Geotechnical Engineering-II

EARTH AND
ROCKFILL DAMS
CH#07
CE 371
Engr. Muhammad Farhan Malik

QURTUBA UNIVERSITY OF I.T AND

SCIENCES
 DAMS
• A dam is a hydraulic structure constructed across a river
to store water on its upstream side.
• It is an impervious or fairly impervious barrier across a
natural stream so that a reservoir is formed.
• This water is then utilized as and when it is needed.
• Due to the construction of the dam, water level in the
river at its upstream side is very much increased and a
large area may be submerged depending upon the water
spread of reservoir so formed.
• Dams form part of a irrigation system but they have
other role to play.
1. Flood control.
2. Hydro-electro Power generation.
3. Soil Conservation.

HOVER DAM
 CLASSIFICATION OF DAM
BASIS OF TYPE COMMON EXAMPLES
CLASSIFICATION

Classification 1) Storage Dam Gravity and Earth & Rock fill Dam.
according to use 2) Diversion Dam Weir and Barrages.
3) Detention Dam Dike Water Spreading dam &
Debris Dam.

Classification by 1) Over flow Dam Spillway

Hydraulic Design. 2) Non-Overflow Dam Gravity and Earth & Rock fill Dam

Classification By 1) Rigid Dam. Gravity Dam, Arch Dam, Buttress

Material. Dam, Steel Dam, Timber Dam.
2) Non-Rigid Dam Earth & Rock fill Dam
Proposed site of Diamer Basha Dam
It’s a RCC dam.(GRAVITY DAM)
 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO USE
• Storage Dam.
• Diversion Dam.
• Detention Dam.
• STORAGE DAM:
– This is the most common type of dam normally constructed.
– Storage dam is constructed to impound water to its upstream
side during the period of excess supply in river (during rainy
season) and is used in period of deficient supply.
– Behind such a dam, a reservoir lake is formed.
– The storage dam may be constructed for various purposes such
as for irrigation, water power generation or for water supply for
public health purposes or it may be for a multipurpose project.
– A storage dam may be constructed of wide variety of material
such as stone, concrete, earth and rock-fill etc
 DIVERSION DAM
• The purpose of diversion dam is essentially different
while a storage dam stores water at its upstream for
future case.
• A diversion dam simply raise water level slightly in
the river and thus provide head for carrying or
diverting water into canals or other conveyance
system to the place of use.
• A diversion dam is therefore, of a small height and no
reservoir is formed to store water.
• The common examples of diversion dams are weir
and dams while during periods of normal flow, the
river water partly or wholly is diverted to irrigation
channels.
 DETENTION DAM
• A detention dam is constructed to store water during
floods and release it generally at a safe rate, when the
flood recedes.
• By the provision of the artificial storage during the
floods, flood damage downstream is reduced.
• There are generally two types of detention dams.
• In the 1st type discussed above, water is temporarily
stored and released through a suitable outlet structure.
• In the other type of detention dam, water is held in the
reservoir as long as possible.
• This held water seeps into the pervious banks and
foundation strata. Due to this seepage of water , water
• Water level in the wells , in the adjoining area is
increased and lift irrigation may be possible.
• The seepage water may be sufficient for the
growth of crops and no additional surface
watering may be necessary.
• Such a detention dam is some times called water
spreading dam.
• Some times detention dams are constructed
across tributaries carrying large silt & sediment.
• In such a case it is known as Debris Dam.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
HYDRAULIC DESIGN
• NON-OVERFLOW DAM:
• A non overflow dam is one in which the top
of the dam is kept at a higher elevation than
the maximum expected high flood level.
• Water is not permitted to overtop the dam.
• Hence the non overflow dam may be
constructed of wide variety of materials
such as earth, rock fill, masonry concrete.
 OVERFLOW DAM
• An overflow dam is the one which is designed to
carry surplus discharge (including floods) over its
crest.
• Its crest level is kept lower than the top of the
other portions of the dam (i.e non overflow dam).
• Since water glides over its downstream face, it
should be made of such a material which is not
easily eroded by flowing water.
• An overflow dam is commonly known as
Spillway.
 CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO
MATERIAL
• RIGID DAMS:
• Rigid dams are those which are constructed of
rigid material such as masonary, concrete, steel
or timber.
• It may be classified as ;
1. Solid masonary or concrete gravity dam.
2. Arched masonary or concrete dam.
3. Concrete buttress dam.
4. Steel dam.
5. Timber dam.
NON RIGID DAM:
• Non rigid dams are those which are
constructed of non-rigid materials such as
earth or rockfill, the most common types of
non-rigid dams are;
1. Earth dam.
2. Rockfill dam.
3. Combined earth and rockfill dam.
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STRUCTURAL
DESIGN:

Gravity Dam:
 It is the dam which depends
Reservoir on self weight to resist the
Force action of water stored on the
up stream side.
 It is a rigid type of dam and is
generally constructed of
concrete approximately
triangular in section.
 In plan, it may be straight or
curved. Curved one has merit
of economy in cost and
safety.
 It is best suited to sites with
relatively sound rock
foundations.
 It is designed as an overflow
spillway crest dam.
Arch Dams:
• These type of dams are concrete
or masonry dams which are
curved or convex upstream in
plan.
• It depends principally on arch
action for its stability.

• This shape helps to transmit the

major part of the water load to
the abutments

• Arch dams are best suited

where the ratio of width to
height is not greater and
abutment are necessarily strong.
• It is a rigid type of dam.
Buttress Dam: • Also known as Hollow
Dam.
• It is constructed of
concrete.
• This rigid type of dam
consists of a water
supporting upstream face
or deck, usually
reinforced concrete slab,
supported by buttresses
generally in the form of
equally spaced
This type of structure can be counterforts that transmit
considered even if the foundation water load and weight of
rocks are little weaker deck to the foundation.
Earth Dams:
 They are trapezoidal in
shape
 Earth dams are
constructed where the
foundation or the
underlying material or
rocks are weak to support
the masonry dam or
where the suitable
competent rocks are at
greater depth.
 Earthen dams are
relatively smaller in
height and broad at the
base
 They are mainly built
with clay, sand and
gravel, hence they are
also known as Earth fill
dam or Rock fill dam
• It is a structure of graded and compacted earth to resist
seepage and sliding.
• The line of seepage through the dam is also known as
“Phreatic line”, should not cut the d/stream slope,
otherwise the point of intersection becomes the point of
infinite exit gradient and failure would start from this
point.
• The Phreatic line should cut the base of the dam and
seepage may be lead out of the dam body through
filters.
• It is constructed by using locally available soils
predominately.
• Main reasons due to which earth dams still
continue to be most commonly used dam.
1. The basic material used in the construction is the
local soil.
2. The science of soil mechanics has been developed to
such a stage that dams constructed from earth by
adopting the modern theories of soil mechanics can
be equally relied upon as those of concrete gravity
dams.
3. No specific type of foundation is required. They can
be constructed on any type of foundation by making
little bit changes for different foundation conditions.
4. No skill of very high standard is required.
 CLASSIFICATION
• May be classified in two ways;
a. Classification based upon the method of
construction.
a. Rolled fill earth dam.
b. Hydraulic fill earth dam.
b. Classification based upon the section of dam.
a. Homogenous earth dams.
b. Zoned earth dams.
 ROLLED FILL EARTH DAM
• In this type of dam the major portion of the
embankment is constructed in successive, mechanically
compacted layers.
• The material from the borrow pits and that which is
suitable from excavation for other structure is
transported to the construction site by earth-moving
machinery.
• These are than spread by bulldozers in layers of 15-
45cm. thickness placed at an optimum moisture content
and thoroughly compacted and bounded with the
previous layer through power operated rollers.
• Both sheep foot roller and heavy pneumatic-
tired rollers are used either singly or in
combination.
• Rolled fill is the most commonly used method
of earth dam construction.
• Rolled fill dams are three types;

1. Homogenous
2. Zonal
3. Diaphragm
 HYDRAULIC FILL DAM
• The materials for the embankments of this type are washed
and pumped from the borrow pits with flumes or pipes and
carried by flowing water to the embankment.
• First a small portion is rolled filled to give the necessary slope
towards the central core.
• Then the pipe or flumes running along the edge of the
embankment discharge the slurry at intervals.
• As this slurry flows down towards the centre , coarser
material is deposited in the centre when the water in the pool
containing fine sediments is evaporated.
• As the height goes on increasing, the flumes or pipe are
elevated.
• Finally the top portion is rolled filled and dam is complete.
SEMI-HYDRAULIC FILL DAM
• For this type of embankment, the material is
transported mechanically from the borrow
pits and dumped along the outside edge of
the embankment.
• It is then distributed on the embankment by a
jet of water and gradation of material from
the course out side to fine material in the
centre core is accompanied as in the
hydraulic dams.
Classification based upon the section of dam
• HOMOGEOUS DAM:
• Suitable for low heights.
• A purely homogenous type of dam is composed of single kind
of material (exclusive of slope protection).
• The material comprising the dam must be sufficiently
impervious to provide an adequate water barrier and slope
must be relatively flat to provide stability.
• For completely homogenous section it is inevitable that
seepage will emerge on the downstream slope regardless of its
flatness and the impermeability of the soil, if the reservoir
level is maintained for sufficiently long time.
• The downstream slope eventually will be effected by seepage
to a height of roughly one third the depth of reservoir pool.
• Purely homogenous can be modified a little by
constructing rock toe at the downstream lower end of
the dam and also by putting longitudinal filter drain.
• Both these measures control the seepage and thus
enable to construct much steep or slopes of the dam.
• These measures also keep the phreatic line of seepage
water well within the body of dam.
• The homogenous dam are made from impervious or
semi impervious soils.
• Upstream slope of the dam is generally kept flat so as
to reduce the path of the seeping water and to
counteract the effect of sudden draw down.
 ZONED EARTH DAM
• This dam is made by using more than one material. In this
case the central part of the dam, which is known as core is
made from impervious material.
• Considerably more pervious material is used on both the
sides of core.
• The dam also consist of a rock toe, a system of horizontal
drains and some times even system of inclined filters to
carry out proper drainage of seeping water from the dam.
• If at a certain place, a variety of soil is available the dam
should be always be of zoned type.
• Impervious material should be used for core, while
pervious soils at flanks of core u/stream pervious soil
provides stability against rapid draw down, while that on
downstream side acts as a drain to control the seepage line.
 DIAPHRAGM EARTH DAM
• In this type of section the bulk of embankment is constructed of
pervious material (sand, gravel or rock) and a thin diaphragm of
impermeable material is provided to form the water barrier.
• The position of this diaphragm may vary from a blanket on the
u/stream face to a central vertical core.
• The diaphragm may consist of earth, Portland cement concrete,
bituminous concrete or other material.
• If the blanket or core is earth it is considered to be a diaphragm, if
its horizontal thickness at any elevation is less than 10ft or less than
the height of embankment above any corresponding elevation in the
dam.
• If the impervious earth zone equals or exceeds these thickness the
design is considered to be of Zoned embankment type.
• If the bulk material comprising the diaphragm type dam is rock, the
dam is classified as a rockfill dam.
 SEEPAGE OR PHREATIC LINE
• Seepage line and Phreatic line means same
thing.
• This is such a line in the body of the dam below
which there are positive hydrostatic pressure. On
the line itself, the hydrostats pressure is zero.
• Above the line there is a zone of capillary
saturation.
• The effect of capillary is however neglected in
dams.
 SELECTION OF DAM SITE
• After choosing the general location of dam, the following
Good catchment upstream of the dam as shall contribute
adequate supply of water to meet the intended water demand.
1. Minimum length of the dam for maximum storage for a given height.
2. Minimum height of the dam for maximum intended storage. Cost of
dam is proportional to square of the dam height consideration would
govern the final selection of a dam site.
3. Suitable foundations. For high concrete or masonry dams, solid rock
foundation is essential.
4. Major portion of the dam is on high ground compared to river basin
for economy in cost and better drainage.
5. Availability of suitable location for spillway.
6. Availability, locally or within economical leads of suitable
construction materials such as concrete ingredients, pervious and
impervious soils and stones (for rip rap) in the case of concrete and
earthen dams respectively.
7. Ensure adequate storage capacity of the reservoir.
8. Minimum construction and maintenance cost.
9. Availability of suitable site for residential colony, office
construction equipment and work shop complex.
10. Minimum value of land and property compensation. The
land to be submerged should be of low value as far as
possible.
11. Good water supply carrying minimum sediments load.
12. Healthy locality. Very cold climate and heavy rain fall will
affect the construction activities.
SELECTION OF TYPE OF DAM
• Various consideration in the selection of a
suitable type of dam are topography,
geological and foundation conditions,
spillway location, safety consideration,
availability of construction material, earth
quake zone, economy of construction,
aesthetic considerations and life of dam.
• These are discussed are under;
• TOPOGRAPHY:
• It is the principal governing factor in the selection of
type of dam suitable for a dam site.
• A narrow river flowing between high, rock banks, U-
shaped valley is suitable for a concrete overflow dam.
• A narrow V-shaped valley of top width < ¼ of its
height, with a separate site for spillway, is suitable for
arch dam.
• A low wide gorge with a separate spillway site is
suitable for an earthen dam. If the length of the dam is
very long and its height is low, earthen dam is the
obvious choice.
• Gravity dam is suitable if length is less and height is
more.
Geology and Nature of Foundation
• Geological character, thickness, permeability
and inclination of the underlying strata,
existing faults and fissures determine the
foundation condition of the dam.
• The selection of type of dam is governed by
the nature of foundations as under;
1. Sound rock Foundation: On good rocky foundation
with no faults or fissures any type of masonry or
concrete dam can be constructed. On poor rocky
foundation having seams and fractures, foundation
treatment such as removal of disintegrated rock and
grouting to seal the seams and fractures is necessary.
2. Gravel Foundation: well compacted gravel foundation
is suitable for low gravity dam, earthen dam and rock fill
dam. However gravel foundation have high water
percolation for which effective cutoffs or seals have to
be provided.
3. Silty and fine sand Foundation: Such foundations are
subjected to settlement, seepage and toe erosion.
Properly designed low concrete gravity dam and earthen
dam can be constructed but not a rock fill dam.
4. Clay Foundation: Clay foundation are subjected to long
range consolidation under the dam weight. Earthen dam
with proper foundation treatment can be constructed.
Unconsolidated clay with high moisture content is not
suitable for concrete gravity dam or rock fill.
5. Non- uniform Foundation: non uniform
foundation of rock and soft material are not
satisfactory for building a dam on it. A dam can
however, be built with special design features.
• SPILLWAY LOCATION:
• A suitable site for the required size and type of the
spillway too governs the type of dam to be constructed.
• Spillway site and type is influenced by the magnitude of
the flood to be surplused.
• As such where the larger capacity spillway is required
to cater for high magnitude flood , combining the dam
and spillway into one structure in the form of concrete
overflow gravity dam is considered.
• Non overflow dam like earth dam or rock fill dam
is suitable where spillway can be located outside
the limit of the dam by excavating through one or
both of the abutment.
• SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS:
• The type of dam suitable for the given foundation
and site condition is also governed by the safety
consideration.
• Loss of life and property arising from dam
incidents is an indication of the severity in some
cases.
• Safety of dam is of prime importance.
AVALIBILITY OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIAL:
• Main materials required for the construction of dams
of various types are ;
1. Sand, gravel, crushed stone as concrete aggregate.
2. Soils for embankments, and
3. Rock for embankments and riprap.
• Economical availability of these materials determines the
type of dam to be constructed. Where good concrete
aggregate is available , concrete dam is suitable.
• Rock fill dam is suitable where rocks for embankment and
riprap are available.
• Availability of excavated material from spillway in adequate
quantity some times suggest earthen dam.
EARTH QUAKE ZONE:
• For dams to be constructed in earth quake region,
earth quake forces are to be considered in the
design of dam.
• Type of dam suited to resist the earth quake
shocks with out damage is earth fill dam and
concrete gravity dam.
PURPOSE AND ECONOMICS:
• Purpose for which the dam is to be built may be;
1. Continuous and dependable supply from storage dam
for irrigation and hydro power.
2. Control of floods by detention dam and to regulate the
river flow.
3. Diversion dam or weir with out storage features.
AESTHETIC CONSIDERATION:

• Aesthetic consideration too determine the

type of structure especially when meant
primarily for recreational use.

LIFE OF DAM:
• dams like other structures are subjected to
decay and deteriorate with passage of time.
Concrete or masonry dams have long life
compared to earth and rock fill dams.