Harbour works

Harbour works are designed to withstand wave action. The wave forces can be in the form of

hydrostatic pressure, the impulse of a jet and viscous drag. The energies released in storms at

sea are enormous. This released energy may cause the displacement of masonry blocks

weighing hundreds of tonnes. The source of dynamic wave action lies in the inertia of the

moving particles. Sea walls may be required for the protection of land which is being eroded

by the sea, or for the protection of low-lying land against flooding by the sea, or for the purpose

of reclaiming land from the sea. When a non-breaking wave hits a vertical wall , the

reflected energy reinforces the next on coming wave. This causes the water in the region

adjacent to the wall slash back and forth. The resultant wave at the wall is known as clapotis.

The orbital motion in clapotis is vertical for surface water near the wall and horizontal midway

between crests. Thus there is a little dynamic action on wall and the wave

pressure although pulsating is hydrostatic.

The waves break or become unstable when the wave height approximates the depth or when

the wave height approaches oneseventh of the wave length. This condition is commonly met

with where the tidal range is considerable.

A breaking wave hurls a mass of water at any obstruction and the impluse exerted on the wall

is equal to the change in momentum of the water mass. This chapter deals with the design of

harbour works to withstand wave action. The harbour works include : break waters, jetties,

piers, wharves, key wall and berthing accessories.

1 . Breakwater. This is a protective barrier constructed to form an artificial harbour with a

water area so protected from the effect of sea waves as to provide safe accommodation for

shipping.

2. Dock. This is a marine structure for mooring or tying up of vessels, loading and unloading

cargo or embarking and disembarking passengers.

3. Quay. This is a dock parallel to the shore. It may or may not be continuous with the shore.

4. Quay Wall or Bulkhead. These are protection walls of quay backed up by ground. It holds

or supports ground in back of it.

5. Wharves. These are platforms or landing places for ships to come close enough to the shore

for embarkation and disembarkation. They are built out into or on to the water. When along

and parallel to the shore, then they are known as quays.

6. Jetty or Pier. This is dock that project into the ship’s basin at right angles or oblique from

shore. When it is built in combination with a breakwater then it is known as breakwater pier.

The main function of a jetty is the preservation of a channel against the encroachment of

littoral drift river sediment. They are generally built in pairs. The ships may use a pier on both

sides whereas wharves are used only on one side.

7. Mole. This is a fill, usually rock, extending out from shore. They side slopes of this are

provided with riprap or armour rock to protect -if from erosion. The upper surface of mole is

made wide enough to provide roadway, sidewalk, rail, road tracks, utilities, pipelines and

conveying facilities to serve the pier.

8. Trestles. They are lighter piers, designed for vertical loads as the principal forces. It does

not have to withstand a ship’s docking and mooring forces. Depending upon the approach at

the centre or at the end the piers are called as T head pier or / shaped pier.
9. Dolphins. These are marine structures for mooring vessels. They are commonly used in

combination with piers and wharves to shorten the length of these structures. They are a

principal part of the fixed mooring berth type of installation used extensively in bulk cargo

loading and unloading installations. They are of two types known as breasting and mooring.

Dolphins are used for tying up ships and for transferring cargo between ships moored along

both sides of the dolphins.

10. Breasting Dolphins. These are larger marine structures for mooring vessels. They are

designed to take impact of a ship when docking and to protect the dolphin and ship from

damage. They are provided with mooring posts known as bollards to take the springing lines

for moving a ship along the dock or holding it against the current.

11. Mooring Dolphins. They are provided to hold a ship against the road side wind blowing

in a direction away from the dock. They are away from the face of the dock. Hence they are

not designed for the impact of the ship. They are provided with mooring posts and with

capstans when heavy lines are to be handled.

12. Moorings for Ships. They are comprised of ground tackle placed in fixed position for

attaching a ship’s line. Each unit of ground tackle consists of one or more anchors with chain,

sinker and buoy to which the ship’s line is attached. These mooring units are usually located

so as to take the bow and stern lines and if the ship is large one or more breasting lines.

13. Fixed Mooring Berth. This is a marine structure consisting of dolphins for tying up a

ship and a platform for supporting the cargo handling equipment. The platform is usually set

back 2 to 3 m from the face of the dolphins so that the ship will not come in contact with it.

14. Dock Fenders. They are horizontal wood members or a number of vertical wood members

or rubbing strips fastend to the deck or face of the dock. They prevent a ship or dock from

being damaged during mooring.

15. Catwalks. They are used to provide access to and between dolphins. They serve as a

convenient means of running out ship’s lines to their moorings./

A breakwater is a structure which reflects and dissipates the force of wind generated waves.

They act as protective barrier to enclose harbours and to keep the harbour waters undisturbed.

The area so enclosed serves as a safe anchorage for ships. This facilitates loading of cargo in

comparatively calm waters. The inside of a breakwater when constructed as a quay for

handling cargo then it is known as a mole.

Generally, breakwaters are constructed of masonry above the water lane where wave action

is most severe. The masonry structures of breakwater may rest upon a rubble mound at an

elevation somewhat below low tide. The breakwaters can be made of concrete or coursed

stone throughout. In very deep water wave action may taper off to insignificant values at great

depths and in this deeper zone the rubble can be replaced by sandfill.

The height of a breakwater depends upon its purpose, extent of enclosed water area and the

nature of existing shipping work. Generally, breakwater height is kept as equivalent to 1.2 to

1.25 times the height of the waves expected. As per US Core of Engineers the breakwaters

height should be based on significant waves. The significant wave is defined as the average

of the heights and the periods of the highest 1 /3 of the waves in a group of waves.

The breakwater should be so designed that waves do not break on the wall. It is because of

the fact that energy released by breaking waves is tremendous and may damage the structures.

It is always desirable if the striking wave is reflecting or dissipates most of its energy by rise

of its water column. The ether alternative is to locate secondary submerged

breakwater so as to enable wave energy to be extended in the water pool between the

submerged breakwater and the main breakwater.

The breakwater superstructure must be designed to withstand overturning forces due to

wave thrust, hydrostatic pressure and the dead weight of the structure. The resultant of self-

weight and net wave force should fall within tire middle third of the base.
 .3.1 Types of Breakwaters

Common types of breakwaters are shown in Figs 4.12 to 4.22.

(a) Stone Dike. This is a simple and the most economical type as shown in Fig. 4.12

(b) Stone Dike with Armour Stone. This type is more reinforced and covered with armour

stones of 2 to 3 tonnes each as shown in Fig. 4.13

(C) Concrete Block-1. This one is stronger than item (2) and use of concrete blocks as

shown in Fig. 4.14

(d) . Concrete Block-2. This type is an alternative form of item (3)as shown in Fig. 4.15
(e) Concrete Caisson. This is one of the stable types and is used in deep sea area (Fig. 4.16).

There are some difficulties in the construction of this type such as the foundation and the

installation. It is costly.

(f) Combined type (caisson + block). This is a combined type of items t4) and (5) as shown

in Fig. 4.17

(g) Overflow Type. The energy will be decreased by the flowing on the stone mound as
shown in Fig. 4.18. This is which does not break the wave forces directly.

Fig. 4.18
8 Sub-marine type. The purpose of this type is also as same as the ones above, like the coral
reef in the ocean (Fig. 4.19). It is not applicable to the area with the wide tidal range

9. Air/Water Jet type. The energy of the wave will be reduced by the powers of the air jet or
water jet as shown in Fig. 4.20. Its effect is not expected to be so strong, but will be
applicable to the areas with no high wave.

10. Caisson with holes. This is a modified type of item (5). The purpose of holes is to absorb
the wave's energy (Fig. 4.21)

12. Steel Sheet Piles (SSP) Double wall. The structure of steel sheet pile double walls is
shown in Fig. 4.22
Broadly, breakwaters can be classified as:

a. Rubble Mound type,

b. Vertical Wall type, and

c. Composite type.

(i) Rubble Mound Breakwater. The mound type breakwaters are constructed by materials

like natural rock, concrete block, a combination of rock and concrete block, and concrete

tetrapods and tri-bars, or other irregular shapes. These breakwaters may be supplemented in

each case by concrete monoliths or sea walls to break the waves force and to prevent splash

and spray from passing over the top. In places where durable rock is available in plenty at

economical costs then rock mound breakwaters are preferred. There are many variations in

the classes of rock fills and the locations and proportions of these materials within a rock

mound breakwater.

Generally a rock mound breakwater is comprised of a central portion called the core and the protected

layers called the armour. In order to protect the finer core material from being sucked out on the return wave

and for the better dissipation of energy, it is essential to provide a graded stone layer in between the core and
armour layer. Stability of a rock breakwater is dependent mainly on the weight and shape of the individual

pieces of armour rock and the slope on which they are laid. But the units must be properly placed on the

slope and interlocked with each other to form a stable and reasonably close-fitting envelope around the

core.

It has been found that the weight required for the individual pieces of armour rock will vary with the

degree of slope on which they are laid, i.e., steeper slopes require heavier rock, and flatter slopes, lighter

rock.

In locations where natural rock is not available or it cannot be produced economically concrete blocks, or

irregular concrete shapes such as tetrapods, tribars, quadripods or hexapods may be used as

armour. Typical rubble mound breakwater and breakwater armour with concrete block laid pell-mell are

shown in Figs. 4.23 (a) and (b).

The weight of artificial concrete blocks should be such that it can be handled easily by lifting equipment.

Generally, 50 to 60 tonne concrete blocks are used. However, block weighing up to 400 tonnes have also

been used. A brief discussion of concrete blocks of different shapes is given below:
Tetrapods. They are four-legged, truncated cone-shaped, precastconcrete units. See Fig 4.24.

For large breakwaters about 25 tons tetrapods are used. In Mumbai on Marine Drive these

blocks have been used to protect sea wall. These blocks weigh about 4 tonnes each.

Tribars. They are special shaped concrete armour units. See Fig. 4.25.
Quadripods. They are similar in shape to tetrapods except that the axes oi the three legs

forming the base are all in the same plane.

Hexapods. They are six-legged, truncated-cone-shaped units. Tribars and tetrapods concrete

armour units permit sleeper slopes and are of lighter weight than plane concrete blocks. This

is because, of their superior absorption of wave energy and better shape factor.

The structural design of a rubble-mound breakwater deals with specifications for rock size and

the selection of an appropriate slope angle. Generally, the wave force acting upon an individual

stone is proportional to the exposed area of the stone, while the resistance of the stone is

proportional to its volume. U.S. Army Engineer Waterway Experiment Station carried out

extensive investigation to study the stability of rubble mound breakwaters with quarry stone

armour units as cover layer material. R.Y. Hudsons later developed the following equation

to determine the weight and irregular shaped concrete for the design of mound

breakwaters.
1. For breakwater trunk in deep water of sufficient depth to prevent the breaking of
waves, with no overtopping.
2. For breakwater trunk in shallow water and waves of such size that they break
directly on the structure’s slope.
3. For conical heads of breakwaters situated in water sufficiently deep to prevent the
breaking of waves.
4. For conical heads of breakwaters subjected to forces from breaking waves.

The armour units for the primary cover layer, the weights of which are determined by
equation given earlier should be extended to a depth equal to the wave height h below high-
water level (HWL) when the breakwater is in deep water and to the bottom when it is in shallow
water. In deep water, the slope tor which the armour units are figured should extend to a depth
of 1.5 h below HWL. Below this depth, the slope can be reduced to 1:1.5 (See Fig. 4.26.)
In deep water, the weight of armour units in the secondary cover layer between depths equals

to H and 1 ,5 h below HWL should be equal to one-half the weight of armour units in the

primary cover layer. And below a depth of 1.5 h the weight can be reduced to W/15.

The first underlayer on which the armour units in the primary cover layer rest should consist

of at least two layers of rock weighing about 1V/10. Under the secondary cover layer, below a

depth of 1.5 h, the weight may be reduced to W/300. The second underlayer, of core, should

consist of rock weighing about W/200 to a depth of 1.5 h and below this level the weight may

be reduced to about W/6,000, or what is generally known as quarry-run material.

U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station , Vicksburg Miss gives the following

formulae for thickness of cover layer and number of armour units for a given surface area
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station found that the breakwater slopes and wave
steepness are main factors affecting wave run up in water or depth corresponding to relatively
large values of relative height h/d,
where, h = wave height, and d = water depth.
It was found that wave run up decreases with increasing values of wave steepness and flatness
of slope. Wave run up R is measured vertically above a still water level. The run up factor R/h
for smooth impervious slope is found to be generally about twice that obtained for the
comparatively rough and porous slopes used in the stability tests of rubble-mound breakwaters.
For an average condition (where the ratio of wave height to length h/L equals 0.07 ) and for a
slope of 1 in 2, the ratio R/ H of the run-up on he rubble-mound breakwater with smooth
impervious slopes to the height of the wave is about 0.9. This means, if the crest is placed at a
height equal to li above the highest tide level, the breakwater should be free from being
overtopped.
4.3.2 Composite Breakwater

A composite-type breakwater consists of a concrete caisson and a lower mound composed

of rubble (see Fig. 1); it combines the advantages of embankment-type and vertical

breakwaters, dispersing the load to the ground and reducing the amount of rubble required. In

Japan, it is the most used type of breakwater.

Breakwaters are constructed to protect port areas from high waves, high tides, and tsunamis.

There are numerous cases where the water in places with breakwaters is deep; thus, composite-

type breakwaters suitable for deep water have frequently been used in many of those areas. To

adopt embankment-type breakwaters in areas of deep water, a large amount of rubble and high

construction costs are required. In addition, it is difficult to design structures that can withstand

large waves caused by typhoons. It is also difficult to adopt vertical breakwaters, which can be

formed only by caissons or steel-plate cells because the seabed is too soft in many cases to

sustain such breakwaters. In contrast, composite-type breakwaters are suitable for deep water.

Sometimes a mound with superstructure founded at low water level is provided. The solid

superstructure consists of a quay protected by a parapet on the sea face. This type of

construction provides a platform for handling cargo. It protects the top of the mound. It also

reduces the mass of rubble required for the mound in proportion to the depth at which it is

founded. This type of construction makes it possible for ships to come close to the breakwater

wall, on the inner or harbour side for loading and unloading cargo. Generally, the front batter

changes from 2.8 to 1, abruptly 1 to 1 in order to provide a sharp edge to cut the waves

on impact. The sea face is protected with heavy concrete blocks.

In deep water it is economical to provide mound with superstructure founded below water level.

The waves in such construction have practically no distributing effect at such low levels. Figure

4.27(a) and (b) show components and different forces acting on a composite type breakwater.
It has been found that the upper portions of mounds lack quality of permanence in shape and

section. They stand in equilibrium below levels of wave effect. The maximum wave effect is

found between high water level and low water level. In order to safeguard this portion larger

blocks of 30 tonne each or more are laid at a slope of 1 to 1. These concrete blocks should be

made as large rectangular blocks and laid as headers offering minimum face area and maximum

resistance to overturning.

Methods of Mound Construction. Mounds can be constructed by following methods:

1. by barges

2. by staging and

3. by low level method.

1. Mounds Construction by use of Barges. This method utilizes flat bottom barges which

have hoppers with vertical sides and doors at the bottom opening outwards. The hoopers are
loaded with rubble and the barge is adjusted and aligned in position along the line of

construction. Later the load is allowed to be discharged by opening the hooper doors.

See Fig. 4.28.

In order to ensure uniform and even distribution of rubble on the entire base of breakwater

mound. The layers are trimmed by divers. Decked barges are employed when the mound rises

up sufficiently so that hooper barges cannot be used. The loaded decked barges are brought to

the site and slightly canted by flooding compartments on one side. This process causes a till

which dislodges the material. (See Fig. 4.29). By this method it is possible to uniformly deposit

the rubble over a large area.

2. Mound Construction by Use of Staging. In this method a staging is erected by driving a

series of piles driven at regular intervals of 4.5 to 6 m. The piles are connected by longitudinal

runners, struts and braces. This forms a number of parallel tracks on which rails are placed for

tipping wagons. The material tipping from wagons can be at the ends and sides. Generally, the

tracks are run at 8 to 10 m centres. These tracks should be well above the high sea level. The

staging can be easily dismantled, handled, and reused. In order to withdraw staging piles after

completion of mound heavy tackles are used.

3. Low Level Method. This is a slow method of constructing a mound length from the shore

well above the high sea level. As the construction advances the mound formed is used by loaded

wagons. This process consolidates the mound formed. It is not possible to construct different

sections of breakwater simultaneously.

4.3.3 Vertical Wall Breakwaters
These breakwaters are of types as concrete block gravity walls, concrete caissons, rock filled
sheet pile cells, rock filled timber cribs and concrete or steel sheet pile walls. These breakwaters
are best suited to sheltered sites and not reliable for very heavy seas. They should not be
constructed in a depth of water less than twice the greatest storm way as may approach the site
of the proposed structure. The seabed at the site should be resistant to erosion. Foundations
should be free from uneven settlements. In locations having top bed material like silt, soft clay,
or fine sand, it is best to remove this stratum by trenching with dredgers. In seabed locations
having low bearing capacity a rubble base may be provided to distribute the load on a wider
base. Sheet piles may also be driven to improve the bearing capacity in location having low
bearing capacity up to moderate depths. The breakwaters design should be so chosen that no
portion of the wall may overturn due to the wave pressure exerted. No portion of wall should
shear off when subjected to forces. Also, no horizontal course of the wall is uplifted and
dislocated.
Drag forces due to waves strike the wall and return. They send to erode away the material and
expose the foundation. Wave breakers or apron should be provided to protect the foundation.
Upright wall breakwater is preferable where depth is not great, and the bottom is firm. This
requires less amount of construction material and avoids dangers of unequal settlements.
However, it requires construction of a good height of wall under water which is expensive.
This wall breakwaters are expensive to construct and require special care. Generally, vertical
wall breakwaters are construction of concrete blocks. They have been used more often in
Europe than in the Western Hemisphere. The concrete blocks are of huge size weighing 200
tonnes or more. In all block work with joints there is a possibility of differential settlement and
cracks. Hence slice work is preferable. The Marmagao breakwater on the south bank of the
mouth of Zuazi river which runs westward into the Arabian Sea consist of concrete slice work.
The concrete slice block weighs about 20 tonnes each. This type of work gets adjusted by
sliding without damaging the blocks. [See Fig. 4.30 (a) and (b)]. Concrete caissons have been
used quite extensively for breakwaters in the Great Lakes, as well as for protection of harbours
in Europe. Concrete caissons have the advantage of reducing considerably construction time
on water. This is an important factor where the sea is rough and the working time of floating
equipment is limited. A large amount of the work can be done on shore and a period of
relatively good weather and calm water can be selected for the actual installation.
Breakwaters constructed for concrete blocks or caissons are usually founded on a base of
rubble, unless the depth of water does not exceed 15 to 20 m. In shallower depths unless the
bottom is extremely hard and resistant to scour, a gravity wall always should be placed on a
foundation mat of rubble or other suitable material, of sufficient depth to distribute the load to
a safe bearing pressure on the underlying soil. The mat should extend beyond the toe a
sufficient distance to prevent scour and undermining of the breakwater. Generally, this distance
should be less than one-fourth the maximum wavelength if scour is to be completely
avoided.
In soils of moderate bearing capacity and in moderate depths, two rows of sheet piles are driven
up to some depth. Rubble and concrete is filled. Thus steel and concrete sheet pile breakwaters
arc best suitable where the bottom is of soft material extending to a great depth. These sheet
piles generally capped with concrete are supported by batter piles. This type of construction is
generally found to be ideal up to about 3 m.
Cellular sheet pile breakwaters have been used with considerable success on the Great Lakes.
However, their use has never become widespread because they are difficult to construct in
exposed locations. Where used: they are generally of the self-supporting type, i.e., each cell is
stable by itself when filled with rock or other suitable material. The sheeting must extend to a
sufficient depth below the harbour bottom to prevent undermining of the cell by erosion of the
bottom. Minimum depth of penetration usually is not less than 3 m, unless the bottom is rock
or other very hard material. It is customary to place riprap against the toe of the sheeting to
protect the bottom against erosion. The top of the sheeting may terminate at or just above mean
high water, with wall of cast-in-place concrete constructed to the required height. When the
sheet piling is extended to the full height, it may be capped with heavy rock, concrete block or
a cast-in-place concrete slab.

Sometimes wall breakwaters are constructed on concrete bag foundation. The construction
method involves deposition of 100 tonne concrete bags from special hopper barges. These
concrete bags are laid across the full width up to low water level. Over this solid concrete wall
is constructed. Jute cloth protects concrete during passage through water and the cement mortar
oozing cut of the pores of the bags forms the mortar joints (See Fig. 4.31). Methods for
construction arc similar to the one explained earlier for construction of mound. However,
additional lifting devices on floating arrangements are required. Staging system is the most
popular method for the construction of wall breakwater. This system is comprised of regular
staging on piles. This is bridged over at intervals by braced cross girders. Overhead moving
gantries and tracks for trucks to carry huge concrete blocks are provided in staging
Vertical sided breakwater construction suffers from the drawback that fine weather is essential
for site working and that at certain stages of building the work may be particularly vulnerable
to unexpected and perhaps to minor storms. Sheet piling when just ready for concreting is
especially vulnerable and possibly caissons before, being filled arc the next worst. In both
instances, if damage is sustained, it is likely to constitute a total loss of an extensive and
expensive section of work. From this point of view block work is preferable as the operation
of block laying is more or less complete in itself and any damage caused to an open end is
unlikely to extend beyond a few courses. The exposed side of the breakwater should be guarded
against scour up to depth of I 0 m. This requires relatively heavy rubble mound overturning
forces at the crest of the wave will obviously be catered for put with the trough of the wave
alongside the net force will be outwards away from the harbour and wall panels in reinforced
concrete caissons must be designed for this negative condition. In heavy seas masses of water
may cascade down from a great weight on to the deck of the breakwater and a continuous
strong surface is essential to withstand this.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Vertical Breakwaters
Advantages
 An important thing in engineering is the speed of executing a project, therefore in order to

achieve a perfect job and in a small range of time, fewer construction failures in addition to

reduced environmental impingement while construction should be taken into consideration.

 One of the most important advantages when regarding vertical breakwaters is that the
width is smaller when compared with other breakwaters as it requires fewer construction

materials due to that it is considered more economical.

 In some cases, the availability of rubble stones is limited which makes vertical

breakwaters more essential and suitable.

 Vertical breakwaters do not require frequent maintenance compared with rubble mound

breakwaters which need more maintenance work.

Disadvantages

 Vertical breakwaters are not beneficial in deep sea water level usually two meters or more

and under strong wave impulsion.

 The surface foundation of vertical breakwaters must be rigid (rubble mound construction

materials) in order to increase its stability otherwise it will not be suitable except for certain

conditions like having sand deposits of high thickness.

 If any failure occurs, repairs are more difficult for vertical breakwaters