GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING-II
EARTH AND ROCKFILL
DAMS
CH#07
CE 371
ENGR. MUHAMMAD FARHAN
MALIK

QURTUBA UNIVERSITY OF I.T AND SCIENCES

 DAMS
A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river to
store water on its upstream side.
It is an impervious or fairly impervious barrier across a
natural stream so that a reservoir is formed.
This water is then utilized as and when it is needed.
Due to the construction of the dam, water level in the river
at its upstream side is very much increased and a large
area may be submerged depending upon the water
spread of reservoir so formed.
Dams form part of a irrigation system but they have other
role to play.
1. Flood control.
2. Hydro-electro Power generation.
3. Soil Conservation.

HOVER DAM
 CLASSIFICATION OF DAM
BASIS OF TYPE COMMON EXAMPLES
CLASSIFICATION

Classification 1) Storage Dam Gravity and Earth & Rock fill Dam.
according to use 2) Diversion Dam Weir and Barrages.
3) Detention Dam Dike Water Spreading dam &
Debris Dam.

Classification by 1) Over flow Dam Spillway

Hydraulic Design. 2) Non-Overflow Dam Gravity and Earth & Rock fill Dam

Classification By 1) Rigid Dam. Gravity Dam, Arch Dam, Buttress

Material. Dam, Steel Dam, Timber Dam.
2) Non-Rigid Dam Earth & Rock fill Dam
Proposed site of Diamer Basha Dam
It’s a RCC dam.(GRAVITY DAM)
 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE
Storage Dam.
Diversion Dam.
Detention Dam.
STORAGE DAM:
 This is the most common type of dam normally constructed.
 Storage dam is constructed to impound water to its upstream side
during the period of excess supply in river (during rainy season) and
is used in period of deficient supply.
 Behind such a dam, a reservoir lake is formed.
 The storage dam may be constructed for various purposes such as for
irrigation, water power generation or for water supply for public
health purposes or it may be for a multipurpose project.
 A storage dam may be constructed of wide variety of material such
as stone, concrete, earth and rock-fill etc
DIVERSION DAM
The purpose of diversion dam is essentially different
while a storage dam stores water at its upstream for
future case.
A diversion dam simply raise water level slightly in the
river and thus provide head for carrying or diverting
water into canals or other conveyance system to the
place of use.
A diversion dam is therefore, of a small height and no
reservoir is formed to store water.
The common examples of diversion dams are weir and
dams while during periods of normal flow, the river
water partly or wholly is diverted to irrigation channels.
DETENTION DAM
A detention dam is constructed to store water during
floods and release it generally at a safe rate, when the
flood recedes.
By the provision of the artificial storage during the
floods, flood damage downstream is reduced.
There are generally two types of detention dams.
In the 1st type discussed above, water is temporarily
stored and released through a suitable outlet structure.
In the other type of detention dam, water is held in the
reservoir as long as possible.
This held water seeps into the pervious banks and
foundation strata. Due to this seepage of water , water
Water level in the wells , in the adjoining area is increased and lift irrigation may
be possible.
The seepage water may be sufficient for the growth of crops and no additional
surface watering may be necessary.
Such a detention dam is some times called water spreading dam.
Some times detention dams are constructed across tributaries carrying large silt &
sediment.
In such a case it is known as Debris Dam.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDRAULIC
DESIGN
NON-OVERFLOW DAM:
A non overflow dam is one in which the top of the dam is kept at a higher
elevation than the maximum expected high flood level.
Water is not permitted to overtop the dam.
Hence the non overflow dam may be constructed of wide variety of
materials such as earth, rock fill, masonry concrete.
 OVERFLOW DAM
An overflow dam is the one which is designed to carry surplus discharge (including
floods) over its crest.
Its crest level is kept lower than the top of the other portions of the dam (i.e non
overflow dam).
Since water glides over its downstream face, it should be made of such a material
which is not easily eroded by flowing water.
An overflow dam is commonly known as Spillway.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MATERIAL
RIGID DAMS:
Rigid dams are those which are constructed of rigid material such as masonary,
concrete, steel or timber.
It may be classified as ;
1. Solid masonary or concrete gravity dam.
2. Arched masonary or concrete dam.
3. Concrete buttress dam.
4. Steel dam.
5. Timber dam.
NON RIGID DAM:
Non rigid dams are those which are constructed of non-rigid materials such
as earth or rockfill, the most common types of non-rigid dams are;
1. Earth dam.
2. Rockfill dam.
3. Combined earth and rockfill dam.
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STRUCTURAL DESIGN:

GRAVITY DAM:
 It is the dam which depends on
Reservoir self weight to resist the action
of water stored on the up
Force stream side.
 It is a rigid type of dam and is
generally constructed of
concrete approximately
triangular in section.
 In plan, it may be straight or
curved. Curved one has merit
of economy in cost and safety.
 It is best suited to sites with
relatively sound rock
foundations.
 It is designed as an overflow
spillway crest dam.
Arch Dams:
These type of dams are concrete or
masonry dams which are curved or
convex upstream in plan.
It depends principally on arch
action for its stability.

This shape helps to transmit the

major part of the water load to the
abutments

Arch dams are best suited where

the ratio of width to height is not
greater and abutment are
necessarily strong.
It is a rigid type of dam.
BUTTRESS DAM: Also known as Hollow Dam.
It is constructed of concrete.
This rigid type of dam
consists of a water
supporting upstream face or
deck, usually reinforced
concrete slab, supported by
buttresses generally in the
form of equally spaced
counterforts that transmit
water load and weight of
deck to the foundation.

This type of structure can be

considered even if the
foundation rocks are little
weaker
EARTH DAMS:
 They are trapezoidal in
shape
 Earth dams are constructed
where the foundation or
the underlying material or
rocks are weak to support
the masonry dam or where
the suitable competent
rocks are at greater depth.
 Earthen dams are
relatively smaller in height
and broad at the base
 They are mainly built with
clay, sand and gravel,
hence they are also known
as Earth fill dam or Rock
fill dam
It is a structure of graded and compacted earth to resist
seepage and sliding.
The line of seepage through the dam is also known as
“Phreatic line”, should not cut the d/stream slope,
otherwise the point of intersection becomes the point of
infinite exit gradient and failure would start from this
point.
The Phreatic line should cut the base of the dam and
seepage may be lead out of the dam body through
filters.
It is constructed by using locally available soils
predominately.
Main reasons due to which earth dams still continue to be most commonly used
dam.
1. The basic material used in the construction is the local soil.
2. The science of soil mechanics has been developed to such a stage that dams constructed from
earth by adopting the modern theories of soil mechanics can be equally relied upon as those
of concrete gravity dams.
3. No specific type of foundation is required. They can be constructed on any type of foundation
by making little bit changes for different foundation conditions.
4. No skill of very high standard is required.
CLASSIFICATION
May be classified in two ways;
a. Classification based upon the method of construction.
a. Rolled fill earth dam.
b. Hydraulic fill earth dam.
b. Classification based upon the section of dam.
a. Homogenous earth dams.
b. Zoned earth dams.
 ROLLED FILL EARTH DAM
In this type of dam the major portion of the embankment
is constructed in successive, mechanically compacted
layers.
The material from the borrow pits and that which is
suitable from excavation for other structure is transported
to the construction site by earth-moving machinery.
These are than spread by bulldozers in layers of 15-
45cm. thickness placed at an optimum moisture content
and thoroughly compacted and bounded with the previous
layer through power operated rollers.
Both sheep foot roller and heavy pneumatic-tired rollers are used either singly
or in combination.
Rolled fill is the most commonly used method of earth dam construction.
Rolled fill dams are three types;

1. Homogenous
2. Zonal
3. Diaphragm
HYDRAULIC FILL DAM
The materials for the embankments of this type are washed and
pumped from the borrow pits with flumes or pipes and carried by
flowing water to the embankment.
First a small portion is rolled filled to give the necessary slope
towards the central core.
Then the pipe or flumes running along the edge of the
embankment discharge the slurry at intervals.
As this slurry flows down towards the centre , coarser material is
deposited in the centre when the water in the pool containing fine
sediments is evaporated.
As the height goes on increasing, the flumes or pipe are elevated.
Finally the top portion is rolled filled and dam is complete.
SEMI-HYDRAULIC FILL DAM
For this type of embankment, the material is transported mechanically from
the borrow pits and dumped along the outside edge of the embankment.
It is then distributed on the embankment by a jet of water and gradation of
material from the course out side to fine material in the centre core is
accompanied as in the hydraulic dams.
CLASSIFICATION BASED UPON THE SECTION OF DAM
HOMOGEOUS DAM:
Suitable for low heights.
A purely homogenous type of dam is composed of single kind of
material (exclusive of slope protection).
The material comprising the dam must be sufficiently impervious to
provide an adequate water barrier and slope must be relatively
flat to provide stability.
For completely homogenous section it is inevitable that seepage
will emerge on the downstream slope regardless of its flatness
and the impermeability of the soil, if the reservoir level is
maintained for sufficiently long time.
The downstream slope eventually will be effected by seepage to
a height of roughly one third the depth of reservoir pool.
Purely homogenous can be modified a little by
constructing rock toe at the downstream lower end of the
dam and also by putting longitudinal filter drain.
Both these measures control the seepage and thus enable
to construct much steep or slopes of the dam.
These measures also keep the phreatic line of seepage
water well within the body of dam.
The homogenous dam are made from impervious or semi
impervious soils.
Upstream slope of the dam is generally kept flat so as to
reduce the path of the seeping water and to counteract
the effect of sudden draw down.
ZONED EARTH DAM
This dam is made by using more than one material. In this case the
central part of the dam, which is known as core is made from
impervious material.
Considerably more pervious material is used on both the sides of
core.
The dam also consist of a rock toe, a system of horizontal drains
and some times even system of inclined filters to carry out proper
drainage of seeping water from the dam.
If at a certain place, a variety of soil is available the dam should
be always be of zoned type.
Impervious material should be used for core, while pervious soils at
flanks of core u/stream pervious soil provides stability against
rapid draw down, while that on downstream side acts as a drain to
control the seepage line.
 DIAPHRAGM EARTH DAM
In this type of section the bulk of embankment is constructed of
pervious material (sand, gravel or rock) and a thin diaphragm of
impermeable material is provided to form the water barrier.
The position of this diaphragm may vary from a blanket on the
u/stream face to a central vertical core.
The diaphragm may consist of earth, Portland cement concrete,
bituminous concrete or other material.
If the blanket or core is earth it is considered to be a diaphragm, if its
horizontal thickness at any elevation is less than 10ft or less than the
height of embankment above any corresponding elevation in the dam.
If the impervious earth zone equals or exceeds these thickness the
design is considered to be of Zoned embankment type.
If the bulk material comprising the diaphragm type dam is rock, the
dam is classified as a rockfill dam.
 SEEPAGE OR PHREATIC LINE
Seepage line and Phreatic line means same thing.
This is such a line in the body of the dam below which there are positive
hydrostatic pressure. On the line itself, the hydrostats pressure is zero.
Above the line there is a zone of capillary saturation.
The effect of capillary is however neglected in dams.
SELECTION OF DAM SITE
After choosing the general location of dam, the following
Good catchment upstream of the dam as shall contribute
adequate supply of water to meet the intended water
demand.
1. Minimum length of the dam for maximum storage for a given height.
2. Minimum height of the dam for maximum intended storage. Cost of
dam is proportional to square of the dam height consideration would
govern the final selection of a dam site.
3. Suitable foundations. For high concrete or masonry dams, solid rock
foundation is essential.
4. Major portion of the dam is on high ground compared to river basin for
economy in cost and better drainage.
5. Availability of suitable location for spillway.
6. Availability, locally or within economical leads of suitable construction
materials such as concrete ingredients, pervious and impervious soils
and stones (for rip rap) in the case of concrete and earthen dams
respectively.
7. Ensure adequate storage capacity of the reservoir.
8. Minimum construction and maintenance cost.
9. Availability of suitable site for residential colony, office
construction equipment and work shop complex.
10. Minimum value of land and property compensation. The land
to be submerged should be of low value as far as possible.
11. Good water supply carrying minimum sediments load.
12. Healthy locality. Very cold climate and heavy rain fall will
affect the construction activities.
SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM
Various consideration in the selection of a suitable type of dam are
topography, geological and foundation conditions, spillway location, safety
consideration, availability of construction material, earth quake zone,
economy of construction, aesthetic considerations and life of dam.
These are discussed are under;
TOPOGRAPHY:

It is the principal governing factor in the selection of type

of dam suitable for a dam site.
A narrow river flowing between high, rock banks, U-
shaped valley is suitable for a concrete overflow dam.
A narrow V-shaped valley of top width < ¼ of its
height, with a separate site for spillway, is suitable for
arch dam.
A low wide gorge with a separate spillway site is
suitable for an earthen dam. If the length of the dam is
very long and its height is low, earthen dam is the
obvious choice.
Gravity dam is suitable if length is less and height is
more.
GEOLOGY AND NATURE OF FOUNDATION
Geological character, thickness, permeability and inclination of the underlying
strata, existing faults and fissures determine the foundation condition of the
dam.
The selection of type of dam is governed by the nature of foundations as
under;
1. Sound rock Foundation: On good rocky foundation with
no faults or fissures any type of masonry or concrete
dam can be constructed. On poor rocky foundation
having seams and fractures, foundation treatment such as
removal of disintegrated rock and grouting to seal the
seams and fractures is necessary.
2. Gravel Foundation: well compacted gravel foundation is
suitable for low gravity dam, earthen dam and rock fill
dam. However gravel foundation have high water
percolation for which effective cutoffs or seals have to be
provided.
3. Silty and fine sand Foundation: Such foundations are
subjected to settlement, seepage and toe erosion. Properly
designed low concrete gravity dam and earthen dam can
be constructed but not a rock fill dam.
4. Clay Foundation: Clay foundation are subjected to long
range consolidation under the dam weight. Earthen dam
with proper foundation treatment can be constructed.
Unconsolidated clay with high moisture content is not
suitable for concrete gravity dam or rock fill.
5. Non- uniform Foundation: non uniform foundation of rock and soft material are
not satisfactory for building a dam on it. A dam can however, be built with special
design features.

SPILLWAY LOCATION:
A suitable site for the required size and type of the
spillway too governs the type of dam to be constructed.
Spillway site and type is influenced by the magnitude of
the flood to be surplused.
As such where the larger capacity spillway is required to
cater for high magnitude flood , combining the dam and
spillway into one structure in the form of concrete overflow
gravity dam is considered.
Non overflow dam like earth dam or rock fill dam is suitable where spillway can be
located outside the limit of the dam by excavating through one or both of the
abutment.
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
The type of dam suitable for the given foundation and site condition is also
governed by the safety consideration.
Loss of life and property arising from dam incidents is an indication of the severity
in some cases.
Safety of dam is of prime importance.
AVALIBILITY OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL:
Main materials required for the construction of dams of
various types are ;
1. Sand, gravel, crushed stone as concrete aggregate.
2. Soils for embankments, and
3. Rock for embankments and riprap.
Economical availability of these materials determines the type
of dam to be constructed. Where good concrete aggregate is
available , concrete dam is suitable.
Rock fill dam is suitable where rocks for embankment and
riprap are available.
Availability of excavated material from spillway in adequate
quantity some times suggest earthen dam.
EARTH QUAKE ZONE:
For dams to be constructed in earth quake region, earth
quake forces are to be considered in the design of dam.
Type of dam suited to resist the earth quake shocks with
out damage is earth fill dam and concrete gravity dam.
PURPOSE AND ECONOMICS:
Purpose for which the dam is to be built may be;
1. Continuous and dependable supply from storage dam for
irrigation and hydro power.
2. Control of floods by detention dam and to regulate the river
flow.
3. Diversion dam or weir with out storage features.
AESTHETIC CONSIDERATION:
Aesthetic consideration too determine the type of structure especially when
meant primarily for recreational use.

LIFE OF DAM:
dams like other structures are subjected to decay and deteriorate with
passage of time. Concrete or masonry dams have long life compared to
earth and rock fill dams.