), Favre & Selbermann (FS), and Andrews (A). A B o p| a {Fr ——_ De [3578 Ly | 2672 Dat | 2955 De | 3000 Dg | 4343 Hs | 4309 cr | 4600 Gr | 4338 Ps | 433s A | 4226 De | 1195 Gr | 1941 Re | 1997 De | dass Ly | 9714 Dat | 2031 De | 2067 Gr | 3898 A | 2062 De | 3031 Dg | A609 ar | sae A | 4254 De | 3533 Ly | 6696 A | 4509 serene] B sot 1500] Da | 1500 as71| Ha | 2571 2601| Dg | 2601 2307] A | 2307 Antimony .. .| 8b spo" ‘961| Dg | 6875 Zine... Zn Za0 ase] | | 5300 wor} A | sses Tin een Sa 80! 1938] Dg | 4545 a4] A | 4330 Protoxide of tin. | 820 80? o34| Dg | ars sa} A | 4300 Troms sscsecseeeeeseeee] FO Feo ir02] Pg | 4340 3088 | Da | 5935, 176] A | 41a Go G0 1080| Dg | 3095 Ni Nio ros} | 3738, | Ca uo 2] 7 | asi eo] X | aso x0 2000, 344] Dg | 2185 256) A | ess | oN 200.N 5195| Dg | 4241 cH CO, HO 6375] Da | 1504 19185] Dg | 3296 an098 | Gr | 2774 13158 | FS | 3289 isios| a | sa77DEVELOPMENT OF HEAT. 298 A B ° D z | F Olefiant gas, CO*HO e600 | Da | 1925 12030] Dg | 3200 436! Gr | 2461 11900 | FS | S471 now] A | 3488 Alcohol ose. eee esto: | 400460 4350 | Da | 2084 6750 | Re | 8234 6900 | Dg | 3811 6566 | Gr | 8146 iss | FS | 342 ea50] A | sz Ether .. 400%,5H0 4850 | Da | 1792 8025 | Re | 2093, sisi | Dg | ses4 soar | FS | 3480 Wood spirit......s..04++.| GH'O? | 2cot,4H0 sea9 | Gr | 3803 5304 | FS | 3536 100031280 8050 | ., | 3285 iocosHo =| 10188], | 8853 8C023HO 7s20| > | 3817 cO",HO 735 | Br | iso. 5CU24HO 4500] Da | isso 10496 | Gr | sis7 10874 | FS | 3301 1000%,8HO 10663 |, | 3237 * 10959] | 3927 Camphor, 10¢0"8H0 250 | Be | isa7 Olive oil 6675 | Cr 7300 | Da 9045 | RE 9862 | Dg mi00 | Ly 9300 | Re 7800 | De 3370] RF mia | Cr 7800 Da e472 | RE . 9975 | Le 2105 | Da 2070 | Br 3480 | 4575... 5625 | 1200; 11725 | The quantities of heat furnished by other kinds of wood are intermediate between those yielded by oak and elm. (Rumford.) [For more on this matter, vid. Woody Fibre] One part of oxygen produces with phosphorus, zinc, or tin, 5325 units of heat, the same quantity therefore as with iron, and 1} times as much as with carbon. The quantity of heat evolved by ¢t during ite combustion is the same under whatever pressure the oxygen gae may exist. Since the volume of carbonic acid gas produced is equal to that of the oxygen consumed, it follows that oxygen gas and carbonic acid gas must contain the same absolute quantity of heat. In the combustion of metals, on the other hand, in which oxygen suffers condensation, the quantity of heat must be greater as the to which the gas ie eubjocted is less, (An. Chin. Phys. 97, 180 and 182; also Pogg, 12, 519 and 520.) Dulong’s dotermination of the364 parts) in the form of aqueous erent with units of heat when mixed with more eh cares Eaoher the folowing quantities of Units of feat. EE HO: ish ~ 1. GHONO* ;, HO. [77 = 4. 1504 GHONO 5, 2HO: 777 = 4. 1554 BHONO* ,, rHO: 1554 = 1: 1904 Ti10 = 5. 1554 HO,NO? developes therefore, on the whole, as much heat in combining with witer a HO, des, a the het eyuaent the mane fr both differences are, however, met with in indivi (ne atom of well-tused. hydrate of potash (47-2 Botash + 9 water) {cae 12920 units of heat—l atom of well-burnt 1¢ (28'5 parts) yields 6520. Bo SEE rel cheersdl parce by nar with excess of water, 1 atom of sulphuric acid gives the following unit of heat according to the quantity of water previously combined wit vee Ammonia, —_ Potash. Soda. Lime. ‘HO,S0* + 23840 23886 24348, 25640 2HO,S0? : Bese 21080 22584 BHOSO: 1 19520 _6HO,80% + 17846 17720 17898 19568 fherafore the quantity of heat which the snlphaio acid git rte nce ‘wiih water, the less does tt. give out rth ammonia, If to the 30840. anita of beet. which Tose gives with ammoviay there ‘be added. the 19432 which SO gives wit eer the result, 8 86272 for tho sum of the units of heat which would be developed in the combination of 1 atom of anhydrous si peas with: aqueous solution of ammot If from the heat which in combining with aqueous ammonia there be deducted nt Seen etal evans combining with water alone, the re- Ti am bbe the heat which is set free on the further Similarly for the other alkalis. Ace rie. ak ia evolves the same quantity of . or soda: the more tae Seda ee erat ise me lise atone aren ee pen atcepteeaiac alin a gate ne One atom of dry lime immersed in water develo 1680 units of heat; this from 25640 leaves 29960, as much therefore as for the other alkalis, ‘One atom of aqueous hydrochloric acid of 1125 sp. gr. containinga yey ig a Bhag omn Wira a ag ite A eh Ee ade HA eta quitting le teal Hoa (idl Win Wid Hl Eide 3 ha ’ ay ee Seaus sills é eng 8es # Hd pel Gl z ri = sabe : 28 faint eit Mel ait | i gh dnimuyhil eae 7 ania Bias digi 4 Heal bate fet ; ‘ . Salen feet sienote 3 4baz ae eeu aide HE HnDEVELOPMENT OF HEAT. 297 3 9 ea ‘specific heat=0°576, the quantity of sensible heat in and oxygen gases together would be exactly sufficient to bring” he grec Necnc 0 ts eas eeipeers ak at SF Gr Pused mtr ont but since the actual specific heat: of water is 1-000, the quantity of sensible heat in the gases is not sufficient for this purpose; and if heat were not developed from some other cause during the combination of oxygen and the water produced would be much colder than the two gases before combination, b. The heat developed may arise from heat of fluidity, if, luring the combination, gaseous or liquid su to the liquid wld state, ‘This however will not account satisfactorily for the intense evolutions of heat in combustions and other combinations: for the Intent heat of gases and liquids is small in comparison with such deve- lopments of heat. Moreover, in many instances the combination is not ee ee tho combustion of harooa! and s in ox and of hy 3,0" again, xtc rods are orl from sai tien great Boek heey the ‘same time evolved, as in the explosion of nitre with charcoal, &c. g, The heat evolved may be kind of heat different trom heat of fluidity, producing no particular state of aggregation, but existing in a Mb inore Sele penta realest tallized potash, or alechol, with ice or snow, ‘the same substances, ‘when nized with water, evolve hest.. (Frediing Merure, ‘Such of these substances as. contain water of must not be deprived of it; otherwise, when mixed with water, they will produceammonia and I ‘part of carbonate of sods, from + 10° to — 18°85 with 3 sal-ammoniac. (71 nitre. and 0-6 chloride of calcium, from + 25° to —6°; with Jy sahammoniac, fy nitre. and y%, Glanber’s salt, from + 10° to — 155%; 11 part of water prodaces a considerable degree of cold with } sal-ammoaiac, } nitre, and } Glauber’s salt; or with fy eal- smmonine {8 nite and jf Glanber's cat (Walker) disoNving 1 part of a sah in 4 parts of water, the following re- ductor at temperature are obtained: sahammoniac 15-19°; nitrate of ammonia 14-1°; sulphate of potash 29°; chloride of potassium 11°81°; Se le"; Gluubale ask S16; onmmo alt 1° niuhte of node 946°; chloride of barium 45°; nitrate of barrta #1 of magnesia 4°5°; sulphate of zinc 311°; nitrate of lead 1-9" ; sulphate of copper 227°. If 1 part of a salt be diswtved in 4 parts of a saturated solution of another salt, the following degrees of cok are sal-ammoniac in solution of Common salt $4": in stutoa of nitre 16° —aitre in solu- in solution of sulphate of ptash common salt 4°9°.—The ft temperature: common salt ia = of Glauber's salt 1 of barium in solution of Berl, Akad. 141.) Thrve parts of crystallized neutral cartenate of sda discolved in 10 parts of water produce a‘lowering of temperature amounting to 89°, whilst 3 parts of the same salt in the auhydnous state dscolved in 10 parts of water cause a rise of temperature of 12°2°.—3 parts of crystallized Glau- ber's salt with 10 parts of water poxduce a fall of 6-77; on the contrary, 8 parts of dry Glauber's salt with 10 parts of water cause a rise of 2+ in solution —ehloride (Karsten, Schnijten d. 8 parts of crystallized sulphate of magnesia with 10 parts of water produce afall of 3:1: and 3 parts of crystallized protsulphate of iron with 10 parts of also produce a fall of temperature amounting to $-1°. neon, Hecunds of” Gen. “gm. 13, 176.) 1836, July; also Bibl. wair. 5, 182; alsoFRIGORIFIC MIXTURES. 299 epee ela of oil of vitriol and 55 water, mixed yrith 14 parts of Glauber salt, cols from + 10° to — 8°-—One part of ie add with 1} Glaubers eal, from 4 10° vo 2178". See ee 8 —12;—with 1} nitrate of ma of from 2) soda, sieagnieree oe ase on different of and water in it ic ners‘ aeoting tocol and Wale (Ste. 38 ‘witlsGlanl 871), the following reductions of temperature. Oil of vitriol. Water. Glanb. salt. 500 208, 885 22-50 500 250 987 26°25 500 300 990 26:25 500 333, 1040 27°50 500 416 1160, 26-7 500 500 26-25 500 500 1250 2437 500 635, 1400 19°06 500, 750 1560 i Six parts of oil of vitriol produce heat with 6 parts of snow, neither pee ie Sc ee eal Sue see aeats at snow. eg ie a Shea Zeessnis mixtures for producing ioe fn pammer, with dosctipton, of the 2 pasta of Ste god mare of 80 of lanl water, Maco ers estocatnels or Sr asta oth 16° B. with 14 parts of Glauber's salt. Gomantany Hae i 584; also N. Zr. 14, 2, 249.)—12 parts of a mixture of 8 oil of vitriol and 2 water with 17°5 parts of Glauber’s salt. (Malapert, J. Pharm, 21, 221; ee ae aS i ety of ere oe aad 5 water with 4 parts of Glau (Boutigny, J. Chin. Med. 10, 460. of snow or pounded ice following cold: wef die vlptfase eid Ch re and 1 water) 0 to— pr ees dliute pelea pit from Tee dee (I have Simpoual of 1 at isa and 9 water with snow) + dilute from — 28° to — 49° ;—with 1 dilute nitric acid, from — 17°8° to 43°; —with 14 crystallized potash, from 0° to — 28°;—with 4 common fall from 106" fo — 20'5°;—with 1 common salt, from 0° to — 17°8°;— common salt and yf, nitrate of ammonia, from — 27°8° to chloride of calcium, from — 9° to 43'5"; swith 14 chlo- Na a ith cilceee calcium, from 0° 2 chloride of caleinm, of ied with sol anniga of, imate -the two eubetanoo at the, sino Ronegiae so Labeainee (Soluo, 42, 1825 ‘ho Kastn. Arch. 3,90), 204 parts of Iead-amalgam (consisting of 103 lead and 101 mereury) mixednot 80 IIPS is tonic Gueailty ahoreisy Ss sotarated, ore cd rives a reduction of vrature ay common. wos tried sion of aire ie of nitrate of soda ae Sogual we ea pone an fall of 125°. Saturated lutions of efit? famniniacand ite 0" ate of are) chloride of barium and sulphato of zine (oocompaniod ti, the “aon i i eas aS ae ‘Karsten, 2, Development and Absorption of Heat from Mechanical Caveen, ‘When any liquid substance penetrates finely divided bodies she ee eT fod ona rise of temperature takes place, amounting in’ the case of bodies to Detween + and , but with organic x they are more ore present a larger between Pouillet’s ‘were made with water, acetic ether, and aioe errs ua penetrate: the of different Ec rt ly, cath and hear ‘ae a ia ol ain wane ‘The ontirmed by Regualt. (Ann. Chi oe B. Development of Heat produced by Mechanical Alteration of Density. Every mechanical compression of eee does not produce @ ‘img te staf ogre beret evolution of heat every expansion of the body, = the contrary,DECOMPOSITION OF WATER BY HEAT. 301 Air when a considerable degree of when sudde eae ema aves cet x sree of heat (im Chin, Dion’ 44, 181; also 18, 442) paper, Teh coat Cm in isa pression in oxygen gas, and Sie pape neon ges alto fusing er be made to deto- nate in hydrogen, nit or carbonic acid gas.—The great rednetion of temperature which place in air under the receiver of the air- ensia weights fo tit look tha tmadierhipanenteeceae pnt ome elie (Barlow, se ba eh ae iron and 2 of antimony emits sparks when file ) On are. yolving grindstone 7 Tee in diameter, an iron nail bocomes whito-hot in minute, brass red-bot in } minuto ; a glass tube becomes red-hot, melts and flies off. (Heinrich.) Agate rubbed on the same idstone gives off Which travel with the grindstone for a litle Decines beightly red-bot, [the glowing fragmenta which Gy glass rubbed on the grindstone set fire to gunpowder (aocordin, nghy iagretaot as ani cors.;toe cue of tpastakiniea teh ines ELA? with ground glass and cork as 40:7; silver and cork as 50 : 12; caout- choue and cork as 29:11. (Becquerel, Anu. Chin. Plys, 70, 289.) Serene AY F754. GH Sane, SAIONS TOMETMLRNGES. ANS DUOC: rositions or Poxperanie Bopres. ‘The influence of heat on the chemical combinations of ponderable bodies in which it acts partly as the principle of fluidity, partly in a manner unknown, has been considered (pp. 86 and 37). Of sitions of pondorable substances produced by leat, an account has been given PP. 119...122, and 182,..166,HEAT. ae er a } ; ee Ta 5 522383933 tay Hey = iu pug si t i ; Ga Heenan ae SHG Hee (grein 2 Hi Han ip i te clit preterABSOLUTE ZERO. 808 contained in water; hence the zero of the temperature for water at 0° must be situated at —750° (—1818° Fah.) They likewise determine the zero from the heat evolved on mixing two substances, and the specifi heat of the resulting mixture. But the widely discrepant results of these calculations, according to the nature of the substances considered,—the zero being situated, according to Dalton’s experiments between —6130 and —2890, and according to an experiment of Lavoisier and Laplace, actually above red heat,—are the best arguments against the rejection of the theory of combined heat. If the statement of Delaroche ard Bérard, that the apecific heat of vapour of water is only 0-8470, should be completely established, the preceding view of the subject would be completely overthrown, since, if there were no such thing as combined heat, the conversion of water into vapour would then be attended with evola- tion of heat.—Comp. Thomson (System of Chemistry). Clement & Desormes place the absolute zero at —266° 1. (—447°9° Fab.) partly with reference to a not very probable hypothesis concerning the heat contained in » vacuum (p.259), party from the following considerations, Aif at 0° expands for each degree C. of heat superadded by rites oF append contrcte, for enc "Fegree of heat abetracted, If this law be applicable at all temperatures, the limit of Halston of volume mast be found at —2606"s below thia point there can be no further contraction of volume and therefore no further abetrac- tion of heat. Or:—If 266°6° of heat be iny to air at 0°, its volume becomes doubled; according to the above law, the air, when its volume is doubled, must contain twice the quantity of heat which it containa at 0"; consequently at 0° it must contain 266-6° more heat than at the absolute zero. [Vid. p. 256.]‘B04 ELECTRICITY. * Caarrer TI. — ELECTRICITY. ries : Ta. Acces ‘Thermo-Electricity, Phil. Mag. J. 10, 483; also Pogg. eaten power of Hae. Phil, Mag. J. %, 176; also Pogg. Blectri Fe ous. Vapoas Phil. Mag. J. eee and 500; Patera yeieve ci 8 Ann. Chim. Phys. 75, 828; Pogg. 52, 828. ~ Ana. Chim, 5s ony 2 34h (ala a i 8 le amet fe Ga 5 Bs 3, ats Baas 20 te Ga (also Sos 4dy es (also Pogg. 2. 191); 27, 14 (also Pogg. 2 Tr. Ll, 1, 236); Thermo-cl Load, 60, 164; Galvanic Formation of Carbonate of ashes Ds 78 Galvanic Apparatus with Nitric Acid and Potash, Bibl.’ univ. 60, 215; also Pogg. 37, 429.—Also Ann, Chim. Phys. 06, 8A; also Popp. 4d, 407. Blectric which it does not produce Heat, Bidl, univ, 59, 218; also Pog. 87, Beoourney, b Oiiating Power ef ‘Salil sat NN. Ana. 58. a iva with Sea-water. Pogg. 12, 274; again, Ann, Chim, ‘ortin Phonomena of Voltaic Decomposition. Pog. Gly 300-— a fof Tram, and ia Ooanection wits the soo Faas Staley am 2 Voltaic Polarization of Iron, 63, 288,—Passivity Benzezivs & Hisixoxn. Galvanic Decomposition of Salts, Gilb. 27, 270. Bunzxzzce, Galvanic Action on Coloured Papers. Gil 97, B16— Theory of the Electric Pile. N. Gehl. 8, ae Laws of Galvanism, “phi. Mog. 714,62 12, 64 195, 1725 and* /BLECTRICITY « 305 G..Biscnor. Voltaic Pile. Kastn. Archiv. 4, 18.—Electrie Series of Metals, Schw. 52, 230. aes, Reopens a ae aoe jalvanic, Tin aad Ann. Pharm, 29, Plat Ann. Pharm 8h, Blt 26,91 ind 3503, Zinking. ‘Ann. Pharm, 35, 216; 39, 180.—Production of pure Tron in ent Stat by Galan He. Pogg. 67, 117. Brewster. Crystal-Electricity. Edinb. J. of vai, also Pogg. 2,297; also Schw. 43, 87. Bere. Galvanism. ces Fens elas 34, 129 and 241; 85, 1. A. Coxnet. Galvanic Decompositions. N. Edinb. Phil. J. 19, 163 3 Phil. Transact. of Eainb. 13; also J. pr. Chin, 5, 1675; Phil, Mags J. 18, 353. Caxtax, New Voltaic Battery. Phil. Mag. J. 81, 81. Cummaxe. Thermo-electricity. Ann. Phil. 21, 427; 22, 177 and 821; also Scluo. 40, 312 and 31 nes 1898 a 9; abstr. Ann. Pharm. re ae a Balter Phil. Me 25, el Mloctalyes of Secondary Compounda, “Phi Noy 0224, 463. Dass & MauceR, Bectroysis of Secondary Compounds. Pit Mag. J 5, 175. J. Davy. er cnet eee esa, N. Edinb. Phil. J. V7, 42. and 46. H. Davy. Galvanic Decompositions. N. Geld. 5, 13 also Gilb, 28, ae ~ 162.—Electricity in vacuo. Phil. Transact. 1822, 64; also Gilb. { 857-—Protection of copper by Iron. Phil. Transact, 1825, aa8' also Schw. 56, 434; vee Chim. . 93, 919.—Chemical and Electric Actions. eaiatee ee 76; also NV. Tr, 15, 1, 84. M. Davy. Experimental Researches on Voltaic Electricity. NV, Ann. Chim. Phys. 19, 401. De La Rive. i itions. Ann. Chim. Phys. 28, 1905 85, Bibl. wnie. 35, 925 also Ann. Chin Piya 86, 345 alan Poy. My 426~—Blociic Uondociums “dvs. Chi, EigeSEA60 sR, wes ADs 108s. aleo. Posy; 62/— Tireation "andl Ann. Chim, Phys. 87, 825; also op. 18) 132-Chemical Baily. Mém. de ta Soc. de Phys. dle Gendve, 4 2853 abstr. Ann. Chim. Phye. 39, 2983 abstr, Pogg. 15, Development of Heat by the Electric Current. Bibi. unio. 40, 40 also Ann. Chin, Phys. 40, 371.5 abstr. Pony 15, 257 —Zine and sal pest Bibl. univ. 43, 391; also vy ene ie Diee Con- luction of Mercury. Ann. Chim. Phys. 4 leetricity. ‘rend. i ome 1835, $12.—History of the new Theory of Het univ. 52, 225 and 4045 53, 70, 170 and 813—ecticiy y i my at ‘em 5 Pog. 42, 99.—Chemical Electricity. ‘Ann. Chim, Phys. 61, 885 62, 147: also Pogg. 40, 355 and 515.—Galvanic Oxidation ot Platinum. Pogg. 46, 489.—Galvanic Gilding. Ann, Chim. Phys. 72, 898; also J. sree Rah Sy csi nao Phil. «Mag J. 81, 431. Y Vor ie xBi and 1055.1 3852 231 1 Fanapar. » Exper estar at 1832, I, 1 2 ib, 1839, Series 4: 1888, 11, 507—Serios 5 I, 1; Series 7: 1834, I, 77.—Series 1895, T, 41.—Series 4 Bay Phi i J. 2 tend 2 : :_ Diauaeaee and Gases. ‘i og 83,00 ‘Perc Phi. Mag. J. 32, 1 w. 53, 61, 129 and 429; 55, 223 and 249 y- Al, 2255 42, 481 432 87: mt ee » A815 43, 482 5 44, 875 Application of Voltaic to the Li GF'rortain Phonomona of Volts Tgntions anon tho D of Water by Heat, 30, 20, and 91. Crystal-clectricity. ' Pogg. 49, 498 50, 237, 629. ‘Hae. Calorimotor and pee Ann, Phil. V 3 ere 328) 4 19, h, Have: “Blectricity by Preesure and Frietion 8, 883; also 203 1.ELECTRICITY. 807 —Galvanometer, ee 26.—Gulvaniic Circuits, 50, 510.—Grove's eee 58, jalvanic Reduction of Brass, 62, 230—Galvanic t8, 68, 161, 181, 188 and 207. Soma ‘octane fogs nm "Phil. Mag. J. 20, 98; 22, 204. eee Kxocutmusuen, Electricity. Pegg. 58, 81. Kom. eto ee "Poop Th 1h. a Bloctol yan of Valerianie Acid, ‘Phil. Mag. J. 81, 348. a Peles Ba Re 44, 342.— Conduction 45, 105.— Development of Heat by cate Action. 61,18. & Se Galvanic ‘ion, and. i its. eo oeale also N. Ann. Chin. Pig. 20,188, Bibl. univ. 42, 87. fie 429); 47, 253,—Ana, Chim, 83, 113 (also eee also Schw. 49, 22, 264 and 452); 88, 5, and 337; 42, 531 (also Sek $1, 177)3 45, 28 and 113 5 ‘51, 180, Chemical Action of Galvanic Currents. Pogg. 58, 234.— ‘Passivity of Iron, 61, 121. Marrevect.” Schw. 57, 673 59, 369.—Ana. Chim. Phys. 43, 256 (also Schw. 60, 305) 5 58, 755 es 225; 71, 90; 74, 99 and 105.—Hlectro- Hae ection, Phil. ae aged 175.—New Experiment on Static ot Bee Hectic hia salen 3 2b ae 16 by WN. Ann, Chim, 16, 251-—Hlctrcal Piss 2 Monn, Pogg’39, 1205 9; 42, 765 51,878 and 976, ee Wahenis Apiiste. Phil Mag. J.9, 2835 10, 2815 15, 87. Mamas Evel ft Vapour of Water at Lar Texaperatecen Pigg? Mowx Av Rosexscnirp. Galvanism, Pog. 85,403 48,199 and 40, Narter. Electrical Endosmose. lag. J. 29, 10.—Electrolysis. Nowits. Kings. Pogg. 10, 302 and 405. Bid. univ. 96, 8; 97, 1775 also Sola. 63, 441 and 456—Motions of Mercury. Bibl. unio, 35, 261; also Solve. 54, 40.—Galvanism, Bibl univ. 97; 10; also Li, 157—Nature of Electrical Currenis, Bibl, wnie, 37, 1185 ‘Soh. 53, 264, |. Schw.29, 975 5 also Gib, 68, 201.—Cir- 83, 163. Oux. Laws of the Electric Current in a Galvanic Cireuit. » 6 459; 7 45 anil 117. Schw, 58, 398—Unipolar Conductors. “Schw. 59, 885.—Galvanic Circuit, Schw. 63,1, 158 and 385; 64, 20, 138 and 257. Pama Clenical et Gib. 61, 885 Ann, Chim, Phys: 42, 455 Pursimes Bist ent Gold dvelo fy the Ht at Ann Chin, Phys. 56, 871; also Pogg. 43, 324.—Statical and Dynamical Elec- Les) Spi tera Peavy. Galvanism, N. Gell. 5, 82; Schw, 48,190; 58, 77 and 895; 55, 258; G4, 1. 40, 443; 44, 542; 3 461; 51, 10 and 2103 53, 20, 208'and 313. Poccexporrr. Galvanism. eecat oe ei tehie tae 52, 4975 58, 943, and 486.—Hydro-electrio Currents of the higher Orders. Payg. €h, 408.—Uondaston of Galvanio Ourents by Liquids. Pog. *phenomena, but likewise affords a much more satisfactory. of the distribution jon of a hot and a cold body doos not to be ad by. any jag the distribution of electricity. rhe experiment of Moll (p. 815) {5 also favourable to the dualistic theory. { (a). Tho Franklinian theory is perfectly competent to the explanation of this and every other phenomenon of satel eleetrcits. ‘Mhe fundamental principle ofthat theo may be stated as follows: L. The particles of the electric fu ‘each other a attract those of ponderable matier. II. ‘The particles of ponderable matter repel each other, and attract, those of the electric fuid. ULL. In the ordinary state of a body, the, ‘quantity of electric fluid contained in it is such, that. the attractive foree exerted by the’ rie uid situated without, is exactly e Franklinian theory, to Wes te so hl ur eA ‘ease, aay more thin we ‘a cold the experiment of Moll alluded to in the same place, Iwill ony observe that the pere foration of a card or a piece of tinfoil by the electric di ‘by no meana obliges us to ‘suppose that the uid oF lds are euried hol ‘the perforations — ing these remarks, T would not be understood to leciric uid in preference to the other, —or indeed the existence of an electric uid at ails my olict is meray to pont out the pefet similarity of the two theorios, of all the phenomena of stati fall fof the theory of Franklin (or rather of JBpinna) I must refer to Robiaon's Mechanical Philip, Brewers Bivona. TV; alot _ the Library of Useful Kuoolalge, Na pp. 60.04, contains a concise an able compariaon of tho two theories.)Hs FH Pel uee ae 25 55 53-~ = gc Tees gf ig gEIEe te ngueall fla ee fel jaf 2ere Pea Baily 1Gyn ne HG Gal eupell idea 4 rin: ea itt Gan ag @ ie pi ‘ en Hue is i gilt an aE eal Hi i Hun eeecneue pe GAG jeidae tituille ig i ne ae a ; His é 3 ne Hi ; gested 5 ide a te qual uIHHen tain addBH ScieCONDUCTION. 313 the fused state: p as, sulphur, boracic acid, green glass, iodide phur, biniodide of piment, glacial’ acetic me Ti areca See ria camping tallow cocoa-fat, spermaceti, common ‘sandarac, shellac, sugar, and. Oe License ataro:tarmiied bromine, chlorine, and sulphurous acid (De la Ri lo rien bar, nine of (Para- wn Olive-oil conducts the electricity of a Zamboni's. pile a than other fat oils : wi ow‘ olen own ay solid animal fat more slowly than the same when liquid. (J ne Flute fat Air and al thor under the ordinary atmo: other gases ie ssure and at. are perfect insulators. aerereaenrrersa tes wy Irocegenanting, body surrounded by non-conductors is eaid to. bo mS eae Serre NOT Ooh et ae among non-conducting bodies, ite insulating power beng fully equal to Mhat of sell. Tt may bo ueod ia the fom thor sheet, eds tr Bee ment. When formed sqfinders shoxt,balf an inch in ‘diameter, if fora Gaeta iarlatinplors | xed in the form of fine threads, it is exceedingly convenient EsHinsulating light bodion such as feathers, ‘pith- balls, &0. A sheot of it is easily converted into an electrophorus, or it Peper kat peeping When rubbed, Seale alte Rio insulators, ie to fe ls » which is very dintinctives whet Sat Ret ete ae ents: ‘of lustre, appears Tess translt= | cent, and hae more the aspect of a turbid eolution solidied. By heat it in a current of hot air, as over the chimney of a low gas-flame,—an then stretching, doubling, and kneading it for a time between the fingers, as if with the ntention of dissipating moisture within, its Ears the best specimens. (Phil. Ma » 165.) I. For methods of the condneting of bodies for elec- trcty of sll tonsions vil, Wollaston, (Phi. Ta, 1833, 20); Roussean Cm. Chin. ee 25, 378). between conductors and insulators is ono of, degree tension like electrical conductors, first produces a polarization of their particles, a peculiar i t the particle situated next to the one at which the electricity enters, takes up the opposite kind of electricity, the next particle ee ae ee ee eee whole mass. This a discharge of electricity between nelgh- bouring particles ; the sooner this takes place, and ‘the smaller the to produod it, the doeswis tine ng arcad ae ‘voltaic battery ; if the wire be ime . tr Bel" enantio of common eloote- city heats a wire to the same degree, whatever may be its intensity. (Haris) —Cuments from diferent volai butters which protace equal io apa deamte Blan eT antes ose i ‘ire e same + if a wire 0-1 metre in deviation of 20% and bees ated 10% Berane ave: temperature raised 10°, when, a proportionate increase in the ‘of the battery, its deviating power has been made equal to 207 FR cea wit wa said inher ‘the battery ” ee ae oe se iapabled, the estes of power is heating; (s'trebled, Wich ines Of era shickncooue the power jucreages more rapidly than the transverse setion dining pee etree nie eet hs Sana aaa eke the voltaic battery consists of t! noon tum tires ees of aver eed to alteratly, the platinum, alone becomes red-hot. If @ platinum and a silver wire are connected together, the platinum bocres rod-ot before the ever: go Lkewise pla finan with zine or gold.” When platinum is ined with tin or Tea, the latter metals fuse at the junction before the platinum becomes heated to redness, but even in this case the greatest rise of temperature takes place in the pati, | When platinum nd iron are united, the latino bocomes first incandescent, then the iron more ‘When iron is united with gold or zi i a i ioe ue | bi i " | eles ; i oe au i : i hy i 1a Pe Ey LaELECTRO-MAGNETISM. its neighbourhood and parallel to ei a eta er aaa Vining, in the wire have but a very feeble tension, provided only t en mn the positive electricity .¢ north end of the wire and sone gi at its sont L = = ba a A i Hig (ene g city ovis the Te Sat aleteting needle, the negative electricity turning to he ery eee the south pole, (Ocrstedt,)—One Reciaie ‘ofa moveable magnetic needle revolves: Sent ta ‘one Airestion round a wire conveying a curent of elostricty, the other Ives in the contrary direction. 7) A metalis wire twisted. in the form of Hell welnves, eae an leaner erat arent is running, through it, exactly role ee oe of showin; egos cna pode ns a at NOB al oem = (Ampere & a. best exhibited by voltaic electricity, on account of ito ene quantit lectricity likewise acts on the magnet, when it is conve; bub fine points, or p threads, or rarefied air. (Colladon, . 8, 8365 Narrenberg, Zeitsch. Ph. Math. 8; Faraday.) Equal quantities of elec tricity combining together in the wire In the same, tine produce equal effects. upon et, whatever may be their tension. Hence the ti wet showa tho absolute goanety of yt electri ‘which is Bs eek the constucioe, Ciarsiey: Ph elie Aanipier or Galeenomete, invented, by Sehwel onal feist soni ors pares) scien rb with their poles over one another) suspended by a deli- cate fined capes y 100 or several hundrods coils of ‘a copper wire covered with silk. By this arrangement, the electric current is made to ciroulate many timen round the needle, and the effects of its several parts become adied 80 that a very small quantity suffices to produce deviation, (Schweigger, Sohe, Bl, 15 82, 8205 Oeratedt, Schr, 52, 14; Norrenberg, Zane Bh 3; Becquerel, Poyg. 2, 206; Nol 8, 398; 20, 2135 Nervander, Jon Chis, 5. 55, 156.) ‘electric ity besides its deviating ‘current ‘or defecting action on ‘ms by ee phe cg geet eek Be. tga which the asses be in a spiral form round a mass of iron, the latter will magnetic, as as the current passes the wire. Steel retains a part of the magnetism thus in it, after the current has A steel wire also when outside the helix and parallel to it, but. the magnetism thus is weaker and the direction of the polo nthe ravers of 2a ithe fuer poston of EA uae slecro-mageeticneton i not prevented by strrounding the needle witha glass tube, (Ampere & Arago,)a 3 bE aELECTRICITY OF CRYSTALS. 319 Conatator, ater may be ao rangi hat a the ines from the remit of the pra positive lackey aang" municated to ne conductor, ad al the native secsaty to eorenother: Induction.—Two helices of wire covered with silk, “or caout- chou, and wound in the same dvtion, are placed parallel to each othe, for ong within the other. If now an electric ta aaa tne of these helices, the rary hlise=thany a a the stat of a current in the opposite direction will be developed other, The cancndaty Talixt aukdiet the mmcdseut-when!the ourrext fi th hati case, a current wil pss thronzh the secondary. li in tho nao he primary helix, If an iron cylinder or stil hotter ‘bundle of thin iron ‘with silk, be placed within the second- eee bo of considerable strength, C, Electricity of Capillarity ? If one end of the galvanometer wire be connected with a platinum a chemical action may be supposed to come into play, and likewise in D. Electricity of the Solar Rays? When the sun shines on a perfectly dry glass plate, the latter becomes Jectrical ; a second plate on which the light falls after passing through ae eee Ty the pretae co tricity, (Matteucci.) E. Electricity of Crystals. crystals, while they are being heated, exhibit opposite electri« client nica mate Moms oteeetncy ene ae ive while Om ive amas neat us cools; and ‘Tourmalin (Apinus), topaz ton), ‘axinite ( sla probalte (bath ee ath ee see varieties according to te You Koh Sea ake Rhee cries id , Greenland glance, an¢ monotype (iteay) +(e repareeees e Rochelle salt, aa arerege reas Grower nesia, G. Bese) neutral tartrate of potash eae ina mc fa faye yi eg utes Iphur, sulphate of ammonia, carbonate of ek as bier weit fee “Mote wunovaie gradua ay oe i Ce a i Bu Lae : a Hilal si ‘it 3 433‘THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 82k steerer seein of crystal-electricity. rowster. Neutral tartrate of potash crystallizes in right rhombic, prisms, but accuminated with two faces at the acute lateral yan perpendonlaty truncated at the base. The first-mentioned extremity shows goenive electricity even when gently eee es positive on ee ond exhilita the cpppnia slate (Hanks! ‘The supposit wl aro tine ‘Coat va thy vla Secon Test that the shemeal set recone We Feerinprgmisiespe Searineetetna cate * F, Thermo-Electricity. When one part of a metallic circuit is more strongly heated than the rest, an electric current is excited in it under the following circumstances: (a.) When the circuit consists of of single meta and the heat which ou the ter @) piksuit dudets chive abionsiaers ne points of junction is heated. a, With one Metal. A metallic wire connected with the two ends of a. galvanometer gives no electric current when heated in the middle; ase oa er the pera ere ces or of one of is heated, and then quickly the cold end of the other, an electric current becomes ifeat by the deficotion ‘of the needle. of the rat are negatively ee rl OLS sid eldiend itho tombe oie ia theomteate According to Yelin, bismuth produces the Pad rent with a given degree of heating; then follows antimony, ailver, platintan, copper, brass, goldy ti, and lastly lend, but, according. to Nobili, this urder is correct for certain temperatures only. A smple platinum wire, connect with o galvanometer also prodaoos a current when heated, if it be tied in a knot at one point an near the knot; because the more the knot canses i or with a thin Slm of ellver or the covering bindows tha pom pfrheeba, Hincoks nl eae yuent feres form distr Boognera Mercury ae loot ‘Matteucci and De la ce metals, as antimony, iron, and zinc, conduct than negative ricity 5 - as platinum, and silver, exhibit ‘the contrary relation. a is heated, its power of electricity diminishes ‘but the diminution is greatest eco a eee omar piece of metal of the same gradually from the fend to the part of rinns aE i ey lft ne a Higa ie! feats as 3 BE 4 4 Be 25252525) SEED as li i ‘ eer an ea Hi‘THERMO-ELECTRICITY. 323, vessel, hot water be boost susp athe donee hd ity will pass for a short time from the cold wire through the galvanometer to the hot wire. (Nobili.) b. With Two Metals. When two pieces of different metals connected with a galvanometer are united by soldering or by intimate contact, an electric current is set a Yelin, tho order is: Bismuth, silver, platinum, copper, iron, antimony, ‘to Becquerel: Bismuth, platinum, lead, tin, gold, silver, case ‘When iron is moderately heated in contact with copper, silver, gold, bras, or zine, ‘positive electricity proceeds from the iron through the galvanometer to the copper, &c., but when the heat is stronger from the the irou. (Cumming.) The reversal of the direction of the current takes place at a dull red heat, when copper and iron are the metals ved, (Becquerel.)—Zine and gold produce at 70° a feeble current, which passes from the zine through the galvanometer to the gold; at 150%, this current ceases; at 180° an opposite current sets in, and becomes very strong at 275°. On the cont , with zine and silver at a low temperature, positive electricity passes the silver through the galvanometer into the zinc. This current attains its greatest strength at 1207, diminishes ‘at a higher temperature, ceases at 225°, and is reversed bred. i res. Teena in the thermo-clectrie series, the Mak print of j and the hi of junction, the more power ful is the electric current; bat itis always small in quantity, and of very ee oo oma couse egative clecticliy and sy ical hoe de egn Bal ist condistna toe paieter a fon page S21, that, on Totten of those metals, the negative the bismuth, andELECTRICITY BY FRICTION. 325 of electricity is pordeptible while bodies’ are boing: pressed erg it is’ not till they are Ty renreeiipere tert cerry negatively ek A slice of cork becomes positively electrified when reseed against a slice oF plate of coal, amber, zine, copper, silver, cyanite, or heated double refracting spar, substances at the same timé becoming negative. On the contrary, the slice of cork becomes negative with all dry animal heavy’ span, eypaum (which anost be freed by drying from water), fluor-spar, spar, not stances at the same tis sitive. Two cont ae when no other than Eat eevee eect on tee eae electrical by pressure unleas one of them is ata igher temperature than the others and then She hotter ody aweye Iways becomes the colder positive. The strength of the ee tity thus developed ud upon the nature of the bodies, the state of their surfaces, the intensity of pressure, and the rapidity of Peteene ts electricity with calespary when the pressure, Merrett ee eects ieee eclcay than with heavy pa he intr meth po rock= oxyetal, and with thie more dha with cia or nO ele ia yhen pressure, temperature, of the cleft are equal,—three times as much with as with gypsum. of the electricity directly wressure, Se tha bait eae cee eae ee Fe sen) 8 ot BN en Septic sp cae ‘are ascabed by Becquefél to the sume cause xe that which the following effects, observed by himself. When two Jaminw of of mica are, suddenly torn asunder there is not only an appoarasce of Tight. produesd, but one latina tyoe ster, the fe ‘ing order ling with hich hogatre witt'all oder: Binh, nel, cel pllatinny Panu, lead, tin, gold, silver, onppat sina irony admin, a pressed together. Perfectly dry oxalate of line becomes positively electrified, in so high odogree, merely by string it with a rod of glass or platinum (which at the same time becomes negative), that the powder is lifted out of the basin which contains it. (Fs 7s Qu. J. of Se 19, 338.) ur, wax, tallow, cocoa, of chocolate, after fusion, and calomel after sublimation, left to cool in a glass or metallic vessel, shows no sign vessel. The electricity is generally positive; but with sulphur I have sometimes found it to be negative, whilst the “inner surface of the vessel exhibits the electricity in an equal degree. (Vid. Crell. Ann, 1784, 2, 119; 1786, 1, 825: Gibb. 23, 230 1 Kean, Archi. kDa ‘These ‘were formerly ‘attatictel to, the exis oe aoe in a state of combination in liquids, ie patie sleet be supposed to be set free on the passage of the sings tho irae electricity does not show itself on the tai ae Bae sabato ly where iti i in contact with the ines, socording, -Lussac_ (Ann. Chim. 8, 159), no negative tty ste di the es aa vessels,—which, however, ought to ensue if positive electricity were rendered latent during the liquefaction, it is better to suppose, with Gay-Lussac, that the elec. tricity observed in. this process from the friction occasioned hy the unequal contraction of i receiver of the pneane out of couse the li Med 9, 490.ELECTRICITY BY. CHEMICAL, COMBINATION. 329 beerrapitnerns nine apy techie mses oglu | Positively electrical IF the charool cylinder burning at one end bo laid tally, or if it be hod yt am to bn tenia of on the top, no ‘be perceptible, because the ‘elec tricity of the chareoal will be neutralized by the positive of the = rang ee Peet metal tube is set on fire, the a on cover ahs sondenentandenatieialiaabang becmace mento tabetebete Sfoen thaikana She pata arveya pots socisig to tbenetacnd a ie condenser... When the hydrogen iesnes From. gla tubs nogatve see trey is obtainol by introducing into the mile of a the combustion of alcobol in the lamp without tive cleciricity also acamasten, in the spiral wit, and iat ne nga lity wall (Puggle 1) (ogg. 81, 10) Teeards. those Aahceaeniaiegaatgecnsy ad ee ee eae iydrogen sulphur, or only in, cnt of chart hte nation of gue ys but See ete acid, whi =e the phenomenon as proceedin, tricity. oerhepremere ars pteecsteneen en negatives the gas subsequently transmitted throug a Sannin aecaaaee iran aand connectin of tl iron. a jpnabtingreints a of charcoal then, heating: to redness both charcoal with the end of the wire a enclosed in it, and also the extremity of the wire 5, and connecting the latter with ‘the charcoal, a strong current will pass from the wire } through the galvanometer to the wire a; hence, in this case, the carbon acts the part of oxygen [i,¢, in its Prcrrenm crore gm precnpee et init, and = hasbeen inserted into it, bound Sigethoc aguine tubo thartra gto focwed edie area pactste a1 s ten Sen oar Tae emi, we oa SRS te acer ie, ter iam > ntumet a2 Te Pamin meer ace mae ea vate Maeter to er Fr ta van meter red tive chvtricity : i. Speoon.—weak at water by taking up acid n fore, till the hh hydrochtorie se likewise with revps in the solid “id and water of ige, positive elee. hh the gulvanometer to the acid, decom Tiguuidls acid and wate boraci it takes the opy oxalic, and citric avid which ate fixed in the f 4. (Becquerel.’ With sulphnrie @ passes from the water throug! DyELECTRICITY BY CHEMICAL COMBINATION. 381 Acide with Sas. Positive elocticity pos, from acid, through the galvanometer, to. solutions salts ; from acid to. solatiooa of sulphate, ohlcsdes and nitzaten ( :—from nitric acid to. solution of nitre. (HI. Davy.)—Positive ‘goes from sulphuric acid through the galvanometer, to the sulphates of potash, yanometer to aquooas solution of arsenic oxalic, from aqueous ammonia to oxalic acid. (Nobili.) oF 2 sek Se een See et (App. 5) and hy of potash or oxide in the other, itive (oe 8} Tia through the ore ult ith Tater. When suiphato of soda oF chloride of barium is dissolved in water, a feeble positive current goes from the water through the galvanometer to the salt. (Beoquerel.) a solution of nitrate of frranometor to pare weer, eeboue) raat lv q ‘water. 4 Concentrate with te : saline solutions. Positive goes from sae alate nintont the reat Soe Eero a ion of the same. * fasten, spieioniety eaesed fia) galvan; i also )—If two platinum cold hace kee be . con ae il Shot, Gest wn cea etatia 1 part of common salt in 10 parts ofELECTRICITY BY CHEMICAL COMBINATION. 333 ha (App. 2) contane nfo sel, b concentrated solution of potash, and the eotton-wick, /, solution of Glauber's salt, about twice as much positive electricity goes from the acid through the galvanometer to the rail boul bo Bie aastion; Wel oman lilac week hans wuber’s salt,—ora and /, Glauber'ssalt, and é potash. [In the first case, ‘by the acid acting on the Glau ther ; in the other two, one only of these currents t lasts some time, and the threads inches long, the deflection of the needle increases yhen acid comes into immediate contact : g L F ‘combination tees place tn tho, wisk> "Tho deGections ofthe ogedia produced at the commencement ofthe action areas follows,— it being observed that the first-named substance is in the vessel a, the second in. the ‘wick f, and the last in the 4,—and that in each case, the positiv 1 recipe nee) ee sure of water, Glauber’s salt, soda, 5° salt, Glauber's salt, 8°;—Glauber's salt, Gla salt, soda, 2° ;—mix~ ture of 2 measures of ‘oil of vitriol and 1 same mixture, nitre, nitre, 5°;—nitre, nitre, soda 3°;—the same of ol of vitriol and water, sal-ammonine, soda, 16°;—the same Bertie) | ybepet glint eciee:tyy 2s daseacne If the vessels a, b, (App. 9) are filled with solution of nitre, His It of as ig acd wpe wk at of into sitio eis citsens Wisol-np: Somaibainlins ‘the galvanometer to the hydrate of potash, much ‘than is produced by the use of aqueous solution of potash,—| becomes moré heated, by combining with the nitrie acid i : faunaane H He aa al aEPinn i i j Patirula ArHELECTRICITY BY CHEMICAL COMBINATION. oes from a through the tod; doviation 161°. [The Spal curvest ty Se oceanee toe cad meen ai fhe exec een asa and ni 6. Potash in a, nitro it tric acid in a and A; positive electricity iri > Gersabipieigaleaeelantotibe Dad ‘ing: a devia teracted only by the feebler current Becquerel’s Oxygen-circuit, A. glass tube 11) is closed at its h re Ie then ted with ced ho are stened with a concentrated solution Pact diepod dato © veesel ied wihetrung aitio iT mow ibe rie: in tinum ends of the galvanometer be immersed in the two liquids, a large rent ol oxprebvpae ein od elepot ogi stars Bitar in the potash {it may be most conveniently collected by hay 8 i a ith the evolution of gas; it is sufficient in to [iia tint wire . cone gas, and at the same time an electric current which de- Due ey eae tassium, but not = te of ae D obtained large quant oxygen contrary to Becquerel’s statement, that the {ts excited produced ‘cold os woll’as- heat in Peltier’s in several hours. ne results, il ea from differences of mani lation or in aiicnin eae cane considered ‘of equal weight with the often verified statement of Becquerel,—however enigmatical it may that a chemical actionweary feat or of He ted by the ageney o ;paration from one another, rect ts to that whichELECTRICITY OF STRAM. 337 water, and other kinds of water not quite pure, on the surface of the earth, and in the bodies of plants and animals.—When pure water evaporates in vessels of iron, copper, or silver copper, the vessel becomes negative from commencing oxidation, even when the water contains an alkali in solution. (Pouillet,) Peltier remarked that in the evaporation of a solution of common salt, negative electricity was perceptible only at the moment when the remaining salt began to decrepitate,—an effect which also kas plese on the decrepltation of crystals of Common salt thrown into a redchot platinum crucible. Hence, according to Peltier, the clectricity does not become apparent til the last portions of water separate from tho It.| E i | ry i f i i H if uy i i iy! HI the sewersed; and even when they ane, the electcety fut becmmes apparent ‘ie recemee siene to 20. | i Hj it ober i E f f i iB i d i 4 i UN i iy i i th ita panaagn rapidly F steam. Acomdingly, it was found to be increased in quantity by increasi the prearare and impelling force of the steam. immediate effect of this ‘was, in all cases, to render the steam positive, and the solids, whatever they might be. negative. In certain circumstances, how- eer, an when a wire ia placed in the current of stcam at some distance fren the orifice, the i i solid exhibits the positive electricity acquired by the Atcam, of which it is then merely the recipient and conductor. vie manner, the results may be greatly modified by the and temperature, of the passages through which the steam is forced. j Tieat, hy preventing the condensation of the steam into water, likewise Prevents the evolution of electricity, which, however, speedily appears on ‘cooling the paxsages, a as to restore the water which is for the of that eff ods In thew circumatances is dependent also on the quality of the fuid ‘The phenomenon of the evolution of motion, more cially in relation to ite conducting power. Water will not excite elect unless it be pore: the addition of any soluble minute quantity, is sufficient to destroy this pro- ty. The addition of oil of turpentine, on the contrary, occasions the evelopment of electricity of the opposite kind to that which ie excited lay water: because each particle of the water becomes covered with »ELECTRICITY BY DECOMPOSITION. 339, fie ot igi ee Sela eas ee film and the solids along whose surface the 8 of liquid are ah Tit oll of turpentine, schjeot to raged dee con Espn wl ot timer Bee 18; abstr. Phil. re ane See aise ee Soop, Pha ey 83, 1) Pfait found (Pogg. on 819 tes no Pt digester was positive, itive—even when the water contained: adeiccamisare sulphuric acid, or common salt—the in asage increasing with, te tension of the vapours he also obtained ity on holding the metal plate i vessel is cold and damp, than when it is warm and dry. A perfectly Yeeeel ceases to show 5 of electricity Seat hah Wanuutoban ES damp one not Al it ie Heated stron ba the ee Seeecean eee sane causes.] If a mixture of water and Le else tinum spoon connected with ero 8] tinum, or silver, or ae Win tee ealrcaeve be be diet ae arate Srl te evatvel rss ts 1» and positive will pass from the spoon, ie ete ce ener If, on the contrary? oxide of jeer ae of ota moist paper and held in the forceps, current will be be orioeed. (Heoquarel) spougy ‘acid it cr ih a yh ts oor hy Ee “ te in mould contained in rele ate and the mould sete during the first eter, acpi two of germination bint afterward, yn i plants ra se more aed, earns doesn y Hhows huolf bir the Yea deal night, Tn two Site the negative Reg kote A diminish, and give place to continued during the 7 growth, Posi (pecilet) [Oem [Can the ino rg ongSIMPLE GALVANIC CIRCUIT. S41 3 from earbonate of lime'to oxalic acid; from sulphuric or nitric acid. of potassium (etrong) from sulphuric acid to chloride of a Manan otis or dilute ri aleker)—For complicated cases wi ‘App. 2 eee Be Aniths ocean coe meter to the calomel. (De la jar Eh ee poe oucl ty dies bakaneen baal coal he meats anata healer ‘meter, the instrument shows: are ae (Lavoisier & Laplace, Crell, Ann. 1788, 1, 351.) {have sleo ined negative electricity. icity in decompositions by Double Affinity. Positive electricity goos from green vitriol through the galvanometer to ide of sto ine esp pS ree sh Coie) ine ites: to nitrate ol barium cy am cl can nie omer to perchloride of iron tL from the yeabt (on Wissk th bublion of easbonis J. Blake (Phil. Mag. J. 12, 589.) B. In the Action of Perfect on Imperfect Conductors, Sorte Gatvaxto Omourr, 1, Two Metals and one Liquid. acid gas are When: mabe ao, placed in contact with an imperfectly conduct ing, com st some point within or ithout tig eter inmlly or Remain (a wire),—and moreover, one of these “soompoatg thinly siege mae of tis lene wi bt she thasi Hui ate 3‘TWO METALS AND ONE LIQUID. 345, xrgen-atoins of the water, is transfrred from tho copper towards the zine si ‘m. Similar actions take place when zinc and copper are immersed in ‘ther liquids. From nitric elec eine ict gas, From ‘the current. - perfect. conductors curren without, dtersotian chy enact abate nail Povbind cnet thes etetep oom ol its own elements to the liquid or the metal. ‘Thus, from peroxide of manganese, lead, or silver, immersed in different liquids, positive electricity ae lvanometer to platinum or copper. For, when a vody of this na ete it, on eranamite 16 by, is of fol dealin toa eaign lsoepnestiogsios Koen toiv tavugh tia entire ie tees te rete prs wag he cm aan Pra or combi aan it directly, whenfi i ead He ee EE i aa seat teTWO METALS AND ONE LIQUID. B45 ‘loment of ‘the liquid may, by its aston, bocome covered with a product which may interrupt wholly’ or partially the contact between the liquid and the metal: in such a case, the affinity of the other metal may come Jo ply and give rise to a revrsal of the evrent . perfect conductors current, even without abeleacting dy clement ef tholigaldy frovided coo of thar give ep one oF gaseo, an orev imdersed ts eldernt liga pontire eotiay or silver, Cette the galvanometer retreat oe a ‘over through body of this nature oxygen to the transmits it tiplaont of prelate att, he Mock qparemanic Boe oi aavush te omens wists be etis ooo tbe retell either Feckdyiaeceiaa MAN! ron the Head which it up on combining with the oxygen, ot 0 it directly, when Ritesh inceeemand Eadi gi qa i fin | | i i : de : Esge]215? 278 a Heed ful as Hi sila a i it ie i ata gl ae at il Th HG! iTWO METALS WITH DILUTE ACIDS. 347 = gold, magnetic iron ore, specular iron, eed sere wl of the electric current ee on the sucocssivg immer. frre pletion tas hoy poerned A eet nitric acid and 1 part Sh eon sl ty reat of the liquidTWO METALS AND TWO LIQUIDS! The two Ligue the same Nature, but of di - ee aged eet Z diferent degros of Faraday’s Expotiments: Sujphurie acid. Cadmium, in oil of vitriol dilnte milpbure acid, is postive towards tin and iron in the same acid, ite or concentrated. Tin also is in both cases positive towards iron ; mn towards copper and silver, and copper towards silver, but in different Tron also, when immersed in weak acid, is much more strongly | ive towards silver immersed in oil of than iron in strong, i silver in weak acid. On the other hand, ‘tin, and lead are: “most strongly positive towards silver, when they are in oil of copper zinc, tin, iron, copper and silver—Iron in weak acid is positive towards cadmium, tin, lead, copper, and silver.—Copper in weak acid is positive towards ‘tin, lead,’ iron, and silver, and slightly so towards eadmium.— Silver in dilute acid is positive towards lead, iron, and eopper, and feebly positive towards zinc and cadmium. [The concentrated acid renders the erie SS ae acy ee eee or nitrate. * Solution of potash.—Zine is positive towards cadmium, tin, and lead, whether ic ts Reset ithe tacoerae the pla solution + 80 likewise tin is positive towards cadmium, and. cadmium towards lond,—but most strongly when the cadmium is placed in the stronger solution. ‘The strong electric currents here spoken of do not arise from the contact of the two liquids: for when a couple of platinum wires are immersed, the current is scarcely perceptible. (Faraday. 5 2. The two Liquids are of different Natures, (App. 2) contains sea-water and copper, while @ contains and iron, the cups being comected by a b i being gradually added to the sea-water in a the following effects areaa‘TWO METALS AND TWO LIQUIDS. 391 the passive iron in the nitric acid dissolves more quickly. ‘The addition of nitrate of mercury to the nitrie acid retards the solution of the iron in the nitrio acid for a in the gypsum tube and 's Apparatus, Pogg. 51, 381). || TWO METALS AND TWO LIQUIDS. ted hy ‘and then precipitated on the wire, (Simon, NN. Fr. 22,1, 14) Wet the tbe a (App. 7) conten, alaton of umeniate ‘of potash with a platinum wire ee eatin ith of zine, cei ES the rst va in the ‘arseniurett hydrogen. (Buchner, Repert. by “The Wquid 2 contact anihithe mogotive- metal 2h, tif hey of You might also like
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GMELIN-Hand Book of Chemistry, Vol I (2 Ed) (1891)

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