Soil Permeability: Calculating Hydraulic Conductivity

#5A GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1
(SOIL MECHANICS)
FLEX Course Material

Discuss the seepage and
the permeability of soil.
Sir Marvin Bartido 1ST TERM AY 2021-2022
Elaborate the theoretical

computation for the
permeability of a soil
particle.
PERMEABILITY
Marvin M. Bartido, RCE
1ST TERM AY 2021-2022

I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13
PERMEABILITY
Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected
voids through which water can flow from points of high energy to
points of low energy.
This property of the soil which permits the water or any liquid
to flow through it through its voids is called permeability. It is the ease
with which water can flow through the soils.
Gravel particles are large. Larger the soil grains, larger will be
the volume of voids and better will be the connectivity of those pores,
consequently large amount of water may flow through them easily
and higher will be the flow of water, and that we say higher is the
permeability of the soil.
Importance of Studying Permeability of Soil
The study of the flow of water through permeable soil media is
important in soil mechanics. It is necessary:
1. for estimating the quantity of underground seepage under various
hydraulic conditions
2. for investigating problems involving the pumping of water for
underground construction, and
3. for making stability analyses of earth dams and earth-retaining
structures that are subject to seepage forces.
One of the major physical parameters of a soil that controls the
rate of seepage through it is hydraulic conductivity, otherwise known
as the coefficient of permeability.
2
For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec
in SI units and in ft/min or ft/day in English units.
The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors:
fluid viscosity, pore-size distribution, grain-size distribution, void ratio,
roughness of mineral particles, and degree of soil saturation. In clayey
soils, structure plays an important role in hydraulic conductivity. Other
major factors that affect the permeability of clays are the ionic
concentration and the thickness of layers of water held to the clay
particles.
The value of hydraulic conductivity (𝑘) varies widely for different
soils. Some typical values for saturated soils are given in Table 7.1. The
hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils is lower and increases
rapidly with the degree of saturation. Also, gravel soils are most
permeable while clay soils are least permeable. When a soil has
extremely low permeability it is termed as impervious soil.
The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the

properties of the fluid flowing through it by the equation
𝛾
𝑘 = 𝑤 𝐾ത (eq. 7.13)
𝜂
where 𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
𝜂 = dynamic viscosity of water
𝐾ത = absolute permeability
The absolute permeability 𝐾ത is expressed in units of 𝐿2 (that is, 𝑐𝑚2 ,
𝑓𝑡 2 , and so forth).
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John 3:16
Equation 7.13 showed that hydraulic conductivity is a function

of the unit weight and the viscosity of water, which is in turn a
function of the temperature at which the test is conducted. It is
conventional to express the value of 𝑘 at a temperature of 20℃.
𝜂𝑇℃
𝑘20℃ = 𝑘 𝑇℃ (eq. 7.15)
𝜂20℃
𝜂
The variation of 𝑇℃ with the test temperature 𝑇 varying from 15 to
𝜂20℃
30℃ is given in Table 7.2
Note: If the table is not given, use the formula for temperature
correction:
𝜂 𝑇℃
= 2.42 − 0.475 ln 𝑇
𝜂20℃
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John 3:16
Hydraulic Head
Water in the soil flows from one point to another only if there is a difference of
hydraulic head.
The hydraulic head is the amount of mechanical energy available at any point in
water.
Water does not flow if the point A and B have the same energy or have
inadequate head difference.
Bernoulli’s Equation
From fluid mechanics, we know that, according to Bernoulli’s equation, the
total head at a point in water under motion can be given by the sum of the
pressure, velocity, and elevation heads, or
𝑢 𝑣2
ℎ= + +𝑍 (eq. 7.1)
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔
𝑢
← 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝛾𝑤
𝑣2
← 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
2𝑔
𝑍 ← 𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
where ℎ = total head

𝑢 = pressure
𝑣 = velocity
𝑔 = acceleration due to gravity
𝛾𝑤 = unit weight of water
Note that the elevation head, 𝑍, is the vertical distance of a given point
above or below a datum plane. The pressure head is the water pressure, 𝑢, at that
point divided by the unit weight of water, 𝛾𝑤 .
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John 3:16
If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water through a

porous soil medium, the term containing the velocity head can be
neglected because the seepage velocity is small, and the total head at
any point can be adequately represented by
𝑢
ℎ = +𝑍 (eq. 7.2)
𝛾𝑤
Figure 7.1 shows the relationship among pressure, elevation,
and total heads for the flow of water through soil. Open standpipes
called piezometers are installed at points A and B. The levels to which
water rises in the piezometer tubes situated at points A and B are
known as the piezometric levels of points A and B, respectively. The
pressure head at a point is the height of the vertical column of water
in the piezometer installed at that point.
The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be given by

𝑢𝐴 𝑢𝐵
∆ℎ = ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝐵 = + 𝑍𝐴 − + 𝑍𝐵 (eq. 7.3)
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤
Hydraulic Gradient
The head loss, ∆ℎ, can be expressed in a nondimensional form as
∆ℎ
𝑖= (eq. 7.4)
𝐿
where 𝑖 = hydraulic gradient
𝐿 = distance between points A and B—that is, the length of flow
over which the loss of head occurred
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John 3:16
Velocity of Flow (Discharge Velocity), 𝒗

We take a soil sample of length L and having a cross-sectional
area of A. We subject it to some hydraulic gradient.
We also measure the output discharge of the water through this soil.
We can get the velocity of flow through soil by continuity equation as
velocity equal to discharge divided by cross-sectional area of soil.
𝑞
𝑣=
𝐴
𝑞 = quantity of water flowing through the soil in unit time
𝑞 = 𝑄/𝑡
𝑄 = output discharge of the water through this soil
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John 3:16
In general, the variation of the velocity 𝑣 with the

hydraulic gradient 𝑖 is as shown in Figure 7.2. This figure is divided into
three zones:
1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)
2. Transition zone (Zone II)
3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
When the hydraulic gradient is increased gradually, the flow remains

laminar in Zones I and II, and the velocity, 𝑣, bears a linear relationship
to the hydraulic gradient. At a higher hydraulic gradient, the flow
becomes turbulent (Zone III). When the hydraulic gradient is
decreased, laminar flow conditions exist only in Zone I.
In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces can be
considered laminar; thus,
𝑣 ∝ 𝑖 (eq. 7.5)
In fractured rock, stones, gravels, and very coarse sands,
turbulent flow conditions may exist, and eq. 7.5 may not be valid.
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John 3:16
Darcy’s Law
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation for the discharge velocity
of water through saturated soils, which may be expressed as
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 (eq. 7.6)
where 𝑣 = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in
unit time through a unit gross cross-sectional area of soil at right
angles to the direction of flow

𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity (otherwise known as the coefficient
of permeability)
This equation was based primarily on Darcy’s observations
about the flow of water through clean sands. Note that eq. 7.6 is
similar to eq. 7.5; both are valid for laminar flow conditions and
applicable for a wide range of soils.
In eq. 7.6, 𝑣 is the discharge velocity of water based on the
gross cross-sectional area of the soil. However, the actual velocity of
water (that is, the seepage velocity) through the void spaces is greater
than 𝑣. A relationship between the discharge velocity and the seepage
velocity can be derived by referring to Figure 7.3, which shows a soil of
length 𝐿 with a gross cross-sectional area 𝐴. If the quantity of water
flowing through the soil in unit time is 𝑞, then
𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑠 (eq. 7.7)
where 𝑣𝑠 = seepage velocity
𝐴𝑣 = area of void in the cross section of the specimen
However,
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 (eq. 7.8)
where 𝐴𝑠 = area of soil solids in the cross section of the specimen
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John 3:16
Combining eqs. 7.7 and 7.8 gives

𝑞 = 𝑣 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 = 𝐴𝑣 𝑣𝑠
or
𝑣 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 𝑣 𝐴𝑣 + 𝐴𝑠 𝐿 𝑣 𝑉𝑣 + 𝑉𝑠
𝑣𝑠 = = =
𝐴𝑣 𝐴𝑣 𝐿 𝑉𝑣
where 𝑉𝑣 = volume of voids in the specimen

𝑉𝑠 = volume of soil solids in the specimen
Eq. 7.9 can be written as

𝑉𝑣
+1 𝑒+1 𝑣
𝑉𝑠
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑣 𝑉𝑣 =𝑣 = (eq. 7.10)
𝑒 𝑛
𝑉𝑠
where 𝑒 = void ratio

𝑛 = porosity
Darcy’s law as defined by eq. 7.6 implies that the discharge velocity 𝑣
bears a linear relationship to the hydraulic gradient 𝑖 and passes through the
origin as shown in Figure 7.4. Hansbo (1960), however, reported the test results
for four undisturbed natural clays. On the basis of his results, a hydraulic gradient
𝑖′ (see Figure 7.4) appears to exist, at which
𝑣 = 𝑘(𝑖 − 𝑖0 ) (for 𝑖 ≥ 𝑖′) (eq. 7.11)
and
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖 𝑚 (for 𝑖 < 𝑖′) (eq. 7.12)
The preceding equation implies that for very low hydraulic gradients, the
relationship between 𝑣 and 𝑖 is nonlinear. The value of 𝑚 in Eq. (7.12) for four
Swedish clays was about 1.5. However, several other studies refute the preceding
findings. Mitchell (1976) discussed these studies in detail. Taking all points into
consideration, he concluded that Darcy’s law is valid.
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John 3:16
Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

Two standard laboratory tests are used to determine the hydraulic conductivity
of soil:
1. the constant-head test and
2. the falling-head test
Constant-head test
A typical arrangement of the constant-head permeability test is shown in Figure

7.5. In this type of laboratory setup, the water supply at the inlet is adjusted in such a
way that the difference of head between the inlet and the outlet remains constant
during the test period. After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a
graduated flask for a known duration.
The total volume of water collected may be expressed as

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣𝑡 = 𝐴 𝑘𝑖 𝑡 (eq. 7.16)
where 𝑄 = volume of water collected

𝐴 = area of cross section of the soil specimen
𝑡 = duration of water collection
And because
ℎ
𝑖=𝐿 (eq. 7.17)
where 𝐿 = length of the specimen, eq. 7.17 can be substituted into eq. 7.16 to yield
ℎ
𝑄 = 𝐴 𝑘𝐿 𝑡 (eq. 7.18)
or
𝑄𝐿
𝑘 = 𝐴ℎ𝑡 (eq. 7.19)
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John 3:16
Figure 7.6 shows a photograph of a constant-head test in

progress in the laboratory for test on a granular soil.
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John 3:16
Falling-head test
A typical arrangement of the falling-head permeability test is shown in
Figure 7.7. Water from a standpipe flows through the soil. The initial head
difference ℎ1 at time 𝑡 = 0 is recorded, and water is allowed to flow through the
soil specimen such that the final head difference at time 𝑡 = 𝑡2 is ℎ2 .
ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑞 = 𝑘 𝐴 = −𝑎 (eq. 7.20)
𝐿 𝑑𝑡
where 𝑞 = flow rate

𝑎 = cross-sectional area of the standpipe
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the soil specimen
Rearrangement of eq. 7.20 gives
𝑎𝐿 𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑡 = − (eq. 7.21)
𝐴𝑘 ℎ
Integration of the left side of eq. 7.21 with limits of time from 0 to 𝑡 and the right
side with limits of head difference from ℎ1 to ℎ2 gives
𝑡
𝑎𝐿 ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
න 𝑑𝑡 = න −
0 𝐴𝑘 ℎ1 ℎ
𝑎𝐿
𝑡= −ln ℎ2 + ln ℎ1
𝐴𝑘
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑡= ln
𝐴𝑘 ℎ2
or
𝑎𝐿 ℎ
𝑘 = ln 1 (eq. 7.22)
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
13
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Problem:
The results of a constant-head Since the temperature of water is
permeability test for a fine sand 24℃, temperature correction is
sample having a diameter of 150 needed.
mm and a length of 300 mm are as Solution 1: From table 7.2,
follows:
• Constant head difference = 500
mm
• Time of collection of water = 5
min
• Volume of water collected = 350
𝑐𝑚3
• Temperature of water = 24℃ 𝜂𝑇℃
= 0.910
𝜂20℃
Determine the hydraulic
conductivity for the soil at 20℃.
Solution 2: Formula
𝜂𝑇℃
Given: 𝜂20℃
= 2.42 − 0.475 ln 𝑇
𝑄 = 350 𝑐𝑚3 𝜂𝑇℃
= 2.42 − 0.475 ln(24)
𝜂20℃
𝐿 = 300 𝑚𝑚 𝜂𝑇℃
= 0.910
𝑑 = 150 𝑚𝑚 𝜂20℃
ℎ = 500 𝑚𝑚
𝜂𝑇℃
𝑡 = 5 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘20℃ = 𝑘24℃
𝜂20℃
𝑇 = 24℃ 𝑘20℃ =
0.910 (0.0039612 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐)
Solution: 𝑘20℃ = 0.0036047 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑄𝐿
𝑘 = 𝐴ℎ𝑡
10 𝑚𝑚 3
350 𝑐𝑚3 (300 𝑚𝑚)
1 𝑐𝑚
𝑘=𝜋 2 (500 𝑚𝑚)(5 𝑚𝑖𝑛) 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
4
150 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘 = 0.039612 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘 = 0.0039612 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 (k at 24℃)
14
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. Problem: 3. Problem:
For a falling-head permeability test, For a falling-head permeability
the following values are given: test, the following are given:
• Length of specimen = 200 mm length of specimen = 15 in., area
of specimen = 3 𝑖𝑛2 , and k =
• Area of soil specimen = 1000 0.0688 in./min. What should be
𝑚𝑚2 the area of the standpipe for the
• Area of standpipe = 40 𝑚𝑚2 head to drop from 25 to 12 in. in 8
min.?
• At time t = 0, the head
difference is 500 mm
• At time t = 180 sec, the head Given:
difference is 300 mm 𝐿 = 15 𝑖𝑛
Determine the hydraulic 𝐴 = 3 𝑖𝑛2
conductivity of the soil in cm/sec
𝑘 = 0.0688 𝑖𝑛Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛
ℎ1 = 25 𝑖𝑛
Given:
ℎ2 = 12 𝑖𝑛
𝐿 = 200 𝑚𝑚
𝑡 = 8 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑎 = 40 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴 = 1000 𝑚𝑚2
Find:
𝑡 = 180 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑎
ℎ1 = 500 𝑚𝑚
ℎ2 = 300 𝑚𝑚
Solution:
𝑎𝐿 ℎ1
𝑘= ln
Solution: 𝐴𝑡 ℎ2
𝑘=
𝑎𝐿
ln
ℎ1 0.0688 𝑖𝑛Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝐴𝑡 ℎ2 𝑎 (15 𝑖𝑛) 25 𝑖𝑛
2 ln
40 𝑚𝑚2 (200 𝑚𝑚) 500 𝑚𝑚 3 𝑖𝑛 (8 𝑚𝑖𝑛) 12 𝑖𝑛
𝑘 = 1000 𝑚𝑚2 (180 𝑠𝑒𝑐) ln 𝑎 = 0.15 𝑖𝑛2
300 𝑚𝑚
𝑘 = 0.022703 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘 = 0.0022703 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
15
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
A permeable soil layer is underlain by
The hydraulic conductivity of a an impervious layer, as shown in
clayey soil is 3 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. The Figure 7.8a. With 𝑘 = 5.3 ×
dynamic viscosity of water at 25℃ 10−5 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 for the permeable layer,
calculate the rate of seepage through
is 0.0911 × 10−4 𝑔 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2 . it in 𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟/𝑚 width if 𝐻 = 3 𝑚 and
Calculate the absolute permeability 𝛼 = 8°.
𝐾ത of the soil.
Given:
𝑘 = 3 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝜂 = 0.0911 × 10−4 𝑔 ∙ 𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2
Solution: Solution:
𝛾
𝑘 = 𝑤 𝐾ത 𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝜂
3 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 =
1 𝑔 Τ𝑐𝑚3
𝐾ത
0.0911×10−4 𝑔∙𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑐𝑚2
𝐾ത = 2.733 × 10−12 𝑐𝑚2
∆ℎ
𝑖=
𝐿
∆ℎ
From: tan 𝛼 =
𝑆
𝑆
cos 𝛼 =
𝐿
𝑆 tan 𝛼
𝑖= 𝑆
cos𝛼𝛼
sin
cos 𝛼
𝑖= 1
cos 𝛼
𝑖 = sin 𝛼
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤
𝑙
From: cos 𝛼 =
𝐻
𝐴 = 3 cos 𝛼 (1 𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ)
16
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
6. Problem:
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Find the flow rate in 𝑚3 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 /𝑚
𝑞 = 5.3 × length (at right angles to the cross
10−5 𝑚Τ𝑠 sin 8° 3 cos 8° (1 𝑚) section shown) through the
permeable soil layer shown in Figure
𝑞 = 2.1913 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 7.9 given 𝐻 = 8 𝑚, 𝐻1 = 3 𝑚, ℎ =
4 𝑚, 𝑆 = 50 𝑚, 𝛼 = 9°, and 𝑘 =
3600 𝑠 0.08 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑞 = 2.1913 × 10−5 𝑚3 Τ𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑞 = 0.078887 𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟 /𝑚
(per meter means per 1 meter
width)
Solution:
𝑆
cos 𝛼 =
𝐿
𝑆
𝐿=
cos 𝛼
ℎ
𝑖=
𝐿
ℎ
𝑖= 𝑆
cos 𝛼
𝑙
cos 𝛼 =
𝐻1
𝑙 = 𝐻1 cos 𝛼
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤
𝐴 = 𝐻1 cos 𝛼 (1𝑚)
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
ℎ
𝑞=𝑘 𝑆 𝐻1 cos 𝛼 (1𝑚)
cos 𝛼
𝑞 4=𝑚0.0008 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
50 𝑚 3𝑚 cos 9° (1𝑚)
cos 9°
𝑞 = 1.873 × 10−4 𝑚3 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚
(per meter means per 1 meter width)
17
John 3:16
Additional: Empirical Relations

for Hydraulic Conductivity
For Granular Soil For Cohesive Soil
Hazen Formula Samarasinghe et al. Formula (For

𝑘 = 𝑐𝐷10 2 normally consolidated clay)

where 𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity 𝑒𝑛
(𝑐𝑚Τsec) 𝑘=𝐶
1+𝑒
𝑐 = constant that varies where 𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity
from 0.1 to 1.5
𝑒 = void ratio
𝐷10 = the effective size in
mm 𝐶, 𝑛 = constants that are
determined experimentally
Casagrande Formula
𝑘 = 1.4𝑒 2 𝑘0.85
where 𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity
𝑒 = void ratio
𝑘0.85 = corresponding
value at a void ratio of 0.85
Kozeny-Carman Formula
𝑒3
𝑘∝
1 + 3𝑒
𝑒
𝑘=𝐶
1+𝑒
where 𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity
𝑒 = void ratio
𝐶 = proportionality
constant
18
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
For a normally consolidated clay soil,
The hydraulic conductivity of a sand the following values are given:
at a void ratio of 0.8 is 0.047
cm/sec. Estimate its hydraulic
conductivity at a void ratio of 0.5.
a. Use Kozeny-Carman formula
b. Use Casagrande formula Estimate the hydraulic conductivity of
the clay at a void ratio of 0.75. Use
Samarasinghe et al. Formula.
Given:
𝑘1 = 0.047 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 Given:

𝑒1 = 0.8 𝑘1 = 0.302 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘2 = 0.12 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑒2 = 0.5
𝑒1 = 1.1
𝑒2 = 0.9
Solution:
a. 𝑘2 using Kozeny-Carman formula Find:
𝑒3 𝑘 𝑎𝑡 𝑒 = 0.75
Since 𝑘 ∝ 1+𝑒
𝑒1 3
𝑘1 1+𝑒1 Solution:
= 𝑒2 3
𝑒𝑛
𝑘2 From 𝑘 = 𝐶 1+𝑒
1+𝑒2
0.83 Solve n 𝑛
0.047 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 1+0.8 𝑒1
= 0.53
𝑘1 1+𝑒1
𝑘2 = 𝑒2 𝑛
1+0.5 𝑘2
1+𝑒2
1.1𝑛
𝑘2 = 0.014 cm/sec 0.302 ×10−7𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 1+1.1
−7 = 0.9𝑛
0.12 ×10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1+0.9
b. 𝑘2 using Casagrande formula 𝑛 = 5.1
𝑘 = 1.4𝑒 2 𝑘0.85
Solve C
𝑒𝑛
𝑘 = 𝐶 1+𝑒
𝑘1 = 1.4𝑒1 2 𝑘0.85 1.15.1
0.302 × 10−7 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝐶 1+1.1
0.047 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 1.4(0.8)2 𝑘0.85
𝐶 = 3.90 × 10−8
𝑘0.85 = 0.0525
At e = 0.75, the hydraulic conductivity is
2 𝑒𝑛
𝑘2 = 1.4 0.5 (0.0525) 𝑘 = 𝐶 1+𝑒
𝑘2 = 0.018 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 0.755.1
𝑘 = (3.90 × 10−8 ) 1+0.75
𝑘 = 5.14 × 10−9 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
19
John 3:16
Directional Variation of Permeability

Most soils are not isotropic with respect to permeability. In a
given soil deposit, the magnitude of 𝑘 changes with respect to the
direction of flow. Figure 7.16 shows a soil layer through which water
flows in a direction inclined at an angle 𝛼 with the vertical. Let the
hydraulic conductivity in the vertical (𝛼 = 0) and horizontal (𝛼 = 90°)
directions be 𝑘𝑉 and 𝑘𝐻 , respectively. The magnitudes of 𝑘𝑉 and 𝑘𝐻 in

a given soil depend on several factors, including the method of
deposition in the field.
There are several published results for fine-grained soils that

show that the ratio of 𝑘𝐻 Τ𝑘𝑉 varies over a wide range. Table 7.3
provides a summary of some of those studies.
20
John 3:16
Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

In a stratified soil deposit where the hydraulic conductivity for flow in a
given direction changes from layer to layer, an equivalent hydraulic conductivity
can be computed to simplify calculations. The following derivations relate to the
equivalent hydraulic conductivities for flow in vertical and horizontal directions
through multilayered soils with horizontal stratification.
Figure 7.17 shows 𝑛 layers of soil with flow in the horizontal direction. Let
us consider a cross section of unit length passing through the n layer and
perpendicular to the direction of flow.
The total flow through the cross section in unit time can be written as
𝑞 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑛
From: 𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴
𝑞 = 𝑣𝐻(1)
𝑞 = 𝑣1 𝐻1 1 + 𝑣2 𝐻2 1 + 𝑣3 𝐻3 1 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 𝐻𝑛 1
where 𝑣 = average discharge velocity

𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ,⋯, 𝑣𝑛 = discharge velocities of flow in layers denoted by
the subscripts
If 𝑘𝐻1 , 𝑘𝐻2 , 𝑘𝐻3 ,⋯, 𝑘𝐻𝑛 are the hydraulic conductivities of the individual
layers in the horizontal direction and 𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) is the equivalent hydraulic
conductivity in the horizontal direction, then, from Darcy’s law,
𝑣𝐻 1 = 𝑣1 𝐻1 1 + 𝑣2 𝐻2 1 + 𝑣3 𝐻3 1 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 𝐻𝑛 1
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 𝑖𝑒𝑞 𝐻 = 𝑘𝐻1 𝑖1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝑖2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝑖3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑛
Note: 𝑖𝑒𝑞 = 𝑖1 = 𝑖2 = 𝑖3 = ⋯ = 𝑖𝑛
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 𝐻 = 𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛

1
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = 𝑘 𝐻 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛
𝐻 𝐻1 1
21
John 3:16
Figure 7.18 shows 𝑛 layers of soil with flow in the vertical

direction. In this case, the velocity of flow through all the layers is the
same.
𝑞 = 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 𝑞3 = ⋯ = 𝑞𝑛
𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣1 𝐴1 = 𝑣2 𝐴2 = 𝑣3 𝐴3 = ⋯ = 𝑣𝑛 𝐴𝑛
Note: 𝐴 = 𝐴1 = 𝐴2 = 𝐴3 = ⋯ = 𝐴𝑛
Therefore, 𝑣 = 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣3 = ⋯ = 𝑣𝑛
However, the total head loss, ℎ, is equal to the sum of the head
losses in all layers. Thus,
ℎ = ℎ1 + ℎ2 + ℎ3 + ⋯ + ℎ𝑛
ℎ
From: 𝑖 =
𝐿
𝑖𝑒𝑞 𝐻 = 𝑖1 𝐻1 + 𝑖2 𝐻2 + 𝑖3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝑖𝑛 𝐻𝑛
From: 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
𝑣 𝑣1 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣𝑛
𝐻= 𝐻1 + 2 𝐻2 + 3 𝐻3 + ⋯+ 𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) 𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛 𝑛
𝐻 𝐻1 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
= + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) 𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛
𝐻
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) =
𝐻1 𝐻 𝐻 𝐻
+ 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3 𝑘𝑉𝑛
22
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Problem:
A layered soil is shown in Figure For 𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) :
7.20. Given: 𝐻
• 𝐻1 = 1 𝑚 𝑘1 = 𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3
+ +
𝑘𝑉1 𝑘𝑉2 𝑘𝑉3
−4
10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
• 𝐻2 = 1.5 𝑚 𝑘2 = 1𝑚+1.5𝑚+2𝑚
−2
3.2 × 10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 1𝑚 1.5 𝑚 2𝑚
−4 𝑐𝑚 + −2 𝑐𝑚 +
Τ𝑠 3.2×10 Τ𝑠 4.1×10−5 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠
• 𝐻3 = 2 𝑚 𝑘3 = 10
−5
4.1 × 10 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) = 7.6495 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚Τ
𝑠
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 0.010707 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠

=
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) 7.6495×10−5 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
= 139.97 ≈ 140
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞)
Estimate the ratio of equivalent

hydraulic conductivity
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞)
Solution:
For 𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) :
1
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = 𝐻 ൫𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 +
𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 ൯
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) =
1
ሾ10−4 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 1 𝑚 +
(1𝑚+1.5𝑚+2𝑚)
3.2 × 10−2 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 (1.5 𝑚) +
4.1 × 10−5 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 (2 𝑚)ሿ
𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = 0.010707 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠
23
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. Problem:
The figure shows a cross section b. head loss at C if the flow is
through the strata underlying a site of 2.13 𝑚𝑚3 Τ𝑠.
which the permeability properties are
of importance. Assume the coefficient
of permeability in the horizontal and
vertical directions to be the same in
each stratum. (each layer is
hydraulically isotropic).
𝑞 = 2.13 𝑚𝑚3 Τ𝑠
a. Compute the equivalent Note: 𝑞 = 𝑞𝐴 = 𝑞𝐵 = 𝑞𝐶 = 𝑞𝐷

permeability coefficient for
vertical flow. Since2 𝐴 is not given, assume 𝐴 =
1𝑚
b. Compute the head loss at C if the 𝑞 = 𝑞𝐶
flow is 2.13 𝑚𝑚3 Τ𝑠.
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐶 𝑖𝐶 𝐴
c. Compute the equivalent 1𝑚 3
permeability coefficient for 2.13 𝑚𝑚3 Τ𝑠 = 32 ×
1000
1 𝑚 𝑚𝑚 ℎ𝐶
horizontal flow. −7
10 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑠 (1 𝑚2 )
1000 𝑚𝑚 1.2 𝑚
ℎ𝐶 = 0.799 𝑚 (𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚2 )
Solution:
a. equivalent permeability coefficient c. equivalent permeability coefficient
for vertical flow for horizontal flow
𝐻 1
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) = 𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3 𝐻4 𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = ൫𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 +
+ + + 𝐻
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑘4 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 + 𝑘𝐻4 𝐻4 ൯
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) = 1
8.7 𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = ሾ18 × 10−4 3 + 61 ×
8.7
3
+
1.5
+
1.2
+
3 10−5
−10
1.5 + 32 × 10−7 1.2 + 52 ×
18×10 −4 61×10 −5 32×10 −7 52×10−10 10 (3)ሿ
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) = 1.507 × 10−8 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑠 𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) = 7.263 × 10−4 𝑚𝑚Τ𝑠
24
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
3. Problem:
ℎ
Figure 7.21 shows three layers of soil 𝑖=𝐿
in a tube that is 100 mm x 100 mm in 300 𝑚𝑚
cross section. Water is supplied to 𝑖 = 450 𝑚𝑚
maintain a constant-head difference of 2
300 mm across the sample. The 𝑖=3
hydraulic conductivities of the soils in
the direction of flow through them are
as follows: 𝐴 = 100𝑚𝑚 𝑥 100 𝑚𝑚
Soil 𝒌 (𝒄𝒎Τ𝒔) 𝐴 = 10000 𝑚𝑚2
2 1 𝑐𝑚 2
A 10 −2 𝐴 = 10000 𝑚𝑚 10 𝑚𝑚
B 3 × 10−3 𝐴 = 100 𝑐𝑚2

C 4.9 × 10−4
𝑞 = (1.2125 2×
10−3 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠) 100 𝑐𝑚2
3
𝑞 = 0.080833 𝑐𝑚3 Τ𝑠
3600 𝑠
𝑞 = 0.080833 𝑐𝑚3 Τ𝑠 1 ℎ𝑟
𝑞 = 291 𝑐𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟
b. magnitudes of ℎ𝐴 and ℎ𝐵 .
∆ℎ𝐴
∆ℎ𝐵
a. Find3 the rate of water supply in
𝑐𝑚 Τℎ𝑟.
b. Determine the magnitudes of ℎ𝐴
and ℎ𝐵 .
Solution:
a. rate of water supply in 𝑐𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟.
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴 For ℎ𝐴 :
The loss of head during flow through
𝐻 Soil A can be calculated as
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) = 𝐻1 𝐻 𝐻
+ 2+ 3 𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 𝑖𝐴 𝐴
𝑘1 𝑘 2 𝑘 3
150+150+150 ∆ℎ
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) = 150 150 150 𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴 𝐿 𝐴 𝐴
+ + 𝐴
10−2 3×10−3 4.9×10−4
𝑘𝑉(𝑒𝑞) = 1.2125 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 0.080833 𝑐𝑚3∆ℎ Τ𝑠 =
−2
10 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 150 𝑚𝑚 𝐴
(100 𝑐𝑚2 )
∆ℎ𝐴 = 12.125 𝑚𝑚
25
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Hence,
ℎ𝐴 = 300 − 12.125
ℎ𝐴 = 287.88 𝑚𝑚
For ℎ𝐵 :
∆ℎ𝐵
𝑞 = 𝑘𝐵 𝐴
𝐿𝐵
0.080833 𝑐𝑚3 Τ𝑠 = 3 ×
∆ℎ𝐵
10−3 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 150 𝑚𝑚 (100 𝑐𝑚2 )
∆ℎ𝐵 = 40.417 𝑚𝑚
Hence,
ℎ𝐵 = 300 − 12.125 − 40.417
ℎ𝐵 = 247.46 𝑚𝑚
Check:
ℎ𝐵 = ∆ℎ𝐶 (head loss during flow
through C)
0.080833 𝑐𝑚3 Τ𝑠 = 4.9 ×
∆ℎ𝐶
10−4 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠 150 𝑚𝑚 100 𝑐𝑚2
∆ℎ𝐶 = 247.45 𝑚𝑚
26
John 3:16
Permeability Test in the Field

There are numerous methods through which we can measure the
permeability of a soil in the field or of a representative sample in the
laboratory.
Permeability of the soil in its natural deposits is highly influenced by
its natural structural factors such as non-homogeneity and stratification. So it
is not possible to take out a soil sample which may represent the true in-situ
structure of soil to be used in laboratory. Also for coarse grained soils, in
which permeability values are very significant, it is very difficult to obtain

undisturbed sample.
So to deal with such problems and to obtain a near accurate value of

permeability we perform field tests on soil mass.
Usually pumping out test is conducted for the purpose. We perform
these tests for large engineering projects because these tests are very
expensive.
In the field, the average hydraulic conductivity of a soil deposit in the
direction of flow can be determined by performing pumping tests from wells.
The ground water from the aquifer can be easily pumped out.
An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock,
rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand,
or silt). Groundwater from aquifers can be extracted using a water well.
27
John 3:16
In the nature we usually encounter two kinds of aquifers.

1. Unconfined Aquifer
2. Confined Aquifer
Transmissivity or Transmissibility, 𝑻
The ability of an aquifer to transmit water through its entire
thickness.
𝑇 = 𝑘𝐻
𝑘 = hydraulic conductivity
𝐻 = thickness of aquifer
Time 𝑡 required for water to travel a distance 𝑑 through aquifer:

𝑑
𝑡=
𝑣𝑠
𝑣𝑠 = seepage velocity
28
John 3:16
Pumping from an unconfined aquifer

Figure 7.22 shows a case where the top permeable layer, whose hydraulic
conductivity has to be determined, is unconfined and underlain by an impermeable
layer.
During the test, water is pumped out at a constant rate from a test well that has
a perforated casing. Several observation wells at various radial distances are made
around the test well. Continuous observations of the water level in the test well and in
the observation wells are made after the start of pumping, until a steady state is
reached. The steady state is established when the water level in the test and
observation wells becomes constant. The expression for the rate of flow of groundwater
into the well, which is equal to the rate of discharge from pumping, can be written as
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
𝑑ℎ
𝑞=𝑘 2𝜋𝑟ℎ
𝑑𝑟
or
𝑟1 ℎ1
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑘
න = න ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑟2 𝑟 𝑞 ℎ2
Thus,
2𝜋𝑘 1
ln 𝑟1 − ln 𝑟2 = (ℎ1 2 −ℎ2 2 )
𝑞 2
𝑟1 𝜋𝑘
ln = ℎ1 2 − ℎ2 2
𝑟2 𝑞
𝑟1
𝑞 ln
𝑟2
𝑘=
𝜋 ℎ1 − ℎ2 2
2
From field measurements, if 𝑞, 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , ℎ1 , and ℎ2 are known, the hydraulic

conductivity can be calculated from the simple relationship as shown in the equation.
29
John 3:16
Pumping from a confined aquifer

The average hydraulic conductivity for a confined aquifer can also be
determined by conducting a pumping test from a well with a perforated
casing that penetrates the full depth of the aquifer and by observing the
piezometric level in a number of observation wells at various radial distances
(Figure 7.24). Pumping is continued at a uniform rate q until a steady state is
reached.
Because water can enter the test well only from the aquifer of
thickness 𝐻, the steady state of discharge is
𝑑ℎ
𝑞=𝑘 2𝜋𝑟𝐻
𝑑𝑟
or
𝑟1 ℎ1
𝑑𝑟 2𝜋𝑘𝐻
න =න 𝑑ℎ
𝑟2 𝑟 ℎ2 𝑞
Thus,
2𝜋𝑘𝐻
ln 𝑟1 − ln 𝑟2 = ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑞
𝑟1 2𝜋𝑘𝐻
ln = ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑟2 𝑞
𝑟
𝑞 ln 𝑟1
2
𝑘=
2𝜋𝐻 ℎ1 − ℎ2
30
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Problem:
A certain 20 m. thick sandy aquifer has a c. time required for water to travel
transmissivity of 0.12 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 and a void
ratio of 0.91. Ground water is flowing 1 km through this aquifer in days
through this aquifer with a hydraulic 𝑑
gradient of 0.0065. 𝑡=𝑣
a. Compute the hydraulic conductivity 𝑠
of the sand aquifer. 1000 𝑚
𝑡 = 8.1933×10−5 𝑚/𝑠
b. Compute the seepage velocity.
c. How much time would be required 𝑡 = 12205094.41 𝑠
for water to travel 1 km through this
aquifer? 𝑡=
1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦
12205094.41 𝑠 3600 𝑠 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠
Given:
𝐻 = 20 m 𝑡 = 141.26 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑇 = 0.12 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑒 = 0.91
𝑖 = 0.0065
Solution:
a. hydraulic conductivity
𝑇 = 𝑘𝐻
0.12 𝑚2 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 𝑘(20 𝑚)
𝑘 = 6 × 10−3 = 0.006 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
b. seepage velocity
𝑣
𝑣𝑠 = 𝑛
𝑣 = 𝑖𝑘
𝑣 = 0.0065(0.006 𝑚Τ𝑠)
𝑣 = 3.9 × 10−5 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑒
𝑛 = 1+𝑒
0.91
𝑛 = 1+0.91
𝑛 = 0.476
3.9×10−5 𝑚Τ𝑠
𝑣𝑠 = 0.476
𝑣𝑠 = 8.1933 × 10−5 𝑚/𝑠
31
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
2. Problem:
A 300 mm diameter test well penetrates 27 m.
below the static water table. After 24 hours of b. coefficient of permeability of the
pumping at 69 liters/sec, the water level in an aquifer in m/day
observation well at a distance of 95 m from the test
well is lowered 0.5 m and the other observation well For unconfined aquifer:
at a distance of 35 m from the test well, the 𝑟
drawdown is 1.1 m. 𝑞 ln 1
𝑟2
What is the rate of flow in 𝑚3 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦? 𝑘=
a. 𝜋 ℎ1 −ℎ2 2
2
b. Compute the coefficient of permeability of the
aquifer in m/day
ℎ1 = 27 − 0.5 = 26.5 𝑚
ℎ2 = 27 − 1.1 = 25.9 𝑚
95 𝑚
5961.6 𝑚3 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦 ln
35 𝑚
𝑘=
𝜋 (26.5𝑚)2 −(25.9𝑚)2
𝑘 = 60.269 𝑚/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Given:
𝐻 = 27 m
𝑞 = 69 liters/sec
𝑟1 = 95 𝑚
𝑟2 = 35 𝑚
Solution:
a. rate of flow in 𝑚3 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑞 = 69 liters/sec
Note: 1 𝑚𝐿 = 1 𝑐𝑚3
𝑞= 3 3600 𝑠
1000 𝑚𝐿 1 𝑐𝑚3 1𝑚 24 ℎ𝑟𝑠
69 𝐿Τ𝑠
1𝐿 1 𝑚𝐿 100 𝑐𝑚 1 ℎ𝑟 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑞 = 5961.6 𝑚3 Τ𝑑𝑎𝑦
32
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
A pumping test from a confined A well is constructed to pump water
aquifer yielded the following results: from a confined aquifer. Two
𝑞 = 0.303 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛, ℎ1 = 2.44 𝑚, observation wells are constructed at
ℎ2 = 1.52 𝑚, 𝑟1 = 18.3 𝑚, 𝑟2 = distances of 100 m and 1000 m
9.15 𝑚 and 𝐻 = 3.05 𝑚. Refer to the respectively. Water is pump from the
figure and determine the magnitude pumping well at a rate of
of 𝑘 of the permeable layer in cm/sec. 0.2 𝑚3 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛. At steady state, the
draw down is observed as 2m and
8m respectively in the farthest and
the nearest observation wells.
Diameter of the test well is 1m. The
thickness of the aquifer is 20 m.
a. Determine the hydraulic

conductivity in cm/sec.
b. Determine
2
the transmissivity in
𝑐𝑚 𝑠. Τ
c. Determine the draw down in the
test well.
Given:
𝑟1 = 1000 𝑚
𝑟2 = 100 𝑚
Given: 𝑞 = 0.2 𝑚3 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑞 = 0.303 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐻 = 20 𝑚
ℎ1 = 2.44 𝑚
ℎ2 = 1.52 𝑚 Solution:
𝑟1 = 18.3 𝑚
𝑟2 = 9.15 𝑚
𝐻 = 3.05 𝑚
Solution:
For confined aquifer: 𝑦
𝑟
𝑞 ln 1
𝑟2
𝑘=
2𝜋𝐻 ℎ1 −ℎ2 18.3 𝑚
0.303 𝑚3 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 ln
9.15 𝑚
𝑘=
2𝜋(3.05 𝑚) 2.44 𝑚−1.52 𝑚
𝑘 = 0.011912 𝑚Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘= 100 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
0.011912 𝑚Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 a. hydraulic conductivity in cm/sec
1𝑚 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑟
𝑘 = 0.019853 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑞 ln 1
𝑟2
𝑘=
2𝜋𝐻 ℎ1 −ℎ2
33
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
ℎ1 = 𝑦 − 2
ℎ2 = 𝑦 − 8
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 𝑦 − 2 − 𝑦 − 8
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 6
1000 𝑚
0.2 𝑚3 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 ln
100 𝑚
𝑘=
2𝜋(20 𝑚) 6 𝑚
𝑘= 6.108 × 10−4 𝑚Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑘 = 6.108 × 100 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
10−4 𝑚Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛
1𝑚 60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑘 = 1.018 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
b. transmissivity in 𝑐𝑚2 Τ𝑠
𝑇 = 𝑘𝐻
𝑇 = 1.018 × 100 𝑐𝑚
10−3 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐 20 𝑚
1𝑚
2
𝑇 = 2.036 𝑐𝑚 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
c. draw down in the test well

𝑆 = draw down in the test well
𝑟
𝑞 ln 1
𝑟2
𝑘=
2𝜋𝐻 ℎ1 −ℎ2
𝑟1 = 100 𝑚
𝑟2 = 0.5 𝑚
ℎ1 = 𝑦 − 8
ℎ2 = 𝑦 − 𝑆
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 𝑦 − 8 − 𝑦 − 𝑆
ℎ1 − ℎ2 = 𝑆 − 8
6.108
3
× 10−4100𝑚Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
0.2 𝑚 Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛 ln
0.5
2𝜋 20 𝑚)(𝑆−8𝑚
𝑆 = 21.806 𝑚
34
ASSESSMENT TASK
CM Assessment Task No. 5

Write the problem and the given illustrations. Show your complete
solution and box your final answer.
1. The coefficient of permeability 3. Seepage is occurring through the

of a sand at a void ratio of 0.62 is sandy layer underneath the
0.03 cm/sec. Estimate the concrete dam as shown in Figure
coefficient of permeability at a 7.30.
void ratio of 0.48. Given: upstream water level, 𝐻1 =

a. Using Casagrande equation 16 𝑚; downstream water level,
b. Using Kozeny-Carman equation 𝐻2 = 2.3 𝑚; thickness of the sandy
layer, 𝐻3 = 0.75 𝑚; hydraulic
c. Find the difference in the rate conductivity of the sandy layer,
of flow using the results of 𝑘 = 0.009 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐; void ratio of
part a and b if 𝑖 = 0.70 and 𝐴 = sand, 𝑒 = 0.8; and 𝐿 = 45 𝑚.
0.6 𝑚2 . Determine:
a. Rate of seepage per unit
2. A permeable soil layer is length of the dam (in
underlain by an impervious layer as 𝑚3 Τℎ𝑟/𝑚)
shown in Figure 7.29. Knowing that b. Seepage velocity
𝑘 = 6 × 10−3 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 for the
permeable layer, calculate the rate c. Quantity of seepage per day if
of seepage through this layer in the dam is 350 m long
𝑚3
/𝑚 width. Given: 𝐻 = 5.4 𝑚
ℎ𝑟
and 𝛼 = 7°.
35
ASSESSMENT TASK
4. A pervious soil layer is sandwiched 7. For a normally consolidated clay,

between two impervious layers as
shown in 3Figure 7.31. Find the rate of the following values are given.
flow in 𝑚 Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚 (at right angles to
the cross section) through the pervious 𝒆 𝒌 (𝒄𝒎Τ𝒔𝒆𝒄)
soil layer. Given: 𝐻 = 3.5 𝑚, 𝐻1 = 0.78 0.45 × 10−6
1.75 𝑚, ℎ = 2.5 𝑚, 𝑆 = 28 𝑚, 𝛼 = 12°,
and 𝑘 = 0.055 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐. 1.1 0.88 × 10−6
Estimate 𝑘 at a void ratio of 0.97.

Use Samarasinghe et al. Formula.
8. A layered soil is shown in Figure

7.33. Given:
• 𝐻1 = 1.5 𝑚 𝑘1 = 9 ×
−4
10 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐
• 𝐻2 = 2.5 𝑚 𝑘2 = 7.8 ×
−3
• 𝐻3 = 3.5 𝑚 𝑘3 = 4.5 ×
−5
5. In a constant-head permeability test,
the length of the specimen is 200 mm Estimate the ratio of equivalent
and the cross sectional area is 𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞)
78.5 𝑐𝑚2 . If 𝑘 = 2.1 × 10−2 3𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠𝑒𝑐, permeability, 𝑘 .
and a rate of flow of 130 𝑐𝑚 /𝑚𝑖𝑛 has 𝑉(𝑒𝑞)
to be maintained during the test, what
should be the head difference across
the specimen?
6. The following data are for a falling-

head permeability test:
• Length of the soil sample = 400 mm
• Area of the soil sample = 7854 𝑚𝑚2
• Diameter of the standpipe = 11 mm
• At time 𝑡 = 0, head difference = 450
mm
• At time 𝑡 = 8 𝑚𝑖𝑛, head difference
= 200 mm
If the test was conducted at
20℃ at which 𝛾𝑤−3= 9.789 2𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 and
𝜂 = 1.005 × 10 𝑁 ∙ 𝑠/𝑚 ,
a. Determine the absolute
permeability of the soil (cm/sec).
b. What was the head difference at t
= 4 min?
36
REFERENCES
Das, B. M. (2014). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering,

Eighth Edition, SI. Stamford, USA: Cengage Learning.
Besavilla V., Geotechnical Engineering (25th Edition)
http://www.elementaryengineeringlibrary.com/civil-
engineering/soil-mechanics/soil-permeability
https://elementaryengineeringlibrary.com/civil-
engineering/soil-mechanics/constant-head-permeability-test
https://elementaryengineeringlibrary.com/civil-
engineering/soil-mechanics/unconfined-aquifer-permeability-
of-soil-field-test
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquifer
37

Soil Permeability: Calculating Hydraulic Conductivity

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Soil Permeability: Calculating Hydraulic Conductivity

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#5A GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1

FLEX Course Material

Elaborate the theoretical

Marvin M. Bartido, RCE

1ST TERM AY 2021-2022

The hydraulic conductivity of a soil is also related to the

Equation 7.13 showed that hydraulic conductivity is a function

where ℎ = total head

If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of water through a

The loss of head between two points, A and B, can be given by

Velocity of Flow (Discharge Velocity), 𝒗

In general, the variation of the velocity 𝑣 with the

3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)

When the hydraulic gradient is increased gradually, the flow remains

angles to the direction of flow

Combining eqs. 7.7 and 7.8 gives

where 𝑉𝑣 = volume of voids in the specimen

𝑉𝑠 = volume of soil solids in the specimen

Eq. 7.9 can be written as

where 𝑒 = void ratio

Laboratory Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity

A typical arrangement of the constant-head permeability test is shown in Figure

The total volume of water collected may be expressed as

where 𝑄 = volume of water collected

Figure 7.6 shows a photograph of a constant-head test in

where 𝑞 = flow rate

Additional: Empirical Relations

For Granular Soil For Cohesive Soil

Hazen Formula Samarasinghe et al. Formula (For

𝑘 = 𝑐𝐷10 2 normally consolidated clay)

𝑘1 = 0.047 𝑐𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 Given:

Directional Variation of Permeability

directions be 𝑘𝑉 and 𝑘𝐻 , respectively. The magnitudes of 𝑘𝑉 and 𝑘𝐻 in

There are several published results for fine-grained soils that

Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity in Stratified Soil

where 𝑣 = average discharge velocity

𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 𝐻 = 𝑘𝐻1 𝐻1 + 𝑘𝐻2 𝐻2 + 𝑘𝐻3 𝐻3 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝐻𝑛 𝐻𝑛

Figure 7.18 shows 𝑛 layers of soil with flow in the vertical

𝑘𝐻(𝑒𝑞) 0.010707 𝑐𝑚Τ𝑠

Estimate the ratio of equivalent

a. Compute the equivalent Note: 𝑞 = 𝑞𝐴 = 𝑞𝐵 = 𝑞𝐶 = 𝑞𝐷

B 3 × 10−3 𝐴 = 100 𝑐𝑚2

Permeability Test in the Field

which permeability values are very significant, it is very difficult to obtain

So to deal with such problems and to obtain a near accurate value of

In the nature we usually encounter two kinds of aquifers.

Time 𝑡 required for water to travel a distance 𝑑 through aquifer:

Pumping from an unconfined aquifer

From field measurements, if 𝑞, 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , ℎ1 , and ℎ2 are known, the hydraulic

Pumping from a confined aquifer

a. Determine the hydraulic

c. draw down in the test well

CM Assessment Task No. 5

1. The coefficient of permeability 3. Seepage is occurring through the

void ratio of 0.48. Given: upstream water level, 𝐻1 =

4. A pervious soil layer is sandwiched 7. For a normally consolidated clay,

Estimate 𝑘 at a void ratio of 0.97.

8. A layered soil is shown in Figure

6. The following data are for a falling-

Das, B. M. (2014). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering,

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